MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, HERITAGE & ARTS

EXPERIMENTS IN
SIXTH FORM
BIOLOGY

STUDENT’S LABORATORY
MANUAL

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

1996
EXPERIMENTS IN SIXTH

FORM BIOLOGY

STUDENT’S LABOROTARY
MANUAL
1996

Curriculum Development Unit

Ministry of Education

Suva, FIJI ISLANDS

 INTRODUCTION

This student’s laboratory manual is produced in the hope that it will fill the need for a convenient source
for practical exercises for the second year (Form 6), of the Fiji Leaving School Certificate course in
Biology. It is aimed at providing students with the guidelines on how to use locally and readily available
materials for practical classes.

Practical work is an integral part of all science prescriptions. It should not be regarded as being
independent of the theatrical work but should be seen as a means to consolidate understanding of
science principles and concepts. Practical work reinforces learning experiences and also develops
experimental techniques.

In producing these experiments the following considerations were kept in mind.

That the activities:

- be fascinating
- should be easy to organize and not stressful
- do not require expensive equipment
- involve the use and application of process skills of science in a ‘hands-on’ situation.

Through practical work students should be able to:

- follow instructions (in oral, written or diagrammatic forms) to carry out practicals with some
degree of skills and accuracy
- observe a problem accurately
- record and communicate relevant data and information accurately and clearly using diagrams
tables, graphs, written accounts etc.
- handle chemicals and equipment safely and accurately
- interpret data, respond correctly to questions and draw valid conclusions
- designs experiments to obtain the information necessary to solve problems
This manual contains 24 experiments pertaining to four different modules of the Form 6 year of the Fiji
School Leaving Certificate Biology prescription. In addition to these experiments, further practicals can
be selected from other laboratory manuals and Biology text books to supplement the Fiji Leaving School
Certificate Biology course.

It is expected that all practicals from this laboratory manual would be completed in the Form 6 year of
the Biology course.

The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology is grateful to the Australian International
Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB) for its financial support. It would also like to thank ALAN Cook
(Queensland University of Technology), and John Stir and Neil Russell (both from Griffith University) for
their initiation of this project and continuing support in editing and writing this series of manuals for the
FSLC science.

The Ministry would also like to thank the other members of the Biology writing team: Mrs Shereen Singh
(CDU), Mrs Mere Vadei (FCAE) AND Mrs Ana Raivoce (SPBEA) and the members of the Biology
curriculum workgroup.

This manual has been produced from the draft form (1993) which was trialed in schools for couple of
years. The contribution made by the Biology Curriculum workgroup and teachers is highly
acknowledged.

Thanks is also extended to the Science Resources Center, Dunedin, New Zealand for its kind permission
to adapt some of the experiments and diagrams from its manuals

GULAB SINGH

SEO (BIOLOGY)
 Table of Contents
PRACTICAL: 5.1 ECOLOGY-LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANISATION ............................................................ 5
PRACTICAL: 5.2 ECOLOGY - POPULATION COUNT ....................................................................................... 7
PRACTICAL: 5.3 ECOLOGY - ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSIONS............................................................................ 11
PRACTICAL: 5.4 ECOLOGY - FACTORS LIMITING POPULATION .................................................................. 14
PRACTICAL 5.5 POPULATION GROWTH A MODEL .................................................................................... 16
PRACTICAL: 5.6 BIOLOGY - THE HUMAN POPULATION ............................................................................ 19
PRACTICAL: 5.7 ECOLOGY - SOIL PROPERTIES............................................................................................ 21
PRACTICAL : 6.1 CELL BIOLOGY - CELLS AND CELL SIZE............................................................................... 26
PRACTICAL : 6.2 MICROSCOPE - MICROSCOPIC MEASUREMENTS ............................................................ 29
PRACTICAL :6.3 CELL BIOLOGY - CELL SIZE AND DIFFUSION ...................................................................... 33
PRACTICAL : 6.4 CELL BIOLOGY - WATER BALANCE IN CELLS..................................................................... 37
PRACTICAL : 6.5 CELL BIOLOGY - SEPARATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS .......................................................... 40
PRACTICAL : 6.6 CELL BIOLOGY - ENZYME ACTION- PEROXIDASE ............................................................. 43
PRACTICAL : 6.7 PHOTOSYNTHESIS - THE EFFECT OF LIGHT- THE BUBBLE METHOD ............................... 46
PRACTICAL : 6.8 CELL BIOLOGY - RESPIRATION AND TEMPRATURE ........................................................... 49
PRACTICAL 6.9 CELL BIOLOGY - CHROMOSOMES ...................................................................................... 52
PRACTICAL : 7.1 PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION - STOMATAL BEHAVIOUR ............................................... 55
PRACTICAL : 7.2 CO-ORDINATION- SUPPORT AND SENSITIVITY IN EARTHWORMS ................................... 58
PRACTICAL : 7.3 NUTRITION - EARTHWORM DISSECTION ......................................................................... 60
PRACTICAL : 7.4 EXCRETION - ANALYSIS OF URINE..................................................................................... 62
PRACTICAL: 8.1 GENETICS - HUMAN VARIATIONS ...................................................................................... 64
PRACTICAL : 8.2 GENETICS - RANDOMNESS, CHANGE AND PROBABILITY ................................................. 67
PRACTICAL: 8.3 GENETICS -THE DYHRID INHERITANCE PRINCIPLE............................................................. 70
PRACTICAL : 8.4 GENETICS - GENETICS AND CROSSES................................................................................ 72
APPENDIX 1: SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY ................................................................................................ 75
APPENDIX 2: WRITING PRACTICAL REPORTS .............................................................................................. 78
APPENDIX 3: PLANNING YOUR OWN DOCUMENTS.................................................................................... 81
APPENDIX 4: MEASURING MASS................................................................................................................ 84
APPENDIX 5: BIOLOGY REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................................................... 88
APPENDIX 6: SEMI LOG GRAPH PAPER ....................................................................................................... 92
PRACTICAL: 5.1 ECOLOGY-LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANISATION

AIM:

To design diagram showing the levels of organization in living things, using the 35 items given.

INTRODUCTION:

The biology of any species may be studied at any one of a number of levels. These levels are
discussed in your textbook: they include biosphere, ecosystem, community, individual, organ, tissue, cell
and cell micro- structure.

MATERIALS:

1. Set of items (page 2)

2. Scissors
3. Glue

METHOD:

1. Cut out the 35 items or copy them onto paper and then cut them out.
2. Arrange the items into what would seem to you to be logical groups or levels.
3. Once the items have been arranged in levels, glue them to piece of paper and suggest a name
for each level.

RESULTS:

These will take the form of the items rearranged and glued on a sheet.

QUESTIONS:

1. Suggest a name for each level.

2. Give written reasons for your choice of levels and your order of levels.
3. Finally compare your arrangement with the levels of biological organization given above.
4. Explain the advantage to biologists of grouping things into categories of this type.
THE ITEMS
PRACTICAL: 5.2 ECOLOGY POPULATION COUNT
AIM:

To sample the population of a selected species of plant, using both the Transect and Quadrat

methods.

INTRODUCTION:

The resources and the conditions present at any one place decide what organisms will be

present and how many of each species there will be.

For some population they occur in such large numbers that it is impossible to count them all so

methods of SAMPLING have to be used. That is we count the number of a certain organism

which occur at the regular intervals along a line a TRANSECT: and the number which occur in

small measured space called a QUADRAT, and then we calculate the percentage or appropriate

numbers in an area being studied.

A: Transect Method

Materials

1. A piece of string 10 meters long marked (with a felt pen) or knotted every 100cm.(The string can
be shorter but 100 samples must be taken).

Recording sheet and pencil (for each group)

TABLE:

Point No Species Point No Species Point No Species Point No Species

1 Not blue 21 X
grass x

2 Blue 22 X
grass
. . .
. . .
. . .
20 40 100
METHOD:

1. Identify the plant whose population you are going to sample e.g. Navua sedge, Mimosa
(sensitive grass), blue grass etc.
2. Stretch the string at random across the playing field of the school compound
3. Starting at point number 1 from one end of the string identify the plant directly underneath
the mark as either the wanted plant or other (see recording sheet above).
4. This is done for the 100 points, then all groups move inside to record their results as a class
result on the blackboard.

Transect
Line:

A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 B
Is it the wanted species?

Results:
Group Number (count) Group Number (count)
1 42(42 0f wanted species out 5
Of 100 counts)
2 6
3 7
4 8

TOTAL: _________________

Calculate the % cover of selected species: if there are 8 groups each of which has
sampled 100 points, this is will give number of 800 to be converted to a percentage.

e.g. 427 counts of blue grass

= 427/100 x 100

= 53%

QUESTIONS:

1. If you are not satisfied with your class results what should you do?
2. What conditions do you think favor this plant?
3. Do you think this plant is the most abundant plant in the school lawn?
4. How could you find out if it was or wasn’t?
B. Quadrant Method

Materials:
. 1m² quadrant 1
. Recording sheet and pencil

Quadrant Number or % cover of chosen species

1
2
.
.
.
10

METHOD:
1. Identify the plant species whose population you are going to sample
2. Randomly select the areas where you will place your quadrat or arrange your sticks into
a square.
3. Either count the number of the chosen plant or estimate the percentage cover by the
chosen plant of the quadrat area
4. Repeat this for 10 quadrats and record results then move back to the classroom to
record class results on the blackboard

1
4 sticks each 1m long
Results:

KG Average number Group Group number or

GGGG
or average % per average % cover
hyyyGGg2ghhhg
quadrant per Quadrat
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10

Work out the average of the class results.

Questions:

1. How do these results compare with those obtained from the transect method?
2. If the two results for the same species do not correlate, what should be done?
PRACTICAL: 5.3 ECOLOGY ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSIONS

AIM:

To observe and record how differences in moisture affect the changing composition of

living on a piece of bread.

Note: This exercise is ideally to the home research situation.

