S t e fan M arin O V

A XI O M A T I C S F U N D A M ENT A L S
,

A N D E XP E R I M ENTA L

VE R I F I CA T I O N S O F TH E A B S O L U TE

S PA C E T I M E T H E OR !
-
 S t e fan M a ri n O V

A X I O M A T I C S F U N D A M ENT A L S
,

AN D E XP E R I M EN TA L

V E R I F I C A T I O N S O F TH E A B S O L U TE

S PA C E T I M E T H E O R !
-
 P u b l is h e d in A u s t ria
by
s
I nte rna t io nal P u b l i h e r s ! E a s t -W es t «

s
I nt e rnat io na l P u b l i h er s ! E as t -We s t «
Marino v

F irs t p u b l ish e d in 197 7 by C B D S . . . B ru x e l l e s

S ec o nd ed it io n, 1 98 1 .

Th ird ed it io n , 198 7

A d d re sse s of t h e I nt erna t io nal P u b l i h e r s s A ffil ia tes

A U STR I A Mo rre ll e nfel d g asse 80 10 G raz .

B U LG A R I A uI . E l in P e lin 22 , 1 4 2 1 S o fia Te l . .
( 02 )
I TA L! v ia P u g g ia 4 7 , 16 1 3 1 Ge no v a . Te l . ( 0 1 0)

D R U C K : R M- D R U C K G RA Z , A U STR I A
 F O RE WO RD

SO many articles and so many experimental efforts in the last I OO years

have been dedicated to the problem of determi i ng absolute space that it n

seems almost senseless to co tinue spe ding time and money searching f a
n n or

poss i ble refutat i on f the principle of relativity This principle fi rst f m

o .
, or u

lated by Galile i has obtai ed such a fi rm exper i mental con fi rmatio that any
,
n n

researcher who i n t he fourt h quarter n the 20 t h centu ry strains to refute it

,
-
o ,

ressembles ve y much the seeker of a p p t m m bi l

r er e uu o e .

Thus n opening the bo ok of S tefan M in one i s highly shocked

, o
‘ '

ar ov , .

One reads the fi rst theoretical part w i th the due distrust with w hich one reads
anything that contradict well establ i shed d broadly accepted theories
s -
an .

One then reads the second e xperimental part with the same distrust p , ex ec

t ing easily to discover flaws i n exper i men ts wh i ch aim t d isprove those o

theories However on reading the book to the end one begins to realize that
.
, ,

the experi ment l foundation of the general ( E instein ) principle of relativity is

a

f from be i ng so fi rm and i nd i sputable as is generally accepted I would like

ar .

to po i nt out the called rotating disk experi ment performed for the fi rst
so - ,

ti me some 60 years ago where fi rst order i n W effects were easily measured
,
-
e .

One can doubt whether M in coupled m i rrors experiment is

ar ov s
’
-

carr i ed t w e ll and whether th e e ffects wh ich he claims to have registered

ou

are not due to outs i de causes However the link M in shows bet w een the
.
, ar ov

« rotating disk experi ment and his coupled mirrors ( coupled « -

or

shutters e xperi ment is so clear and indisputable that one is impelled to

l g i l ly accept h i s resul ts The di fferent variants of the rotating disk and
o ca .

mov i ng platform experimen ts which he has performed g i ve further evi

dence f accepting his absolute space t ime conceptions as adequate to
or -

phys i cal reality .

I f the exper i mental results reported by M in are confirmed by other ar ov

experi menters then the special theory of relativity will de fi nitely have to be
,

rej e cted as not adequate to phys i cal reality although as can be seen from the , ,

fi st part f th i s book the changes which have to be introduced i nto high

r o ,

veloc i ty phys i cs are not t be rad i cal as some f E instein s adversaries have
o so o
’

cla i med and persis t t claim Th Lorentz transformation ( although treated

o . e

from an absolut e po i nt of view ) and the 4 dimensional formalism f Min -

o

k w k i will remain an i mportant mathematical apparatus in the hands O f the

o s

th e oreticians .
 Nevertheless the return to Newto ian absolute space time conceptions
,
n -

will be n O f the most importa t phys i cs events in the second h l f f t h 20 t h

o e n
-
a o e

century showing how simple d at the same time ho w perfi dious Nature is
,
an , ,
.

The work f M in brings many hopes that n day the qua tum
o ar ov o e n

e igma will be explained in a s i milar simple and Newto ian man er

n a n n .

M c w Ap il 197 7
os o ,
r A D S akhar v . . o

When liv i n g i n B ul g aria ( be fore S e p temb e r I fre q uen t l y t r i ed

but i n vain t o establ i sh a wr itt en contact w i th A cad A D S akharov and t o . . .

send h i m E P P U R S l M U O VE v i a man y chann e ls A t he book had to p . s a

p ar I wrote the above foreword and g ave i t t o a gi rl fr ie nd

e f mine a o
-
, ,

well kno w n p h ys i c i st and a Jewess s ti ll l i v i n g b h i nd t he curtain who p t

-
e , , u

ti n g her sc i en t ifi c career a t r i sk d ec i ded t o v i sit S akharov i n Moscow Her

, .

oral messa ge (Jul y 1977) was that S akharov i s h ig hl y s y m p ath eti c w i h my

theory and w i ll t hink abou t th e ma tt er of t he foreword A I could no t
‘

. s te

i
ce v e h i s final consen t I p ubl i shed t h e book w it h t h e dra ft p reface Later
, .

A cad S akharov d i stanced from m y t heor y ( see t he whole sto y narrat ed in

. r

detail i n N A T U R E 27 1 2 96 and 27 2 200 , , S akharov has gi v e n onl y ,

verbal o p i n i ons n my theory wh i ch are h ig hl y contrad i c t ory ( as re p ort e d

o

v i a the p ress or commun i cated to me) A fter t he p n f E P PU R S I . a ea ra ce o

M U O VE at g rea t p e rsonal r i sk I v i si te d S akharov i n M oscow fl y i n g from

, ,

B russels ( Februar y l 97 8) He sa i d me t h e follow i n g Th e p roblems ra i sed

. :

b y m y t heor y and t he conclus i ons t o wh i ch i t l e ads ar e so cruc i al and im

p or t ant f p h y s i cs tha t he does no t dare t o tak e a stand p o i n t On th e
or -
.

o t her hand he has no time t o s t ud y t h e theory and t o anal ys e t h e p i

,
ex er

ments i n deta i l as he i s ded i cat i n g l l h i s ti m e to soc i al and moral ac ti v iti es

, a .

I think that a wr i tten statemen t by S akharov ( p os iti v e neg at i ve) on or

m y t heor y ( now when he has more t i me for sc i en ti fi c work i n Gor k i ) will

’

be dec i s i ve for the s p eed y res t orat i on of absolut e s p ace A bsolu t e s p ac e .

t ime has alread y ob t a i ned such a fi rm ex p er i mental con firma ti on that for
i ts acce p tance one needs one t h i n g onl y an o p en and wide d i scussion For : .

this reason l or g anize on the 8— l l Jul y l 982 i n Genoa t h e In t erna ti onal

Conference on S p ace Time A bsolu t eness ( l CS TA ) wh i ch was p roh i b i ted by
-

t he B ul g ar i an g overnmen t i n 197 7 I i nv i te t he s p ac e t i m e s p cial i sts l l .

-
e a

over t he w orld to p ublish p a p ers before the con ference and t o p art i c i p a t e at
t he conference where absolute freedom will be gi ve n t o ny stand p o i nt
, a -
.

Two Nobel p rize winners P ro f Wi g ner and P rof S alam have alread y
- -
, . .
,

w ritten me abou t their i teres t t o v i sit t he conference I f I CS TA I 9SZ will

n .
-

be re p resentative then the G R l o Conference i n Ven i ce (Jul y 1983) wi ll

,
-

meet on a fi rm and stable absolu t e g round and the two l d r i vals Genoa ,
o ,

an d Venice will concur for the p ros p ect f sc i ence

, o .

Gr z S p t m b r 198 ]
a , e e e S M in . ar ov

4
 CONT E NT S

PA R TI TH E O R ET I C A L
Introduction
A x i omatics
2 l A xioms for space time
. . d e ergy , an n

A xioms for the different types f energy o

A xiom for the co servatio f e ergy n n o n

High velocity axiom

Coordi ate tra sformations
n n

3 l The Galilean transformation

. .

The Lorentz tra sformation n

The M in transformation ar ov

Group properties f the M in transformation o ar ov

Elements f motion O

4 l V elocity
. .

A cceleration
S uper acceleration -

Time energy
5 l The non relativistic consideration
. .
-

The relativistic consideration

The Lagrange equations
6 l The n n relativ i stic cons i deratio
. . o -
n

The relativistic c nsideration o

Fundamental equations in electromag etism n

7 l The Newton Lorentz equation

. .
-

The connection between densities and potentials

The Max w ell Lorentz equations -

F nd m nt l equations in g
u a e a im g t i m ra v a re s

The Newton M in equation -

ar ov

The Maxwell M i n equations -

ar ov

R educed charges and masses

Particles and waves

Frequency and wavelength shifts f light o

l 0 l K i nematic shi ft ( the D oppler effect )

. .

l o2 D ynamic sh i ft ( the E i nste i n e ffect )

. . 62
Time d ilatio n

l l l K i ematic ( Lorentz) time dilation

. . n

I D y amic ( E instein ) time dilation

n

Cosmological aspects f light kinematics o

l 2 l The physical essence of rest energy

. .

l 2 2 The physical essence f cosmological red shift

. . o

Propagation f ligh t in a medium

o

l 3 l D rag
. .

l 3 2 R efraction
. .

Collision between photons and particles

R elation be t ween refract i ve i ndex and density

PA R T II EX PE R I MENTA L
Introduction
The quas i R m m experiment
-
er

The quasi B radley experi men t

-

The quasi D oppler experi ment

-

The quasi F i zeau coupled shutters experiment

- -

The quasi Foucaul t oupled m i rrors experi ment

-
c -

l 9 l The dev i at i ve
. . oupled m irrors exper i ment
a c -

l 9 2 The interferometric coupled mirrors experi ment

. .
-

The accelerated coupled m i rrors exper i ment -

The ultrason i c coupled shutt e rs experiment -

The k i nematic time dila t ion exper i ment s

The R oss i Hall meson exper i ment

-

The Hafele K eat i ng clocks round the world J p i

- - - -
ex er

ment
The an t ipodal clocks exper i ment -

The water tube experi ment -

The drag aberration expe i ment r

The H rotat i ng disk experiment

a rre ss

25 l The Ha ress M i n
. . t experiment
-
ar ov

The H F i zeau experimen t

a rres s -

The H S gn experiment
a rress - a ac

The H Pogany experi ment

a rre ss -

Practical perfo mance f the H r M in and o a rr e s s - ar ov

H Fizeau experi ments

a rre s s -
§ 26 . The disrupted rotating disk experiment to

§ 27 . The coupled shutters n a rotati g d isk experiment

-
o n

§ 28 . The Zeeman moving platform experiment

The Zeeman F i zeau experiment -

T h Zeeman M i n
e experiment-
ar ov

The Zeeman Pogany experiment -

The Zeema S g experime t n- a nac n

The n n inertial movi g platform experime t

o -
n n

§ 29 . The second order effects in the rotati g disk experiment

-
n

2 9 l The Ha ress M in
. . t experiment-
ar ov

The H S gn experiment
a rres s - a ac

The H Fizeau experiment

a rress -

The H Pogany experiment

arre s s -

Connection w ith kinematic time dilation

§ 30 . The light D oppler effect experime ts -
n

The Ives S tilwell longitudinal ca al ray experiment

-
n

The transverse n l ray experiment ca a

The Hay rotor experiment

The rotor rotor experiment -

The S antos experim e nt

§3 I . The quas i Wiener stand i ng waves experiment
-

§ 32 . The coherent lasers experiment

3 2 l The i ertial coherent lasers experiment
. . n

The coherent lasers n a rotating disk experiment o

The connection between the coherent lasers and light

D oppler e ffect exp eriments
-

§ 33 . The w i red photocells experiment

33 l The in e rtial wired photocells experiment
. .

The aether wind effect

The e ffect f relativistic distribution in the radiation
o

The w i red photocells on a rotating disk experiment

§ 34 . The cauldron experi ment
§ 35 . The T t n Noble experi ment
ro u o -

§ 36 . The synchrotron experiment

R e fe r e n c e s | 85
 §r . INT R O D U CTION
In l 973 we completed the writing of our e cyclopaedic w ork Classical n or

Physics ( l 500 typed pages in E nglish ) consisting of fi ve parts ,

I Mathematical apparatus
. .

II Non relat i vistic mechanic

.
-
s .

III R elat i v i stic mechanics

. .

IV . G rav i m a gre t is m .

V Electromagnetism
. .

In this work theoretical class i cal ( non quantum and non statistical ) - -

physics f undergraduates is expounded deali g with sim ilar subject matter

or , n

as in Land au and Lifshitz ( l 969 and i ncluding celestial mecha ics as , n

in y D anby ( l 962 ) In contrad i stinction to l l conve tional courses f

, sa , . a n o

theoretical physics we expound classical physics proceeding from N w t

, e o

nian absolute space time conceptions We take only three physical quantities
-
.

pac t im
s n r gy as unde fi ned notions and ten axioms ( presented in
e, e, e e

§ 2 of th i s book ) unproved assert i ons A ll other conclusions and formulas

as .

are obtained i n a mathematically logical way making use exclusively f the , o

mathematical apparatus g i ven in part one so that any student can read our ,

Classical Phys i cs without encounter i ng a single di ffi culty of mathematical

or logical character .

In the summer of 1973 we carried out the coupled m irrors p i -

ex er

ment ( M in l 974 h ) with whose help we registered the E arth s motion

ar ov ,
’

with respect to absolute space performing the measurement in a laboratory , ,

and thus we gave the fi rst exper i mental refutation f the p i ipl f relati o r nc e o

v i ty However the accuracy f th i s fi rst performance in the

.
, called de o so -

i ti
v a variant was too low and the scienti fi c community remained high ly
ve ,

sceptical [ see f example H d t , or , o re

Two years later we car ied t for a second t i me the coupled mirrors r ou -

exper i ment n a higher technological l l in it

o called interferometric ev e s so -

var i ant ( M in l 97 8 ) and we measured the Earth s absolute velocity w i th

ar ov , c
’

such an accuracy that no doubts can further remain about the i nvalidity f o

the p i nciple of relativity The coupled mirrors experiment and many

r .
-
,

others carr i ed out or proposed by which prov e the existence of absolute us,

space time (considered in Part II of this book )

-
w ell as all i mportant , as

high velocity exper i ment carr i ed t in the last I OOyears are described and
-
s ou ,

analysed in part three O f Classical Physics or

W e defend an aether type model f light propagation i we assume -

o , . e .
,

that light propagates with a constant veloc i ty along any direction i n absolute
IO
space However the aether i s not some medium at rest i absolute pace
.
,
or n s

in which light propagates like sound in the air We fi rmly defe d the . n

corpuscular ( Newton ) model f l igh t rejecting the w ave ( H uyghen Fre el ) o , s- sn

model that we call our model for light propagation aether Ne w to ian
, so -
n

W ithin effects f fi rst order i W ( the ab olute velocity f the O bject

o n e v s o

considered the velocity of light in absolute space ) all physical d light

, c an

propagation phenomena can be rightly described by the traditional mathe

m t i l apparatus and thus within this accuracy the Galilean transforma
a ca , ,

tion i adequate to phys i cal reality We call this mathematical approach

s .

no n r lat ivistic
-
e .

The n l t i i t mathematical apparatus w ro gly describes the ef

no -
re a v s sc n

f t
ec s O f second ( and higher ) order in W The c lled relativistic mathe C . so - a

m t i l apparatus based n the Lorentz transformatio ( d

a ca o it com pa n an on s

nion which is called by us the M i transformatio ) as well n the a r no v n , as o

4 dimensional mathematical formalism O f M i ko w ski rightly describes the

-
n ,

e ffects f any order i / However the Lorentz transformation and the

O n v c .
,

4 dimensional mathematical approach f M inkowsk i m ust be treated from

-
O

an absolute point f view is do e in absolute space time theory (

o , as n ou r -
see

l f t h y are treated and manipulated from a relativistic poi t f vie w

e n o ,

as i s done in the E instein approach to the theory f relativity the results o , n

inadequate in regard to physical reality are O btai ed The errors to w hich the n .

theo y f relativity leads are within effects O f fi rst order in /

r o v c .

In ma y articles which are reviewed in Part l l f the present book we

n o ,

analyse several experiments for which the relativity theory leads to false
resul ts and we sho w w hy in ma y experiments the complex O f absolute n

e ffects which arise cannot be O bservationally detected that their apparent , so

results can be correctly described by the relativistic mathematical apparatus .

