Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

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Mechanism and Machine Theory

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmachtheory

Research paper

Mathematical approach to evaluate involute gear profile and

helix deviations without using special gear software
Vít Zelený a, Ivana Linkeová b,∗, Jakub Sýkora a, Pavel Skalník a
a
Czech Metrology Institute, V Botanice 4, Prague 5 15072, Czech Republic
b
Czech Technical University in Prague, Karlovo nám. 13, Prague 2 12135, Czech Republic

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The paper presents mathematical-geometrical approach to evaluate profile and helix de-
Received 2 May 2018 viations of cylindrical involute gear tooth flank without the usage of any specialised gear
Revised 30 January 2019
measurement software. The input data for the evaluation is represented by a set of Carte-
Accepted 30 January 2019
sian coordinates of surface points (points of contact between the measuring stylus and the
measured surface) measured along the profile and flank curves by CAD based tactile gear
MSC: measurement on coordinate measuring machine. This approach is based on deep study
51N20 of ISO standards dealing with gear geometry, gear measurement and gear characteristics
62J05 evaluation. Here, the development of general mathematical model of both helical and spur
involute gear tooth flank surfaces is described and geometrical properties of these surfaces
Keywords: (important for corresponding CAD model generation) are mentioned. For practical appli-
Coordinate measurement
cation, mathematical formulas for calculation of profile and helix deviations from a set of
Cylindrical gear
Profile deviation
measured points are derived. Due to the purely mathematical approach, no special gear
Helix deviation measurement software is necessary for evaluation of profile and helix deviations. The re-
Gear measurement standard quired characteristics of involute gears can be evaluated by means of any general-purpose
CAD model spreadsheet software. The presented method can be used not only in case of regular in-
volute gear profile and helix inspection but mainly in case of those gear measurement
standards that could not be measured as regular gears by commercial software because of
unusual shape and design of the standards.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Profile and helix measurement belong to the elemental measurement of gears. These measurements can be realised by
different types of measuring devices located at a fixed position, e.g. coordinate measuring machines (CMM) or traditional
mechanical gear measuring machines [1] or by portable measuring machines such as laser tracker [2] or articulated arm
CMM. To evaluate the measured data, a specialised gear measurement software has to be implemented in the measuring
device. The idea to develop a purely mathematical tool for evaluation of involute profile and helix deviations originated in
the Length department of the Czech Metrology Institute (CMI, the national metrology institute in the Czech Republic). As
the most important research organisation in the field of metrology in the Czech Republic, CMI does not want to use any
measurement software as a “black box” and always approaches the solution of metrological problems with a complete un-
derstanding of the theoretical basis. In this paper, a theoretical approach based on mathematical principles of gear geometry

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ivana.Linkeova@fs.cvut.cz (I. Linkeová).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2019.01.030
0094-114X/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 151

Fig. 1. Geometrical-mathematical approach to evaluate profile and helix deviations.

to evaluate profile and helix deviations is described. The input data is represented by a set of Cartesian coordinates of sur-
face points (points located on flank surface) measured along the profile and flank curves by CAD (Computer Aided Design)
based tactile gear measurement on CMM.
The main advantage of the method developed is that no specialised gear measurement device or expensive commercial
gear measurement software is necessary to measure a cylindrical involute gear and evaluate its profile and helix deviations.
Any general-purpose spreadsheet software can be used to evaluate the required deviations. Moreover, the method can be
applied to measure gear measurement standards of unusual shape and design that could not be measured as regular gears
by commercial software.
Individual steps of the developed approach (from the study of gear theory to the practical application) can be charac-
terised as follows, see the diagram in Fig. 1.

1. Theory of gear geometry – ISO 21771 [3] perusing in order to understand mathematical and geometrical principles of
cylindrical involute gears.
2. Mathematical model – development of a mathematical model of involute gear tooth flank surface for enabling both
conventional standardised two-dimensional section curves and superficial three-dimensional description of gear flanks
[4].
3. CAD model – study of mathematical methods of computer graphics [5,6] to create a CAD model of gear flank surfaces.
Generation of CAD model of the concrete gear to be measured in appropriate CAD system.
4. Measurement strategy – preparation of CAD based measurement strategy for gear measurement according to ISO 10064
[7] and realisation of the measurement on CMM.
152 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

Fig. 2. PTB Internal involute scanning measurement standard.

