NCMB311: Exam Week

12
BSN 3RD YEAR 1ST SEMESTER MIDTERM 2022
Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3YA
Professor: Sharon B. Cajayon, RN, MAN
Midterm Topics: The inquirer is The inquirer interacts
• Paradigms and Categories of Research independent. with those being
Epistemologic
• Research Approach (structured researched.
• Ethical Dimension of Research Proposal question) (makwento)
• Measure of Central Tendency Values and
biases are to be
PARADIGMS AND CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH held in check. Subjectivity and values
Axiology
(CHAPTER 3) (kung ano lang are inevitable.
un gusto mo
ilabas)
Deductive
processes
(fixed design) Inductive processes
Emphasis on (specific to general)
discrete, Emphasis on entirely of
specific some
Positivist Methodologic concepts Phenomenon
- Rooted in 19 century
th Fixed design Flexible design
- Comte, Mill, Newton and Locke Tight control on Context bound
- Modernism context Qualitative analysis
- Old version quantitative Seeks pattern
- Quantitative research Seeks
• Refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined generalization
procedures used to acquire information
• Deductive and systematic Types of research
• Control • According to purpose:
• Empirical evidences 1) Basic/ pure
- it aims to acquire new knowledge and
• Tool + and statistical treatment
understanding
• Goal: generalizability
- it is basic and has no application
• Measure
- ex: Theory, understanding of grieving process
• Holds a small portion of human experiences 2) Applied
• Sedimented view - it is oriented towards, new intervention or new
Naturalist device
- Counter movement to positivist - ex: new gadget, transferring of file
- Weber and Kant • According to Time Elements:
- Post modernism 1) Cross sectional
- Deconstruction and reconstruction - it is a type of studies wherein there is a different
- Qualitative types of subject with different type of
• Emphasized on understanding the human experience characteristics
as it is lived - treat them simultaneously
• Narrative and subjective - 1 to 2 years in the making
• Reductionist 2) Longitudinal
• Takes places in a field - It is a type of studies wherein same set of
• Results in rich, in depth information subjects in treated over a period of time
Positivist Naturalist - Above 4 years in the making
Reality is multiple and • According to process
Reality exits:
subjective, mentally 1) Quantitative
There is a real
Ontologic – constructed by 2) Qualitative
world driven by
objective, individuals. (iba iba
real natural
evidences kada respondents,
causes. (may
kahit same scenario,
evidence ka)
iba iba ng sagot/ rason)
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Research Process Non- experimental research

Quantitative research - Does not use manipulation and control of the
- Conducted to find answers to questions about independent variable and conducted mostly in the natural
relationships among measurable variables with purpose settings under natural conditions
of explaining, controlling, and predicting phenomena. - Comparative
- It is knowing the outcome stated in numerical data. • Test the difference (new/ old curriculum)
- Scientific method which uses a general set of orderly, - Correlational
disciplined procedures to acquire information and moves • Test the strength of relationship (IQ/ HT)
in an orderly and systematic fashion. - Methodological
- Characteristics:
• Instrument (tool/ Questionnaire)
• Gathers empirical evidence (accurate output/ - Survey
amount) • Characteristics of the population
• Numeric • School, community, normative, social survey
• Statistics treatment Qualitative research
• Deductive reasoning - Starts with a few preconceived ideas and stresses the
- Major types: (Research design) importance of people’s interpretations and events and
• Experimental research circumstances.
a) True experimental research - Focus: to capture and understand the entirely of certain
b) Quasi experimental research phenomena and collect narrative data.
• Non- experimental research - A systematic, subjective approach used to describe life
a) Descriptive experiences and give them meaning.
b) Comparative - Characteristics:
c) Correlational • Instruments or tools used are informal and
d) Methodological unstructured
e) Survey • No attempt to control
Experimental research • Narrative = intuitive fashion
- Research design where researchers are active agents and • Inductive reasoning
not merely passive observer. The researcher consciously - Methodologies
manipulates the conditions in the study and makes • Selection of participant
observations in a tightly controlled environment. 1) Participant
- It seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an 2) Purposive sampling method (ikaw magsasabi
outcome. kung pasok sya sa criteria)
- It includes true experiments, with the random assignment 3) Could also utilized the “snowballing” sampling
of subjects to treatment conditions and a Quasi method (referral)
experiment that use nonrandomized assignments of • Researcher – participant relationship
subjects • Data collection methods
- 3 properties: 1) Observing participant
1) Manipulation – experiment group – the investigator 2) Interviewing participant
manipulates or “does something” to the independent 3) Examining written test
variable by introducing and experimental treatment to • Data management
some subjects while withholding it from others.
• Data analysis
2) Control – group don’t receive experimentation - the
1) Description
researcher exerts control over the setting and the
2) Analysis
situation and impose certain restrictions on the
3) Interpretation
situation with the use of two groups (experimental and
Phenomenological research
control)
3) Randomization – nonbiased selection (biased kapag - Focuses on lived experiences
namili ka ng respondents) – the investigator assigns - A design of inquiry coming from philosophy and
subjects to the control or experimental group at psychology in which the researcher describes the lived
random, giving every subject and equal chance of experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as
being selected as a member of either group – called described by participants
random assignment. - Deals with topics such as the meaning of life for people
suffering from chronic illnesses, those in stress or those
Quasi experimental research
who have lost their loved ones.
- Lacks at least one of the properties of true experimental
- Main data source: in-depth conversations (atleast 20
research
mins)
- Involves manipulation of an independent variable, but
lacks randomization to treatment group