We shall also call high velocity physics r lat ivist ic ( in contradisti ction
-
e n

to lo w velocity physics which will be called

-
r lativistic ) but w e preserve no n- e ,

these terms only f histori cal reasons express i g i n th is way high esteem
or , n ou r

f
or the great deeds f Einstein and his followers even though w e establish
o ,

exper i mentally and logically that their basic co cepts are not adequate to n

physical reality .

§2 . XIO M AT I CS
A

A XIO MS FO R S PA CE TI ME A N D EN ER GY ,

The fundamental unde fi ned notions in physics are

a ) space ,

b ) time ,

c ) energy ( matter ) .
 Let us note that we co sider the notions matter d material
n an

system as synonyms w ith the notions energy and e ergy system n

A ima g O f a given material system i

n e
y totality f i m p i t ( symbols ) s an O r n s

w ith w hose help if cor esponding possibilities and abilities are at

, r dispo our

sa l we can construct a other system i de tical with the given n W call t w

, n n o e . e o

material systems id t ical if their influence n sense organs ( directly or

en o our -
,

by means f other material systems ) is the same W call t w o images f a

o . e o

given material system q u ival nt if with their help identical systems can be
e e

co structed A n image is a d q uat t ph ys ical r al it y if the i flue ce f the

n . e e o e n n o

given material system n our sense organs w hich w e pred ict as proceedi g
o -
, n

from this image is the same the actual i fluence displayed by the system
, as n

considered .

A material system i s called i l t d i f i t images are i depe dent O f the so a e s n n

existence f other mater i al systems

o .

We i magine space a co tinuous limitless three dimensional totality

as n , ,
-

o f space point The different Cartesian frames f refere ce ( these are

s . o n

m th m ti
a e alog i cal conceptions ) with wh ich we can represent space ( i
co - . e

the images f space formed in our minds ) may have various relatio s w ith
o n

respect to each other D epending n the i r relationship any pair f Cartesian

. o o

frames f reference will belong to

o f the follo wi ng three clas s ( to o ne o se or

the i r comb i nat i on )

1 Frames with different or i gins
. .

2 Frames whose axes are mutually rotated

. .

3 Frames with di fferently oriented (

. reflecting ) axes ( right left or or

orientat i ons ) .

We introduce the de fi nitions of the fu damental properties f space n o

l H m g en it y f pac S pace i called homogeneous if consideri g

. o o e o s e. s n

an y material system i any pair f space frames f the

n fi rst class w e always o o ,

obtain equ i valent i mages .

2 Is t r py f s pac S pace is called isotropic i f considering any material

. o o o e.

system in any pair f space frames of the second class we always obta i n
o ,

equivale t imagesn .

3 R fl t iv i t y f pac
. e ec S pace is called reflective if co sidering any
o s e. n

m t i l system in any pair of space frames f the third class we al w ays

a er a o ,

obtain equivalent i mages .

We imagine time as a cont i nuous l i mitless dimens i onal totality f , , o ne - o

moments ( time points ) Here frames f reference f time of the fi st and

. o or r

third class only can be constructed i time frames w i th di fferent origins and , . e

with oppositely oriented axes The de fi nitions f the fundam e ntal properties
. o

o f t i m are
e

12
 Ho w ever whilst endorsing Ne w ton s approach we must make the
,
’

following remark S pace consists of space points which can i n no way exert -

any i fluence n sense organs Therefore to speak about motion (or rest )
n o our -
.
,

f space is inappropriate and w e prefer to reformulate Newton s assertion

’
o ,

about space follows as

A bsolute space i that w hich by it w n nature unrelated to anything

s s o ,

else exte ds evenly

, n .

Ofcourse these Newtonia assumptions about space and time tell us

, n

no more than that which i s appare t to the layman because it i s basically n

impossible to de fi ne space d time sat i sfactorily ; hence appealing to the

an ,

intuitive ideas f the reader we can y only

o , sa

a ) S pace is that w hich exte ds n .

b ) Time is that which endures .

Howev er an empty space in which there is no matter and in which a

hypothetical time flows are purely academic notions because space and time ,

w hich we know are associated with the E arth the S n and all stars f the , u o

U n i verse the world f e ergy surrounding us ) Thus space and time

o n .

must be al w ays considered related to matter S pace d time which w e . an ca n

perce i ve w i th our sense organs because f their associatio w ith some ma

-
, o n

t i l systems are called by Newton r lat iv

er a , and he proposes , e e,

a ) R elative space is that which is regarded im mobile in relatio to any n

sens i ble th i ng such as the space f air in relation to the E arth o ou r .

b ) T i me regarded as relative is that wh i ch i uniform i respect O f the s n

flux or variat i on f any sensible thing S uch i s time of days months and
o .
, ,

other per i odic celestial phenomena as commonly rece i ved .

When we have several sensible frames representing different relative

spaces and several sensible clocks reading different relative times we can k , as

w h i ch f these space and time frames f reference are the best representatives
o o

of ab lu t space and time and have a common signi fi cance for any observer
so e

i n the U niverse A ny h istorical epoch determines i ts best representatives of

.

absolute space and time w herein man and man s thoughts str i de A fter the ’
.

per form ance f ocoupled mirrors experiment ( M in l 974 b ) we

our -
ar ov , ,

propose the following de fi nitions which we hope will not be f n d by , ,

re i e
'

future generations
a ) A bsolute space i s tha t in wh i ch velocity f light h the same value o as

along all directio s n .

b ) A bsolute time is read n a light clock which rests i n absolute space

o

and i s placed far enough from local concentrations f matter from stars o

and planets ) .

l4
 These two de fi n i tions are identical with the follo w ing
a ) A bsolute space is that w ith respect to w hich the energy f the U ni ,
o

verse is minimum ( M in l 97 2 b ) ar ov , .

b ) A bsolute time is read n a light clock w hose unit f time i less tha
o o s n

that of any other clock the arms f all light clocks bei g equal ( M i
, o n a r no v

l 97 5 a ) .

A ny reference frame associated with absolute space i called s an ab l te

so u

fra m e and any clock ( light clock ) reading absolute time i called s an a b lute
so

cl c k
o .

refere ce frame wh i ch moves w ith a constant tra lational velocity

A ny n ns

with respect t absolute space i called an i rtial fram A y clock statio ary
o s ne e. n n

in an i nertial frame placed near local co centratio s f matter ( both ) i

or n n o or s

called a pr p r cl ck ; a proper clock reads p ro per t im

o e o e .

Now we introduce the follo w ing ax i m f n gy w hich expresses the o or e er

philosophical principle about the unity O f the w orld

A i m 111 A l l individually different material systems
x o . be can

characterized by a u iform havi g the same qualitative

n n

character ) quantity which is called ergy and w hich o ly en ca n n

have di fferent numerical value for differe t material systems The n .

un i t f measurement E f energy h the property f e ergy d

o or as o n an

i s to be established from the symbolical relatio n

ET h ,

where h i s a un i versal constant which has the property f action o

( energy multiplied by t i me ) and is called P lanck s c ns t an t If w e

’
o .

assume the numerical value f h t be un i ty ( d hence equal t o o an o

the numerical value f ) then the correspo ding units fo c ,

n o

measurement f le gth time and energy are called natural

or n ,
.

M a t r i al p in t are those points in space whose e ergy i d ifferent

e o s n s

from zero E ve y mater i al point i characterized by a parameter

. r s

m called ma
,
whose dimensions and numer i cal value are to be
ss ,

establ i shed from the relat i on

where is the energy O f the mater i al point at rest d is called the

e, an

a b lu t e er gy r t e gy When a material point moves w i th

so e n or es ne r .

respect to absolute space it energy i denoted by being called s s

the p r p r n gy or t im en r gy The q uantity m called the

o e e er e e .

pr p r m
o e is to be established from the relation
ass ,

m n c
’
.
 Fu rthermore every material point is also characterized by a
,

parameter T called the p r i d whose dimensions and numerical

, e o ,

value are to be established from the relation

e, h/T .

material point crosses a given surface duri g a time

A ny n

equal to it period Thus any material poi t carries w ith itself a

'

s . n

certain strictly de fi ned periodicity representi g not a rigid , n

bullet but a burst !

F i ally by a alogy wi th the intu i tive de fi nitions f p and time given

n , n o s ac e

on p 14 w e can also de fi ne energy intuitively

.
, d uniquely by an

c ) E nergy is that which exists .

Let note that when we speak about material points we do not de fi e

us n

their volumes This depends on the character f the physical problem which
. o

i under cons i deration For certai problems the elementa y particles are to
s . n r

b e considered as material points and the atoms m t i l systems In other a er a .

contexts the stars are considered as material points and the galaxies material
systems A a rule however whe say i ng material points w e shall u dersta d
. s , , n n n

elemen t ary particles Let note here that a photon in a radio w ave ( w hich
. us

represents an elementary particle ) have a length in time ( called the can

wavelength ) of the order f many kilom eters The word particle is a synonym
o .

for the term material point .

A XIO MS FOR TH E D I FF ER E NT TY P ES OF E N ER GY
Let us consider a g i ven material system only i n space I n this case the .

energy O f the m t i l system can be called pac

a er a r gy and w ill be denoted s e e ne

by U l f w measure this energy at di fferent moments i t will in general have

. e , ,

di fferent values and thus will be a function f time o .

Evidently the energy U w i ll depend n some space individuality of

, o

the material points I f w e suppose that the material points preserve their
.

space individuality i n time then the energy U will depend n their space ,
o

i ndividualities only as a parameter This numerical parameter i called the . s

param t r f t h pac
e e o gy of the given material point
e s e e ne r .

The space e ergy U of a material system cannot depend on the radius

n

vectors f the mater i al points because if this w ere

o the energy f the , so , o

material system i n different space refere ce frames f the fi rst class would n o

have different values i the images of the material system would be di ffe
, . e .
,

rent and that would contradict our fi rst axiom

,
.

I6
 Thus the energy U w il l depend only the mutual distances bet w ee the on n

material points b we have

ec a u e other characteristics t describe the
no o

material system considered w o ly in space d w e no w rite n , an can

U i ,
j n ,

where i the distance bet w een the i t h d i t h material points who e total
r,, s an s

number is n .

Consider now two mat e rial points of the system The existe ce of ot her . n

material points can not exert influence either n the parameters f space o o

energy f these points on the dista ce between them Hence the space
o or n .

energy f system f material points must be the m O f the space energies f

O a o su o

every pair f them

o .

With the aid f l gi l considerations only we cannot y ho w the Space

o o ca , sa

energy U f t w mater i al points depends the dista ce bet w een them This
o o on n .

dependence can be only postulated .

The part f physics k own as m ha ic does n t consider the matter f

o n ec n s o o

the dependence of energy U n the distances between the material points and
o

leaves this dependence unknown .

The part f physic called g ravit a t i al the y denotes space energy by

o s on or

U “g i ves t i t the name g rav i ta t i al

,
o er gy (or the fi rst ty p f s pace e ergy )
on en e o n

and assumes that the gravitational energy f t w o m t i l points is inversely o a er a

proportional to the distance between them .

The part f phys i cs called el c t r ical t he y denotes space energy by

o e or

g i ves to i t the name l t r ical n gy ( or the s c d typ f s pace e gy ) and

e ec e er e on e o ne r

l
a so sa sumes that the electrical energy f two material points i inversely o s

proportional to the d i stance between them .

The di ff erence between the energies U and U co sists in the different , ,

n

parameters f space energy The gravitational parameters f the material

o . o

po i nts are their proper masses (called also g ravi t at i nal char g s ) w hich w e o e

have denoted by The electrical parameters f the material poi ts are their o n

l tr ic ha g which are denoted by q

e ec c r es .

S pace energy i s called also p t nt i al r gy o e e ne .

We cons i der ( her e and i n Class i cal Physics only the gravitational
and electrical space energies and w e ignore the e nergies of the called w eak so -

and strong i nteract i ons whose axiomat i cal bas i s and theoretical interpreta
t i on i s as yet by no means clear .

W e can systematize all unproved assertions about both types f space o

energies i n the follo wi ng x i m f gr vi t t i al d el tr ic l n g i

a o s or a a on an ec a e er es

A i m I V The i ndiv i dual image

x o . f a material system in o

space i s given by th e value f it grav i tational energy U The o s p

17
 energy U of tw material point i s proportio al to their proper
,
o s n

ma ses m m and inversely proportio al to the dista ce

s oz
n n r

between them
mo, "1 0 2
7
f

The coupling constant 7 called the g ravi t t i nal c n t ant ,

a o o s ,

shows what part f the energy unit represents the gravitatio al

o n

energy of two unit ma ses separated by a unit distance ; the di

s
'

m i n of y are established from

e ns o s The rest energy of an
important class f material points called electrons i s equal to
o e

where is a universal constant called the r t

e, gy f t h es e ne r o e

l t r n If we work with natural un i ts d w e assume the nu

e ec o . an

merical value f to be unity then the gravitational co stant h

o e, , n as

the value
7

In addition to the mass parameter every material

Ax io m V . ,

po i nt i s characterized by a second parameter of space energy q ,

called the electric charge The individual image of a material .

system in space in addition to its gravitational energy U i s also

, s ,

given by the value f it electr i cal energy U The energy U f t w o

o s , .
, o

mater i al points is propo tional to their electr i c charges q q and

r ,, 2

inversely proportional to the distance between them r

1 q t (72
U ?

e, r

The coupling constant g is called the inv l tric n e

’
e rs e e ec co

t an t and
s the l t ric n t an t ; the inverse electric constant
e, e ec co s

shows wha t part of the energy unit represents the electrical energy
of two un it charges separated by a unit distance The d i mensions .

of the electric charge q and f the electric constant are to be o t o

established from thus the dimensions f n of them are to o o e

be chosen arbitrarily The electric charge f any mater i al po i nt i s

. o

equal to q q 0 ( or to an i nteger multiple ) where q is a

, , , ,

universal const ant called the c h r g f t h l tr If we work a e o e e ec o n.

with natural units and we assume the numerical value of the

electron charge to be unity i q I E L then the electr i c , . e .
, .
"2 "2
,

constant is dimensionless and has the numerical value

86 1 .

Re ma k In the system of S I un i ts where

r . avoids fractional powers in
, o ne

the d i mensions of electromagnetic quantities the unit f electric charge i s , or

i ntroduced as a fourth fundamental unit of measurement In this system of .

units the numerical values f h q are di fferent from u ity and with the
o e, , e, ,
n ,

18
aim f id ing factors such 2 d 4 appearing i formulas w hich do t
o av o as 7r a n a n no

involve circular spherical symmetry respectively

or a sumes the inverse , , o ne s

electric constant sho w i g w hich part of the energy unit represe ts the n n

electrical e ergy f t w o u it charges separated by a distance f l / 4 le gth

n o n o 7r n

uni t s .

Let us w co sider the given material system o ly in time I n this case

no n n .

the energy f the material system

o be called tim e g y d this w ill be can e en r an

denoted by E the time energy f si gle material poi t w ill be denoted by

(,
o a n n

If we measure this energy at differe t mome ts it w ill i g l have n n , n e ne ra ,

different values and thus will be a function f time o .

Evidently the e ergy E will depe d on some time individuality f

, n 0
n o

the material poi ts l f w suppose that the material poi ts preserve their time
n . e n

i ndiv i dualities i n time then energy E w ill depend their time individuali
, o on

t i es only parameter This numerical parameter is called the parameter f

as a . o

t h t im
e ne gy f the given material poi t
e e r o n .

Co s i der now only

n material point f the system A system of n o ne o . o e

material point i s l a material system E vide tly for th is m t i l system the

a so . n a er a

time energy will only be di fferent from zero because for the existence f
e, o

space energy we must have at least two material points Thus if we co sider .
, n

th i s materi al p int s i multaneously in space and in time it energy w ill be

o , s

equal only t its time energy

o

Th e time energy of material poi t can depend neither n it radius

our n o s

vector nor on a time coordinate ( i n the time radius vector because in . e o

such a ca e the energy f the material point would have different values in
s o

different space and time reference frames f the fi rst class i its i mages o , . e .
,

would be di fferent contradicting our fi rst and seco d axioms

, so n .

If cannot depe d on the space and time coordinates f the material

e, n o

po i nt then we must assume that depends n the derivatives f the space

, eo o o

coordinates with respect t t im because we have no other characteristics to o .

e

descri be the i mage f the materi al point o .

Contemporary physics n the basis f the exper i ence f centuries , o o o ,

assumes that depends only on the fi t d i t i of the space coordi ates

e () rs e r va ve n

with respect to t i me i the velocity f the material point

, . e .
, on o .