5. Profile and helix deviation and profile and helix diagram – study of ISO 1328 [8] and [9] to develop appropriate mathe-
matical and graphical tool for evaluation of profile and helix deviations from the measured data.
6. Mathematical formulas – implementation of the derived mathematical formulas and procedures in a general-purpose
spreadsheet software. Here, the whole procedure of measured data processing has been solved in Microsoft Excel using
the implemented basic mathematical functions as well as Solver add-in.
7. Evaluation of profile and helix deviations – processing the data measured on the gear and evaluation of the required
characteristics, i.e. profile and helix deviations.

The developed method was applied within the EMRP project ENG56 DriveTrain: “Traceable measurement of drive train
components for renewable energy” when solving the problem of involute profile measurement and profile deviations eval-
uation on the Internal involute scanning measurement standard [10]. The shape of the standard, developed and provided
by Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), is shown in Fig. 2. The standard contains both the internal and external
involute profiles designed as unmodified gear profiles with the same radius of the base circle.
The basic gear parameters such as the number of teeth, normal module, normal pressure angle, helix angle, face width,
tip diameter and root diameter have to be given and used as input data for the gear measuring software in the case of
regular gear measurement. However, these parameters are irrelevant in the case of Internal involute scanning measurement
standard. Thus, a theoretical approach based on mathematical principles of gear geometry described here was chosen to
solve the task in ENG56 DriveTrain project so that no specialised gear measurement software was necessary. The data along
the involute profile of the standard was obtained by CAD based measurement on CMM and evaluated by means of Microsoft
Excel.
The developed method was applied not only in the case of profile measurement on Internal involute scanning mea-
surement standard, but also in other tasks solved within ENG56 DriveTrain project such as profile and helix measurement
on External gear measurement standard (provided by PTB, see Fig. 3) and interlaboratory comparison of profile and helix
measurement of 400 mm master gear standard (provided by Design Unit Newcastle University (NCL), see Fig. 4).
The paper is organised as follows. Mathematical model of involute tooth flank surface of both helical and spur gears is
derived in Section 2. Theoretical analysis of profile and helix deviations is described in Section 3. The procedure of CAD
model generation for both helical and spur involute tooth flank surfaces is presented in Section 4. Comparison of profile
and helix deviations evaluated by the method described here with the same gear parameters obtained by the GEAR PRO
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 153

Fig. 3. PTB External gear measurement standard.

Fig. 4. NCL 400 mm master gear standard.

option for ZEISS CALYPSO (CAD based gear measurement software enabling gear metrology on CMM) is shown in Section 5.
Section 6 concludes the paper.

2. Mathematical model of involute tooth flank surface

In helical gear applications, a helix located on the base cylinder can be considered the most important geometrical
figure. Helix is a spatial curve generated by screw motion of a generating point. Screw motion is combination of revolution
about axis o of screw motion and translation along axis o. If the angle of revolution is directly proportional to the length
of translation and the distance of the generating point from the axis o is constant, the helix is called cylindrical helix.
Cylindrical helix is located on the cylinder of revolution with axis o and radius equal to the distance of the generating point
from the axis. Cylindrical helix is a curve of a constant slope, i.e. the angle formed by the tangent line to the helix and
any plane perpendicular to axis o (transverse plane) is constant. The development of the helix (flattening onto a plane) is
a directly proportional graph with revolution (measured in the length of arc) on horizontal axis and translation on vertical
axis. The slope of the graph is identical to the slope of the helix.

2.1. Involute helical tooth flank as a tangent surface of the base helix

The base helix, i.e. the helix located on the base cylinder with radius rb , is important from gear geometry point of view,
because an unmodified involute helical tooth flank is a tangent surface of the base helix [11], i.e. developable surface [12].
Note that in case of modified tooth flank (i.e. helix end relief modification, helix slope modification, helix crowning, topo-
graphical modification, triangular end relief and flank twist, see [3]), which is not considered in this paper, it is necessary to
154 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

Fig. 5. Tangent surface of helix.