INTRODUCTION:

Communities show striking changes in appearance and species composition over periods of
time. One group of organisms is replaced by a second and so on through a succession of distinct

Population and community changes. This occurs in all kinds of communities, starting with a

Pioneer collection of species and ending with a climax

MATERIALS:

. Two 2 liter ice-cream containers with lids

. Two slices of bread

. Disinfectant- for discarding fungal colonies

. Hand lens – for observing mould / fungal colonies

METHOD:

1. Take two slices of bread.

2. Put one slice in an ice-cream container dry and one in an ice-cream container moist.
3. Keep the second piece of bread moistened each day.
4. Place the lids on both containers.
5. Once a week record, by drawing sketches of each slice of bread, the serial natures of any
changes occur.

Refer to appendix on page 8 and 9 for basic information identification of some species which are
likely to feature in this succession.
QUESTIONS:

Present the results taken at weekly intervals.

a. Do successions occur on both pieces of bread?

b. What are the main organisms present in the successions? Why is this so?
c. What, if any, are the differences between the successions on the two pieces of bread?
d. What factors do you think we’re changing to ensure that successions occurred?
e. What is the importance of successions to other living things?
f. How does this succession differ from that which occurs after a forest fire or after a land slip?

APPENDIX:

1. Bacterial colonies usually are flat and shiny or slimy growths. White is a common colour for
these colonies but varieties of colours are possible, even orange and pink.
Bacteria are classified depending on their shape and whether they occur singly or in groups
when observed under the microscope.

The cocci bacteria are sub divided into:

Coccus - the single forms

Diplococcus - the double forms

Streptococcus - chains

Staphylococcus - clusters
2. Mould or fungal colonies usually have a softer, even furry look. Pale blues or greens and whites
turning to browns or blacks are the common colors’

3. Some moulds commonly found on bread are:

a. Pencillium

This is a group of dusty blue Or green moulds which are also found on rotting on citrus fruit.

b. Rhizopus
White fur with black spots on it. Darkens with maturity.

c. Neurospora
The red/pink bread mould.

4. Use the disinfectant to discard fungal or mould colonies.

PRACTICAL: 5.4 ECOLOGY FACTORS LIMITING POPULATION

AIM:

To study the growth of a natural population of aphids on roses.

INTRODUCTION:

The growth of natural populations is normally limited by food supply and other factors.

Gathering data on natural populations is always difficult. In this activity you will use data

on a natural population of aphids living on rose bushes. As is often the cases in studying

natural populations, the actual number present in the area studied is not known. The

density is given as the average number caught per night (at dusk) , for a month. Thus it

is assumed that the actual density of aphids was always proportional to the number caught.

RESULTS:

a. Copy table of data given below.

MONTH AVERAGE NO.OF MONTH AVERAGE NO.OF
APHIDS CAUGHT PER APHIDS CAUGHT PER
NIGHT NIGHT
April 2 October 52
May 5 November 97
June 7 December 94
July 5 January 50
August 1 February 9
September 8 March 6

b. Graph this data. (Use normal graph paper or semi – log paper if available).

QUESTIONS:

1. During which months are there the greatest increase in population numbers? Suggest why this
might have occurred.
2. List five factors that might cause the sudden decrease in the population during January and
February
3. What would happen to the slope of the curve in a less favorable year, if blight prevented roses
from blooming?
4. This population could be describing as an open population. What is meant by this? What effect
would this have on population numbers?
5. If the data had been collected over a five – year period, there would have been a cyclic
fluctuation of decreases and increases. Describe the cyclic fluctuations of one other Fiji animal
or plant population and describe the factors that could cause the fluctuations.
PRACTICAL 5.5 POPULATION GROWTH A MODEL

AIM:

To determine the way in which ‘model’ mynah bird population might grow.

INTRODUCTION:

Just as we need tools such as the microscope to help us extend our powers observations, so we
need mental ‘tools’ to help us extend our powers of thinking. One such mental tool is called
model. This model is a mental image that simplifies a complex real situation so that we can
easily understand it.
We built our model around a real organism – the mynah bird. In the spring of 1990, a population
of ten birds (5 males and 5 females) were released on an island.
During the study four assumptions were made:
1. Each mynah pair produce 10 offspring (5males and 5 females)
2. All the breeding parents die before the next spring
3. Each year all the offspring live through the next breeding season
4. No other mynah arrive on the island and none left

MATERIALS:

. Semi- log paper (if available) or standard graph paper

. Ruler

METHOD:

Calculate the size of the population at the beginning of each breeding season (each spring), e.g.

1990 5 pairs (breed then die) _______ 10 offspring each _________ 50 offspring (25 pairs)

1991 25 pairs _________ 10 offspring each _________ 250 offspring (125 pairs)

1992 125 pairs _________ 10 offspring each _________ 1250 offspring (625 pairs)

1996
RESULTS:

YEAR NO. OF BREEDING PARENTS NO. OF BREEDING

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

b. Construct a graph using the above data, showing the population growth.

c. A common difficulty in the plotting of population data on ordinary graph paper is that it is
difficulty to find a scale that will show small gains in population numbers as well as large
increases as the population grows. The top end of the J- shape curve is either left out or the
beginning of the graph is squashed into such a small range as to be useless for evaluation. To
overcome these difficulties, another tool is often used – semi – log graph paper (semi –
logarithmic paper)
Construct a graph using the data obtained in the above exercise; plotting the information on
semi-log graph paper (Your teacher explains what you need to know in order to plot the graph).
QUESTIONS:

1. Write a sentence or two describing the growth rate of the mynah population.
2. Is it likely that the Fiji mynah population, between 1990 and 1996, would have shown a similar
growth curve? Give as many reasons as possible for your view.
3. Explain how using semi- log paper changes the shape of the graph.
4. What advantage does semi- log paper have over ordinary graph paper for plotting data on
population growth?
5. Make a comment about the value of the use of models in understanding population growth.
PRACTICAL: 5.6 BIOLOGY THE HUMAN POPULATION

AIM:

To study changes in the human population and to consider some of the problems resulting from
the population explosion.

INTRODUCTION:

The human population of the world has increased rapidly since the seventeenth century.

It is estimated that it took about one million years to produce a human population of one

billion (in 1850), but the second billion was produced with in eight years and the third billion

in thirty years.

This rate of increase is not the same throughout the world, since population growth is greater

In developing nations then in the industrialized nations.

Of all the people that have ever existed, half are still alive today.

RESULTS:

a. Copy table of data given below.

YEAR POPULATION IN MILLIONS

1000 275
1650 500
1870 1320
1900 1600
1920 1820
1930 2013
1940 2249
1950 2505
1968 3303
1976 4000

b. Graph this data.

 QUESTIONS:

1. Use your text to fin the name given to this kind of growth.
2. Assuming that the rate of growth continues unchecked, estimate the population size for the
year 2000, extrapolating from the graph you have drawn.
3. The survivorship curve has changed for man from type A (shown below) to the type B. Explain
what this means in terms of natality, mortality, and age structure of the population.

4. How would this change in survivorship curve affect the rate of population growth?
5. What environmental factors limit the growth of populations in nature? Give examples of ways in
which each of this factors, singularly or in combination, act as limits to population growths.
You might it useful to use reference books to help you answer questions 6, 7 and 8.
6. In man’s efforts to change and control his environment, what were some of the main factors
that affected the rate of growth of the human population?
7. In what ways will competition become apparent as the population continues to expand?
What indications are there that this sort of competition is already present?
8. How can we turn our population curve so that future generations will have enough living space
and sufficient food?
PRACTICAL: 5.7 ECOLOGY - SOIL PROPERTIES

AIM:

1. To find out how much water is in the soil.

2. To find out the pH of different soils.

INTRODUCTION:

The physical and chemical processes by which rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller

and simpler compounds are called weathering. The parent rock is converted into soil parent

material from which soil develops. Three grades of soil particles are recognized- sand, silt and

clay.

MATERIALS:

PART A:

. 250 mL beaker

. An evaporating dish (which fits into the top of the beaker)

. Fresh garden soil

. A burner

. A balance (to record the mass of the soil accurately)

. Glass rod

. Watch

METHOD:

1. Set up a water bath and heat the water to a boiling point.

2. Weigh the evaporating dish and record the results in the result table.

3. Put 10g of soil into the evaporating dish

4. Carefully put the dish over the beaker of boiling water. Leave the dish to heat for 10
minutes. Whilst the soil is being heated, break up the lumps using the glass rod. Make sure that
you do not leave any of the soil on the rod: all the soil should stay in the dish.

5. In the result table, describe what the soil looks like before it was heated, and whilst it was being
heated.

6. After the soil has been heated for 10 minutes, lift the dish carefully from the water bath and
leave it to cool for a few minutes.

7. Weigh the dish again and record the results.

8. Repeat step 4

9. Repeat steps 6 and 7

10. Look at the results to see if the mass of the soil and the dish after step 9 was the same as that
after step 7. If it is, then you can clear away your apparatus.

11. If the two results are not the same, then you will need to heat the evaporating dish again until
they are.
RESULTS:

I. Appearance of the soil before heating

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

II. Appearance of the soil during heating ____________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

WEIGHT TABLE:

Weight of evaporating dish : ___________________________________________

Weight of fresh soil : ___________________________________________

Total weight of dish and soil : ___________________________________________

1. Weight after heating for 10 mins : ___________________________________________

2. Weight after heating for 10 mins : ___________________________________________

3. Weight after heating for 10 mins : ___________________________________________

4. Weight after heating for 10 mins : ___________________________________________

5. Weight after heating for 10 mins : ___________________________________________

QUESTIONS:

1. Calculate the amount of water in 10g of soil.

2. Would you expect the water content of all types of soil to be the same? Explain your answer.
PART B

MATERIALS:

 Universal indicator paper

 Soil samples
 Filter funnel
 Filter paper
 pH colour chart
 distilled water
 corks to fit test tube
 a test tube rack
 a pipette
 spatula or spoon

METHOD:

1. Put one spoon full of soil into a test tube. Half fill the tube with distilled water. Put
a cork in the test tube and shake the tube well.