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Ethnographic research Quantitative Qualitative

- Focuses on culture Focus/
Numerical Narrative
- An inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in data
which the researcher requires a long period of stay in the Emphasizes objectivity
Capitalize on
field to describe and interpret cultural behavior, with the Stance/ in collection and
subjective data
researcher seeking to learn from members of a cultural opinion analysis of information
(multiple reality)
group to understand their view of the world (only one reality)
- Data collection involves observation and interviews. Has no structured
Uses structured
- 3 broad aspects on information that are of interest to instruments/
Method procedures and formal
ethnographer unstructured/ semi
instruments (survey)
• Cultural behavior structured
• Cultural artifacts Collects information Has no attempt to
• Cultural speech under conditions of control context;
Control
Grounded theory research control or has attempt attempts to capture
to control context in its entirety
- Focuses on development and evolution of a social
Tools Survey questionnaire Interview
experience
Analyzes narratives in
- A design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher Analyses numeric
an organized but
derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action and Analysis information through
intuitive fashion
interaction grounded in the views of participants. statistician (statistics)
(narrative data)
- A social process, social structures, and the evolution of a
social experience and psychological stages and phases Deductive (general to Inductive (specific to
Reasoning
that characterize a particular event or episode. specific) general)
- This process involves using multiples stages of data Research terms clarified
collection and the refinement and interrelationship of
categories of information
- For masteral/ phD
Historical research
- Focuses on the past
- Attempts to answer questions about causes, effects or
trends related to the past events, issues, or conditions
that may explain current behavioral practices.
- Involves systematic collection, critical evaluation, and
interpretation of historical evidence with the end goal of
discovering new knowledge
Case studies
- It focuses on single entity or one case.
- Are design of inquiry in many fields that develops in-depth RESEARCH APPROACH
investigation, for analysis and understanding, of a single Research Approach
entity, or social unit the individual family, group, - Plans or procedures for research that span the steps from
institution, organization, or community in which the core broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection,
A

of inquiry is the case itself, and the dynamic of why it
thinks, behaves, or develops in a particular way.
- Weakness: difficulty in attaining generalizability.
- Hindi sya pang nursing research, aalamin mo lng kung ano
nangyari
Narrative analysis
- Focuses on story in studies
- Focuses on a narrative or story to determine how
individuals make sense of events in their lives.
- A design of inquiry from the humanities in which the
reserarcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or
more individuals to provide stories about their lives
- Parang phenomenological pero hindi indepth, 2-3mins
lang ang interview
analysis and interpretation.
- Also called research design or research methods.
3 types of research approach
1) Qualitative Research
- An approach for exploring and understanding the
meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem.
- Involves emerging questions, data analysis inductively
building from particulars to general themes.
- It is undertaken to answer questions about the
plethora of phenomena primary aimed at giving
attributes and understanding of nature based on the
observer’s viewpoint. It is knowing the process
2) Quantitative research
- An approach for testing objective theories by
examining the relationship among measurable
variables.