Fig. 6. Development of base helix.

know exact mathematical expression of this modification and its range. After that, the theoretical flank surface is described
by a piecewise equation.
To derive mathematical model of tooth flank, consider base cylinder (axis identical to coordinate z axis, radius rb , height
equal to the lead pz ) and one thread of right hand base helix hb generated by screw motion of point B located on coordinate
x axis, B = (xB , yB , zB , 1 ) = (rb , 0, 0, 1 ) (in homogeneous coordinates), see Fig. 5.
The development of the base cylinder is the rectangle (width 2π rb , height pz ), the development of the base helix is the
diagonal of this rectangle, see Fig. 6. Direction vector b of tangent line t is given by b = (b1 , b2 , b3 , 0 ) = (0, rb , p0 , 0 ), where
p0 = pz /2π is called parameter of screw motion (translation directly proportional to the revolution about one radian).
The vector equation of tangent line t : T(v ) = (x(v ), y(v ), z(v ), 1 ) to the base helix hb passing through point B is given by

T ( v ) = ( xB + b1 v, yB + b2 v, zB + b3 v, 1 ) = ( rb , rb v, p0 v, 1 ), v ∈ R. (1)

Transformation matrix of right hand screw motion is given by

⎛ ⎞
cos u sin u 0 0
⎜− sin u cos u 0 0⎟
GR ( u ) = ⎝
0⎠
, u ∈ R, (2)
0 0 1
0 0 p0 u 1

where u is angle parameter in radians. The first three rows of matrix (2) correspond to the revolution about z axis and the
fourth row corresponds to the translation along z axis.
Tangent surface σ : S(u, v ) = (x(u, v ), y(u, v ), z(u, v ), 1 ) of right hand base helix is given by

S(u, v ) = T(v ) · GR (u ) = (rb (cos u − v sin u ), rb (sin u + v cos u ), p0 (v + u ), 1 ). (3)

There are two systems of parametric curves on the surface (3), helices and straight lines, see Fig. 5. Two parametric curves,
each of them from a different system, have a common point located on the surface, parametric coordinates of this point
correspond to the constant values of parameters u and v. Parametric u-curves are helices obtained by the substitution of
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 155

Fig. 7. Involute profile as intersection of tangent surface of the helix and coordinate plane (x, y).

Fig. 8. Involute helical surface.

constant value v = vc , vc ∈ R in (3)

S(u, vc ) = (rb (cos u − vc sin u ), rb (sin u + vc cos u ), p0 (vc + u ), 1 ).
Parametric v-curves are tangent lines to the base helix obtained by the substitution of constant value u = uc , uc ∈ R in (3)
S(uc , v ) = (rb (cos uc − v sin uc ), rb (sin uc + v cos uc ), p0 (v + uc ), 1 ).

2.2. Involute helical tooth flank as an involute helical surface

For theoretical analysis of involute helical gear profile and helix deviations it is necessary to understand that the involute
profile of flank surface is the intersection of the tangent surface of the base helix and any transverse plane perpendicular to
the z axis. The flank surface of helical gear can be generated by screw motion of the involute profile, too.
To derive mathematical model of involute profile from (3), the solution of equation z(u, v ) = zc , zc ∈ R has to be substi-
tuted in (3). Considering zc = 0, i.e. intersection of tangent surface of the helix and coordinate plane (x, y), the condition
p0 (u + v ) = 0 is met if v = −u or u = −v. Substituting v = −u in (3), the involute given by
S(u, −u ) = (rb (cos u + u sin u ), rb (sin u − u cos u ), 0, 1 ), u ∈ R (4)
is obtained, see Fig. 7 (a). Substituting u = −v in (3), the involute expressed by equation
S(−v, v ) = (rb (cos v + v sin v ), rb (− sin v + v cos v ), 0, 1 ), v∈R
is obtained, see Fig. 7 (b). In Fig. 7, the parts of involutes corresponding to the parameter range [−π /2, π /2] are drawn.
The shape of involutes obtained by both substitutions is precisely the same, only the name and orientation of parameters
is different. From geometrical point of view, it does not matter which involute is considered the generating curve of helical
surface. From mathematical point of view it is preferable to use the involute given by (4) as the generating curve e of right-
handed helical surface but in terms of parameter v, see Fig. 8. Thus, the involute e : E(v ) = (xE (v ), yE (v ), zE (v ), 1 ) is given
by
E(v ) = (rb (cos v + v sin v ), rb (sin v − v cos v ), 0, 1 ), v≥0 (5)
156 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

see Fig. 8. The right hand helical tooth flank σE : SE (u, v ) = E(v ) · GR (u ) generated by screw motion of involute e can be
expressed as