2. Filter the soil and water mixture

3. Dip a piece of indicator paper into a filtrate (the liquid collected after filtering the soil and water
mixture).
4. In the table below, record the colour of the indicator paper. Compare the colour of the indicator
paper with the pH colour chart and record the Ph of the liquid in the table.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for another soil and record your results in the table below
RESULTS:

SOIL SAMPLE COLOUR OF THE INDICATOR pH

PAPER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

QUESTIONS:

1. Which soil samples were acidic?

2. Which soil samples were alkaline?
3. Which soil samples were neutral?
4. In a paragraph, briefly describe the main constituents of soil.
PRACTICAL : 6.1 CELL BIOLOGY CELLS AND CELL SIZE

AIM:

To study the microscopic structure of plant and animal cells and gain an appreciation of cell size

INTRODUCTION:

‘’ All living things are composed of cells and cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of life’’. This is a simple statement of the cell theory which has been accepted
since the early 19th century, when it was first proposed by two German biologists,
Schleiden and Swann

MATERIALS:

 A microscope
 Microscope slides and cover slips
 Petri – dishes or watch glass
 Tooth picks
 Iodine solution
 Methylene blue solution

METHOD:

There are few basic skills that will be required for this activity.

They are outline below. Read over this before you start preparing and examining slides of

plants and animals cells.

1. CUTTING SECTION
When studying plant cells, it is often necessary to cut a very fine section that is only 1 or 2
cells thick.

To cut sections:
a. Use a sharp razor blade
b. Keep the razor blade and the plant material wet

Alternative materials
1. Saucer, jar lids
2. Clean piece of sasa stick
c. Slice small sections off the plant material and float this in a watch glass filled with water
(don’t try to cut a section right across the plant material, but just cut a small part of it. The
section should be so thin that they are difficult to see).

2. Preparing the slide:

a. Whenever you wish to study material under a microscope it must be mounted in a

drop of water or liquid stain on a microscope slide and covered with a cover slip.

b. To avoid trapping air bubbles under the cover slip lower first one side of the cover slip
and then the others.

3. Staining:

Often it is necessary to stain the material being studied under the microscope so that
structures can be seen more clearly.

a. It is impossible to use a small square of filter to draw the stain under the cover slip of
a slide, as shown.

Care must be taken not to let any stain get on to the top of the cover slip.

b. However, this method is often difficult and it is often easier to prepare a new slide,
using a drop of stain instead of a drop of water.

4. Measuring Cells

Details of ‘’ Microscopic Measurements’’, are given on how to find the diameter of the
microscopes filled of view in the next experiment.
 The field of view of the diameter will enable you to estimate the cell size.

METHOD:

Use the basic skills to examine plant and animal cells, and make a record of each one.

A. Plant Cells: ONION CELLS:

a. Peel off the thin sheet (epidermal cells) of tissue that covers the inner surface of piece
of onion bulb.

b. Mount this in water and study under the microscope.

c. Stain with iodine and examine again. Look for strictures that were not visible

when the cells were mounted in water.

d. Draw a labelled diagram of 1 or 2 onion cells and give their approximate size.

B. Animal Cells: Cheek Cells:

a. Use a toothpick or clear sasa stick to gently scrape the lining inside your cheek

b. Spread some of white ‘’scum’’ on a slide and mount in water. Examine under low and high
power.

c. Stain with methylene blue and examine again. Look for structures that were not visible before
staining.

d. Estimate the size of an average cheek cell.

e. Draw a labelled diagram of one or two cheek cells and give their approximate size.

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the significance of staining when observing specimens under the microscope.

2. Clearly outline the difference between plant and animal cells.

PRACTICAL : 6.2 MICROSCOPE - MICROSCOPIC MEASUREMENTS

AIM:
To improve knowledge of the microscope and learn how to measure objects Indirectly under
magnification.

INTRODUCTION:

The first observations usually made are those made with the unaided senses e.g. the colour, or weather
an object is large or small. These observations involve a quality or characteristics of an object are set to
be a qualitative.

A more exact type of observation introduces the idea of amount and is called quantitative. How much?
How big? How fast? In modern scientific work, such observations play an essential role. In general
quantitative observations are more difficult to make then qualitative observations such as rulers,
balances and thermometers must be used to extend the range and accuracy of the senses.

The microscope can be used for the dual purpose of measuring very small objects and for observing
them accurately. It is one of the most valuable tools in the biology laboratory.

MATERIALS:

 A light microscope
 A clear plastic ruler with millimeter scale
 A colour photograph from a magazine

METHOD:

Remember that a microscope is a very expensive piece of equipment and should be used with care.

Part A : The Image

1. With a sharp pencil print a very small

letter “ e’’ on a piece of paper. Place
this paper on the stage of the
microscope and focus on the letter ‘’e’’
using the lowest powered objective
lens.
 2. To find out how much the letter ‘’e’’ has been magnified, multiply the magnifying power of the
eye piece lens with the magnifying power of the objective lens. These will be marked in the
lenses.

e.g. Power of eye piece lens = 10 x

Power of objective lens = 10x

Total magnification = 40x

PART B : Resolving Power

3. Use the lowest power of the microscope to study a colour photograph cut from a magazine. How
does the magnified image compare with the photograph as seen with the unaided eyes? You have
just seen an example of a resolving power of microscope that is the ability to clearly separate small
details present in an object. For the most people any object that are separated by less than 0.1mm
cannot be seen as separate objects by the unaided eye. The microscope enables us to separate
objects that are much closer together than this – objects that would appear as one.

Resolution is determine by the first lens in the system. The other lenses in the microscope enlarge
the image formed by the objective lens. If the pattern in a dot is not resolve by the objective lens,
increased the magnification by the eye piece merely present as enlarged dot to the eye. If a more
powerful objective lens is used the dot may be resolved to two dots and the eyepiece magnifies
them e.g.

Thus a microscope does two things: it provides magnification and it permits us to distinguish
objects that are separated by spaces too small to otherwise distinguish them.
 MONOCULAR MICROSCOPE

PART C : Microscopic Measurements

Estimating the diameter of low and high power fields of your microscope will be of value in determining
the approximate size of objects viewed under the microscope.

4. Be sure low power objective is in place. Place a clear plastic metric ruler across the middle of the
field of vision. Bring the ruler into focus under low power. Record, as accurately as possible, the
diameter of the field in millimeters. Now record the diameter in microscope work and 1
micrometer = 0.0001mm i.e. 1mm = 1000

5. Once you know the diameter Example

of the low power field of view if low power objective is 4x and high
calculate the diameter of a higher power objective is 10x
power field of view. To do this than factor is = 10/4 = 2.5

a. First find the magnification of each If diameter of low power field of view was 4mm
objective then diameter of view = 4mm/2.5 = 1.6m
 b. Divide the high power by the low power magnification to
get a factor that indicates how much smaller the higher
power field is.
c. Divide the diameter of the low power filled by this factor
get the diameter of the higher power field.
d. Give the diameter in mm and um.

RESULTS:

PART A:

i. Draw a diagram to show the appearance of letter ‘’e’’ as seen under the low power of a microscope.
Describe the image.
ii. Copy and complete the following table to show the magnification possible with the microscope you
were using.

Eyepiece Magnification Objective Total Magnification

Magnification
Low Power
Medium
High Power

Part B:

iii. Give brief account of what is meant by the resolving power of microscope. Draw the image of the
colored magazine picture to help in your answer

Part C:

iv. Complete the following table by recording the data obtained from microscopic
measurements.

Diameter of field of view

In mm In um
Low Power
Medium Power
High Power
PRACTICAL :6.3 CELL BIOLOGY - CELL SIZE AND DIFFUSION
AIM:

To investigate surface area: volume ratios and the effect of cell size on diffusion.

INTRODUCTION:
Diffusion is an extremely important process in living things for it is the means by which particles move
between and into cells. The cell membrane represents a barrier to diffusing molecules and if this acts as
a limiting factor on the entry of materials, then the cells vital activities may be affected

In this activity model ‘’cells’’ made from agar will be used to determine how cell size affects the
penetration of molecules into cells.

Penetration of NaOH particles can be observed as phenolphalein, an indicator which changes color with
a base, has been added to the agar.

MATERIALS:

 Agar-phenolphthalein1 (add 20g agar and 1g of phenolphthalein powder to 1 liter of water. Boil,
then leave to set in a suitable mould e.g. 2 litre ice cream container)
 Ruler with millimeter scale
 Knife or razor blade
 4% sodium hydroxide solution 2
 Beaker 3
 Tissue paper or newsprint

METHOD:

1. Use a knife or razor blade to cut 3 cubes from the agar-phenolphthalein; a 1x1x1cm cube, and 2x2x2
cm cube, and a 3x3x3 cm cube.

2. Gelatin in-phenolphthalein (add 20g of gelatin powder to ½ litre of water. Boil then leave to set in a
suitable container e.g. Ice-cream container).
 Alternative materials:
a. Potato or dalo (cooked)
b. Raspberry cordial mix or iodine
c. Glass jars
d. Tissue paper or newsprint

3. Carefully place the 3 cubes (which represent cell) in the beaker and pour in sufficient sodium
hydroxide to completely cover the cubes. Leave for 10 minutes.