On the grounds of general considerations it i adm i sible t suppose that s s o

ou r experi ence till n w is in fl i nt and that the time e ergy ( ge erally

o su ic e ,
n n

speak i ng the image f the material points in time ) could depend n the
, o o

h ig h d i t i
er e r va too i n the acceleration l f nt il no w human experie ce
ves , . e .
, o . u n

has not established such a dependence this may be d ue to the fact that ,

careful observations and detailed analyses of strongly accelerated material

systems have not been perform e d From the axiomatical point f view it is . o

19
admissible to a sume that a dependence f t im energy on the acceleration f
s o e o

the material points can exist d that experime ts w ith stro gly accelerated , an n n

systems may lead t the discovery f e tirely u expected phenomena

o o n n .

Let n w co sider us material point i the prese ce of the other

o n ou r n n

m t i l poi ts O f the given system The existe ce O f the other material points
a er a n . n

ca not exert i fluence either the parameters f the time energy of our
n n on o

poi t on it velocity ( at a give moment Thus the time energy of a

n or s n

system f material po i ts must be the m O f the time energies f all material

o n su o

points f the system

o .

can systematize all unproved assertions about time e ergy i the

We n n

following ax i m f t i m n r gy
o or e e e

A x i m VI The indiv i dual image f material system in time

o . O a

is give by the value f it time energy E The time energy f

n o s 0 . e ,, o

On material point depends on it velocity ; the change ( the diffe

e s

nt i l ) f the time energy i s proportio al t

re a o the scalar product of n o

the velocity and the d ifferential f the velocity the mass of the o ,

mater i al po i nt being the coupling co stant n ,

de 0
m v . dv .

esides the space energies w hich depend on the distances bet w een the
B
material points and the time energy which depends n the velocities f the o o

material points a type f n gy also ex i sts which depends simultaneously on

, o e er

the dista ces between the material points d on their velocities ; we call th is
n an

spac t im e- n r gy and denote i t by W If we measure this energy at d i fferent

e e e .

moments it will in general have di fferent values and th us will be a function

, ,

of t im e .

Evidently the energy W w ill depend n some space time i nd ividu

, o -

ality O f the mater i al points If we suppose that the m t i l points preserve . a er a

their space time individualities in time then the energy W w ill depend n
-
, o

these individualities only as a parameter This numer i cal parameter is called .

the param t r f t h pac t im

e e o r gy of the g i ven material point It tu rn s
e s e- e e ne .

out that the parameters O f the space time energy O f the mater i al points can be -

expressed by their electric charges Hence there exist i n add ition to the . s,

second type f space energy a o nd ty p f p c t im n gy which is , s ec o e o s a e- e e er

called the ma g t ic gy These tw forms of energy are clearly comple

ne e ne r . o

mentary .

The logical quest i on arises whether there exists also a fi rst type of
space time energy i a complement to th e gravitational energy The p
-
, . e .
,
. ex e

i n
r e of centuries has not given us grounds to assume that such an energy
ce

does exist However our present state f experimental technique cannot

.
, o

reliably establish whether or not a fi rst type f p time energy ex i sts S ince o s a ce - .

20
 The oupling consta t p is called the m a g n t ic c t an t and it is
c n ,
e o ns

equal to the inverse electric co stant thus i W n , t , e

Re ma k In the S I system of units it is assumed that p

r .
,

A XIO M F O R TH E CON S ERVA TION OF E N ER GY

The fi ve types f energy U U E W W f material system are
o K , 0 , , O a

functions f time and their numerical values can i ge eral vary w i th time
o , n n , .

The unproved assertion about the change of the energies O f a material system
in time is given by the followi g a i m f t h c va t i f e gy
n x o or e o nse r on o en r ,

expressing the philosoph i cal pri nciple ab ut the unity of space and time o

A x i m IX F ull n r gy H of a material system is called the

o . e e 0

s m of the ti me energy E and the space energy U T t l e er gy

u 0 . o a n

17 is the full energy plus the space time energy W The numer i cal
,
-
.

value f the total energy of an isolated material system remains

o

constant in time that i s ,

( 117 , O .

H IG H V ELOCITY A XIO M
On the grounds of the nine axioms formulated above the theory of ,

clas ical n r la t ivi t ic phy ic can be built i ofclass i cal physics in which
s o n- e s s s , . e

we assume the velocities O f the m t i l points to be too small in comparison

a er a

wi th light velocity Whether we can consider the velocities f the material

c . o

points small i comparison with light velocity depends on the precision with
n

wh i ch we wish to cons i der the given physical problem .

A t velocities f the mater i al points comparable w ith

o we m ust take i to c, n

account also the tenth axiom w h ich together with the fi rst nine axioms , ,

represents the axiomatical grounds of class ical r lat iv i t i phys ics e s c .

Conventional physics assumes that i nformation can be transferred from

o n space po i nt t
e another o ly if a certain quantity f energy can be sent
o n o

from the fi rst space point to the second Ho w ever th i s i not true I ndeed let .
, s .
,

us have a rotating rigid shaft on whose ends two identical g wheels are co -

fi xed and let us number any t w o cogs which lie p i t each other the ends o os e on

O f a certain generatrix O f the shaft Let us assume that the shaft rotates w ith a
.

c nsta t angular veloc i ty and there is no fr i ction torsion The if a certain

o n or . n,

cog f the fi rst cog wheel makes contact with an indicator placed at n end
o -
o e

o f the shaft w e k ow that the correspondi g

, n g f the other cog wheel w ill n co o -

also make contact with an i ndicator placed symmetrically at the opposite end
22
of th e shaft Obviously in such a case between both these space poi ts
.
, , n no

transfer f energy takes place ho w ever there is an information link betwee

o , , n

these points .

We call the synchronization f p t i l ly separated clocks by the help f o s a a o a

rotati g ri gid shaft placed bet w ee them a Ne w t ia t ime s y chr izati n

n n on n n on o .

A Newtonian time synchronization can be realized also by the help f ig l o s na s

which proceed with the same velocity in y direction after taking i to an , n

accou t the time delays w h ich the signals need to cover the different d i
n s

ta ces to the clocks placed at di fferent space poin ts

n .

If w e sy chronize spatially separated clocks interchanging light sig als

n , n

between them and m that the velocity f l ig h t h

. ass u the same numerical
e o as

value in all directions w ith respect to any inertial frame then w e call this an ,

Ei ns t inian tim synchr n ization The E instei ian time synchronization can
e e o . n

be reduced to a Ne w tonian time synchronization o ly if the frame in w hich n

w e are working i attached to absolute space I any frame movi g w ith

s . n n

respect t absolute space the E i stei ian time synchro ization differs from
o n n n

the Ne w to ian si ce in mov i g frames the velocity f light i anisotropic

n n n o s .

I n M in ( l 97 5 a ) w e show that the Ne w tonian time synchronization

ar ov

leads to the Galilea tra sform ation and the E i steinian time yn h ni
n n n s c ro za

tion leads t the Lorentz transformation It turns t however that space

o . ou , ,

coordinates are involved i the Lorentz transformation formulas for time n ,

and this implies that the constancy and isotropy f light velocity i essentially o s

only a co ventio n n .

The mathematical apparatus for a description f high veloc i ty physics o -

adequate to physical reality is to be obtai ed by assuming the follo w ing n

h igh vel ity ( r la t ivis t ic ) ax i m

-
oc e o

x m X The material poi ts called photo s move w ith

A io . n n

velocity along all directions in absolute space and their velocity

c

does not depend on their history Light clocks with equal arms .

have the same rate in any i nertial frame i ndependent f the , o

orientation f the i r arms A t any point f any frame the time

o o

unit is t be de fi ned by the period of light clocks w ith equal

o

arms independent f the velocity f the frame and the local o o

concentration f matter o .

Here are some remarks on th i s ax i om

When we say that the velocity f the photons does n t depe d n their o o n o

h istory we mean that it does not depend n the velocity f the source f
, o o o

radiation n n th e velocit i es of all material points with w h ich the photon

, or o

has collided nor on which it was hitched ( M in l 9 74 a ) and nor n

,
ar ov , , o

the mat e rial systems i on the potential fi elds crossed by the photon
, . e .
, , .

23
 The most i mportant unproved assertion of our tenth axiom a ffi rms that
the rate f any proper light clock does not depend on the orientation of it
o s

arm Th i s assertion represents a crucial boundary between n

n. l ti i o n- re a v s

tic and relat i vistic mecha ics which has concerned the human m ind almost
n

the whole f th i s century Indeed if we try to fi nd the rates f t w o identical

o .
, o

light clocks proceeding with velocity with respect to absolute space when v

their arms are respectively perpe d i cular and parall e l to then the
, ,
n v,

non relat i vist i c conceptions should lead to the result that to periods f the
-
n, ” o

transverse light clock

(1
per i ods of the longitud i nal light clock will correspond supposing ( as we
a ,

shall always do ) that the arms of the clock are equal s .

Indeed if we denote by
, T the t i mes i n which light ,"

covers t he 6 arm d of the transverse clock there

: n d back we or an u a
,

shall have for these two cases

” ’
a T, ;3 d v
2
Tp ii c
2
d 2
v
2

from where
2d
Tm " T, "
.

c (l
On the other hand if w denote by T ? and T“ the t i mes i n which light
, e N " ,

covers the arm d of the long i tudinal clock there ( i along the . e

direct i on of propagat i on f the clock ) and back against t h direction

o a e

of propagation of the clock ) we h ll have for these two cases , s a

C TD; r d CT
N , d V Tp a r

from where
To"t
.

Toa r
Hence i t w i ll be
Tp e r Tw (l
and i f for a certa i n time t th e transverse l i ght clock makes
th e long i tudinal n ticks it w i ll be
I n To" , 1 it TN .

From and we obta i n

Our tenth ax i om asserts howev e r that it must be , ,

and this empirical fac t was fi rst proved by the historical Mi ch e lson -
Morley
exper i ment .

24
 It can be shown that the empirical fact co tradicts the Galilean n

transformat i on ( as a matter f fact w e have just sho w this ) The Lorentz

o n .

tra sform ation leads to the result

n ho w ever w hen treated from a ,

relativistic point f view it h failed to explain other experime ts such

o , as n ,

our couple d mirrors experiment

.

as -
.

In the nex t section we shall show that tenth axiom lead to a our s

transformation O f the space and time coordi ates w e have called the M i n a r no v

t ransformation and w hich is di fferent from those f Galilei d Lorentz

, o an .

Ho w ever i a certain aspect it represent a y t h i f t h t w o and i t be

, n , s s n es s o e se , s o

c ons i dered as a companion f the Lorentz transformation sho wi ng h w the

o , o

latter i s t be treated from an absolute point f vie w

o o .

§3 . COO RD IN AT E T RAN S FO R M ATION S

TH E G A LILEA N T RA N S FO R MA TION
transfo matio s O f the space and time coordinates which w e co sider
A ll r n n

in this section are between a frame K attached to absolute space d a frame an

K moving inertially with a velocity V To avoid trivial constants we shall

'

. ,

consider the c lled h m g so - a transf rmat i n i we shall suppose

o o e neo u s o o , . e .
,

that at the initial zero moment the origins of both frames have coi cided ( n se e

f g 3 l where f simplicity s sake a two dimensional case is presented )

’
i .
-
or -
.

Fig . 3- 1

25
 Let us have a point P whose radius vector in frame K is ( called the r

a b lu t e rad iu v ct r ) and whose radius vector i n frame K is (called the

so s e o r
'

relat i e rad ius v t r ) The radius vector of the origin of frame K i n frame K
v ec o .

is R (called the t rans i t ra d i v t r) It i

en us ec o . s

R = Vi = V t o o ,

where t i s the time read n a clock which i s at rest i n frame K ( an absolute

o

clock ) and V i the velocity of frame K measured on this clock while 1 is the
s
'

, 0

time read a clock which is at rest in K ( a proper clock ) and V is the

on
'

velocity of frame K measured on this clock .

A ccording to the tradit i onal Newton i an conceptions we shall have ,

r Vt ,

V t
'

r r , o

Adding these two equations we obta i n (3 If we assume that the ,

clocks attached t K and K read the same time we have

o ,

V V0 .

Thus i n such a case w e can w rite the transformation formu las for the
space and time c ordinates i n the form
o

r = t = ro .

Form ulas represent the direct and formulas the inverse ho

mo ge n Gal i l
eo u s n t ran f m
eaa t i n s or o .

TH E LO R E NTZ T RA N S FO R MA TION
N owwe shall search f a transformation of the space and time
or co o rd i

nates which will lead to the relation

between the pe i ods f transverse and longitudinal light clocks as

r o « ! ,

requ i red by our tenth axiom .

Let us decompose ( f g 3 1) the rad i us vectors and i nto components

i .
-
r r

, and
r " respectively pe pend i cular and parallel t o the direction
rm , , r

of propagat i on f K o

26
 A ccording to the traditional Ne w tonia co ceptions w e have n n ,

_ =
h (
,

r r or
+ r
p a r
rp e r + rp a r
r

We can meet the requirement f te th axiom if we take the o ou r n

parallel com pone t f the relative radius vector co tracted by the factor
n o n

(1 when expressed by the coordinates in frame K i if w e . . e .

,

i m t i l ly assume as valid instead O f the Ne w to ian relations

ax o a ca n

r
pa r

the Lorentzian relations

r oa r

Th i s co traction ( w hen Vt is expressed by

n dilation rm ,

(when ,“ i expressed by
r r Vt ) is ne i ther a physical effect as pp d
s rp a , su os e

by Lorentz nor a result f measurement as bt i d by E instein A ccordi g

, o , o a ne . n

to theory
our and Vt represent the
, m length ( distance ) bet w ee sa e n

t w material points which can be connected by a rigid rod

o w hich can move or

with respect to each other or bet w een t w non material points take at a , o -
, n

given moment ( N B A bout lengths n can speak only at a give moment

. . . o e n

Thus and Vt are q l and we write the second relation

rm , e ua

only because the velocity of light h t an exact aether Ne w to ia cha as n o -

n n

t
rac e r Maki g a transition from
. n to we introduce a bl t m t h un a e

m ti l
a ca t di t i into the traditional Newtonian mathematical appara
c o n ra c on

t
us .A we have shown in deta i l in M i n
s ( l 9 7 5 a ) this mathematical ar ov ,

contrad i ct i on remains f eve r in the formulas and we m ust state that after or

yea s f intens i ve mathematical speculations w e could not fi d a way to get

r o n

ri d of it We k the reader to pay due attention to th i s statement d t to

. as an no

blame our theory for mathemat i cal imperfection This imperfection exists i n .

Nature i tself We must realize once and f all that light has t an exact
. or no

aether Newtonian character f propagation si ce it there and back

-
o n s - -
ve

l it y ( i n a frame moving in absolute space ) is isotropic while accordi g t

oc , n o

the a t h N w t n ian conceptions it m ust be anisotropic W have called this

e er - e o . e

peculiarity in the propagation f light the aether M i n character f light o -

ar ov o

p opagation
r .

Thus i f we wish t meet the requ i rement

, we have to write instead o

O fthe relation the following relation f the transformatio f the rad ius or no

vectors i n frames K and K '

O l pe r
r rp l
pe r f

27
 This form ula written in such a manner that only the absolute radius
,

vector is represented but not it transverse and longitudinal components

r , s

has the form

rm ,

r +
(1
Let us no w fi nd the formula f the inverse transformation i from or , . e

r to Here we have two possibilit i es

'

r .

a ) To assume that also in frame K the velocity of light is isotropic and ’

equal to ( the E instein way )c .

b ) To assume that the velocity of light is isotropic and equal to o ly i n c n

frame K which is attached to absolute space ( the M in way ) ar ov .

The Ei nstein way leads to transformation of the time coordinates where

the radius vectors should appear i to relative time coordinates while the , . e .
, ,

M in way leads to t ransformation f the t i me coordinates where the

ar ov o

radius vectors should not appear i to absolute t i me coordinates , . e .

Now we shall follow the fi rst way and i n the seco d n .

If the velocity of light i n frame K m d to be i sotropic and equal to I S a ss u e

c, t hen assuming further t ha t the velocity with which frame K moves with
,

respect to K (and measured on a clock attached to K ) is equal with opposite

' ’

sign to the velocity V w i th which frame K moves with respect to K ( and ’

measured on a clock attached to K ) we can write ( let us note that both these ,

assumptions follow from the princ i ple of relativity )

=
'

r r +

A dd i ng fo m ulas r and we obtain

l /2
(I )
z 2
V /C

r r
l
(l (I

If i n this form ula we substi t ue from w e shall obtain the trans r

'

formation formula for time in wh i ch t will be expressed through 1 and '

t r . We ”

(l
l /2
)
z z
V /C

28
that the fou th dimension is n t a time axis but a length axis along which the
r o

time c ordinates are multiplied by the velocity f l igh t d here the apparent
o o , an

absolute ess f the light velocity is always co ected with the relativity O f the
n o nn

time coordinates A a matter of fact the time coordinates are absolute and
. s ,

light velocity relative as i the M in transformation d w e have

, n ar ov an as

shown by the help of umerous experiments a alysed i Part II f t h i book

n n n o s .