SE (u, v ) = (xE (v ) cos u − yE (v ) sin u, xE (v ) sin u + yE (v ) cos u, p0 u, 1 ). (6)

The shape of both surfaces σ and σ E given by (3) and (6) is precisely the same, the mathematical description (6) is much
more complicated than (3). Parametric u-curves of σ E are helices obtained by substitution of constant value v = vc , vc ∈ R
in (6)

SE (u, vc ) = (xE (vc ) cos u − yE (vc ) sin u, xE (vc ) sin u + yE (vc ) cos u, p0 u, 1 ),
parametric v-curves are involutes obtained by substitution of constant value u = uc , uc ∈ R in (3)

SE (uc , v ) = (xE (v ) cos uc − yE (v ) sin uc , xE (v ) sin uc + yE (v ) cos uc , p0 uc , 1 ). (7)

Involute (7) represents the involute (5) lying in plane z = p0 uc , i.e. revolved by angle uc .
Note that the shape of involute depends only on the radius of the base circle, not on parameter of screw motion p0 , and,
consequently, not on the given helix angle β .
Helices are intersection curves of both tangent surface of the base helix σ given by (3) (or involute helical surface σ E
given by (6)) and cylinder with radius r ≥ rb . Considering a real helical gear, the tooth flank is a part of surface σ or σ E
limited by the root and tip cylinders and two transverse planes z = 0 and z = b.
Mathematical model of left hand helical tooth flank is derived similarly, only transformation matrix for left hand screw
motion given by
⎛ ⎞
cos u − sin u 0 0
⎜ sin u cos u 0 0⎟
GL ( u ) = ⎝
0⎠
, u ∈ R,
0 0 1
0 0 p0 u 1
has to be used instead of (2).

2.3. Involute spur tooth flank as a ruled surface

Surface of involute spur tooth flank σ S : SS (u, v) is generated by translation of involute e given by (5) along a straight line
kz

SS (u, v ) = (rb (cos v + v sin v ), rb (sin v − v cos v ), u, 1 ),

see Fig. 9. Parametric u-curves are straight lines parallel with z axis, parametric v-curves are involutes (5) lying in transverse
planes. Considering a real spur gear, the tooth flank is a part of surface σ S limited by the root and tip cylinders and two
transverse planes z = 0 and z = b.

3. Theoretical analysis of profile and helix deviations

Profile deviation is the difference between a measured profile and the theoretical involute profile, helix deviation is the
difference between a measured flank curve and the theoretical flank curve. According to ISO 1328-1, both deviations are
evaluated in transverse plane in the tangent direction to the base cylinder. Provided the gear alignment on the CMM is
given, the transverse plane is perpendicular to the axis of the gear (defined by the axis of the hole or shaft of the gear).
In case of freeform measurement on CMM when Cartesian coordinates of actual points Mi = (xMi , yMi , zMi ), i = 1, . . . , n
along the involute profile or flank curve are measured, the position of individual transverse planes is given by zMi , i =
1, . . . , n. Intersections of these planes and base cylinder are base circles cMi , i = 1, . . . , n. Situation for one actual point M =
(xM , yM , zM ) measured on helical tooth flank σ is depicted in Fig. 10. Tangent line to the base circle cM passing through
point M touches the circle cM and point T. Tangent line MT intersects tooth flank surface σ at point A through which two
parametric curves of surface σ pass – the theoretical involute eM and the theoretical helix hM . Consequently, the distance
d(M, A) represents the profile as well as the helix deviation at point M. Calculation of the distance d(M, A) always leads to
a planar problem in the corresponding transverse plane z = zM , see Fig. 11(a).
In the following, the derivation of the distance d(M, A) is given only for spur gear. In the case of spur gear, all calculations
are related to the involute E(v) in the basic position given by (5) located in transverse plane z = zM . In case of helical gear,
it is necessary to relate all calculations to the involute (7) located in transverse plane z = zM , where the angle of revolution
uc is given by
zM
uc = . (8)
p0
To determine the profile or helix deviation as the distance of points M and A, it is necessary to know x and y coordinates
of both points (z coordinates of all figures equal to zM are omitted). Coordinates of actual point M are measured, coordinates
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 157