4. While waiting for the 10 minutes to pass, calculate the surface area and the volume of the cubes,
and enter these in a result table (as shown under results).Also calculate the simplest ratio of the
surface area: volume for each cube i.e.:

5. After 10 minutes carefully remove the cubes from the NaOH and plot dry with paper towels or tissue
paper. Then use a razor blade to slice each cube in half.
6. Measure h, the length of each cube which is not colored i.e. indirectly measure the extent to which
the sodium hydroxide has diffused into the agar cube.
 RESULTS:
a. Complete a result table like the following:

Cube size Surface area Volume Simplest ratio Extent of Side of cube not
cm2 cm3 surface diffusion penetrated (h)
area/volume (H-h)
3cm
2cm
1cm

b. Calculate the volume which has not been penetrated for each block and use this to calculate %
volume penetrated, as follows:
i. volume not penetrated, (NP) = hxhxh
ii. volume penetrated, (P) = Initial volume- NP
iii. fraction penetrated = volume penetrated
Initial volume
iv. % penetration = fraction penetration x 100
Volume

c. Graph % penetration (diffusion) against surface area to volume ratio.

Penetration

Surface area/ volume ratio

QUESTIONS:

1. What general conclusion can you come to about the change in surface area: volume ratio that occurs
as the ‘cell’ increses in size?

2. So far you have been dealing with the model ‘cell’. Now consider the situation with living cells. The
material that diffused into the model ‘cell’ could represent oxygen and nutrients that are required by
the components of a real cell.

i. Comment on the relative advantage of small cell size.

ii. Suggest why, in photosynthetic cells in green plants, the chloroplasts are usually close
to the cell membrane

iii. Suggest why, in photosynthetic cells in green plants, the chloroplasts and nucleus are
usually close to the cell membrane.

iv. Suggest why a new cell’s growth is rapid at first, but slows down and finally stops.

v. Make a summarizing statement about how the extent to which substances can
penetrate a cell, by diffusion, is affected by increasing cell size. In other words, describe
the trend shown in the graph.
PRACTICAL : 6.4 CELL BIOLOGY WATER BALANCE IN CELLS

AIM:
To investigate water movement in and out of living plant cells.

INTRODUCTION:

In living cells the cell membrane is selectively permeable, which means that while water molecules are
able to diffuse trough it from high to low concentrations, large molecules may not? If the water
concentration is lower than that in the surrounding medium, water will diffuse in. Likewise, a higher
concentration inside the cell will result in water diffusing out. No net movement occurs if the water
concentrations on both sides of the membrane are the same. Osmotic equilibrium may exist in such a
case.

MATERIALS: ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL

1 potato, 5mm cork borer 1 1 & 3 sharp knife

4 test tubes 2 2 small bottles

Scalpel 3 4 newsprint or tissue paper or soft clean

cloth

Paper towel 4

Accurate balance reading to 0.1g

Sugar solutions made up as follows:-

0.7M = 23.9g dissolve in 100ml of water

0.5M = 17.1g dissolve in 100 ml of water

0.3M = 10.3g dissolve in 100ml of water

0.1M = 3.4g dissolve in 100ml of water

METHOD:

1. Use the cork borer or knife to cut 5 cylinders from the potato. Trim these to an equal length –
about 4 to 5cm (alternatively, a knife could be used to cut the potato into rectangular ‘’chips’’).
2. Label the 5 test tubes and add the four sucrose solutions to 4 of the test tubes, and distilled
water to the fifth.
3. Weigh each potato cylinder and record the results on a table like the one below.
4. Place a potato in each test tube. Leave overnight. If possible leave the whole set-up in a
container of water to avoid the ants reaching the sugar solution

Next day, lightly dry and re-weight the cylinders, recording new weights on the table.

Calculate the change in weight and work out the percentage weight change.

% weight change = Difference in weight x 100

Original weight
= Final weight-original weight x 100
Original weight

RESULTS:

a. Complete a table like one below:

0.7M Sucrose 0.5M Sucrose 0.3M Sucrose Distilled Water

Original weight
Final weight
Difference in
weight
% weight change

b. Plot your results on graph paper, labelling the axes as shown below :

% 15

weight 10

change 5

of 0

potato -5
QUESTIONS:

1. What concentration of sugar would appear to be closest to the internal concentration of

dissolved materials in the potato cell protoplasm?

2. Find out what is meant by the terms turgid and flaccid. In which situations did the potato
cells become turgid and when they become flaccid, and why?

3. Many herbaceous plants rely on cell turgidity for support. Explain why such plants often wilt
when transplanted or in very dry conditions.

4. Is there any relationship between the changes in cylinder weight and the concentration of
the solution? Explain your results in terms of osmosis.
PRACTICAL : 6.5 CELL BIOLOGY - SEPARATION OF LEAF PIGMENTS

AIM:

To investigate the pigments present in the leaves of a plant.

INTRODUCTION:

 Mortar and pestle 1 . Per student test tube

 Leaves (soft leaves that can be easily ground) . cork to fit test tube
 Sand . paper clips
 Acetone . chromatography paper
 Evaporating dish or watch glass 3 . toothpick
 Solvent (92% petroleum ether 8% acetone)

Alternative materials

1. container that can be used for grinding

2. office pins
3. saucer
4. sasa stick
5. benzene

METHOD:

1. Prepare a chlorophyll extract by grinding up a leaf or two in a mortar with a little sand and 50ml of
acetone. Pour off the liquid to obtain a chlorophyll extract

2. Cut a slit in the case of a cork and insert the paper clip. Alternatively, use an office pin to clip the
paper onto the cork.

3. Cut a piece of chromatography paper so that it will fit into the test tube without touching the sides.

4. With pencil, rule a line across the paper, 2cm from one end. Using the blunt end of the toothpick or
sasa stick, place a drop of chlorophyll extract in the center of the pencil line
5. Leave to dry and then add a second drop on top of the first.
Repeat until you have a dark green spot on the paper. Don’t forget to dry the paper before you
add each new drop. Drying the spot can be hasten been each time by gently warming with the heat
from a lamp or Bunsen burner.

6. Attach the chromatography paper to the paper clip in the cork.

7. Pour solvent into the tube a depth of 1cm.The solvent should cover the end of the
Chromatography paper, but not cover the chlorophyll spot.

8. Leave until the solvent has almost reached the top of the paper. Then remove the paper and leave
to dry.

9. Because the separated pigments fade when exposed to light use a pencil to circle each
separated pigment.

10. Using a pencil draw a diagram of your chromatogram and attempt to label the
separated pigments.

Some pigments you may find in order from the top of the chromatogram are:
carotene : yellow – orange pigment
xanthophyll : a dull – yellow: if present it is just below the carotene
chlorophyll a : a green- blue pigment
Chlorophyll b : a green – yellow pigment
QUESTIONS:

1. What will determine the rate of movement of each pigment up the chromatography paper?

2. Why might this technique not show all the pigments present in a leaf?

3. What advantage is there to a plant in possessing more than one light absorbing pigment in its
leaves?
PRACTICAL : 6.6 CELL BIOLOGY ENZYME ACTION- PEROXIDASE

AIM:
To study the action of peroxidase and investigate how the surface area of substrate affects enzyme
action.

INTRODUCTION:

Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
Each different biochemical reaction requires a particular enzyme. One such enzyme is peroxidase (also
called catalase).

Peroxidase breaks down the substrate hydrogen (H2O2). This is a poisonous substance produced during
respiration. What do you think is produced when hydrogen peroxide is broken down?

MATERIALS:

 8 test tubes, fresh liver and potato 1

 Boiled liver and potato
 Hydrogen peroxide (about 50ml)
 Mortar and pestle 2
 Sand
 Wooden splint 3

Alternative materials

1. piece of dalo/cassava
2. Any appropriate container (e.g. small bowl) to be used for grinding
3. Dry sasa stick

METHOD:

1. Set up 8 test tubes as shown

2. Use a syringe to add 5mL hydrogen peroxide to each test tube. Note what happens.

3. If there is any obvious reaction, try testing the gas given off with a glowing splint.

RESULTS:
a.
SET UP Reaction when hydrogen Results of glowing splint test
peroxide is added
1. Water
2. Sand
3. Piece of fresh liver
4. Boiled liver ground up
5. Fresh liver ground up
6. Piece of fresh potato
7. Fresh potato ground up
8. Boiled potato ground up
a. Write an equation for the reason that occurs when hydrogen peroxide is broken down.

b. In which test tube was the reaction most rapid and most vigorous? How did you judge the
reaction rate?

QUESTIONS:

1. Suggest reasons for the difference in the reaction rates observed.

2. For what purposes are tubes 1 and 2 included? Explain your answer.

3. What effect does heating to boiling point have on enzymes?

4. Briefly explain the relationship between surface area of substrate area of substrate and
rate of enzyme action.
PRACTICAL : 6.7 PHOTOSYNTHESIS - THE EFFECT OF LIGHT- THE
BUBBLE METHOD

AIM:

To investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis.

INTRODUCTION:

Photosynthesis involves the conversation of light energy into chemical (usable) energy by the plant. A
simple equation describing the process is:

Carbon dioxide + water chlorophyll sugar + oxygen

light

Suggest any factors which could affect the rate of photosynthesis? Are there factors not mentioned in
the equation which could alter the rate?

A by- product of photosynthesis is oxygen, and the rate of photosynthesis is proportional to the volume
of oxygen released. A simple technique to measure the volume of oxygen produced is to measure the
rate of bubble production (i.e. the number of bubbles produced per minute) from a freshly cut stem of
water weed. When carrying out an experiment, it is important that we look at only one variable at a
time, trying to keep all other factors constant.

MATERIALS:

 Fresh, healthy water weed (or Elodea if available)

 Test tube
 250mL beaker 1
 Aluminum foil (optional)
 0.25% sodium bi-carbonate solution (100mL)
 Meter ruler
 light bulb 2 (e.g. 100w)

Alternative material

1 Glass jar – medium size

2 3-6 battery torch (with new batteries)
METHOD:

1. Add the sodium bicarbonate solution into the test tube.

2. Place a stem of water weed into the test tube with the cut end directed upwards.

3.

For best results pinch the end of the water weed under water with your nails. Once the water weed is
set up in front of the lamp or torch, bubbles should start to be released from the cut end. If bubbles
don’t start to being released within a few minutes, pinch of a little more of stem or try another water
weed. You could even set up several tubes with Elodea to start with, and then select one which is
producing bubbles well.