We must note d emphasize that if setting experiments w here only

an

electromagnetic phenome a are i volved then the principle of relativ i ty

n n ,

apparently holds good because f the mutual annihilation f the appear i go o n

absolute e ffects This principle breaks down only when setti g experiments
. n

where combined electromagnetic and mecha ical phenomena are involved n ,

as i s the case w i th the coupled mirrors experiment the antipodal -

,

clocks experiment and the ultrasonic coupled shutters experiment -

.

TH E MA R I N O V T R A N S FO R MA TION
A a result of our theoretical and experimental work w e have come to
s ,

the conclusio that t im i n b l t q t i ty and the M

e s an a i trans
so u e ua n a r n ov

fo m ation ( M in l 97 8d ) is adequate to physical reality By the help f

r ar ov, . o

this tra sformation one can explain all h igh velocity experime ts includ i ng
n ,
-
n .

those which contradict the Galilean as well as the Lorentz tra sformation if n ,

the latter be treated in the frame of special relat i vity .

T obtain the M i
o transformatio we shall proceed from our tenth
a r no v n,

axiom noting that n w we shall not take i to account the influence of

o n

the gravitating masses n the rates f the light clocks a problem considered
o o ,

i n M in ( l 976a )
ar ov .

Thus according to the te th ax i om

, n

a ) Light clocks with equal arms have the same rate independent of ,

the orientation f their arms o

b ) In any frame the time unit i s to be de fi ned by the per i od of light

clocks w i th equal arms i ndependent f the velo ity of the frame o c .

A we have shown in
s the fi rst assertion drast i cally contradicts the
traditional Newtonian conceptions The se ond assertio repres e nts not such . c n

a drastic co tradiction because in the frame f the traditional Newtonian

n o

space time conceptions also one can de fi ne the time un i t i n any inertial frame
-

by the peri od f light clocks w ith equal arms However in the traditional
o ,

Newtonian frame the inconvenience ex i ts that one h further to de fi ne that

, s as

the arms f the light clocks must always make the same angle with the
o

veloc i ty O f the inertial frame used g their arms must be perpendicular ,

e . .
,

to th i s velocity In such a manner the absolute time dilation phenomenon will

.

be introduced also into the trad i tio al Newtonian theory Thus at fi rst n .
,

30
glance it seems that the second assertion h
, t such a natural character a s no a a

as the fi rst one and represents o ly a stipulation However it tur s t that

n .
, n ou

not only the periods of light clocks become greater w hen they move with
greater l ity in absolute space ( w e repeat a phe ome o w hich exists also
'

v e oc , n n n

i n the traditional Ne w tonian theory ) but also the periods f many other o

phys i cal processes ( the periods f atomic clocks the mea lives f decaying
o ,
n- o

elementary particles ) S far there i .experimental evidence perm itting

o s no

one to assert that the period of any system ( say the period f spring clock , o a ,

the pulse of a man ) becomes greater with the increase f it absolute velocity o s .

Th i s problem needs additio al theoretical and experimental i vestigatio A t

n n n .

any rate we think the statement about the time dilation i to be co sidered
, s n

not as a stipulation but as an axiomatical assertio alien to the traditional n

Newton i an theory .

Let fi nd fi rst how the Galilean transformation formulas are t be

us o

w i tten if n should assume that in y i ertial frame the time unit i to be

r o e an n s

de fi ned by the per i od of light clocks with equal arms supposing for
de fi niteness that the arms O f the light clocks must be always p p nd i er e cu

lar to the absolute veloc i ty of the frames .

The period of an absolute light clock ( see p 15 ) whose arm i s d w il l be .

T = 2 d /c .

proper light clock with the same arm wh ich moves w i th velocity
A V
i n absolute space will have a peri od [ se e

2d
I /Z
V /C I l
)

an appropriate cho i ce f d ) we choose T a time u i t i n frame K

I f (at o as n

(called b l t d ) and T a time unit in frame K (called pr p r '

a s o u e sec o n ,
as o e

sec ond ) then it i s clear that when between t w o events t absolute seco ds and
, , n

t proper seconds have elapsed the relation between them will be

, ,

t, /t T/ T , (I

where T and T are measured in the m time uni ts ( absolute

,
sa e or proper ) .

U nder th i s st i pulat i on we shall obtain from and

V

r
a
(l (I
n a
Vo / C

Thus th e transformation form ulas (3 to which w e attach the

relat i on are t o be wri tten i n the following form
r Vt , t (l
 r
'

l
-
V t ,, t ( l
Formulas represent the direct and formulas the inverse ,

homoge eous lat ivi t ic Gal ilean t r ns f rm at i n

n re s a o o .

In these formulas V is the velocity f frame K w ith respect to absolute

. o
’

space t frame K) measured in absolute seco ds ( called the ab lu t

o n so e

tra s ie t v l c ity ) V is the same velocity measured i proper seconds

n n e o , , n

( called the p r p r t rans i nt v l i ty ) and is the velocity of light along the

o e e e oc c

arm O f the absolute clock measured in absolute seco ds as w ell as along n ,

the arm of the proper clock measured i n proper seconds .

If w hen proceeding from the traditional Newto ian conceptions n

, n , o e

would come to the result that a transverse and a lo gitud inal light a n

clock would have the same rate then a transformation of the space d time , an

coordinates adequate to physical reality at the assumption f the time dila , o

t i on dogma would be given by the relativistic Galilean transformation

, .

However the traditional Newtonian conceptions lead to the conclusion that

,

a transverse and a lo gitudinal light clock have d i fferent rates (

« n ! se e

On the other hand the experiment ( the h istorical M ichelson Morley

,
-

experiment was the fi rst one ) has shown that the rates of a transverse and
a longitudinal light clock are equal W have assumed this empirical fact . e

as an axiomatical assertion wi t h t t y i g t p l i why N t w k i , ou r n o ex a n a u re or s n

s uc h m a fi Th introduction f this ax i omatical ( empirical ) assertion into

a nner e o

the Galilean transformation leads to the M in transformation ar ov .

This i to be done i n the follo wi ng manner exactly in the same w ay as i n

s

we come to the conclus i on that if w wish to meet the requirement f e o ou r

tenth axiom about the indepe de ce f the light clock s rate the orienta n n o
’
on

tion f the clock s arm the transformation between the radius vectors
o
’
r

and is to be written i n the form

r
'

To obtain the i nverse transformatio we proceed from the formula [ see n,

and
r r , "
Vt

(l
This formula written in such a manner that only the relative rad i us
,

vector is represented but not it perpendicu lar and parallel com ponents
r
'

, s

will have the form

I

(1 +

32
 If we express here V through V according to the fi rst formula
,

then from and in a man er similar to that used i § 3 2 w e can n n .

obtain the second formula On the other hand if in we express V ,

through V according to the seco d formula

,
then from d n an

we can obtain the second formula

Let us combine formula with the second formula and
formula with the second formula
r +

I 2 l/2
V /C )

1
r

z, (1 ta / e )g“ 2

Formulas (3 25 ) represent the direct and formulas ( 3 26 ) the i verse ,

n

homogeneous M in t rans f m at i ar ov or on .

Let us now obtain the M in transformation formulas f velocitiesar ov or .

Wr i t i ng i n the fi rst formulas and d dt d d t i stead f t t r, , r

'

, n o r, . r
'

, , ,

d i v i ding them by dt and introducing the notations d / dt d / dt w e v r , v

'

r
'

obtain
1
V

V
’

v
— l
.

] V 2
+ 1 } V .

The velociti e s and are measured in absolute time Thus m ust be

v v
'

. v

called the b l t b l t v l i ty ( as a rule the fi rst adjective absolute

a so u e a so u e e oc ,
a

w i ll be om i t t ed ) and a b l t r l t i v l c i ty ( as a rule the adjective

v
‘

so u e e a ve e o ,

absolute will be om i tted ) For this reaso we have w ritten in . the n

absolut e trans i ent velocity V and n t the proper transient velocity V, o

Form ula represents the direct and formula the inverse M i , a r no v

t n f rm a t i n f v l it i w itten in b l t t im
ra s o o or e oc es r a so u e e .

W riting in the fi rst form ulas and d dr d d l i stead f t r, , r

'

, n o f, ,

t d i viding them by d t and introducing the notatio s d / d t for the

'

r , , , , n v, r ,

b l t v l i ty d d / d t for the p r p r l t iv l i t y we
‘ '

p p ro er a so u e e oc an v, r ,
o e re a e ve oc ,

ca n obtain the M in transformation for velocities written in p p t i m

ar ov ro er e .

33
 can w rite also the transformation formulas for velocities in which
O ne
the relative velocity is expressed in proper time and the absolute velocity in
absolute time This will be the M in transformatio for velocities written
. ar ov n

in m i d t im
xe e .

N w w e shall write the transformatio formulas f the velocities ’

o n or

magnitudes D enoti g the a gle betwee and b 0 and the angle bet w een
. n n n v

v a db
'

n we can w rite formulas and in the follo w i g form n ,

after having squared them ,

(l 7
2 v
v
’
os t9 + V 2

V
l — V /c
’ 2

2 V co s 0 (l V ’
(l
'
" '

v v .

If we suppose and if w e write where v the relative light

c v
'

e
'

, c rs

velocity measured in absolute time i the abs lute relat ive l ig ht v l c i t y ( as , . e .

, o e o

a rule the adjective absolute will be omitted ) then these t w equatio s

, , o n

( the second after a solution f quadratic equatio w ith respect to ) give

’

o a n v

V 0/ (l c os c
c
I V cos 0 / c
'

If we denote by , the p r p r r la t iv l ig h t v l c ity then it connection

c o e e e e o , s

with the ab lu t a b lu t l ig h t v l i ty ( as a rule the fi rst adject i ve b

so e so e e oc , a so

lute w ill be omitted ) will be c

c
c,
l
= c
l V co s 0 / c
'

and it connectio w i th the pr

s n o pe r a b l t l ig ht v l c i ty
so u e e o

w ill be the same that g i ven by formula as

Note that the velocities w ith respect to the moving frame K are called '

relative while the clocks attached to K are called proper On the other hand
.
'

.
,

the velocities with respect to the rest frame K are called absolute and the
clocks attached t K are also called absolute To have in the second case a
o .

term i nological di ffere ce similar to the fi rst case we have considered calling
n ,

the absolute clock and absolute t i me universal However fi nally we ,

decided to a single word even though this might sometimes lead t

use ,
o

misu derstandings because of the confusion in using t many di fferent

n , oo

terms .
 We desig ate the relative quantities by pp
n i p t ( primes ) and the u e rs c r s

proper quantities by subscripts ( zeros ) F this reason in the Lore tz . or , n

transform ation ( w here time is relative ) w e de ig ate the relative time coor , s n

d in t by pp ipt ( primes ) d i the M i tra sformatio ( w here

a es u
’

e rs c r s an n a r no v n n

time is absolute ) we designate the proper time coordi ate by ub crip t

, n s s s s

(zeros ) .

The dista ces are always absolute Ho w e er the aether M i cha

n . v ,
-
a r no v

t
rac e r o f light propagation leads to the i troduction f the notio proper n o n

distance The problem about the eter al contrad ictio bet w ee proper n n n

distances d distances is co sidered in detail i M in ( l 97 5 a ) Here w e

an n n ar ov .

must again repeat that the absolute and proper time i tervals are p hy i ll n s ca y

diff t q
e re n t it i while the di ffere ce bet w een proper distance d dis
ua n es , n s an

tances is only a t d i t y m t h m t i lc o n ra l t w hich appears because of

c or a e a ca r es u

the aether M in character f light propagation e gendered by the b i di

-
ar ov o n -

rec t i n l light velocity isotropy i

o a
y inertial frame n an .

G R O U P PR O PER TI ES OF TH E MA R I N O V T R A N S FO R MA T I ON
fter a due exami ation O f the M i transformations it can easily be
A n a r no v ,

established that they form a group S ince the mathematical a alysis i n the . n

general case is too cumbersome w e shall suppose f simplicity s sake that , , or

’

the velocities f the different frames and their axes are parallel to the
o x -

x ax i s of the rest ( absolute ) frame A in th is simple case the y d

-
. s an z

coordi ates are subjected to an ind nt i l tra sformation w e shall ignore

n e ca n ,

them .

From form ulas we obtain the following direct transformation

between the coordinates ( l ) in the absolute frame K d the coordinates
x, an

in a proper frame K moving with velocity V ( V 0 ) along the 2 2 2

positive direction of the axis x -

x
y
/z
s
z
/C .

(I
The inverse transformation bet w een the coordi ates i a proper n n

frame K mov i ng w i th velocity V ( V

, 0 ) alo g the positive directio O f the , , n n

x axis f the rest frame K and the coordi ates ( t ) in K according to

-
o
'

n x , ,

form ulas [ also form ulas i

se e s

V1 1 1
u
2
V1 / C )
(l
X x i
(I
where the velocit i es V, and V2 are measured in absolute time .

35
 ubstituting formulas
S i nto form ulas we can express the
coordinates in frame K through the coordinates in frame K 2 ,

These formulas are absol utely symmetric with respect to the coordinates
in both frames Now we h l l prove that these transformatio s form a group
. s a n .

A set of transformatio s T T T forms a group if it has the

n , ,2 2, ,,

follo w i g properties
n

l Tra i t iv pr p t y The product f two transformatio s

. ns e o er o n of the se t is
equivalent to a member of the set the product ,

being de fi ned as performi g T and T successively n ,2 23 .

If form ulas g i ve a transformat i on a transformation T will ,,

have the same form in which the number I i s replaced by 2 d the number 2 an

by 3 S ubstituting formulas
. f the transformation T i nto the or ,2 co r

respo ding formulas for the transformat i on

n we obtain a transformation
which has the same form as i n wh i ch the number 2 is replaced by 3 .

Thus the transit i ve property i s proved right We mention here that the .

trans i t i ve property for the Lorentz and Galilean transformations can be

proved only if one t akes into account the correspo ding tra sformat i on for n n

veloc i t i es The transitive property for the M in transformation is proved

. ar ov

di t ly i
r ec w i thout taking into account the transformation for velocities
, . e .
, .

I d n t i ty p r p t y The t i ncludes n
2 . e o er : se o e identity transformation ,

Ti iwhose product with any other member o f the set leaves the latter
unchanged Thus .

TI 2 T2 2 T1 ] TI Z

The i dentify form O f the tra sformation n occu s fr or V,

3 . r p t y E very member f the set has a uniq ue

R ec ipro c a l p o er o re c i
p ro

cal (or i nverse ) which i s also a member of the set Thus th e inverse . of T, 2 is
T,, where T is a member O f the t and, , se ,

TI 2 T2 I TH

36
 The proper velocity represents the space part f a 4 vector called the o -

4 velocity The time c mpo e t f the 4 velocity i s the proper light velocity
-
. o n n o -

[see

(l

The product of the mass of a material point by its velocity i called the s

momentum ; thus
P m Vt

are respectively the m m ntum and pr

, , o e o pe r m m n t um of the material point
o e .

A CC E L ERA TION
We introduce the following three types of acceleration

The acc l ra t i n
e e o

Th e fi r t pr
s o pe r acc l rat ion e e

dv ,
u v u

dt (1

The c d p r
se on o pe r acc l rat i n e e o

V V . U

c
’
(1 we) :

The second proper acceleration represents the space part f a 4 vector o -

called the 4 accelerat i on The time compone t of the 4 acceleratio can

-
. n -
n

easily be expressed through the acceleration d veloc i ty an .

The product of the mass of a mate ial point by its acceleratio i called r n s

the k i netic force ; thus

I m u , I, m a, ,
m u, ,

are respect i vely the k in t ic f rc fi t pr per k i t ic

, , e o e, rs o ne fo rc e a nd sec nd o

p r p r k i n t ic f rc of the material point

o e e o e .
 E
SU P R A -
CCEL E RA TION
We i ntroduce the follow i g four types n of su
p e r- acceleration
The u p r acc l t i n
s e - e e ra o

da
w :

di

The fi t pr
rs o pe r su p r acc l rat i
e -
e e on

The s ec o nd pr o pe r su p r ac el rat i
e - c e on

da m d ’
v,

di dt d t ,

The th ird pr o pe r u p r acc l rat i n

s e -
e e o

da ,, d d
[ 1
E
°

dt, dt ,

utting
P into we obtain the following expression f the third or

prop e r super acceleration through the velocity acceleration and super

-
,

acceleration f the material point

o

w 4 v (v . u )
2

+
(I V
z
/C z
)
”2
C
2
(| V
2
/C 2
)
S/ 2
C ‘
(l V
z
/C 2
)
7/ 2

The third proper sup e r acceleration represents the Space part f a 4

-
o

vector called the 4 super acceleration The time component of the 4 super
- -
.
-

accelerat i on can easily be expressed through the super acceleration l -

, acc e e

ration and velocity .