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- Involves variables that can be measured, typically on
instruments that can be analyzed using statistical
procedures.
- Accurate result dapat, hindi pwede ung “most”, dapat
specific numbers/ percentage.
- It is conducted to find answers to questions about
relationship among measurable variables with
purpose of explaining, controlling and predicting
phenomena. Hence, it is knowing the outcome stated
in numerical data.
3) Mixed method research
- An approach to inquiry involving collecting both
qualitative and quantitative data, integrating the two
forms of data
- Involves combination of qualitative and quantitative
approaches provides a more complete understanding
of a research problem than either approach alone.
- Ginagamit ito kasi mas complete understanding of a
research problem.
- 3 types:
a) Convergent parallel mixed method
- A form of mixed method design in which the
researcher converges or merges quantitative
and qualitative data to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research
problem.
- The researcher typically collects both forms
of data the same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall
results.
- Sabay na gnawa ung survey at interview, hindi
na hinantay matapos un isa. Sabay nila
ginawa ang Quanti at Quali.
b) Explanatory sequential mixed method
- A form of mixed method design in which the
researcher first conducts quantitative
research analyze the result and then builds
on the results to explain them in detail with
qualitative research
- Nag survey muna bago mag interview. (Quanti
muna bago Quali)
c) Exploratory sequential mixed method
- A reverse sequence from explanatory.
- A design in which the researcher begins with
qualitative research explores the views of the
participants. The data are then analyzed and
built into a second, quantitative phase.
- Interview muna bago mag survey (Quanli
muna bago mag quanti)
Quantitative research
- Conducted to find answers to questions about
relationships among measurable variables with purpose
of explaining, controlling, and predicting phenomena.
- It is knowing the outcome stated in numerical data.
- Scientific method which uses a general set of orderly,
disciplined procedures to acquire information and moves
in an orderly and systematic fashion.
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1) True experimental research
- Research design where researchers are active
agents and not merely passive observer.
- The researcher consciously manipulates the
conditions in the study and makes observations in
a tightly controlled environment.
- Strongest test in the scientific method
a) Control group – subjects under study on
which no experiment is conducted.
b) Experimental or treatment group – represents
the group or subjects that is manipulated and
given the treatment or intervention
c) Randomization
2) Non-experimental research
a) Descriptive research design – summarizes the
status of phenomena observed within the natural
environment and without any manipulation of the
independent variable.
b) Correlational research design – examine
relationships among variables but does not
involve manipulation or control of the
independent variable, which has already occurred.
Qualitative research
- Starts with a few preconceived ideas and stresses the
importance of people’s interpretations and events and
circumstances.
- Focus: to capture and understand the entirely of certain
phenomena and collect narrative data.
- A systematic, subjective approach used to describe life
experiences and give them meaning.
- Concerned with the subjective meaning of one’s
experience. Focuses on insights, perceptions of
individuals of the phenomenon under investigation.
- Involves an emergent design, on which takes form in the
filed as the study unfolds.
1) Phenomenological
- Concerned with lived experiences of humans.
- Experiences of people and what it means.
- Ex: “The Lived experiences of people with leprosy:
healing wounds while fostering hope”
2) Ethnography
- A means of studying groups of individuals lifeways
or patterns including health beliefs and practices
of a culture.
- Ex: “The vanishing health practices of Aetas”
3) Grounded theory
- Primary purpose is to explore social processes to
generate explanatory behavior
- Ex: “Doing my best: Poverty and self-care among
individuals DM”
4) Historical
- Narrative description or analysis of events that
occurred in the remote or in the past.
- Ex: “A historical analysis of disclosure of terminal
status
 NURSING RESEARCH 1: BSN 3RD YEAR 1ST SEMESTER MIDTERM 2022