4. Leave the apparatus for 3 to 5 minutes and then count the number of bubbles released for 3 minutes.

5. Repeat step 4 at distances 14, 20 and 32cm from the light source.
Note: It is important that you leave the plant for a few minutes at each new light intensity
before starting your readings.
RESULTS:
Light Intensity Total for 3 minutes Average per minute
10cm -100 %

14cm – 50 %

20 cm – 25 %

32cm – 10 %

b. Plot the data on a graph like one shown:

number
of
bubbles
produced
per
minute.

Light intensity %
QUESTIONS:
Briefly describe the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis and suggest a reason
of any trend shown on a graph.

CONCLUSION:

Briefly describe the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis and suggest a reason
for any trend shown on the graph.
PRACTICAL : 6.8 CELL BIOLOGY - RESPIRATION AND TEMPRATURE

AIM:

To investigate the effect of temperature on the respiration rate of yeast.

INTRODUCTION:

The energy release process in living things is termed respiration. This process involves an extremely
complex series of chemical reactions but it is basically similar in all living things. The respiration of yeast
is important in the production of alcohol and in the leavening (rising) of bread. A study of the conditions
that affect yeast respiration can also tell us about respiration in other living things, including ourselves.

In this experiment the rate of yeast respiration will be determined by mixing measured quantities of
yeast into dough mixture and observing in the expansion of the dough (caused by the release of carbon
dioxide gas in the yeast respiration process.) Samples of dough mixture will be set up at varying
temperatures to find out how the rate of respiration is affected by this factor.

MATERIALS:

 Yeast (7g) . Thermometer

 Glucose (5g) . 3 through 1 to act as water baths. (The troughs need to
 Plain flour (100g) be quite tall as they are used as water baths for
 Spatula or stirring rod measuring cylinders)
 3 100ml measuring cylinders

Alternative materials:
1
Ice cream containers (2 liters)

METHOD:

1. Mix 5g of glucose into 100g of flour

2. Mix 7g of yeast in 120mL of water

3. Stir the yeast suspension into flour and mix to a smooth paste.
 4. Prepare 3 water baths at 250C, 350 C and 450C

RESULTS:
a.
TEMP INTIAL VOLUME
VOLUME AFTER…MINUTES
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
250C
350C
450C
b. Plot the graph of these results, using a different color for each temperature. Label the graph fully.

Volume (ml)

Effect
Of
Temperature
On respiration
Of yeast

Time (minutes)

QUESTIONS:

1 Why does the dough increase in volume during the experiment?

2 Use your knowledge of particle motion to suggest a reason why the chemical reactions
involved in the respiration process should be affected by temperature.

3 Use the results from this investigation to suggest why warm blood (constant body
temperature) has certain advantages over ‘cold’ blood (body temp. varies with
environmental temperature).

4 Use the results to write a statement relating temperature to rate of yeast respiration.
PRACTICAL 6.9 CELL BIOLOGY CHROMOSOMES

AIM:

To construct a human karyotype and identify it as a male or female, normal or abnormal

INTRODUCTION:

Essentially, the chromosomes are the vehicles which carry units of hereditable information, or the
genes. By the weight, chromosomes contain about equal amounts of protein and DNA. The nucleic acid,
DNA, is the actual site of inheritable information i.e. the genes are portions of the DNA molecule. The
actual number of genes an organism possesses is difficult to determine but it is estimated that the
number of human genes is between 25000 and 100000

Of greatest interest is the nature of the human chromosomes and although these have been studied for
many years, there are still more questions than answers as to the details of their structure and function.

Human cells contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. The classification of chromosomes is based on two
chromosomes features, the actual size of the chromosomes and the position of centromeres. The
centromere is the site of attachment to the spindle during cell division. When considering the position of
the centromere it is usual to recognize three major classes of chromosomes.

Metacentric

The centromere is near the center of the chromosome and the two arms are clearly seen. The
arms vary from equal in length to about a ratio of 2.5 to 1.

Acrocentric
The centromere is near one end of the chromosomes and the arms are very unequal in length.

Telocentric
The centromere is at the end of the chromosomes and the chromosome is one – armed.

Using these features the human chromosomes can be placed into seven groups designated A to
G of the 23 pairs, are virtually identical in both sexes and are called autosomes. The remaining
pair from the sex chromosome: these are identical in women (said to be XX) but not identical in
men (said to be XY). The final product of this chromosomes classification known as a karyotype.
The karyotype of a human male. The chromosomes have been arranged in groups according to their size
and shape. Notice the position of the sex chromosomes.

MATERIALS: Copy of human chromosome photograph

Scissors
Glue

PROCEDURE:

1. Copy the chromosome diagrams below and identify them as metacentric acrocentric or
telocentric.

2. Using the human karyotype presented, in the introduction, as a pattern, prepare your own
karyotype using the chromosome photograph supplied. Note: It is often more useful to try to
identify the chromosome pairs before cutting them out.
QUESTIONS:
1. Is the following karyotype that of a male or female? How do you know?
2. Would you class the karyotype as normal or abnormal? Give a reason of your choice.

KAROTYPE OF HUMAN
PRACTICAL : 7.1 PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION STOMATAL
BEHAVIOUR

AIM:

To observe stomatal behavior in leaves of different plants.

INTRODUCTION:

Most water is lost from plants through small holes or stomata in the leaves. Each stomata has around it
two guard cells which control size of the hole. Different species of plants have different sizes and
numbers of stomata in the epidermis or surface layer of cells on their leaves, sometimes only on the
lower side.

MATERIALS:

 soft leaves e.g. bean, hibiscus, i.e. of plants growing around the school compound
 Clear nail varnish or typing correcting ink
 Slides, coverslips, light (monocular) microscope
 Dry cobalt paper 1
 Rubber hands or cello tape
 Scissors, Vaseline

Alternate materials:

1. Cobalt chloride paper can be prepared by dropping filter paper into cobalt chloride solution and
drying the paper slowly in an oven. The dry paper is blue.

METHOD:

Part A:
Part B:

1) Take a soft leaf. Apply several coats of nail varnish or correcting fluid to a small section
of each on each side of the leaf. Allow time for each coat to dry.

2) Carefully peel the layer of varnish off the leaf and examine, with the lower side
upwards, on a microscope slide under low power and then high power. You have made
a cast of the epidermis and should be able to locate and count the stomata.

3) Count and record the number of stomata in the field of view for the upper epidermis
and the lower epidermis on high power.

Part C:
QUESTIONS:

1. Explain why there are usually more stomata on the lower surface of a leaf than on the
upper surface.

2. Briefly explain the significance of the presence of stomata on the leaf surfaces.
PRACTICAL : 7.2 CO-ORDINATION- SUPPORT AND SENSITIVITY
IN EARTHWORMS
AIM:

To investigate support and location and sensitivity in earthworms

INTRODUCTION:

Earthworms do not possess an exoskeleton like that of an arthropod, nor an internal skeleton in the
chordates. Yet, some form of support is necessary to enable these animals to force their way through
such a dense medium as soil. The body of an earthworm is stiffened, however quite effectively by quite
a different form of skeleton. A vital part of this support system and an essential aid to its movement is
the double layer of muscles located in the body wall – one arranged in a circular, and the other in a
longitudinal direction. The function of these muscles will form part of this study.

Earthworms use their ability and locomotion and sensitivity in environment.

MATERIALS:

 Live earthworms, hand lens

 small sheet of glass
 glass tubing
 scissors, paper, cello tape
 light bulb

Note: The body surface of earthworms is moist to enable gas exchange to occur, but this means
that the animal is easily dehydrated. On dry surfaces, the mucus on its body is liable to
stick so remember to keep the glass or bench top moist.
Worms will also respond best in dim light.

METHOD:

1. Place the earthworm on the glass square or bench top and observe the sequence of muscular
contractions involved in its forward motion. Identify a front and rear end.

2. Place the earthworm front- end first into a piece of wet glass tubing with diameter a little wider
than the extended worm. Prod the rear end gently. Observe waves of muscular contraction and
describe how the worm uses these to move.

3. The cavity between the body wall and the gut is fluid- filled and divided by transverse membrane,
at every segment, into a large number of water –light compartments. Bear in mind that fluid is not
compressible when working on the following exercises.
 a) What effect would the contractions of the circular muscles have on the animals shape?

b) How would the contraction of the longitudinal muscles affect its shape?

c) What muscular contractions and expansions would be involved in the worm pushing its
interior end forward?

d) What muscular activity would be involved in making the body shorter and thicker?

4. The earthworm must be able to anchor the interior end of its body whilst the tail end is pulled up.
Pick it up gently and feel its ventral surface by rubbing your finger to and fro. Let it move across
your palm. Examine its body surface with hand lens for any structures apparently adapted for this
purpose.

5. Place the animal on a sheet of glass and flood it with water. Predict how excess water would affect
the earthworm’s ability to move. Explain. Do the results bear out your ideas?

6. Refer to your textbook or look at a prepared cross-section slide and draw a diagram of a cross-
section of the animal. Label the fluid-filled cavity, the setae or bristles and the muscles which
operate these.

7. How effective do you think such as locomotory system would be for larger animals? What
disadvantages can you list?

8. Allow an earthworm to move forward. While it is moving touch each of its end gently in turn with
a blunt seeker. Touch its dorsal and side surfaces. Roll it over. In what ways do worms respond to
touch? In which areas are they most sensitive? How would these responses help an earthworm to
stay alive?

9. While an earthworm is moving along the bench, tap with a pen or pencil about 30cm from it, to
one side, so that vibrations travel to it. While it is moving try a sudden thump with your hand
about the same distance away. Can a worm hear?