For the product f the mass f mat e rial point by its super acceleration
o o a -

we do not i ntroduce a spec i al name and symbol .

§ 5 . TI M E E N E R GY
TH E N ON - R ELATI VI S TIC CON S I D ERA TION
We obta i n the form f the t i me energy of a mater i al po i nt w i th mass
0
o

non relat i v i stic mechan i cs by i ntegrating the axiomatical relation

-

m /2 Const e, v
’
.
 Fo r v 0the time energy f the material point must be equal to it
o s

rest energy er which is given by the relation that w e can assume so

Const er an d thus

The di fference bet w ee the time nd rest e ergies i called the ki t ic

n a n s ne

en r e gy Thus in non relativistic mechanics the kinetic e ergy has the form
. ,
-
. n

m v
2
/2

TH E R E AL TI V I S TIC CON S I D E R A TION

To obta i n the time energy f a material point in relativistic mechanics
o

we have to put into the axiomatical assertio the proper velocity n v,

instead of t he velocity There are three possibilities

v .

m v, . dv ,

m v . dv , ,

m v, dv ,

and after the i tegration f these three formulas w e obtain three differe t
n o n

expressions f the time e ergy in relativistic mechanics

or n

e
°
m c
’
(1
m e
2

(I
l m c
2

2 1 v
’
/e z

where all constants of integration are take n zero c

we obtain

m c
’
/2 m v
’
/2 e, /2 e,

Thus for vthe kinetic energy f all these three forms f the
c o o

relativistic time energy has the same value i n non relativistic mechanics as -
.

though the i r rest energies are d i fferent Only the rest energy f h the . o e as

40
value postulated by our third axiom The re t e ergies f
er d be . s n o e
"
an e ca n

obtained equal to if dd it i n l consta ts f int g t i n are i troduced F

er a o a n o e ra o n . or

th i s reason w e choose as t ime ( proper ) e ergy f the m t i l point

, e, or n o a er a .

Ho w ever w e must emphasize that, d adequately play the same e

0
an e can

role .

W introduce the following terms

e

eLa g ra g e t ime e rgy

°
n ne ,

Hamilt t ime e er gy
e, on n ,

M i
e, , t im e e gy ar no v e n r .

The proper energy divided by velocity f light repre e ts the time part f o s n o

a 4 vector called the 4 mome tum w hose space part i the proper mome tum
- -
n s n

p,
m This qua tity i denoted by
v, n s

e m e

VI
(I
z z
V /C )
and is called the pr p r t im m me tum ; the qua tity p m is called the
o e e o n n e

(a b lut ) t ime m mentum Thus p

so e m can be called the ( a bs lute ) s pace
o . v o

m m ntum
o e d respectively ( absolute ) space and time velocities and
, v an c, , , so

on .

Obviously the Hamilton time e ergy . be called the p r p r time n e, ca n o e

en ergy and the rest energy the ( ab lute ) tim e er gy de oti g it by the e, so e n , n n

symbol w hen th is can ot be confused w ith the charge f the electro : the
e, n o n

latter a rule i denoted by by q ( axiom V)

. as . s us ,. se e .

A l l three types f time energy and are u ed i theoretical

o e
0
e e, ,
s n

phys i cs The time e ergy plays the most important role though many
. n e, ,

formulas obta i n a more compact form w hen Lagrange time energy i used e
"
s

[ see f example
, or ,

Comparing wi th [ fthe second relat i on w ith w hen o

tak i ng i nto account we co clude that the relation bet w een mass d n an

proper mass i s

Note that the axiomatical relation represents the famous E instein

formula which is considered an ideological basis f modern physics in as or

our nuclear century A a matter f fact relation serves o ly f the

. s o ,
n or

i ntroduction f new d i t i physical qua tity w hich w e call mass

o a de r va ve n an

wh i ch di ffers from the i m t i l quantity energy only by a co stant ax o a ca is n

factor The whol e f physics can be co structed w ithout introducing at all the
. o n

quant i ty mass because relation or represents a trivial tautology H w . o

ever the establishment f relation

,
was an enormous scienti fi c feat o .

41
The greatest accomplishment of a scient i st is the revelation of a simple truth
where others a complexity nothing at all A lmost the same can be said
see or .

f de B roglie s relation although we must add that the particles waves

’
or ,
-

contradiction i still not lucidly resolved

s .

§ 6 . TH E LAG RANG E EQ U A T I ON S
TH E NON RE A L TI VI S TIC CON S I D ER A TION
As can be seen from and space time energy i s to be n i -
co s

dered only in relativistic physics since it availab i lity leads to effects f seco d
s o n

order in W Thus in non relativistic physics we have to consider only space

e .
-

and t i me energies .

Le t us assume that in a time dt the space en e rgy U nd the time e ergy E a n ,

of an i solated mater i al system of material points have changed their values

n

by d U and d E D enote by,

the radius vector velocity
r, v , u, e, , , ,

acceleration and energy of the i t h material point A space energy depends

, . s

only on the distances between the mater i al points we have ,

T i me energy depends only on the velocities of the material po i nts and

d Be ,
2

where we have taken i nto account ( 5 2 ) and the relation

u, . dr , v, dv ,

wh i ch can be proved by div i ding both sides by d t .

S ubstituti g and
n i nto the fu damental axiomati cal equation n

and d ividi g by d i we obtain

n ,

In this equation l l (as a matter of fact 3 ) expressions in the brackets

a n ,
n

must be i dentically equal to zero because otherw ise a dependence would exist
between the com ponents f the velocities of the different mater i al points and
o ,

42
this would contradict sixth axiom w hich asserts that the time e ergy f
ou r n o a

material point f system depends o ly n it w velocity

o a n o s o n .

Thus from w e obtain the follo w i g sy tem f vector eq uatio s n s o n n

d E
l em
d1
( 8v ,
) n,

which are called the La g ra g q uati s d represent the fu dame tal n e e on an n n

equatio f motio in n relativistic physics

ns o n o n- .

Taking into account d the fi rst relatio w e that an n se e

the left side f ( 6 5 ) represents the kinetic f f f the i t h material poi t

o . o rc e l o n .

Introducing the notation

F, =

and calling F the p te tial f rce w hich all

,
o 1 material poin ts exert
n o n on

the i t h point w e can w rite equations

. in the form
f F i .

in which form they are called the New t q uations ( N w t sec d l w ) on e or e on s

’
on a .

The potential force which the i t h material point exerts the i t h point i on s

F ,
’
and the potential force which the i t h material point exerts
o n the i t h point i F s w here U i the space e ergy f these
,
‘
s n o

two material points S i ce U depends n the dista ce between both poi ts

. n , , o n n ,

it will be
aU / af _ eu / ar ,
, ,

Thus the potent i al forces with which tw material points f system ( in o o a

general t w o parts f a system ) act n each other are al w ays equal d

. o o an

oppositely directed alo g the li e connecting them This result i called

n n . s

N wton s th ird l w
e
’
a .

Obviously in equation , we w rite ca n

86 0 , a?“ aE k
av , av , av ,

where is the k i netic energy of the i t h material point a nd E , is the kinetic

energy o f the w hole system .

TH E R E L A TI VI S TIC CON S I D ER A T I ON
In relativistic physics equation w ill preserve it form This i
,
s . s

obv i ous for the electric space energy [ formula since the electric se e

43
charges d the distances bet w een them do t depend n the velocities of
an no o

the charge Ho w ever can be see from formulas

s .
, d as the n an

gravitatio al space e ergy becomes velocity depe dent i high velocity

n n n n -

physics The peculiarities of the fundame tal equatio of motion i gravi

. n n n

m g t i m w ill be co sidered in § 8 : in the present general a alysis w e shall

a re s n n

assume that the gravitatio al charges ( the proper masses ) are co sta t i n n n . . e

velocity indepe dent n .

I n relativistic physics instead f equation w e shall have , o

BE , 8c
2
I 8V , I al l ,

d d 8e °

1 g
dl dv
) dr
i l ,

w here the Lagrange time energy f the i t h material poi t

is o n .

I n relativistic physics we have t take into account also the space time . o -

energy W A the space time energy depends the dista ce bet w ee the
. s -
on n s n

material points and n their velocities we shall have o ,

n
8W
dW = z
ar ,

OW OW
. dr , d V) . d ( ) o v , ] o

3' s dv ,

However it i s [ see , and

where W i the part of the space time e ergy in w hich the i t h material point
, s -
n

takes part .

From the last tw o equations we obtai n

EW
dW = 2
:
)r t

Substituting and into the energy co servation law n

( 2 I 6 ) and dividing by d t we obtain by the help f the same reaso ings as in

, o n

§ 6 l the fu damental equations f motion i relativistic physic

. n o n s

d a w W)
n,
di fir.
which we call the full La g ra g e q uati s n e on .

44
 P utti g
n into we obtain

This i the full Ne w ton equation in electromagnetism

s a nd w e ca l l it the
Newt n L r tz q uat i
o -
o en e on .

S ince it i s

( v g ra d ) A
.

where ( BA / at ) d l is the change f A for a time d l at a given space point and

o

( grad ) A d t i the change f A due to the mot i on of charge a with velocity

v s o

v during this time d l and taking into account the mathematical relation
,

grad ( A ) ( g d ) A (A grad )
v .
.
v . ra x tA A x t v v ro ro v

under the cond i tion v Const we can write the Newto Lorentz equation
, n-

in the form
ra d <1) ro tA ,
q (g v x

wh i ch is commonly called the Lorentz equation A n can the Lorentz . s o e see,

equation represents the full Ne w ton equation in electro mag etism and we -
n ,

th i nk that it i reasonable to name it the Newton Lorentz equation

s re - -
.

T this equation we always attach its scalar supplement wh ich can be

o

obtained after multiplication f both it sides by the velocity f the charge

o s o

de 1 8A
q t! ( gra d (D
( 11 C O!
I troducing the quantities
n
1 (M
E — ra d <I> B = ro tA
g ,
c at

called respect i vely the l t r ic and ma g e t ic i t s i t i w e can write the

, , e ec n n en es,

Newton Lorentz equation and it scalar supplement in the form

-
s

q de ,

q v . E .

c dt

Tak i ng partial derivative with respect t t i me from the electric potential o

I [ consider the distances

( ) i n the expressio r, functio s of time ] and n as n

divergence from the magnet i c potential A we obtain the follo w ing relation ,

t a<1>
c at

46
 This relation i commonly called the Lore tz condition S i ce i
s n n n o ur

approach it i s a logical result obtai ed from the axioms w e call it the n ,

eq ua t i n f p t nt ial c
o o ti o e o nnec on .

TH E CONN ECTION BE T W E EN DE N S IT I ES AN D P OT E NT I A L S
The cha g d cu ren t de s it ie at a given reference point are the
r e an r n s

following quantities ( these are the called 8 d e ities ) so - -

ns

" "
= =
Q( ) r 2 4 6(r
. J ( )
r 2 i 6(r .

where i the radius vector f the reference point are the radius vectors
r s o , r ,

of the single charges and 6( ) 8( ) 6( ) 8( ) i the three dime io al

. r x v z s -
ns n

8 fu ction f D irac
-
n o .

Now we shall establish the di ffere tial connection bet w een the charge n

and curre t densities and the electric d magnetic pote tials

n an n .

A Th e
. static a nd q ua i static cas s
s - e .

We shall prove the validity of the followi g mathematical relation n

A ( I /r) ( 7 12 )
where A ii / 8 ii / By i
x
2 i "
is the Laplace operator and i the r s

distance between the frame s origin ’

an d a space point with radius vector r .

Indeed putting into .

=
r
|r
we obtain an i dentity O ly for 0 does the left hand side give the
. n r -

uncerta i nty and the right ha d side give the uncertainty -

n

To establish w hether relation ( 7 12 ) is valid also f 0 let i tegrate . or r . us n

over an arbitrary sphere w i th radius R which h a centre at the frame s as

’

origin U sing the Gauss theorem we shall obtain for the i t g l f the
.
, n e ra o

l e ft hand s i de
-

f A ( 1 / r) d V
f d iv [ gra d dS
v v s

where S is the surface of the Sphere f i ntegration whose volume is V and dS o

i the elementary area ( taken

s a vector ) f the int g t i n l surface w hose as o e ra o a

d i re ction al w ays points outside from the volume enclosed .

47
 The vector grad ( l / ) / is directed to the frame s origir r r
’ ’
n, i . e .
, in a
directio opposite to the directio of the vector dS and thus
n n ,

dS
f A ( l / r) d V —4 '
rr .
!
V r

The integral on the right of ( 7 12 ) taken over the same arbitrary sphere .
,

on the grou ds of the fu damental p p y of the 8 function gives

n n ro er -
,

—4 — 4 rr
t
rt
f 5 (r ) d V .

The integrals ( 7 15 ) d are equal d since the domains ofan an ,

integrat i on represent spheres with arbitrary radii both i tegrands must be , n

also equal Thus the relation

. i valid also for O s r .

In the same way or the grounds f fi rst axiom for homogeneity

, on o our

an d i sotro py of space we prove the validity of the following relations

, ca n

A(l/ | 4 8( i r -
vr r

where are the radius vectors f different Space points

r, o n .

Le t n w assume that i s the rad i us vector f a space point where a

us o r , o

charge a i placed ( static case ) or where at any moment a charge a moving

, s ,

with velocity can b e fou d ( quasi static case ) M ultiplying any of the
v ,
n -
.

equalities by the corresponding electric charge q electric current , ,, or

element divided by j / and summ i ng them we obtain after having

c, ,
c, , ,

taken into accou t and the followi g di fferential connection

n n

between pote tials and densities for static and quasi static systems
n -

4
— 4 vr Q ,
77
J
c

B . Th e dy am ic casn e.

Let consider a poi t (calling it the i point ) which moves at velocity

us n -
v
'

along the axis of a rest frame K and at the initial zero moment t 0 crosses
x -

the frame s origin Let a moving frame K be attached to this i point and the
’
.
'
-

transfo mation between K and K be a special n I n such a cas e the rad ius
r
'

o e .

vector f the i point in K w il l be

o -
'

r,
’

If the radius vector f reference point in frame K i O then a s r ,

accordi g to the M in transformation

n the radius vector f the
ar ov r
'

same reference poi t in the movi g frame K will be n n

'

48
 The distance bet w ee the i point d the refere ce point co idered in n -
an n ns

frame K but expressed through the coordi ates i frame K w ill be

'

n n

(l
"2
(y
2 2 ’
t) ) v z

l / v
’
c
2

This distance considered in frame K a nd expressed through the co o rd i

nates in frame K w ill be

=
r
| r

We call the dis t a ce and the pr p r d i ta ce and w e have considered

r n r, o e s n

them in detail in M in ( l 97 5 a ) The di fference bet w ee these t w o dis

ar ov . n

tances already said in

. as is due t the aether M i character f light o -
a r no v o

propagation and this h nothi g to d w i th a physical le gth co tractionas n o n n

( w i th the called Lorentz co tractio

so- A a matter f fact here w e are n n s o ,

considering the d ista ce between two points m i g wi t h p t t n ov n re s ec o o ne

a no th which ca not be co ected by a rigid d and thus it i senseless to

er n nn ro s

speak about contractio f such a rod n o .

The validity f the follow i ng mathematical relatio

o w easily be n c a n no

proved
—4 8( r
7r
( 7 22 )

where Q a / a 0 / ay ii / B 8 / at is the d A l m b t p
z
'

x
z "
t z z
z
2 2
c
2 2 ’
e er o e ra o r

and r, i s the proper dista ce between a space poi t w ith radius

r r, n n

vector and a moving point with a radius vector

r r,

I deed putting i nto

n .
the expression f w e obtain an o r r,

i dentity Only for .0 i for r, , . e .