Fig. 9. Ruled involute surface.

Fig. 10. Theoretical analysis of profile and helix deviations (3D situation).

(xA , yA ) of nominal point A on the theoretical involute are calculated in the following way. Solving the set of equations

x2 + y2 = rb2
xM x + yM y = rb2 ,

where the first equation expresses the base circle c in canonical form and the second its tangent line passing through point
M, two points of contact T = (xT , yT ) and D = (xD , yD ) are obtained, see Fig. 11 (a)

rb2 − yM yT rb2 yM + rb xM x2M + y2M − rb2
T= , ,
xM x2M + y2M
158 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

Fig. 11. Theoretical analysis of profile and helix deviations (2D situation in transverse plane).


rb2 − yM yT rb2 yM − rb xM x2M + y2M − rb2
D= , .
xM x2M + y2M

Considering the vector equation of the base circle c : C(v ) = (xC (v ), yC (v ))

C(v ) = (rb cos v, rb sin v ),
it is possible to calculate parameter values v = vT and v = vD of points T and D
xT
yT ≤ 0 ⇒ vT = arccos ,
rb
xT
yT > 0 ⇒ vT = 2π − arccos . (9)
rb
and
xD
yD ≤ 0 ⇒ vD = arccos ,
rb
xD
yD > 0 ⇒ vD = 2π − arccos .
rb
Parameter values vT and vD determine the position of points A and A on the theoretical involute, see Fig. 11 (b). Consid-
ering the parameter orientation along the involute, the unknown nominal point on the theoretical involute is given by the
smaller parameter value, i.e. vT in this case.
In case of spur gear, the coordinates of nominal point A are obtained by substitution (9) in (5) and in the case of helical
gear by substitution (9) in (7).
The set of coordinates of n surface points Mi = (xMi , yMi ), i = 1, . . . , n is obtained by tactile coordinate measurement
along the profile curve. The normal distances of all the measured points from the theoretical involute are calculated by

d ( Mi , Ai ) = (xMi − xAi )2 + (yMi − yAi )2 , i = 1, . . . , n. (10)

In the gear measurement specification, the profile evaluation range Lα = [Lα Start , Lα End ] is given. Lα refers to the length
of roll, i.e. to the distance of points M and T in Fig. 11. Therefore, the distances

d ( Mi , Ti ) = x2M + y2M − rb2 , i = 1, . . . , n

i i
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 159

Fig. 12. Profile deviation diagram.

Fig. 13. Helix deviation diagram.

are calculated and for further evaluation points Mi fulfilling the condition
d ( Mi , Ti ) ∈ Lα
are considered.
Note that in case the CMM is equipped with a rotary table and points along profiles of all teeth are measured, transverse
pitch deviation (the difference between the theoretical position and the actual position of each tooth) can be determined as
the difference between the theoretical and actual length of the reference circle arc between two successive equal-handed
tooth flanks.

3.1. Profile and helix diagram

Total profile deviation Fα , profile form deviation ffα and profile slope deviation fHα defined in ISO 1328-1 are evaluated
from profile deviation diagram, see example in Fig. 12. The length of roll is measured along the horizontal x axis, the
deviations given by (10) are measured along the vertical axis. The theoretical unmodified profile is depicted as straight line
y = 0. Total helix deviation Fβ , helix form deviation ffβ and helix slope deviation fHβ defined in ISO 1328-1 are evaluated
from helix deviation diagram, see example in Fig. 13. The width is measured along the horizontal axis, the deviation given
by (10) is measured along the vertical axis. The theoretical helix is depicted as straight line y = 0.
160 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