Quantitative Qualitative • Research must be based on animal experiment, if

Research conditions require possible.
Validity Rigidity Informed consent
Reliability through test Trustworthiness - Concerns subjects’ participation in research in which they
Objective Subjective have full understanding of the study before the study
Findings begins.
Quantified in numbers Qualified in words • Researcher is identified and credential presented
Generalize Specific to phenomena • Subject selection process is described
Description, prediction, Description, meaning, • Study procedures are discussed
change change • Potential benefits are described
• Potential risks are described
Does it make a difference to do qualitative research? • Compensation, if any, is discussed
- The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide • Alternative procedures, if any, are disclosed
complex textual descriptions of how people experience a • Anonymity or confidentiality is assured
given research issue. It provides information about the • Right to refuse to participate or to withdraw from
human side of an issue – that is, the often-contradictory study without penalty is assured
behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and relationships • Offer to answer all question is made
of individuals. Qualitative methods are also effective in • Means of obtaining
identifying intangible factors of life. - Remember: in some studies, the nature of the study
requires incomplete disclosure of information about the
Research method study when informed consent is obtained. After the study
- Things to consider in methods: is completed, the subjects must be debriefed and
• Corpus of data – interview texts, diaries, doodles, provided with complete disclosure of information about
biographies, comic stips, picture prompts, articles the study that was omitted during the consent process.
written, memorandums, oral history, web pages, CD- Rights to human subjects
ROMS, Focus group discussion, survey results, • Right to privacy and dignity
compositions, video recordings, dream analytics,
• Right to anonymity and confidentiality
films.
- Anonymity – guarantee that the research subjects’
• Selection of key informants identity cannot be linked with his individual responses.
• Construct research tool - Confidentiality – ensures that the identity of the
Classification of research research subject will not be linked with data or
• Library research – done in the library where answers to information he provides.
specific questions or problems of the study are available. • Right to fair treatment
Applicable to historical research. • Right to protection from discomfort and harm
• Field research – conducted in a natural setting. No Ethical principles in research
changes are made in the environment. Applicable to both • Autonomy – independence and self-determination
descriptive and experimental research.
• Beneficence – positive action of doing good
• Laboratory research – conducted in artificial or
• Non-maleficence – preventing harm
controlled conditions by isolating the study in a rigorous
• Justice – equality
specified and operationalized area. Applicable to
• Veracity – truthfulness
experimental, descriptive and case study.
Ethical considerations in research
Ethical standards in nursing research • Honesty
- Ethics rules and principles that govern the complex nature • Objectivity
of human behaviors. • Integrity
- Concerned with rules and principles to govern the • Carefulness
complex nature of human behaviors. The ethical code that • Openness
follows specifically address several criteria for research: • Respect for intellectual property
• Researcher must inform subjects about the study • Confidentiality
(hindi pwede ung eexperimentan or oobsebahan mo • Responsible publication
sila ng hindi nila alam. Informed consent) • Responsible mentoring
• Researcher must try to avoid injury to research • Respect for colleagues
subjects. • Social responsibility
• Researcher must be qualified to conduct research • Non-discrimination
• Researcher or the subjects can stop the study if • Competence
problems occur. • Legality
• Researcher must be good for the society • Animal care

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Locale and population of the study • Stratified sampling – used to ensure that different groups
- A brief description of the place where participants or of the population are adequately included in the sample.
respondents are to be considered. (Ex: 1st year = 30 students, 2nd year = 30, 3rd yr = 30…)
- Wag sabihin un exact place. Anonymize • Cluster sampling – used in large scale surveys; sampling
- Sample: larger groupings then smaller groupings
• The study will be conducted in a higher education • Multi-stage sampling – the selection of the sample is
institution in Valenzuela City, from December 2021 to accomplished in more than 2 steps
January 2022. Types of non-probability sampling
• The study will be conducted in 2 private and 2 • Accidental or Convenience sampling – obtained when
government hospitals in Metro Manila, from the researcher selects whatever sampling units are
November 2021 to January conveniently available. (pang tamad HAHA)
• Purposive sampling – the sample depends upon the
Description of respondents subjective judgement of the researcher.
- The researcher must explain how and where the subjects • Quota sampling – researchers have an assignment of a
are taken and bring description of the respondents. quota or a certain number that must be covered by the
- The agency and frequency of subjects must be mentioned research including several criteria.
- Subjects must be adequate • Snowball sampling – starts with known sources of
- Add inclusion and exclusion criteria information who or which will in turn give other sources of
- Age, gender, civil status, year of experience, religion, year information.
level. Must be a Filipino citizen, etc. • Networking sampling – this is used to find socially
- Sample: the respondents of the study were the ninety (90) devalued urban populations such as addict, alcoholic,
students currently enrolled in BSN. The respondents child abusers, and criminals because they are usually
already passed the prerequisite subjects specifically NMB hidden from outsiders.
217. 30 each year level…
Sample:
Adequate sampling Purposive Sampling technique was employed in the study.
- The size of sample must be determined before the Ninety (90) students were taught about the Urinary Elimination.
conduct of the study. The students were divided into Lecture Groups with pure
- There are no fixed rules but there are recommendations: traditional classroom lecture for one (1) hour, Web Groups
• When the population is homogenous, a smaller were exposed to pure course website experience for one (1)
sample is enough; if heterogenous, a larger sample is hour, and Eclectic Groups have one-half (1/2) hour lecture
recommended with one-half (1/2) hour course website experience. Each
• The size of sample varies inversely as the size of the group has thirty (30) students that were further subdivided into
population subgroups U (upper group), M (middle group) and L (lower
• For greater accuracy, a larger sample is group). Each subgroup has ten (10) students.
recommended
ETHICAL DIMENSION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling Ethics
No way that each of the units - Ethical principles that govern the complex nature of
Each of the units in the in the target population has human behavior
target population has the the same chance of being - Ethics determines: why one act is better than the other; to
included in the sample have an orderly social life. (hindi nakakahiya, proud ka,
Greater possibility of No assurance that every unit better dapat ang gnagawa mo)
representative sample of has some chance of being Unethical researchers that have been highly publicized for
the population included their unethical treatment of human subjects
Conclusion derived from
Conclusion derived from data
data gathered can be
gathered is limited only to the
generalized for the whole
sample itself
population