,

x
—v t = 0 ,
z = O , ( 7 23 )

does the left ha d side give the uncertainty

- and the right ha d side the
n
-
n

u certainty
n

To establish whether relation i valid also f 0 l t s o r r, e us

i ntegrate over an arb i trary sphere with radius R which h a centre at as

the po i nt whose coordi ates are g i ven by n

— 4 7r
f 6(r

For all points f the volume V the integrand n the left ha d side is
o o -
n

equal to zero Thus we can spread the i tegral over a small domain around
. n

the point with coord i nates given by i around the frame s origin f . e
’
o

K B t at 0 it is l / nd the derivatives with respect to will

'

. u r, v ro 00 , a x . . 2

49
increase much faster than the derivative with respect to 1 Hence the last n . o e

ca n be neglected with respect to the fi rst o es S w e reduce the integral n n . o o

the left ha d side of

-
n to the integral w hich gives 4 The 77 .

integral n the right hand side f

o -
the grou ds f the fu dame tal
o on n o n n

property f the 6 function gives the same result and i n § 7 2 A we

o -
, , , as .
, co n

l d that the i ntegra ds must be equal Thus the relatio

c u e n i valid also . n s

for the case

I n the same manner as in § 7 2 A from the relatio we obtai ,
n ca n n

the following co nection betwee pote tials d densities f the most

n n n an or

general dy amic case n

w here the de nsities Q(t ) and J( t ) are fu ctio s n n of time .

TH E MA XW E LL -
LO R ENTZ EQ U A TION S
Taking rotatio from both sides f the fi rst equatio ( 7 8 )
n o n a nd diver
gence from both sides of the seco d equation and maki g n n u se of the
following mathematical relations
rot (grad D) 0 d i v ( tA ) 0
(
, ro .

we obtain the fi rs t pa ir f t h M ax well L re tz quat i s

o e -
o n e on

1 88
dt
0

O ,

c 81

Let n w take partial derivatives with respect to time from both sides
us o

o f the fi rst equat i on d i v i ding it by c,

1 8E 8 4>
E
"

c a:

Wr it e the second equation in the form

1 E
VA
—A A
c
2
Ot ’

put here the mathematical relat i on

AA grad (d i A ) v rot ( ro tA ) .

P utt i ng i nto a nd taking into account ( 7 we obtai n

I ii 15
ro t B — +
c at

50
 Let us now tak e divergence from both sides of t he fi rst equation
E
M
c (i t

Write the fi rst equation i n the form

4 17 Q

P utting ( 7 33) i nto and taking into account ( 7 we obtai n

d iv E 4 n Q ( 7 34 )
quatio s
E and n represent the se c o nd p air of the
M axwell L re t z q uat i s
-
o n e on .

§ 8 . FU N DAM E NTA L EQ U A TION S I N G RAVI M AG R ETI S M

TH E NEWTON -
MA R I N O V EQU A TION
In we pointed t that the gravitational e ergy in high velocity
ou n -

physics i velocity dependent Thus in relativistic gravitation instead f

s . o

equation we shall have

£3 1 . dr , 1 .

pace time energy is very small with respect to space energy ( the
S -

space time energy f t w o material points moving w i th velocities

-
o v ,,
v2

represents a / part of their space energy ) and w e can co sider the

v, v, c
2
,
n

gravitat i onal charges (the proper masses ) in the m g t i energy as constants a re c .

Thus we can assume that the di fferential f the space time energy in gravi o -

m g t i m is given by formula
a re s

P utting and i nto the energy conservation law

we obta i n by the help f the same reasoni gs in § 6 l the fundamental
o n as .

equations of motion in g i m g t i m rav a re s

d am w) eu ,
aw , ,
[ I 2 1 n,
T
, ,

dt 8v ,

where u, is the acceleration of the i t h material point .

51
 it can be seen from formulas
As and the quantity 8 U / 8 ,
v ,

h asthe direction of the vector In gravitatio a rule motio s with large

v, . n, a s , n

t ng nt i n l acceleratio s ca
a e o a ot be realized and assuming n nn ,

(8 0 we can write the fundamental equatio s of motio in

u, ,
n n

g i
ra v m g t i m in
a the general
re form
s

Let us co sider a system f masses m moving w ith velocities and

n o n ,
v ,

havi g proper masses

n I troduce the g ravit a t i al d m g t i p t n on an a re c o en

t ia l s

m o i v i

where are the distances to a certain reference point w here a mass m moving
r,

with velocity and having proper ma s m is placed

v s , .

The gravitational and m g t i energies of the whole system of + I a re c n

masses in which mass m takes part will be

W =

utting
P i n t o th e full Lagrange ( fu l l Newton ) equation we
obtain the N wt n M in q a t i n e o -
ar ov e u o

( grad
0
m ,
(I) v x ro tA ,
,

m ,
v .
( grad ( I)
,
4

Introduci ng the quantities

grad (D

called respectively the gravi t a t i al and m g t i int i t i s we

, , w rite on a re c e ns e , ca n

the Newton M in equation d its scalar supplement in the form

-
ar ov an

0
de .
v >< B m ,
v . G
dr

The q uat i n e o of po t e t ial c

n o nnec t i o n is

52
 equations in electromag etism and g im g t i m will obtai more
A ll n ra v a re s n

symmetric forms w hen the reduced charges and masses are used For ex .

ample the Ne w ton Lorent equation

,
-
w ill be w ritten as follo w s [ see
z

dp dp o

( c E v x B) q v E
q , ,
dt
, .

dt
It i important to note that u iversal co stants are t the charge of the
s n n no

electro and the ma s f the electron but their reduced values (

n s o se e

We have co sidered the fundamental electromag etic equations in

n n

M in ( l 97 8 a ) and the fu dame tal g im g t i equations in M i

ar ov n n ra v a re c a r no v

( l 9 78 b ) In M .in ( l 9
ar7 8 b ) w
ov e give a detailed analysis of the called so -

Mercury problem

§ 9 . P AR T I CL E S AN D W AVES
In third axiom we introduced the quantity
our ,
T, called the period of

the material point according to relat i on

,

The quantity
V U T (9 l )

is called the fr q u cy of the material point considered Thus w e shall have

e en .

[
se e and
m c
2

)
z z
(I V /C

Multiplying
both Sides of this equation by the veloc i ty of the material v

point we obtai [ see

, n

The quantity
z
k ri v/e

is called the w ave umb r of t h material po i t m

n e e n .

Write equatio in the form n

hk (9 5 )
'

n ,

where is the u it vector directed along the veloc i ty

n n of the material point .

54
 The vector quantity
k = k n

is called the wave ve t r of the material point

c o .

The quantity
A V I? C
z
/V V

is called the wa el g th f the material poi t

v en o n .

l f t h material point considered i a photon the

e s , n v c , a nd w e have
it h C

The quantities v T r de fi ned by the relation

I/T , m c
z
/h

are called the es t fr q uency and re t p ri d f the material point d are

r e
'

s e o o an

equal t d T respectively f
o v an , 0 Obviously the re t wave num b er f
, or v . s o

any material point } i equal t zero and the re t wavelen g th A i i fi itely

s o s , s n n

large .

Formulas and can be w ritten [ see

a ) with the help of the frequency

b ) with the h el
p of the w avelength

These formulas are call e d d B r g l i s relat i ns e o e o .

The quant i ties m p describe the particle character of the material

, , e,

points and the quant i ties T k A describe their w ave character

, v, , .

As we said at the end of the dialectic unity f opposites which the o

i deas of particles and waves o ffer i still n t lucidly enough resolved We have s o .

the feeling that this contradiction will never be understood with such clarity
as ,for example high velocity physics will be understood after the acceptance
,
-

o f our absolute space time theo y Nevertheless in classical ( n n quantum )

-
r .
, o -

physics i where according to

, . e , categorizatio the phenomenon inter
. our n,

ference i not considered the particles w aves co trad iction does n t

s ,
-
n o

orig i nate logical d i ffi culties as the reader can n reading this book
, s ee o .

55
 § 10 . F R E Q U E NCY AN D W AVE L E NGTH S H I F T S O F LIGHT
K IN E MA TIC S H IFT ( T H E D O P PL E R E FF E CT )

The l ig h t D ppl r ff ct is the di fference bet w ee the frequency d

o e e e n an

wavelength with which a photo is emitted from a source f radiatio d n o n an

those measured by an observer due to the motion f source d observer , o an

wi th respect to absolute space ; we call this effect also the k i emat ic fr q u cy n e en

an d wav l g th sh ift
e en f l ig ht and we have considered it i M i
s o , ( l 97 8 ) n a r no v c .

A revie w of the theoretical part of this paper is given in this b sectio su -

n .

A . So urc and bs r r a t r t
e o e ve es .

Let us suppose that there is a source ( emitter ) f photo s which rests in o n

absolute space The freque cy registered by an observer ( receiver ) w ho i

. n v s

also at rest i absolute space d the wavelength A w hich he measure are

n an , ca n ,

called em itt d fr q u n y and mit t d wav l n g th The relatio bet w een them
e e e c e e e e . n

is given by formula

B . So urc m in g b r r a t r t
e ov , o s e ve es .

Let n w suppose ( f g 10 1) that the observer i at rest in absolute

us o i .
-
s

space at the point 0 and the light source moves w i th velocity from the
'

Fig . 10 - 1

56
pos i tion S where a photo is emitted t the position S w here the source w ill
’

n o

be at the moment when the photon w ill be received by the obser er W shall v . e

suppose that the w avele gth of the i terchanged photo i much less tha t h
n n n s n e

distance bet w ee source d observer and thus the mis i and rec pti
n an , , e s on e on

p s i
o t i s f
onthe source
o can be co sidered poi ts n as n .

The source w ill be at the m idd l p siti S at the middl m m t e o on e o en

between the m i sio d r c p t i n m men t s 0 i called the mi si a g l

e s n an e e o o .
'

s e s on n e,

0 the r e p t i ec g l and the m id d le an g l We m ust note that w hen

on an e e.

de fi ning these angles a certa i n freedom i inevitable w hich leads to certain s

d i fferences in the notations and in the formulas from those f earlier o our

papers ( M in 1970 l 97 2a
ar ov , N w once and for all we make the
, , o , ,

following stipulatio The emission reception and m iddle a gles are b

n , n su

tented by the velocity of the moving object and the li e co ecti g the object n nn n

at rest with the moving object at t h emissio receptio and m i dd le mo e n. n

ments respectively We attach the subscript

. . to the received ( observed )
frequency and wavelength d n t t the emitte d w hich w ill be written an o o

without any subscript The pp ipt w ill be attached t the emission

. u e rs c r o

distance position and a gle w h i le the reception distance position and angle
. n , .

will be written w i thout y pp ip t an u e rsc r .

When the source i movi g the observer at rest w ill t register the
s n . no

fre quency and w ill not measure the w avele gth A w hich are to be registered
v n

and measured if the source be at rest and which we have called the em itted
frequency and w avelength but some other i general differe t qua tities. , n , n n ,

if it w hich we call the bse v d ( r c iv d ) fr q u cy d w av len g th

o r e or e e e e en an e .

If i n f g l O l we present the emitted w avelength by the segme t S Q

i .
-
n
'

then proceeding from

, th ird axiom in w hich the burst model f the
our o

material points is postulated w e have t present the observed wavelength A , o

by the segment S Q ( a matter f fact by that segme t equal and parallel

'

as o , n

to S Q w hose final po i nt i s Q) W repeat that w e consider the case where the

'

. e

dista ce bet w een source and observer is much greater than the w avelength f
n o

t h e photon ( we have enlarged the w avelength diagram for clarity ) .

S ince the photo moves in absolute space with velocity we have

n c,

”0 A O

From and we obtai n

v, /v A/ A,

The tr i angles S Q Q and O SS are similar and thus

' ' '

'

r /r .
 the other hand if w should suppose that the source is at rest and the
On , e

observer moving from the emission position 0 to the reception position 0 '

we obtain from the similar triangles S Q Q and S 0 0 '

' '

r /r c /c ,

si ce the segments S Q and S Q are respectively p p t i l to the b

n
' ’

, ,
ro or o na a so

lute light veloc i ty (i to the velocity f l igh t w ith respect t absolute Space )
c . e o o

and to the relative light veloc i ty t the velocity f l igh t w ith respect to c
'

o o

the moving observer ) both measured an absolute clock ,

on .

From the last three relations using formulas in which w e write ,

V we obtain
v,

(I I -
v c os 0/c
v v
1 0 /c (I
'

v cos

l v c os ol
'

e
A
(1
(I I v cos 0/ c

Formulas can be obtained di t ly from [ d then formulas r ec an

( 10 5 ) from and if we shou ld formulas obtained in use

M in ( l 97 5 a ) which give the relation bet w ee the m iss i

ar ov , d r c p ti n n e on an e e o

d ista c and where following prese t notation we have to write

n es , ou r n , r, r
'

0,
thus obtaini g n

1 0 / (l
'

v cos c '

r
( I / ) l d / v
z
c
z ”2 v c os c

M ultiplying n ha d both formulas

, o and n the other
o ne n , , o

hand both formulas

, squaring them and writing cost9 d
'

c os m a,

cost? 0cos where is an algebraic quantity we obtai w ithin the

,, a, a ,
n

necessary accuracy
1 v co s 1 + v co s
v
(1 + v cos fl

Fo r 0
'

0 0 0( or we call the D oppler effect l n g itud i al o n .

Fo r 0 0 W 0 / 2 we call the D oppler

'

e, ,
v c,

effect p s t t ravers
o -
e .

For d 0 0 / 2 w e call the D oppler

'

/ v c, v c,

effect ant t rave e- rs e .

For t? 0 /2 0 / 2 we call the D oppler

'

v c, v c,

effect t rav e rs e .

The post traverse ante traverse and traverse D oppler e ffects are called
-
,
-

by the common name tra sv D oppler e ffect ,

n e rs e .

58
C . So urc a t r t
e es , o bs e r m vi g
rve o n .

Let w suppose ( see agai

u s no f g 10 1 ) that the source i at re t i n i . s s n

absolute space at the poi t S a d the observer moves w ith velocity from the
n
'

n v

em i ssion position 0 to the receptio positio 0 '

n n .

ince the photon proceeds w ith respect to the moving ob erver w ith the
S s

relative velocity the relation bet w een the observed freque cy and w ave
c
'

, n

length will be

ccording to
A burst model f the photo s their w avelength
ou r or n , ca n

change only w hen the source moves w ith respect t absolute space The o .

motion f the observer with respect to absolute space leads o ly to a change

o n

in the velocity and frequency of the observed photo s but t t a cha ge in n no o n

their wavelengths We must emphasize that the wavelength i to be measured

. s

a l w y with respect t absolute space

a s i th o f m i g b , e ve n n e cas e o a ov n o s e r ve r .

We have to stress also that a direct measurement of the w avelength ca ot be nn

performed One can measure directly o ly the w avelength f standing w aves

. n o .

i
. e f to and fro prop gati g photons w hich interfere ( § 3 I ) A l l
o « a n see :

measurements f the wavelength f uni directionally propagating photons

o o -

are i ndirect ( see If n should accept that the motio f the observer
o e n o

leads to a change in the wavelength then n i impelled to accept E i tei s , o e s ns n

’

dogma about the constancy f light velocity in any i ertial frame which
o n , as

we have experi mentally sho w n does t correspo d to physical reality , no n .

Thus f o r ou r case of source at rest and moving observer w e have ,

( 10 10 )

From and we obtain

'

c /c

Making use of formulas in w hich w e w rite V v, w e obtai n

(1 l 0/ v co s c
”
I t9 / c
'
V
( I O 12 )-
v c os (1

Here aga i n a form ula analogical to the fi rst formula ( 10 8 ) be can

i ntroduced as well as the de fi nitions f lo gitud inal d tra sver e D oppler

, or n an n s

effects .

59
D . So urc e a nd o
‘

bs v r m vin g
er e o .

Now suppose ( f g 10 2 ) that the source moves with velocity w ith

i .
-
v

respect to absolute space and the Observer wi th veloc i ty that S 0 are v, , so

'

the emiss i on positions f source and observer and S 0 are their reception
o ,

positions .

We introduce two pairs of emission and reception angles 0, d 0 are an ,

the emission d reception a gles if the source were at rest at it emission

an n s

position while 0 and 0 are the em ission and reception ngl if the observer
,
'

a es

were at rest at it reception pos i t i on For certain problems it is convenient to

s .

use the angles while f o t hers the angles 0, 0 or .

To fi nd the relation between the em i tted and received frequencies and

wavelengths we proceed follo w s Let us suppose that the real source em its
, as

a photon d an i maginary observer i s at rest at point 0 ( the reception

an

position f the real obs e rver) The frequency and wavelength registered by
o .

him called i ntermed i ary w i ll be [ use the fi rst and second formulas
, , and

(I 1 v cos 0/ c
” v
I v co s 0 /c
'

(1

] 0 /c (l
'

v co s
A A
l (I 0l v cos e

I f n w an imaginary source i s at rest at point S ( the emiss i on position f

'

o o

the real source ) and em i t a photon w i th frequency and wavelength

s

then the frequency and wavelength reg i stered by the real observer when he
crosses point 0 w i ll be [ use formulas d ( 10 an .

60
 Formula shows that if an observer moves w ith the same velocity
as the light source then the measurement of the received frequency can
, ne ve r

give information about their absolute velocity However formula .