Algebraic sign of deviations (10) is given by the following rule: excess material on the profile is considered a plus devia-
tion, while insufficient material is considered a minus deviation [7].
Evaluation of profile deviations from the diagram Fig. 12 is described first. Let
Pi = (xPi , yPi ) = (d (Ai , Ti ), d (Mi , Ai )), i = 1, . . . , n
be data points in the profile deviation diagram. Then, total profile deviation Fα is defined as the distance between two lines
y = yPmax and y = yPmin parallel to the theoretical profile y = 0 enclosing the measured profile over the profile evaluation
range Lα , i.e.
Fα = |yPmax − yPmin |. (11)
Profile form deviation ffα is defined as the distance between two lines m and m  parallel to the mean profile line m
enclosing the measured profile over the profile evaluation range Lα . The mean profile line is a line fitted by least squares
methods (LSM) through a set of points. Here, the mean profile m determined by point N = (xN , yN ) and direction vector
s = (s1 , s2 ) can be expressed by slope equation
s2 s2 xN
y= x + yN − . (12)
s1 s1
Coordinates of point N as well as coordinates of direction vector s are determined by LSM condition, i.e.
n
d2 (Pi , m ) → min,
i=1

where the oriented perpendicular distance d(Pi , m) of data point Pi form the mean profile line m is calculated by
s1 ( yPi − yN ) − s2 ( xPi − xN )
d ( Pi , m ) = .
s21 + s22
The distance d(Pi , m) is positive for yPi > y and negative for yPi < y, where y is calculated by (12).
To determine the profile form deviation, it is necessary to find point P+ = (x+ P
, y+
P
) at maximum and point P− = (x−
P
, y−
P
)
at minimum oriented distance from mean profile line m (these points are black filled in Fig. 12). Equations of lines m and
m  passing through P+ and P− and enclosing the measured profile are
s2 s2 +
y= x + y+
P − x
s1 s1 P
and
s2 s2 −
y= x + y−
P − x .
s1 s1 P
Then, the profile form deviation is given by
s2 +
f f α = y+ −
P − yP − (x − x−P ) . (13)
s1 P
Profile slope deviation fHα is defined as the distance between two lines parallel to the theoretical profile y = 0 which
intersect the extrapolated mean profile line m at the profile control diameter corresponding to the Lα Start and at the tip
diameter da corresponding to the length of roll La = ra2 − rb2 . Profile slope deviation fHα is calculated by

s2
fH α = (La − Lα Start ) . (14)
s1
Algebraic sign of profile form and profile slope deviations is positive when the mean profile line rises towards the tooth-
tip end of the diagram, otherwise it is negative.
Evaluation of helix deviations from the diagram is similar, see example in Fig. 13. The only difference is the usage of
width, i.e. dimension in axial direction, instead of length of roll. Considering the diagram in Fig. 13, the total helix deviation
and helix form deviation are defined in the same way as total profile deviation and profile form deviation, respectively. The
helix slope deviation is defined as the distance between two lines parallel to the theoretical helix y = 0 which intersect the
extrapolated mean helix line m at the end points of the face width, i.e. at x = 0 and x = b. Thus, the final formulas for total
helix deviation, helix form deviation and helix slope deviation are
Fβ = |yPmax − yPmin |, (15)

s2 +
f f β = y+ −
P − yP − (x − x−P ) , (16)
s1 P

s2
fHβ = b (17)
s1
in the given order.
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 161

Table 1
External gear parameters.

Number of teeth z 24
Normal module mn 3.75 mm
Pressure angle α n 20°
Helix angle β 20° right-handed
Base diameter db 89.311 mm
Reference diameter d 95.776 mm
Face width b 50 mm

Table 2
External gear measurement specification.

Profile measurement
Position of control along face width −25 mm
Start control diameter/length of roll Lα Start 90.716 mm/7.953 mm
End control diameter/length of roll Lα End 102.718 mm/25.370 mm
Probing ball diameter 1 mm

Helix measurement
Control diameter 95.78 mm
Start evaluation width Lβ Start −2.5 mm
End evaluation width Lβ End −47.5 mm
Probing ball diameter 1 mm

Table 3
Profile deviations – comparison.