10. Make a paper tunnel for the worm and allow it to move inside. Every time the front end starts to
emerge switch on a bench light above the worm and about 50cm from it. Do ten trials, recording
the number of times the worm continues to move out of the tunnel and the number of times it
moves back in. How would this sensitivity to light help a worm survive in its environment?
PRACTICAL : 7.3 NUTRITION EARTHWORM DISSECTION

AIM:

To examine the alimentary tract of an earthworm

INTRODUCTION:

Earthworms are adapted to life underground- a dark, damp, dense environment. It forces or eats its way
through the soil, digesting and absorbing nutrients on the way. It possesses a number of special
adaptions to fit it to this way of life

MATERIALS:

 Dissecting board, pins, sharp scissors

 Large dead earthworms
 Prepared slice of a cross- section through the intestinal region of an earthworm
 Microscope

METHOD:

1. Pin out the earthworm, dorsal (upper) slide up with a pin at each end

2. Make a shallow cut with sharp pointed scissors along the length of the animal (from ‘tail’ to ‘head’)
and pin back the body wall. It will be necessary to cut through the septa (or walls between
segments) with the tips of sharp scissors. The operation is best carried out under water.

3. Identify the following parts: mouth, pharynx, crop, gizzard, oesophagus, intestine and anus
4. Use a probe to ‘prod’ at the walls of the crop and gizzards. Note how the wall of gizzard is much
thicker and more muscular then the wall of the crop.

5. Examine a prepared slice of cross-section through a worm. Observe the typhlosole- a fold which
runs the length of the intestine.

6. Draw a diagram showing the alimentary tract of an earthworm (based on your dissection). Label
each part of the tract and state its function in a few words.

7. Draw a diagram of the cross-section through the earthworm. Label the intestine and typhlosole

QUESTIONS:

Base your answers to the following questions on the observation you made of your dissection.

1. Why is the wall of the wizard more muscular than the wall of the crop?

2. What approximate proportion of the gut consists of intestine? Can you suggest why it is so long?
What influence could diet have on its length?

3. How is the straight-tube gut of the worm related to its particular way of life?

4. What effect would typhlosole have on the surface area of the intestine? Therefore, what is its likely
adaptive value to the earthworm?

5. The simplified diagrams show three basic gut types.

Give two advantages that a type 3 gut would have over type 1 guts.
PRACTICAL : 7.4 EXCRETION - ANALYSIS OF URINE

AIM:
To study the composition of urine.

INTRODUCTION:

Despite the apparent simplicity of their structure, kidneys are extremely complex organs and play a vital
role in monitoring and regulating the composition of the blood. Our body cells are able to carry out their
normal functions correctly only if they are surrounded by a liquid medium whose composition is
maintained with extremely narrow limits. It is function of the kidneys to help maintain this stable
internal environment.

METHOD:

1. Collect a 500mL (approx.) sample of your urine. Record its color and the time of day it was
collected.
2. Divide the sample into 5mL lots in each of seven clean test tubes. Test these samples as follows :
Tube A: Chloride test – add 4-6 drops silver nitrate solution. A white precipitate
indicates the chloride is present.

Tube B: Sulphate test – add about 0.5 barium chloride solution.

A white precipitate indicates the presence of sulphate if, when you add a little
dilute hydrochloric acid, the precipitate does not dissolve.

Tube C: Carbonate or bicarbonate- add some dilute hydrochloric acid. Formation of

gas bubbles indicates probable carbonate or bicarbonate.

Tube D: Add 0.5 mL citric acid solution. A white precipitate indicates the presence of
calcium

Tube E: Add 2mL of sodium hydroxide solution. Suspend 1-14 pH paper (damped
with water) in the moth of the tube. Place tube in a beaker of boiling
water. A color change indicating a pH of 8 or greater shows ammonia is
present.

Tube F: Add 0.5mL Benedicts solution- warm in water bath. Green, yellow or orange
color indicates glucose is present. Alternatively, test for the presence of
glucose with Clinitest tablet or stick. Follow instructions on the packet.

Tube G: Dip the narrow range pH paper (pH 5-11) into sample and note pH of your
urine.
RESULTS:

Copy and complete a result table like the one below:

Test Substances Change Noted Substance Absent

Tested for or Present
Tube A
B
C
D
E
F
G

QUESTIONS:

1. Explain briefly why correct kidney functioning is so important?

2. Describe the function of the Bowman’s capsule
3. Explain why kidneys have a good blood supply.
4. Describe the path area travels from where it is made in the liver to the bladder.
5. Name a food from which each of the following may have come :
 calcium
 chloride
 ammonia

6. What would a positive test for glucose indicate the functioning of your body?
PRACTICAL: 8.1 GENETICS - HUMAN VARIATIONS

AIM:

To investigate the range of variation shown by a portion of the human population and to present this
variation in a diagrammatic form.

INTRODUCTION:

Not surprisingly the genetics of man has been studied more intensively than that of any other organism.
However, progress has been relatively slow because no controlled breeding experiments can be made.
Even the inheritance of simple, apparently obvious features, is not simple and Medelian ratios do not
appear in the population because some genes are more rare in the human population than others.

MATERIALS:

A copy of the ‘’genetic wheel’’

METHOD:

1. Copy the table below and circle your genotype and phenotype in each case. Remember that the
actual mode of inheritance of some of these characters is probably rather more complex than
indicated.

Character Dominant Recessive Possible Genotype

Pigment (includes Non pigment (blue) E or ee
Eye color colors or flecks of e
colors E
Mid- digital hair Present (on any one Absent m M or mm
middle segments of
the fingers) M
Free (not attached to Fixed to head 1 L or 11
Ear lobes head)
Bent little finger Bent inward toward Straight , P P or pp
third finger P
Double jointed Present J Absent j J _ or jj
thumbs

Ability to roll tongue Roller T Non roller t T _ or tt

into U-shape
2. Combine the traits of the whole class in the ‘’genetic wheel’’. In the center circle record
the number of students in the class. Next, record the number of students with free ear lobes and
fixed ear lobes in the next circle. Each group will be further subdivided in each succeeding circle.

RESULTS:

To be placed on the genetic wheel.

GENETIC WHEEL DIAGRAM

QUESTIONS:

1. Why is the dominant character in each case represented by the genotype symbol e.g. M_, rather
than MM?

2. Many students believe that a dominant character will be more common than the corresponding
recessive character. What do your results indicate about his belief?

3. Are there any two people in the class with the same combination of characters? What does this
suggest about the range of variation in the groups?
PRACTICAL : 8.2 GENETICS - RANDOMNESS, CHANGE AND
PROBABILITY
AIM:

To investigate the principles of randomness, chance and probability, and relate them to genetical
events.

INTRODUCTION:

If you toss a coin, the probability of tossing a head is one of two that is ½ or 0.5. When cutting a pack of
cards, the probability of cutting a heart is one of four, or ¼ or 0.25. We can accept that these events are
the results of chance.

Do similar chance happenings occur in nature?

Do individuals in a population tend to pair at random?

Do gametes pair at random?

Randomness is a term we apply to the element of chance in situations.

‘’Choosing at random’’ is a common expression – it means a choice is governed by chance, hence

completely impartial.

MATERIALS:

 Use either coins or cards

 Cards should be approximately 2cm x 2cm and labelled ‘T’ or ‘H’

METHOD:

Part A

1. You could carry out this activity by flipping two coins or by drawing cards out of a container. It is
quitter to use cards but coins are readily available
2. Examine a coin. What is the chance that when you flip a coin, that headswill come up? Tails will
come up?

3. If you flip two coins together, what is the probability of heads on both coins?

4. Work in pairs. One student is to flip two coins onto the bench and the other pupil is to record
results.

Part B

Each student should make a record of his or her entire family. Include the sex of all of them, even if
some are now deceased e.g. self + 1 sister +2 brothers. Make up a chart to obtain total numbers of
males and females for all families of students in the class.

RESULTS:

Part A Group Results

Head/Head (HH) Head/Tail (HT) Tail/Tail (TT)

Class Results
HH HT TT
GROUP 1
GROUP 2
GROUP 3
CLASS TOTAL

Part B

Males Females

 What theoretical ratio of males to females would you except?

 How well do your results compare with the expected ratios?
QUESTIONS:

1. Many problems in genetics are exactly like the problems of tossing two coins. Nothing
new is added except that gametes are used instead of coins, and the kinds of offspring
are calculated instead of combination of coins.

Suppose one individual had a genotype of XY. What type of gametes will he produce and
in what proportions?

2. If two individuals with genotype XX and XY mate, what is the probability of getting :
XX offspring?
XY offspring?

3. How does the increase in size of sample influence the difference between the expected
and the actual results? On the basis of comparisons you have made, how large should a
sample group be in an investigation on chance and probability?
PRACTICAL: 8.3 GENETICS -THE DYHRID INHERITANCE PRINCIPLE

AIM:

To demonstrate the hybrid inheritance ratio.

INTRODUCTION:

When plants that breed for round (RR) yellow (YY) seeds are crossed with those producing wrinkled (rr)
green (gg) seeds, the F1 progeny are heterozygous for seed shape and color. Independent assorted
allows either R or r to team with either Y or y, generating gametes with four genotypes, self-fertilization
of a F1 plant produces F2 generation with nine genotypes and four phenotypes. When mendal performed
this experiment with hundreds of peas, he obtained ratios very close to the 9:3:3:1 phenotype pattern.

MATERIAL:

2- Pack of playing cards per group

METHOD:

Two pairs of alleles to be worked with could be brown eye/non brown (B/b) and taster/non taster (T/T)
in humans.

One of the packs represents the male gametes available, and the other pack the male gametes. (Remove
Aces and Jokers).

i. A Black card designates brown eyed genes on the gametes. Red cards designated non
brown, b
ii. A Top card (8’s to Kings) designates Tasters. Two’s to 7’s designate gametes with non-
taster genes, t

Thus, for example, the 8 of spades represents a gamete containing genes for Taster and Brown eyes
(TB), whereas a 6 of hearts represents a gamete containing genes for non-taster and non-brown eyes
(tb)

After the cards of each pack have been shuffled one card from each of the two packs of the group of
students is played together and the results recorded as shown below. Thus the results of playing the two
cards used in the examples above would mean that the ‘’zygote’’ so formed would be TB .tb (or Tt.Bb)
and is so recorded. This procedure can be repeated for, say, forty ‘’mating’s of pairs of ‘’gametes’’.
RESULTS:

Genotype Phenotype Tally Total for Group

BB.TT Brown-eye, Taster

BB. Tt Brown-eye, Taster ……………. …………….
BB.tt Brown-eye, Non- ……………. …………….
taster
…………….. ……………….. ……………. …………….
bb.tt Non-brown, non- ……………. ……………..
taster

Group results could then be collated for the whole class in the table shown below.