,

sho w s that the measurement f the wavelength can give such information
o .

These conclusions are of extreme importance Let us note that according to .

,

co temporary physics which proceeds from the princ i ple f relativity a

n o ,

D oppler effect appears only when source and observer move with respect to
on another In contradistinction to this conclusion we have sho w n that a
e .
,

D oppler effect appears also when source d obser er move with the same an v

velocity namely the received wavelength is di fferent from that which should
, ,

be measured if source and observer be at rest in absolute space ( se e

YN A M IC S HIFT (TH E E IN S T E IN E FF E CT )
D

The l ig ht E in t in ffe t i s the d i fference bet w een the frequency and

s e e c

wavelength w i th w hich a photo i emitted from a source f radiation and

n s o

those measured by an observer due to the di fferent gravitational potentials at

the po i n ts where source and observer are placed ; we call this e ffect also the
d ynam ic ( or g rav i t at i nal ) fr q u nc y
o d w avel n g th sh ifts f l i g h t
e e an d we e o an

have cons i dered i t in M in ( l 97 6a ) A review f this paper is g i ven in this

ar ov . o

sub section
-
.

Let us have a mass M which i s at rest i n absolute space and a mass m

( m M ) which moves w i th velocity in the gravitat i onal fi eld ofv mass M .

The grav i tat i onal energy f these t wo masses w i ll be [ see formulas

o

and
m M
y
r (l

A ccording to the ninth ax i om we have for this case

d v, / dz .

utting here
P and taking into accoun t ( 9 2 ) and supposing
that the m t i l point is a photon
a er a supposing m 0 ) we obtain ,
v c ,

a fter the integration of

—p 7 M v.
°

= V (b
C
7 )

p [ 1

62
where

are the gravitational p tentials caused by mass M respectively at the poi t

o , , n

ofemission f the photon whose distance from mass M is d at the poi t of

o r an n

reception (observation ) of the photon whose dista ce from mass M is ( w e n r,

cons i d e r M as a po i nt mass or a homogeneous sphere ) as .

Formula i the formula for the gravitatio al ( dynamic ) f

s n tc

que nc
y sh i ft We m ust
. emphasize that the period T a d the frequency f the n v o

em i tted photon are measured n a clock ( imagine a ligh t clock ) w hich is

o

placed in the region where the photon is emitted where the gravitatio al n

potential is D) while the period T and the freque cy

(
, f the received ,
°
n v o

photon are measured on a clock placed i n the region where the photon is
received ( i where the gravitational pote tial is
. e Thus the subscript n

of the period d freque cy signi fi es observed

an d the p p
n ipt an u e rs c r

signi fi es that time is measured n a clock placed i a region with gravitatio al

o n n

potential I) (

No w we shall fi nd the formula f the gravitational w avelength shift or .

S i nce according to tenth axiom the photons move w ith velocity i

our c n

absolute space when this velocity is measured by the help f a nearby light o

clock independent f the local co centratio f matter i i dependent of

, o n n o , . e .
, n

the grav i tatio al pote tial in the space regio co sidered we shall have
n n n n ,

n A c v,
°
A
, c ,

where A is the wavelength f the emitted photon and A the w avele gth
o rs n of

th e observed photon .

From and ( 10 2 8) w e obtai n

A. A

The phys i cal quantity frequency ( respectively period ) is a relatively ,

more complicated notion than the physical quantity wavelength because the
frequency is measured by the help of clocks which have different rates in
dependence n their velocities in absolute space ( as we have seen i
o and n

shall further in § 1 and on the gravitational potentials ( as we shall

se e se e

in wh i le the wavelength i s measured by the help of rigid rods whose

lengths depend neither n the i r veloc i t i es nor n the gravitatio al potentials
o o n .

Hence formula
, clearly shows that the wavelength f a photon which o

crosses a region with a stronger gravitational potential will have in that region
a smaller length Th i s gravitational potential whose b l t l i greater
.
,
a s o u e va u e s ,

i s stronger Th us i f. then A < A

, , .

63
 The problem about the relation between the frequencies ( the periods ) of
the photons i co sidered in more detail i § l
s n n

§ 1r . TIME D I LAT I ON
K IN E MA TIC ( LO R E NTZ ) T I M E D I L A T I ON
In w e have shown that the period of y light clock i ncreases when an

it absolute velocity increases A ccording t the Newto ian co ceptions this

s . o n n

e ffect i s d i fferent f a transverse and longitudinal light clock the

or a !
,

arm of the fi rst being perpendicular and of the second parallel to the
clock s velocity A ccording t
’
. absolute space t i me theory this effect i the
o our -
, s

same f any ori entat i on f the clock s arm being given by formula
or o
’

and is called the ki nema t ic t im d ilat i n e o .

Proceeding from formula we can easily show that formula is

valid for any orientat i on of the light clock s arm Indeed if t h arm of ’
, e

the light clock is d i ts absolute velocity and the a gle between them then
, v, n

the clock s per i od i f measured in absolute time i

’
, , s

d 1 + 0 "
d 1 + t9
"
v cos /c v c os /c

c (1 c (I

where T 2d / is the period of the same clock when being at rest 0 and 0
c .
' "

are the angles ( f the there and back trips ) between the velocity of the
or

clock and the relative light velocity i the angles subtended by the
, , c
'

, . e .
,

direct i on of clock s propagation and the directions f light propagation

’
o ,

measured w i th respect to the moving clock Thus it i 0 0 . s

"
77

Let us note that the ngl 0 and 0 ( for the there and back trips )
.

’ “
a es

between and i the angles subtended by the direction f clock s pro

v c, . e .
, o
’

a
p g at i n and
o the directions f light propagatio measured with respect
o to n,

absolute space are in general n t compleme tary

, , , o n .

The result can be also obta i ned proceeding from formula

and calculati g the path w i th respect to absolute space which the light pulse
n

has to cover during it there and back trips s .

A stated i n
s the experimen t has shown that l the periods ofother a so

phys i cal systems are i nfluenced by the k i nematic ti me dilation but the ,

problem whether this phenomenon can be generalized f the per i od f any or o

64
ma t er i al system rema i ns open A t any rate we can be sure that if the per i od f
.
'

, o

a system is determined by the motion of mass less particles particles w ith -

m then th is peri od will be influenced by the kinematic time dilation .

Co ns i der for example an aeri al which emits radio w aves The period ( f
, , . re

qu e n y ) of the rad i o waves will be de termined by the time i which the

e n

potential of the antenna s top passes through two successive maxima and this
’
,

i s determin e d by t he t i me in which light crosses the antenna s arm ’

Larmor ( 1900) was the fi rst t o i troduce time dilation and rightly con n

s id e re d i t as an absolute e ffect E instein ( 1905 ) analysed this phenomenon

.

fi ve years later and wro gly considered i t as a relative e ffect Lore tz treated
n . n

time dilation i n many publications also from an absolute point f view ; since o

th i s e ffect follows logi cally from the transformation to which his name is
a tt r i buted we think that the k i nematic time dilation should be called the
,

L nt tim d il t i n
o re z e a o .

T i me dilation is one of the most controversial problems i n physics .

Thousands of scien t i fi c semi scienti fi c and popular books and papers have
,
-
,

bee n dedicated to it However th i s phenomenon accord i g to which the

.
, , n

per i od of any clock i ncreases proport i onally to the square of its absolute
veloc i ty i s no more paradoxical than the conclusion to which A h im d
, rc e us

came establishing that all bod i es lose weight proportionally to their volumes
,

when put in a liqu i d It was only the theory f relativity which threw t h
. o e o re

t i cal physics into confusion s i nce it tried to explai time dilat i o as a relative
,
n n

effect cutting it natural logical tie with the absolute motion of the material
, s

systems .

D YN A MIC ( EIN S TEIN ) TI ME D IL A TION

Now we shall Show that the per i od of any light clock increases when it is
placed i n a region with a stronger grav i tational potent i al ( we repeat se e

tha t th i s grav i tational potent i al whose absolute value is greater is , ,

stronger ) We call this e ff ect the dy am i t im d i la t i n the E in t in t im

. n c e o , or s e e

dil t i n since E i nste i n ( 190 7 ) was the fi rst to introduce i t i nto physics
a o , .

A we are not i nt e rested in the kinemat i c aspect of the time dilation in

s

this sub sect i on we shall work i n a frame which res ts i n absolute space The
-
, .

clock a t tached to absolute space have been called by us absolute ( w i th more

s

prec i s i on we shall call them k in ma t i a l l y a b l t ) The clocks moving i n e c so u e .

absolute space have been called proper ( with more precision we h l l call s a

th e m k in m t i l l y p p ) Clocks placed far enough from l l concentra

e a ca ro er . o ca

t i ons of ma t t e r are to be called dyn mi l ly b l t and clocks placed near a ca a so u e

local conce ntrations of ma t ter are to be called dyn m i l l y p p These a ca ro e r.

reg i ons which i n the problem cons i dered have the weakest gravitat i onal
65
potential (wh i ch d it i l ly is to be assumed equal to zero ) can be
co n o na i co ns

dered as lying far enough from local concentrations of matter .

Consider two points w i th gravitational potentials 1 d I ( if < ) an ()

,

we can conditionally assume <1 S uppose that a photo is emitted from

) n

the fi rst point and received at the second A ccording to our tenth axiom the .
,

velocities f the emitted and received photons if measured n dynam ically

o , o

proper clocks will be equal to If these velocities are measured on a unique

,
c .

clock (say on a clock placed in the Q region ) we shall desig ate them
,
-
, n ,

respectively by and and call them dy a mi all y a bs lut l ig h t el i t y and

,
c c
°
n c o e v oc

dyna mi call y p r p l i g h t ve l c i ty
o er o .

To fi nd the relation between and suppose that the gravitational c

°
c

p tential changes from the emissio to the pote tial point i a stepped form
o n n n .

The potential steps can be i fi nitely near to each other but f clarity we
n , , or ,

shall assume the distances bet w een them to be larger tha the photo w ave n n

length N w according t
. o ,
burst model for photons we have to
o our ,

conclude that the rear f the burst when pass i ng the i t h potential step
o

will change i ts velocity from to always with a time delay At A /

c , i , cl

after the head of the burst A being the wavelength f the photon in the i o

i t h region Thus the wavelength of the photon after crossing the i t h potential
. ,

step w ill be
Ci t! ! Al l 1 4 1 ‘

If from the em i ss i on t the reception point there are

o n steps we have so,

- l
‘
ll

From ( 1 1 3) and we obtain

1
c
1 + I /c
2
< >

This formula shows that the veloc i ty f l gh t in a stronger gravitational o I

fi eld i s lower i f measured on a iq clock un ue .

The space reg i ons i n wh ich velocity f light has th maximum possible o e

value can be called dyna mic l l y a b l t p c Obviously the space in which

a so u e s a e.

veloc ity f light i s isotrop i c

o has the same value along any direction ) is to
be called k in ma t i l l y b l t p
e ca a so u e s ac e .

A t he absolute times f em i ss i on and reception

s the absolute p
o e

i d ) of the photon emitted in the <1> region and received in the I region are
r o s ~ ()
,
-

T A/ c , T , A /c,
°

66
we ob ta i n taking i n t o ac ount
, c and

The proper periods of the emitted a nd received photons are

T A/ c

From ( 1 and we obtain

From ( 1 1 6) we conclude that if the frequencies f the em itted ( ) and o v

rece i ved photons are measured in the same time ( say i n absolute time ) it , ,

must be
l ’o V

From ( 1 we conclude that the relation between the per i ods T and T °

of two light clocks w i th q l arms placed in the regions with grav i tational
e ua

po tentials I) and (I) i f measured on a unique say absolute clock will be

( , , ,

I (D/ c 2
11
7 T
1

Hence if for a certain per i od f time the absolute ( the (D light clock ) has
o - -

measured t t i me units and the proper ( the light clock ) has measured t - - °

ti m e un i ts the relat i on betw e en them will be

,

I
°
t = z
H ( M ,

and th i s represents the phenomenon which we ll the dynamic time dila ti on ca .

R egard i ng t he generalization of dynamic time dilation in the case where

t h e period i s no t determ i ned by the mot i on of mass less particles we have to -
,

say t he same regard i ng the generalizat i on of ki ematic time dilation (see

as n

To expla i n i n more deta i l t he essence of dynamic t i me dilation let , us

cons i der a light source wh i ch em i ts photons with frequency when being v

placed a t a po i n t w i th grav it at i onal p t nt i n l I) The per i od T of the

o e o a ( .

e m it ted photon i s equal to the time i n wh i ch the emitting system passes

through it two speci fi c states and we shall call T also t he period of the
s ,

emi tti ng system I f we cons i der again an aer i al emitting radio waves then T is
.
,

t h e t i m e i n wh i ch say the potential of the antenna s top passes through two

, ,
’

success i ve max i ma .

67
 Transfer now the source of radiation to a region with a gravitational
potential (I S i ce the velocity of light in the region measured n the
) n -
, o
(D clock i
-
[ see formula
, s c the period of the system measured on the
°
,

same will become equal to 7 and the relation between T and 7 w ill " "

be g i ven by formula ( 1 Thus the relation between the frequenc i es and v

( measured n a un i que say absolute clock ) f t w o id t i l material

°
v o , , o en ca

systems placed respectively i n two regions w i th gravitational pote tials I

, , n ()

and (I will be )
,

7 11 + (o ,

Hence if an observer is placed in a D region and he rece i ves photons ( -

which are emitted by two i dentical sources f radiation the fi rst placed i n o ,

a D region and the second i n a reg i on he w i ll register a frequency for the

( - -
, v

photons a riv i ng from the D source and a frequency for the photons
r ( -
'

v
°

arr i ving from the (I) Source the relat i on between them being given by
,
-
,

fo mula r This i s due to the fact that t he frequencies of a photon

em i tted i n the <I reg i on and rece i ved in the D reg i on are equal if measured
>- <
,
-

on a un i que clock [ bu t the frequencies of two id t i l b and

se c en ca (

<D sources ar e
,
-
t q l i f measured on a unique clock and the relation
no e ua , ,

between them is given by formula

Th i s is the cause wh i ch leads to a shift in the spectroscopic lines observed
n the Ear t h i n the spec t ra f chemically identical stars and Earth s gases
’ ’
o o .

Let us cons i der a mass m (m 0 ) which hav i ng velocity i n the region , v

w i th grav i tational poten t ial (I) acqu i res the velocity in the reg i on w i th , v,

grav i tational potential (I) only as a result of the grav i tational i nteract i on
,

be t ween t his ma s and the ma ses producing the fi eld Proceed i ng from
s s .

formula and tak i ng i nto account and we fi nd

Th i s i s the energy conservat i on law for a poin t mass in a gravitat i onal

On the other hand i f two clocks move a t veloc i ties and w i th respect
,
v v,

to abso l ute Space then according to k i nemat i c ti me d i lat i on the relat i on

, , ,

between the i r readings t and t which correspond to the same absolute t i me

i nterval will be [ see ,

68
 taken with a negative Sign The p tential I i s to be called the r d c
. o ( ), e u ed

uni l g v i t t i n l p t nt i l
ve rs a ra a o a o e a .

If a reduced mass m changes it position from a (I reg i on to a I)

, s ),- ( -
re

gion i t reduced universal gravitational e ergy will change with

, s n

AU m m I c ,
( )

and hence it reduced absolute ( rest ) time momentum ( § 5 )

s se e
’

p p /c

h as to change w it h
A P. m c 6 .

where and are the velocities of light in the

c c
°
and (1 regions ) -
.

ince the rest energy

S is the same thing as the universal gravitational
energy i t must be
,

and from and we obtain

wh i ch w i th i n the necessary accuracy can be written in the form ( 1 1

, ,

Le t note that when a ma s changes it position and correspondingly

us s s ,

it grav i tat i onal energy changes then accord i ng to the en e rgy conservation
s , ,

law it k i netic energy changes by the same amount taken with a

s ,

negat i ve s i gn However when a mass changes it position its unive sal

.
, s , r

grav i tational energy also changes and since the rest energy i s t h f m of , a no er or

wri ting the un i versal gravitational energy the veloc i ty f light must cor , o

re s
p n
o d i n l
gy change i t valu e Form ula s represents the energy
. con
se rvation law while form ula , represents an equality between two
ide nt ica l qua n t i t i es .