Left flank Left flank Right flank Right flank

ZEISS GEAR PRO Calculation ZEISS GEAR PRO Calculation
μm μm μm μm

Fα 11.8 11.812540 11.9 11.865955

ffα 12.1 12.084668 12.1 12.082842
fHα −1.3 −1.290167 0.3 0.317277

Table 4
Helix deviations – comparison.

Left flank Left flank Right flank Right flank

ZEISS GEAR PRO Calculation ZEISS GEAR PRO Calculation
μm μm μm μm

Fβ 12.3 12.252464 14.4 14.413

ffβ 12.0 11.999682 14.3 14.349575
fHβ 0.7 0.694765 −0.1 −0.092355

4. CAD model of involute tooth flank

Three-dimensional surface model (CAD model) of the measured gear flank is required for complete and precise perfor-
mance of a gear measurement by CMM [13]. CAD model of a gear flank can be obtained as a result of three-dimensional
machining simulation [14,15] or it can be generated by sweeping the profile curve (involute) along the specified trajectory
(helix in case of helical gear and straight line in case of spur gear). In CAD systems, NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline)
representation of all modelled objects is commonly used [5]. Helix and involute are transcendental curves with no polyno-
mial or rational parameterisation. Therefore, it is impossible to create their CAD models exactly and suitable approximation
has to be used. Helix drawing, although always approximated, belongs to the common commands in CAD systems. Involute
curve drawing does not belong to the common possibilities of CAD systems. To design an involute tooth profile, the involute
is usually represented by a polynomial curve. For example, involute profile represented by a spline curve interpolating six
exactly calculated points is used in [15]. A B-spline interpolation curve passing through exact points with first and second
derivative constrains is described in [16]. Approximation of involute profile by Chebyshev approximation formula and Bézier
curve is suggested in [17]. Command enabling to draw an involute curve according to Eq. (5) is used in [18]. This command
actually generates a spline by numerical calculation from parametric equations.
In this paper, 3D modeller Rhinoceros was used to create CAD models of all tooth flanks of the above mentioned gear
standards. The method of sweeping the profile curve along the helix was chosen. The helix was created by “Helix” command.
The accuracy of helix approximation as well as the accuracy of the whole CAD model was controlled by setting program
162 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

Fig. 14. CAD models of spur and helical flank tooth surfaces.

Fig. 15. Comparison of profile deviation diagrams – a part of measurement protocol from GEAR PRO (left) and calculated diagram (right).

tolerances (the deviation of all parts of CAD model from the theoretical shapes was checked to be less than 1 · 10−5 mm).
Several examples of the resulted CAD models of helical and spur tooth spaces and flanks are shown in Fig. 14.
Helical surface can be created by “RailRevolve” command when the generating curve is moved around the helix so that
the position of the generating curve with respect to the helix is preserved. A straight line is possible to model exactly,
therefore the tangent line to the base helix was used as generating curve to obtain helical flanks surface according to
Fig. 5. To get CAD model as accurate as possible, the tangent line was drawn exactly as the straight line given by (1), i.e.
passing through point B with direction vector b, instead of drawing the tangent line of the helix by means of “Tangent line”
command. Tangent surfaces of base helices of all helical tooth flanks were created and trimmed by base and tip cylinders
and by two transverse planes at the distance equal to the face width.
Note that CAD model of helical tooth flank based on tangent surface of the base helix given by (3) does not require CAD
model of involute curve (the generating curve is a straight line). Therefore, such a CAD model of helical tooth flank is more
accurate approximation than CAD model based on involute curve sweeping along a helix.
As the CAD model of helical tooth flank is finished, it is very easy to obtain involute profile by intersection of the tooth
surface and transverse plane. After that, involute spur flank can be modelled as a ruled surface. There are more ways to
model involute ruled surface in Rhinoceros. Here, the surface was created by extrusion of involute profile along the straight
line parallel with axis of the base cylinder. Note that any involute profile obtained by previous helical tooth flank modelling,
 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164 163

Fig. 16. Comparison of helix deviation diagrams – a part of measurement protocol from GEAR PRO (left) and calculated diagram (right).

i.e. the intersection of tangent surface of the base helix and transverse plane, can be used as the profile curve for involute
spur flank modelling.
CAD models of all the above mentioned measurement standards generated according to this procedure were considered
the reference object in coordinate CAD-based measurement of profiles and helices. All the measured data was processed
and the profile and helix deviations were evaluated according to the formulas (11), (13), (14), (15), (16) and (17) previously
derived.