Types of probability sampling

• Simple random sampling – can be done through the
lottery method or table of random numbers. (Fishing
technique)
• Systematic sampling – uses the sampling interval
formula. Sampling interval = total population/ desired
sample size. (Ex: even or odd numbers)

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Human dignity
- Respect for human dignity includes participants right to
self-determinant
- Principles:
• The right to self determination
• The right to full disclosure

Informed consent
Two historical documents that have strong impact on the - Means that participants have adequate information
conduct of research regarding the research, can comprehend the information,
1) Nuremberg code (1949) and have the power of free choice, enabling them to
- Consent process consent to or decline participation voluntarily.
- Protection of subjects from harm - Elements
- The balance of benefits and risks in a study • Participant status
- Wag pilitin kung ayaw ng tao • Study goal
2) Declaration of Helsinki (1964) • Types of data
- Differentiated therapeutic from non-therapeutic • Nature of the commitment
research • Sponsorship
• Investigator should protect life • Participant
• Investigator should exercise greater care to • Procedures
protect subjects from harm in non-therapeutic
• Potential risk
research
• Potential benefits
• Investigator should conduct research only when
• Alternatives
the importance of the objective outweighs the
• Confidentiality pledge
inherent risks and burdens to the subjects.
• Voluntary consent
Beneficence • Right to withdraw
- Encompasses the maxim: above all, do no harm • Contract information
- Principles: • Compensation
• Freedom from harm
• Freedom from exploitation Vulnerable subjects
- Special groups of people whose rights in research studies
• Benefits from research
need special protection because of their inability to
• Risk/ benefit ratio
provide meaningful informed consent, or because their
- Benefits:
circumstances place them at higher-than-average risk of
• Access to an intervention
adverse effects; examples includes young children, the
• Comfort in being able to discuss their situation mentally retarded and unconscious patients.
• Increased knowledge - Children, institutionalized people, pregnant woman,
• Escape from normal routine mentally or emotionally disabled, severely ills or
• Satisfaction physically disabled people, terminally ill.
• Monetary or material gains
- Risks: Building ethics into the design of the study
• Physical harm • Research design – will the setting for the study be
• Physical discomfort selected to protect against participant discomfort?
• Emotional distress • Intervention – is the intervention designed to maximize
• Social risks good and minimize harm?
• Loss of privacy • Sample – will potential participants be recruited into the
• Loss of time study equitably?
• Monetary costs • Data collection – will data be collected in such a ways as
to minimize respondents burden?
Justice • Reporting – will participants identities be adequately
- Includes participants right to fair treatment and their right protected?
to privacy.
- Principle: Institutional review boards
• The right to fair treatment - IRBs are responsible for reviewing in universities, clinical
• The right to privacy agencies, and managed care centers involving human
• Anonymity/ confidentiality subjects for the express purpose of determining if