Genotype Phenotype Class Total Ratio

Actual Expected

B.T Brown-eye, Taster ………… ……….. 9

B.tt Brown-eye, on- taster ………….. ………… 3

bb.T ………….. ………… 3

1
bb.tt

QUESTIONS:

1. What can you say about the actual ratio in this model?

2. How does actual ratio compare with the expected ratio?

3. Which one, the small class sample or the large class sample would give better results?
PRACTICAL : 8.4 GENETICS GENETICS AND CROSSES

AIM:

To enable students to have hands on experiences that will help them to understand basic genetic
concepts and to be able to predict the results of genetic crosses.

INTRODUCTION:

In this practical exercise there are two sexes (Mother Onion and Father Potato) and each can vary in
three ways. Three body parts each has alternate phenotypes (appearances) which are expressions of
dominant or recessive genes. Table A shows the possible phenotypes and genotypes (combination of
genes) which produce them

MATERIALS:

Please keep in mind that other vegetables or fruits e.g. mangoes can be substituted depending on what
is available.

 1kg bag of potatoes

 1kg of onions (potatoes and onions need to be about the same number and size)
 1 large carrot
 1 large bhindi (lots of cassava stems with leaves that can be cut to look like hands)
 1 box of toothpicks, pins or sasa sticks
 knife or scalpel to cut feet, hands, eyes or hair
 8 small containers (boxes, cans, jar, beakers)
 buttons of two colors or cut out eyes from different colored leaves (hair cut from leaves in
different styles or color could be used- or cotton wool)
 set of 16 cardboard squares with the sex chromosomes and genes printed on them

METHOD:

1. Decide any combination of genotypes for each of the parents e.g. Father Potato Bb, LL, Cc (brown
button eyes, long cassava arms, carrot feet) and Mother Onion bb, 11, Cc (blue button eyes, short
cassava arms, carrot feet).
2. Beside each parent have 4 small boxes (beakers, jars) which have cardboard squares in them
showing their genes or sex chromosomes (figure 1).

3. Students in groups of 2 will produce gametes by selecting (without looking) a chromosome or

gene from each box. One student will select sex chromosome from Mother Onions boxes while
the other student will select sex chromoses and genes from Father Potato’s boxes.

4. Students will then combine their gametes (fertilizations) to produce offspring and determine the
new genotypes.
5. Students can then combine their results with the remainder of the class and compare
phenotype frequencies with those obtained with the use of punnet squares.
Figure 1 copy and cut out – place in boxes as shown in Figure 2

X X X Y
B B b b
L L l l
C c c C

Figure 2

BOX 1 SEX BOX 2 EYE BOX 3 ARM BOX 4 FEET

PARENT CHROMOSOMES GENES GENES GENES

TABLE A

CHRACTERISTIC PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE RESPONSIBLE

GENES
EYES BROWN BUTTON BB or Bb B (DOMINANT)
BLUE BUTTON bb B (RECESSIVE)
ARMS LONG CASSAVA LL or Ll L (DOMINANT)
STEM AND LEAVES

SHORT CASSAVA ll l (RECESSIVE)

STEM AND LEAVES
FEET CARROT SLICES CC or Cc C (DOMINANT)
PARTSNIP SLICES cc C (RECESSIVE)

QUESTIONS:

1. Write down the chance of the male and the female (Pa vegetable, Ma vegetable) that
would be produced in the first generation.

2. Give the number of each of the phenotypes that would be produced in the first
generation.

3. Explain how you could produce a better variety of a vegetable or a fruit in your locality.
 APPENDIX 1: SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

Basically, safety precautions in the laboratory involve good planning and common sense in the
use of chemicals, equipment and materials. Conducting experiments is perfectly safe as long as a
few simple rules and precautions are adhere to, like the following:

1. In emergency if asked to evacuate the laboratory:

- use the nearest exit to move out in a quit orderly manner

- do not stop to collect personal belonging.

- Do not re-enter the building until asked to do so.

2. Do not enter the laboratory until asked by the teacher.

3. In the laboratory, you are to be under the direct supervision of the teacher, and at no
time you should be left on your own.

4. Some form of footwear should be worn at all times in the laboratory

5. Eating or drinking is not permitted in the laboratory.

6. Experiments assigned or approved by the teacher should only be done and safety
goggles should be used when instructed.

7. Any accident, even the mirror ones, should be reported to the teacher

8. Chemicals should not be touched with hands unless directed by a teacher. A clean
spatula should be used.

9. Never taste a chemical or solution or anything unless instructed to do so.

10. While observing the odour (smell) of a substance, do not hold your face directly over the
container. Waft a small amount of the vapour towards you by sweeping your hand over
the top of the container.

11. If an acid or some chemical is split on clothing or skin, wash it of immediately with
plenty of water.
12. When heating a test tube, always direct the mouth away from yourself and other
members of the class. Hold the test tube with a holder at an angel.

13. Allow enough time for hot glass ware to cool. Remember, hot glass looks like cool glass.
Bath skin burns in cool water.

14. When a small quantity of a solution is to be boiled, this should always be done in a large
test tube containing pieces of porcelain. This prevents hasty heating causing ‘bumping’
of the liquid and there is less chance of liquid spurting out of the tube.

15. While using a balance, never place a chemical directly on the pan. Use a suitable
container e.g. weighing bottle or a watch glass.

16. When using a concentrated acid always add, with constant stirring, the acid to water or
to an aqueous solution.

17. Never put your thumb or finger over the end of a test tube when shaking. Stopper the
tube with a cork or bung

18. While pouring a liquid, hold the bottle with label in palm of hand. This prevents drips on
label and ensures that any drips will NOT be grasped by the next user.

19. Throw all solid waste into the rubbish bin provided, never in the sink.

20. Unused chemical should not be returned to the stock bottle. If the quantity is large and
it could be used gain, then it should be stored in a separate labelled bottle.

21. Always handle flammable liquids, such as ethanol and methylated spirit with great care
and keep them away from naked flames.

22. Always check that name on a bottle is exactly that of the chemical you require.

23. Always wash your hands after practical work.

24. Never put your head or clothes near a Bunsen flame. Long hair should be tied back.
Adjust the Bunsen to give a luminous flame (air hole closed) when you are not using it.

25. Never try to force glass tubing when putting it into or removing it from corks or bungs.
Always hold glass tubing with a cloth when performing these operations.
26. Never hold bottles by the neck.

27. Never perform unauthorized experiments. If you are asked to design or plan an
investigation, always get it approved by your teacher before carrying it out.

28. Readily accessible spill packages for cleaning spills and containers for disposal of broken
glass should be available.

29. You should know the location of and how to shut off utilities.

30. You should know the location and proper operation of fire extinguishers.

31. A well- supplied First Aid Kit should be provided. Charts showing proper treatment for
specific injuries should be prominently pasted.

32. Laboratories and storage facilities should be locked when not under direct supervision
of the teacher.

33. You should have a thorough understanding of the potential hazards of all materials,
processes and equipment that will be in the school laboratory.

34. Follow all safety regulations and be mindful of hazards.

35. All care must be exercised while using expensive equipment such as microscope.

36. It is important to clean the microscope immediately after work is finished.

37. At the end of the practical work, power, gas and water should be turned off, and the
apparatus and the benches left clean and tidy for the next class
 APPENDIX 2: WRITING PRACTICAL REPORTS

When writing reports on experiments you should remember that someone else will
have to read it. You should therefore aim for a clear, concise and accurate presentation
of relevant information. The report should contain the following details:

i. Each practical report should include the date, title, experiment number
and reference from the laboratory manual.

ii. Each report should use most or all of the following: aim, introduction,
materials (used) procedure (or method), diagram (wherever necessary),
result (data, observations, calculations etc.) , discussion questions and
conclusion.

iii. A content page, at the front, on which following details should be

shown: date, experiment number, title and mark allocation.

The types of information and method of presentation under various subheadings are as
follows:

Date, Title and Aim

This should include the date, title, experiment number, reference and aim. The aim
should be consistent with the nature of the experiment. The objective (aim) may entail
learning a particular skill, establishing a fact or testing a hypothesis.

e.g. 11-9-96 EXPERIMENT 13

CELL BIOLOGY – ENZYMES ACTION – PEROXIDASE (6.5)

Aim – to study the action of peroxidase and investigate how the surface
area of substrate affects enzymes action.

Introduction:
The introduction should contain theoretical information or explanation relevant to the
experiment. This does not have to be too lengthy but main ideas should be clearly
presented.

Materials:

This is a descriptive account of the actual conduct of the experiment. The procedure
should always be written in the impersonal past tense e.g. ‘’The variegated leaf was
boiled in a beaker of water till it became soft’’

The procedure should, as far as possible, reflect what was done and this does not
necessarily have to be in line with the procedure given in the Laboratory Manual,
especially if the method has been changed for one reason or another.

It should also include any precautions taken or difficulties encountered. In marking the
reports, the teacher would look for the use of the tense and an accurate description of
what the students did.

Results:

The results consist of a record of all observations, measurements, readings, data, graphs
and diagrams. Where appropriate, results should be presented in a tabular form. Note
that inferences and interpretations normally fall under ‘conclusion’ and should not
appear under the ‘Result’ subheading.

Marks would be awarded for the manner in which the data are recorded and presented.
The degree of accuracy of the measurements, clarity and labelling of diagrams and other
data deserves consideration for allocating marks.