5. Experimental results comparison

The above described procedure to evaluate profile and helix deviations was applied on experimental data and the results
were compared with the results of GEAR PRO for ZEISS CALYPSO software implemented in ZEISS XENOS coordinate mea-
suring machine. To eliminate the influence of CMM measurement uncertainty on the values of profile and helix deviations,
the experimental data was not obtained by measuring a physical gear but by simulating the measurement of a virtual gear.
The parameters of the virtual external cylindrical involute gear are given in Table 1, the specification of profile and helix
measurement is given in Table 2.
To simulate the measurement, points along the theoretical profile and helix were generated with a random error ± 10 μm
virtually measured by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) tactile scanning. 694 surface points along left and right profiles
were measured by three-axis CNC tactile scanning and 1068 points along left and right helices were measured by four-axis
CNC tactile scanning. The term “surface point” means the point of contact between the stylus and the measured surface.
Surface points are not related to the centre of the stylus. Database, mathematical and graphical capabilities as well as tools
of numerical analysis of Microsoft Excel were used to process measured data, create profile and helix deviation diagrams
and evaluate profile and helix deviations according to the previously derived formulas.
When comparing the shape of profile diagrams in Fig. 15, where the diagram obtained by GEAR PRO is drawn to the left
and the diagram created in Microsoft Excel to the right (the orientation of the diagrams is in accordance with the orientation
in the measurement protocol), it can be said that both methods lead to the same results. This is also demonstrated in
Table 3, where the numerical values of profile deviations obtained by GEAR PRO software and the calculated ones are given.
The same conclusion follows from the helix diagrams comparison shown in Fig. 16 and numerical values of helix deviations
164 V. Zelený, I. Linkeová and J. Sýkora et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 135 (2019) 150–164

given in Table 4. Possible differences in results may be caused by the numerical method used to calculate the mean profile
or helix line. The reliability and repeatability of the measurement is given by properties of the CMM used.

6. Conclusion

The main goal of the mathematical approach described in this paper was to evaluate involute gear profile and helix de-
viations from the measured data without using any specialised gear measurement software. Measured data was obtained by
coordinate CAD based measurement of an involute gear on coordinate measuring machine. Surface points along profile and
flank curves located on a flank tooth surface were measured by spherical probe in normal direction to the surface derived
from the nominal CAD model of the measured surface. CAD model generation was based on mathematical description and
application of geometrical properties of all important parts of the involute gear. The method for calculation of profile and
helix deviations was developed in accordance with the geometrical and mathematical principles given in ISO standards. Due
to this purely mathematical approach, no special gear measurement software is necessary and the required characteristics of
involute gears can be evaluated by means of any general-purpose spreadsheet software. The whole procedure described in
this paper was solved in Microsoft Excel using the implemented basic mathematical functions as well as the Solver add-in.
The presented approach to evaluate profile and helix deviations from a set of points obtained by coordinate measurement of
gear on coordinate measuring machine was tested in CMI on profile and helix measurement of three standards – PTB Inter-
nal involute scanning measurement standard [10], PTB External gear measurement standard and NCL 400 mm master gear
standard within the ENG56 DriveTrain EMRP project. In the paper, the comparison of profile and helix deviations evaluated
by the method described here with the deviations obtained by the GEAR PRO option for ZEISS CALYPSO is presented, too.

Acknowledgement

This research is undertaken within the European Metrology Research Programme (EMRP) project ENG56 DriveTrain. The
EMRP is jointly funded by the EMRP participating countries within EURAMET and the European Union. The CMI participation
in the project is co-funded by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic 7AX15004.

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2nd International Conference on Industrial Engineering (ICIE-2016)