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potential benefits of the investigation outweigh any risk
that may be present to the subject.
- Types of review:
• Exempt from review – no apparent risk or harm to the
subjects. (walang tao involved, ex puro plants lng)
• Expedited review – minimal risk or harm to the
subjects
• Complete review – greater than minimal risk or harm
to the subjects
Scientific misconduct
- Scientific misconduct in research includes fraudulent
practices as fabrication, falsification, or forging of data,
dishonest manipulations of the study designs or methods
with protocol violations; misrepresentations of findings
and plagiarism (Rankin and Estevez, 1997).
- Types of scientific misconduct:
• Fabrication – deliberate invention of nonexistent
information
• Irresponsible collaboration – failure to participate
appropriately in an investigation team
• Plagiarism – the intentional representation of the work
or ideas of others as one’s own
• Manipulation of data – choosing only data that are
consistent with the research hypothesis.
- It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to
interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and
how to make decisions and to act in various situations.
The vast majority of decision involve the straightforward
application of ethical rules.
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Research Design
- The plans or research design from the structure and the
researcher’s method of answering his questions and
conducting studies
- It is the blue print of your study
- Research design is categorized according to the
procedure the collects and analyze data based on the way
information is collected
- Two basic research designs: Qualitative & Quantitative
Common research designs in nursing
• Historical research – a systematic and critical inquiry of
the whole truth of past events using the critical method in
understanding and the interpretation of facts which are
applicable to current issues and problems.
• Descriptive research – the study focuses at the present
condition and the purpose is to describe and find new
truth which includes case studies and survey research
• Comparative research – the researcher carefully
examines the relationships (similarities or difference)
among several variables.
• Experimental research – seeks to answer questions
about causation; researchers attribute the change in one
variable to the effect of one or more variable.
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Research instrument: Questionnaires
• Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data
from a potentially large number of respondents.
• Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of
reviewers large enough to allow statistically analysis of
the results.
• A well-designed questionnaire that is used effectively can
gather information on both the overall performance of the
test system as well as information on specific
components of the system
• If the questionnaire includes demographic questions on
the participants, they can be used to correlate
performance and satisfaction with the test system among
different groups of users.
• It is important to remember that a questionnaire should
be viewed as a multi-stage process beginning with
definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with
interpretation of the results.
When to use questionnaires
• When resources and money are limited. A
questionnaire can be quite inexpensive to administer.
Although preparation may be costly, any data collection
scheme will have similar preparation expenses.
• When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the
participants. Questionnaires are easy to administer
confidentially. Often confidentially is the necessary to
ensure participants wil respond honestly if at all.
Examples of such cases would include studies that need
to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal
behavior.
• When corroborating other findings. In studies that have
resources to pursue other data collection strategies,
questionnaires can be useful confirmation tools. More
costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but
occasionally there will not be resources to run this other
test on large enough participant groups to make the
results statistically significant.
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Writing Questionnaire Measures of Central Tendencies

Clarity Mean
- This is probably the area that causes the greatest souce of - The sum of the values divided by the number of values
mistakes in questionnaires. often called the average. Add all of the values together,
- Questions must be clear, succinct, and unambiguous. The then divide the number of values to obtain the mean.
goal is to eliminate the chance that the question will mean
different things to different people. If the designers fails to Median
do this, then essentially participants will be answering - The value which divides the values into two equal halves,
different questions. with half of the values being lower than the median and
- To this end, it is best to phrase your questions empirically half higher than the median. Sort the values into
if possible and to avoid the use of necessary adjectives. ascending order. If you have an odd number of values, the
For example, it asking a question about frequency, rather median is the middle value. If you have an even number of
than supplying choices that are open to interpretation values, the median is arithmetic mean of the two middle
such as: vales.
• Better = very often, often, sometimes, rarely, never
• Best = every day or more, 2-6 times a week, about Mode
once a week, about once a month, never - The most frequently occurring or values. Calculate the
- There are other more subtle aspects to consider such as frequencies for all of the values in data. The mode is the
language and culture. Avoid the use of colloquial or ethnic value with the highest frequency.
expressions that might not be equally used by all
participants. Technical terms that assume a certain
Mean Median Mode
background should also be avoided.
To calculate the mean, you Central Most
sum each individual score and score – the common
Phrasing
divide by the number of scores. one in the
- Most adjectives, verbs, and nouns in English have either a
The mean is what we all think middle.
positive or negative connotation.
as the average. It is called
- Two words may have equivalent meaning, yet one may be
arithmetic mean, because
a compliment, and the other an insult.
there are other types of mean.
- Consider the two words “child-like” and “childish”, which
have virtually identical meaning. Child-like is an
affectionate term that can be applied to both men and
women, and young and old, yet no one whichs to be
though of as childish.
• Not OK = do you agree with the CHED’s plan to
oppose the implementation of the old curriculum?
• OK = do you agree with the CHED’s plan to promote
the implementation of the new 5 years curriculum?

Statistics
- A branch of applied mathematics concerned with the
collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the
use of probability theory to estimate several parameters.

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