QUESTIONS:

The questions provided in the manual act as a guide to writing the conclusion. They do
not in themselves constitute a conclusion. The questions also draw the student’s
attention to the purpose of the steps in the procedure and clarify the basic concepts in
the topic. For each question, the answer should be written in complete sentence (s) or
the students could copy the question and then write the answer.
Each answer would be properly checked and marks given for mathematical accuracy,
presentation, level of understanding and correct explanations.

CONCLUSIONS:

The report should always end with a conclusion, which briefly states what has been
learnt in the experiment. The conclusion should contain statements that satisfy the aim
of the experiment, together with references and interpretations derived from the
results and answers to questions. An explanation of the discrepancy between expected
result and actual result should be provided wherever appropriate.

After the practical report has been marked and returned by the teacher, you should
read through the comments made by the teacher and do the necessary corrections
before you go for the next practical work.
APPENDIX 3: PLANNING YOUR OWN DOCUMENTS

Sometimes you are given the opportunity to design your own experiments, instead of
merely repeating a ‘’cookbook type’’ situation. The secret of a successful experiment is
the formation of a DEFINATE HYPOTHESIS which clearly implies a plan for gathering
RELEVANT INFORMATION. A hypothesis containing a SINGLE IDEA tends to reduce the
tendency to collect irrelevant and confusing data.

Continually ask yourself:

1. What precisely is the point I am trying to discover or prove?

2. What evidence is RELEVANT to my particular problem?

3. What is already known about the problem?

4. How am I going to measure and record RELEVANT information?

5. How am I going to present my information in a meaningful way?

6. Does my conclusion really evaluate my data in terms of the idea I tried to

discover or prove?

BIOLOGICAL DRAWING:
Three common types of biological diagrams that you may be asked to do are:
a) The HABIT SKETCH – a sketch representing the specimen as it is in real life: shows
external features: may precede a drawing.
b) The DRAWING – a detailed accurate record of what you have observed.
c) The DIAGRAM - a formalized line drawing to show general features: a minimum of
detail required.

1. Where possible use unlined paper for your diagrams.

2. All diagrams to be done in pencil. (An HB or an H sharpened frequently).

3. Keep diagrams large and to the center of the page, leaving sufficient room at
the top and the sides for heading and labels.
4. Print labels neatly taking care with spelling. Join labels to the objects drawn
with horizontal ruled lines.

5. Make sure that you have the correct orientation of the specimen. Convention
demands that the anterior end at the top of the page, unless drawn in lateral
view.
6. Identify all parts before you start drawing.
7. Make sure your diagram has the same proportions as the actual specimen.
8. Each diagram should have a heading indicating
a) The name of the specimen, e.g. alimentary canal of rat etc.

b) The aspect or conditions e.g. Dorsal View, T.S etc.

c) The magnification. For microscope diagrams that will the ocular

magnification multiplied by the objective magnification. Below 100 may
be referred to as Low Power (LP) and above 100 is High Power (HP).

9. Make crisp clean outline drawing taking care to join the lines where they
enclose structures e.g.

10. Do NOT use shading or cross latching

11. Do NOT draw a circular outline to show the limit of your field of view as seen
down a microscope.

12. Use double outlines rather than single lines for narrow structures such as blood
vessels or antennae.

13. For diagrams of microscope slide preparations, the following procedure is

appropriate:

a) Make an outline diagram (usually using LP) to show the relative sizes
and positions of the different parts.
b) Make one or more drawing on a larger scale (usually using HP) to show
the details of small typical areas representing the various parts

E.g.
 APPENDIX 4: MEASURING MASS

The three types of balances which may be available for you to use in the laboratory are:

i. Triple beam balance

ii. Cent-0- gram balance
iii. Dial -0- gram balance

I. TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE

Triple beam balances have three mass beams along which the poises (sliding masses) are
moved. Whenever you move the poises make sure the two rear poises are seated firmly in a
notch. The balance usually weighs to the nearest 0.1g
pointer

Before weighing any object you should check the zero reading of your balance. To zero the
balance:
 Slide all the three poises (sliding masses) to their zero position at the left-
hand end of each beam.
 Check that the pointer is aimed exactly at the zero mark.
 If the pointer does not coincide with the zero marking then turn end screw
(balance compensator knob) to bring the pointer in line with zero mark.
Weighting an object

1. Place the object to be weighed on top of the pan. (Chemicals and organisms should
not be placed directly on the pan). The beam arm will rise.

2. Move the largest mass (poise) notch until the zero pointer drops.

3. Now move that mass (poise) back one notch. The beam arm should be above the
zero mark.

4. Finally, slide the smallest mass (poise) along the beam until the pointer is exactly in
line with the zero mark. It is easier to use a tip of a pencil to slide this poise (mass).

5. Finally, slide the smallest mass (poise) along the beam until the pointer is exactly in
line with the zero mark. It is easier to use a tip of a pencil to slide this poise (mass).

6. The mass of the object is the sum of all the values shown on each scale (beam).

Before weighing any object you should check the zero reading of the balance. The balance
can be zeroed in the same manner as for triple beam balance. In cent –o-gram balance,
 whenever you move the poises (sliding masses) make sure that the three rear poises are
seated firmly in a notch.

Weighing an object

1. Place the object on the pan. (The beam arm will rise.)

2. Move the largest poise (200g mass) notch by notch until the zero pointer drops.

3. Now move that poise back one notch. (The beam arm should be above the zero
mark.)

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each of the 100g poise and 10g poise.

5. Finally, slide the 1g poise until the beam arm drops and zero markings line up.

6. The mass of the object is the sum of all the values shown on each beam.

II. DIAL- O – GRAM BALANCE

Dial –o-gram balances have two mass beams and a dial which are used to bring in the
instrument into balance. These balances can be read to the nearest 0.01g.

Before an object is weighed the balance should show zero reading. In order to zero the dial
–o- gram balance, you should:

 Slide both the poises to their zero position at the left- hand end of each beam. The
poises should sit in their notches.
 Rotate the dial to bring the zero on the dial in line with the Vernier zero.
 Turn the end screw (balance compensator knob) to bring the pointer in line with
zero marking.

Weighing an object

1. Place the object on the pan.

2. Move the larger poise (200g) notch until the zero pointer drops.
3. Now move the poise (200g) back one notch. (The beam arm should move above
the zero mark.)
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for the 100g poise (sliding mass)
5. Finally slowly rotate the dial clockwise until the pointer lines up exactly with the
zero marking.
6. The mass of the object is the sum of the values shown on each beam plus the
values indicated by the dial and the Vernier, E.g.

Reading the dial and Vernier graduation

Each graduate on the dial has a value of 0.1g. A Vernier adjacent to the dial
breaks down these values to 0.01g increments.

The read the dial scale, read the lowest gram value adjacent to (i.e. the nearest
mark to the right of) the zero Vernier graduation. (It is 6.70g in the illustration
given above) Add to that Vernier graduation value at the Vernier line which
most closely lines up with any one of the other dial graduations. (In the
illustration above, the value is 0.04g) 6.70g + 0.04g = 6.74g.
 APPENDIX 5: BIOLOGY REQUIREMENTS

Equipment, chemicals, specimens and other materials required for the practical activities:

1. acetone
2. agar
3. aluminum foil
4. ammonia solution (concentrated and dilute)
5. balance (0.01g)
6. barium chloride
7. beaker (250 Ml)
8. Benedicts solution
9. bread
10. bromothymol blue
11. Biurets reagent (50% KOH, and 1% CuSO4)
12. burner
13. chromatography paper
14. citric acid
15. coins or cards
16. cobalt paper
17. clock/watch
18. cork to fit test tube
19. cork borer
20. copper sulphate
21. cover slips
22. cotton wool
23. disinfectant
24. dissecting board
25. dissecting kit
26. droppers
27. earthworm
28. ethanol
29. evaporating dish
30. fan
31. Fehling’s solution
32. felt pen
33. filter funnel
34. filter paper
35. flask (flat bottom) 250mL
36. flour (plain)
37. forceps (blunt end
38. formalin
39. garden soil
40. gauze mat
41. glass rod
42. glass tubing
43. glucose
44. glue
45. graph pape
46. hand lens
47. hydrochloric acid
48. hydrogen peroxide
49. ice-cream containers with lids (2 liters)
50. iodine solution
51. Indian ink
52. jars (glass)
53. jam jars
54. karyotype of human being
55. liver
56. leaves
57. lens tissue
58. light bulb
59. litmus paper
60. marking pen
61. matches
62. measuring cylinder
63. measuring tape
64. methylene blue solution
65. methylated sprit
66. microscope
67. microscope slide
68. mortar
69. mangoes (optional, for dissection)
70. nail varnish- clear
71. needle
72. onion
73. paper towel
74. phenolphthalein
75. pencil
76. pestle
77. pipette
78. petroleum ether
79. petroleum jelly
80. petri dish
81. pH paper (1/14 and narrow ranges 5-11)
82. pins (office)
83. photograph (colored)
84. playing cards
85. potassium permanganate
86. potato
87. quadrat
88. rat (for dissection)
89. razor blade
90. razor bands
91. rubber stoppers
92. ruler (A clear plastic)
93. sand
94. scalpel
95. scissors
96. seedlings (seeds)
97. silver nitrate
98. soda lime
99. soil sample
100. sodium bicarbonate
101. sodium hydroxide
102. spades (garden)
103. Spatulas

108. Spotting tiles

109. Stains

110. Stirring rod

111. Straw

112. Stand

113. String

114. Stoppers (for test tubes and flasks)

115. Sugar

116. Thermometer
117. Test tubes

118. Tissue paper

119. Tripod stand

120. Triangular block

121. Toad (optional for dissection)

122. Toothpicks

123. universal indicator paper

124. Urine sample

125. Vaseline

126. Watch glass

127. Water weed

128. Yeast.
APPENDIX 6: SEMI LOG GRAPH PAPER