**Introduction to Postmodernism in Philosophy:**

- Postmodernism is a late 20th-century philosophical movement characterized by skepticism,

subjectivism, relativism, and a suspicion of reason.
- It emerged as a reaction against the intellectual values and assumptions of the modern period
(17th-19th century).

**Key Tenets of Postmodernism:**

1. **Rejection of Objective Reality:** Postmodernists deny the existence of an objective,
independent reality. They see reality as a conceptual construct shaped by language and social
practices.
2. **Denial of Objective Truth:** Postmodernists reject the notion of objective truth. They
believe that truth is subjective and context-dependent.
3. **Skepticism Toward Progress:** Postmodernists challenge the idea that human progress is
achievable through reason, science, and technology. They link these to destructive forces, such
as the development of weapons in World War II.
4. **Relativism in Reason and Logic:** Postmodernists view reason and logic as subjective and
context-dependent, rather than universally valid.
5. **Rejection of Human Nature:** They argue that human psychology is primarily socially
determined, rejecting the idea of innate human nature.
6. **Language as Self-Referential:** Postmodernists assert that language is self-referential and
that meaning is derived from relationships between words rather than representing an external
reality. This perspective is influenced by Jacques Derrida's deconstruction.
7. **No Foundational Knowledge:** Postmodernists reject foundationalism, which seeks to
establish certain, foundational truths on which knowledge is built. They see knowledge as
shaped by discourse and context.
8. **Critique of Totalizing Theories:** Postmodernists criticize the pursuit of grand, all-
encompassing theories, which they see as oppressive and marginalizing of alternative
perspectives.
**Postmodernism and Relativism:**
- Postmodernism often entails some form of metaphysical, epistemological, or ethical
relativism.
- Reality, knowledge, and values are seen as constructed by discourses, leading to a rejection of
objective reality, objective truth, and objective morality.
**Influence of Power and Discourse:**
- Postmodernists argue that dominant discourses in society reflect the interests and values of
the powerful.
- Some, inspired by Michel Foucault, assert that considerations of power influence what counts
as knowledge in any given era.
**Inclusivity and Democracy:**
- Postmodernists view their theoretical position as inclusive and democratic because it allows
them to challenge the hegemony of Enlightenment discourses and recognize the validity of
non-elite perspectives.
- It has been embraced by identity politics movements seeking to challenge established power
structures.
**Introduction to Critical Theory in International Relations:**
- Critical theory focuses on the idea of emancipation, which means freeing people from the
modern state and economic system.
- Emancipation has its roots in the works of philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx,
who proposed revolutionary ideas to reorder the world.
- Kant and Marx both valued Enlightenment's universalism, the belief in universal social and
political principles.

**Kant and Marx's Influence:**

- Immanuel Kant advocated for a federation of free states living in perpetual peace as a path to
global justice.
- Karl Marx envisioned communism as a way to replace the unequal capitalist order with a fairer
economic system.
**Basics of Critical Theory:**
- Critical theory critiques repressive social practices and institutions while advocating for ideas
and practices aligned with universal principles of justice.
- Critical theory aims to transform national societies, international relations, and the emerging
global society through alternative ideas and practices.

**Influential Thinkers in Critical Theory:**

- Antonio Gramsci influenced Robert Cox and the paradigm of production, emphasizing
economic patterns and their political implications.
- The Frankfurt School, particularly Jürgen Habermas, influenced Andrew Linklater and the
paradigm of communication, focusing on rationality and ethical principles in communication.
**Emancipation as a Core Principle:**
- Critical theorists use emancipation as a principle to critique society and the global political
order.
- They recognize the potential for emancipation within the historical process but do not
consider it inevitable.
**Redistribution and Recognition Struggles:**
- Redistribution struggles relate to Marxist themes of class struggles and social emancipation.
- Recognition struggles involve gender, sexuality, race, and national recognition issues.
**Robert Cox's Challenge to Realism:**
- Robert Cox challenges realism's focus on interstate relations in isolation and advocates for a
more comprehensive understanding of global politics.
- He highlights the interconnectedness of state, sub-state, and trans-state forces in various
spheres of politics, including economics and culture.
**Andrew Linklater's Cosmopolitan Approach:**
- Andrew Linklater emphasizes non-instrumental action and ideal speech as the basis for
reconstructing cosmopolitanism.
- Ideal speech involves open and non-coercive communication to establish just political
communities.
**Refugee 'Crisis' and Critical Theory:**
- Critical theory addresses the refugee crisis by critiquing security arrangements based on
exclusive loyalty to a nation and promoting cosmopolitan responsibilities.
- It examines the global economic forces and geopolitical interests contributing to forced
migration.
**Connecting Theory to Practice:**
- Critical theory seeks transformative outcomes by connecting theoretical understanding to
practical solutions.
- It emphasizes the role of civil society, local authorities, and supranational organizations in
addressing global issues like the refugee crisis.
**Conclusion - Putting People at the Center:**
- Critical theory places people, rather than states, at the center of global politics.
- Political arrangements should be evaluated based on their capacity to advance emancipation
and broaden moral boundaries in a globalizing society.