We shall now br i efly discuss the problem about the experimental con
fi rmation of our hypothes i s

Firs t we have t o answer the question about the model of the U n i verse
which our absolute spa e time theory pu ts forward By the help f observa
c -
. o

tions i t has been establ i shed tha t the U n i verse represen ts a system ofgalax i es
,

and clusters f galax i es which are d i t ib t d h m g n ly in space Thus

o s r u e
‘

o o e eous .
,

as a reasonable approx i mation we can consider the U niverse as a sphere with

,

rad i us R tending to i n fi n i ty and w i th an average constant mass density

70
We shall suppose that out ide this sphere there is a void The universal
s .

g avitational potential for such a model of the U n i verse w ill be

r

R R
p — 4 qr y p
f f
’

_ _ dV r dr
y , ,

0 r 0

From and we obtain the follo wi ng expression for

light veloc i ty
’
R .

Thus if our hypothesis is adequate to physical reality the average mass ,

density and corresponding radius of the U niverse which are p i m , ex er en

tally established must satisfy the relation

,

since always some mass will remain ou tside the sphere w ith radis R which has
been taken as a rad i us f the observable U niverse
o

A t the present t i me the exper i mental data are ( Me zel t l 19 7 0 ) n e a .

,

thus a, , R ’

TH E P HY S IC A L ES S E NC E OF CO S M OLOGIC A L
R E D S HIFT

Hubble on the grounds f statistics of observatio al data esta

o n ,

bl i h d that the w avelengths of l i ght com i ng from distant galaxies are sh ifted
s e

according to the law (called H bbl l w ) u e s

’
a

A
" A M
A x

where Ai s the wavelength of the photons which the luminescent gas observed
in the galaxy emits on the E arth A i s the wavelength actually observed
, ,
is ,
r

the d i stance to the galaxy and H is the called H bbl c t n t so - u e o ns a .

S ince i t i s A > A then the visibl e spectral lines are lways shifted to the
, , a

red end and th i s effect is called also the c m l g ical d h ift os o o re s

Conventional physics and astronomy hyp t h t i l ly assume that the o e ca

galaxies are receding from each o t her the recess i on velocity being propor
,

t i n l to the d i stance between them so that the cosmological

o a , red shift is
71
 “
due t o the appearing D oppler effect S i nce we have established by means of .

ou r coupled mirrors experiment -

that the S n moves at a veloc i ty u

of about 300 km / s with respect t absolute space then n has to accept tha t o , o e

ou r S n is situated ve y near to the

u centre of the U niverse because the
r to
,

cosmological red shift for remote galaxies if considered as a D oppler ,

e ff ect corresponds t recession velocities approaching S for instance the

, o c . o, ,

quasar PKS 0237 23 has a red shift AA/ A -

and if we should accept
that th i s sh i ft i s d ue to a longitudinal D oppler e ffect then on the grounds of ,

the second formula where we put 0 we shall obtain , v

km / s .

Thus we consider the recession hypothes i s as highly arti fi c i al since the ,

probability tha t among m il lions of galax i es i t is ours wh i ch i s exactly at the

centre of the U n i verse i s ve y l w r o .

In our absolute space t i me theory we explain the cosmolog i cal red -

shift by the grav i tat i onal action of the masses of the whole U n i verse calling ,

i t the m l g ic l g i t t i l f q n y nd w v l ngt h h ift wh i le the

c os o o a ra v a o na re ue c a a e e s ,

red shift in the spect ral l i nes of ligh t emitted from a star d due to the an

grav i tational ac t ion of the mass only of th i s star is called the t lla g it s e r r av a

ti l fr q ncy nd wav l n gt h h ift

o na e ue a e e s .

Let us consider mathematically t he cosmolog i cal gravitational shift .

If there i s a sphere w i th radius R whose mass density p [ ( ) has a a r

central symmetry then the gravitat i onal potent i al at a point distance from
,
r

the centre can be calculated from the following formula

R
—4 7r y f jt r
'

dr
'

Bu rcev (P hy s L e t t 2 7A 623 p u t fo rw a r t h e ypo t es is o f ro t a t ing q u asa rs ( a nd d h h

l l l c h c cl h
,

l
.

a ax ie s ) e x a inin t h e a r e re d s ifts as a t ra ns v e rs e D o e r e ff e t T is o n us io n is d u e t o
g p g g pp
c c l h l c l cc l
.

an in o rr e t t re at m e nt o f t h e ig t D o pp e r e ff e t fo rm u a s Ta k ing in t o a o u nt ( s e e a so
h ld imm d i ly bl i h h B ly ly h f m l f h p
.

o ne s ou e at e es t a s t at u rce v a na se s o n t e or u a or t e o s t - t ra

D ppl
v e rs e ff c
o h er e m
e th h i d i l c mp
e ass u h h gl b es t a t t e re s no ra a o o ne n t w en t e an e e tw e en

h c b li
t e so u r e - o se rv e r d h di c i f h l i l ci y i q l
ne a n t e h m m
re f
t o n o t e re a t v e ve o t s e u a to at t e o e nt o

emi ) If
ss i o n h ld ly h f m l f h
o ne s ou a na D pp lse ff c ( i
t e if or u a or t e a nt e - t ra v e rs e o er e e t e o ne

h h i
.

d i l c mp wh lg b c b li d
.

ass um es t at t e re s no ra h ah o o ne n t en t e an e et wee n t e so u r e -o s e rv e r ne a n

h l i l ci y i q l
t e re a t ve ve o h m m
t s e f c p i ) h
ua to h ld c m h at t e o e nt o re e t on t e n o ne s o u o e to t e

cl i h i bl l fh a c mp bl h ifl w ld b
.

co n us o n t at at a s u ta e va ue o f t e t r ns v e rs e
y o o ne nt a ue s ou e se e n o r a n

l f h d i l c mp
va ue o t e ra a o o ne nt .

72
 upposing p 1
S . Const we obtain for the difference between the
1.
,

g av i tat i onal potentials at the centre of the sphere and at a poi t dista ce
r n n

r R ) the following expression

A(D r( ) m
’
E 7r r
y ,
.

We assert that always the point of emission is to be put at the centre of

the U n i verse because the point of emi sion i only n while the poi ts f s s o e, n o

recept i on can be an i fi i t q t i ty and we assume that there is

n n e ua n , uch no s

cen t re as the U niverse is without limi ts and thus y point can be considered an

as i t centr e Here
s . conceptions are almost identical with those of Nicolaus
ou r

Cusanus ( 140 1 on e of the most brilliant minds in history who ,

forwarded the follow i ng cosmological model The U niverse is a Sphere a

whose centre is everywhere and the surface nowhere

If a photon emitted from a space region with gravitational potential ,

(I ) has a wavelength A then in a space region with gravitati onal

,

potential D ( ,
this photon will have a wavelength A and the relation ,

between all these quantit i es w i ll be g i ven by f m l Thus b t i '

or u a , su s

t ut i ng i nto th i s formula the potential for 0 and we obtain r r r,

A
A
2 77 !
3 c
2

wh i ch formula for r R [ see can be wr it ten

A, A 2 77 y

D enoting
av

and calling HM t he H u bbl e - M arino v c o ns t an t we can writte

, in the
form

A, —A
A

wh i ch we call t he H bbl M in l w u e- ar ov a .

Plott i ng th e red sh i fts AA/ A of t he remote galax i es ( observed

sp e c t roscop i cally ) versus the i r d i stances t o the Earth ( est i mated from their
v i sual magni t udes a t t he ssump ti on t hat the absolute magn i tudes are equal )
a ,

on e can fi nd t he value of t he H ubble M in constan t and then from -

ar ov ,

equa ti on one can calculate the average mass dens i ty i n the U n i verse .

73
 have done this in M in ( l 978g) establishing H M
We ar ov ,

cm Tak i g for i the statistically established value

"
. n ts . w e fi nd , ac

cording to formula HM cm "

.

W Show i n M in
e ( l 97 8g ) that our theoretical q d t i relation
ar ov ua ra c

fi ts much better to the experime tal points of the dependence n

red shift dista ce then the hypothetical l i

n H ubble relation n ea r

Formula sho w s that f R where R is the rad i us f the

or r , o

U niverse it is [ see formula

,

2 77 7 2
2 p“ R
, 2
3 c

so that A For this reason even i f there i s a matter outside the sphere
00 ,

with radius R w , i i f m ti about it because the photons

e ca n r e c e ve n o n or a on

which w ould come from there will be extremely faint i with an extreme , . e .
,

low energy .

He ce according to our co ceptions even u der the assumption f an

n n , n o

in fi ite U
n factually the U niverse must be regarded as fi nite as w e
n rv e rs e ,

cannot look outside the sphere w i th radius R established from relation

Of course if a space traveller undertakes a m i j n y then new
, c os c ou r e ,

galax i es will enter into the sphere of his U niverse alo g the li e f h i motion n n o s

and the most red galaxies i n the oppos i te direction will disappear ; sailors
experience similar phenomena when they pass islands and other ships Thus .

w e can l l R not rad i us of the world but rad ius of the w orld s horizon
ca
’

E nding this sect i on we must emphasize that s i nce cosmology operates

, ,

w i th conditions at in fi n i ty n can never be sure whether one s world model

, o e
’

i s adequate to reality .

§ 13 . PR O P AG AT I ON OF L I GHT I N A MEDIU M

D RA G
In classical non quantum ) physics we consider only the gravita
-

t i n l and electromagnetic i teractions

o a f particles ( wi th masses differe t
n o n

from or equal to zero ) In the axiomatics of classical physics w e d not

. o

i ntroduce any assertion about the phenomenon collision ( respectively ,

coalesce ce and disintegration of particles A ll these problems are to

n .

be considered i n quantum physics However under certain id l i d as .

,
ea ze

su m pt i w e can consider some aspects f these phenomena also i n classical

o ns o

phys i cs These assumptions are

.

a ) The s i zes f the material po i nts are small enough w ith respect to the
o

d i sta ces between them that we can i gnore their sizes altogether
n , so .
 b ) Wh e n the part i cles c ll i de ( respectively coalesce or disintegrate ) w e
o ,

take i nto account only the laws ofconservation (see the end of applying
them to the particles before and after the collision ( respect i vely coalesce ce ,
n

or d i s i ntegration ) .

The emission of a photon f a particle with mass equal to zero ) by a o

par ti cle w it h mass different from zero represents a dis i ntegration f a par o

ti l c eThe absorption ( reception ) of a photon by a particle represents a

.

c alescence of part i cles

o .

When a photon propagates through a m d i m through a space e u

region i n wh i ch many part i cles are d i spersed ) i t will coll i de with the fi rst
a: h i t part i cle and be absorbed reflected (dispersed )
, em itted In the , o r re - .

fi rs t case we call the med i um opaque and in the last transparent A a s

rule the emission of a photon by a particle occurs a certa i n t i me after its

,
re -

abso pt i on Th i s i s our model for the propagation f light in a medium A

r . o . s

a matter of fac t i n this model we do not i ntroduce addit i onal h t

, c a rac e

ri t i
s f
cs t he quant i ty particle other than those introduced in our third
or

ax i om nd t hus there is no new assertion which merits being introduced in

, a

the axi oma ti cs .

The problem abou t t he veloci ty of ligh t in a t ransparen t medium when

the medium or the obser er or both move with respec t t absolute space i
v o s

cons i dered i n M in ( 1974 1976b) A review of the theore t ical parts of

ar ov a, .

t hese papers follows .

A . M e d iu m and obs e rve r a t res t .

Let have a medium wh i ch rests in absolute space If i n a u n i t f t i me

us .
, o ,

a photon c osses a distance / n through the medium and if for the sake of
r c ,

s i mpl i c i ty w e assume that it i s always be i ng em i tted by the part i cles i n the

,
t e-

sam e d i re ct i on l ong wh i ch i t h i ts them then we m ust conclude that the

a ,

pho ton propaga t es ( l / )t h par t of the time unit as a free photon d

n an

(1 1 / n) t h par t of the ti me un it it res ts absorbed ( or hitched by the

parti cles Thus w i th respect to an observer who is also at rest in absolute
.

space it moves w i th the mean veloc i ty

,

The factor i s call e d t h e it re fra c t iv i nd of the med i um

e ex .

75
 Fig .

B . M ed ium mov in g b v r at r t
, o ser e es .

Let n w calculate the velocity f light in a medium movi g with

us o o n

velocity in absolute space w i th respect to an observer w h i s at rest

v o .

S uppose fi rst ( f g 13 1) that the medium moves with velocity along the
i .
-
v

x ax i s f the used rest frame K only duri g this time when the photon is
-
o n

absorbed by some part i cle ( molecule ) of the medium and suppose that
during the time between the emission and next absorption the medium re -

( the molecule ) i at rest If we consider the path f the photon between two
s . o

successive absorptions then this path can be presented by the broken line
,

A B C i n f g 13 1 S upposing that the t i me bet w een two successive absorptions

i .
-
.

i s chosen f a time unit i that

or , . e .
,

AB/ B C/ l v c ,

we obtain
AB v (l I / n) , BC c /n

If now we suppose that the medium moves with velocity d uring the v

w hole time then the next molecule will be caught not at point C but at point
,

D where the distance CD is covered by this molecule in the time in w hich the
,

photon covers dista ce B D i n , . e .

,

CD v /n

Thus n ow the d i stance covered by the photon between two succes ive s

re - emission an d absorption will not be B C but

i
.

0 ) d
' '
’
-
s rn + c os .
i
n

76
 + v (l ) c os 0 ,

) c os 0
’

having suppressed the factor in the denomi ator n n of the last term on the
i ght side
r

Let us i troduce the angle between the velocity of the med ium and the
n

mean velocity f the photon which i s measured by the observer at rest

o

a ,
( 13 13 )

w here
a

i s the d i fference between the angles 0 and 0 which , is small a nd can be

considered only with an accuracy of fi rst order in / v c .

W i th in the same accuracy of fi rst order i n v/c we can write having in ,

m i nd and

S ubstituting this i to n we fi nd

7
V (I ) cos 0
( 13 16 )
) cos
2
0 ) sin ’
0 .

The model f the propagation f photons in a mov i ng medium

a ! or o

described here is called by us the hitch hiker model Let us mention that -
.

in ouryouth when crossing c untries by hitch hiki g we never waited

,
o -
n

for the next car at the same point where being d ropped by the prev i ous n o e,

but always tried t ga i n more distance by walking Of course

o pede .
, our

t i n velocity could never be higher t han that f the cars

s r a o .

78
 Fig . 13 2

C . M ed iu m at r t
es , o bs e r e v r m v in g
o .

Let there be ( f g 13 2 ) a medium with refractive index that is at rest i

i .
-
n n

absolute space and in which light propagates alo g a direction that makes an n

angle 0 w ith the axis of a frame K attached to absolute space Let an

x -
.

observer attached to a frame K move at velocity along the positive d i

'

v re c

t ion of the ax i s f frame K and suppose that the axes of both frames are
x -
o , x -

col i near .

We choose aga i n the t i me bet w een two successive absorptions f a o

photon on the molecules f t he medium as a time unit A t such a choice of the

o .

ti me unit a photon propagat i ng along the directio A F in the rest frame K is n

hitched ( 1 1/ n)t h part of the time unit on a molecule which rests at

point A and ( l / )t h part of the time unit moves alo g the li e A F until it will
n n n

be h i tched again on another molecule wh i ch rests at po i nt F .

In th e moving frame K we have the following picture D uring the time

'

in wh i ch the photon is hitched it will cover distance A B with velocity v

and du i ng the t ime in which the photon propagates w i th veloc i ty i

r c n

absolute space i t will cover distance B C in K ( under an angle 0 to the ' '

x ax i s ) w it h the proper relative velocity [ see

'
-

1 + v co s 0 /c
' ’
( 13 17)

s i nce duri ng the t ime in wh i ch the photon has covered the broken line A B C i n

frame K the molecule tha t rests at point F in absolute space has covered
'

dis t ance F C in K w i th velocity The mean proper relat i ve light veloc i ty in

v .

79
frame K '

the average light veloc i ty measured i n K by th e help of a clock '

which rests there ) w i ll make an angle 0 with the axis and have magnitude ,
x
'
-

AC (A 8
2
BC ’
BC cos

S i nce the time between two success i ve absorptions of the pho ton i s taken
equal to unity .

P utting into

AB V “ 1 + v co s d /c
'
1
n

and work i ng with i n an a curacy of second order i n

c v /c, we obtain

2 O + 0 + sin
’
’ '
’
0
'
v co s co s .

( 13 20 )
Th e angle which t he obs e rver in frame K will measure between the '

direct i on of propagation f ligh t and h i s own velocity is 0 Thus putting i nto

o , ,

0 o
'

, 7 ,

where y i s a small angl e and as w e shall further se e w i th i n the necessary

, ,

accuracy we can t ake

—
(n— 1) s i n 0 (n l ) s in 0
C C
-

( 13 22 )
we obtain
v cos 0
,
cos
2
0, ) sin 2
0 ,

The angle between the direction of propagation f l i ght and the veloc i ty o

o f the observer which should be measured i n frame K i s 0 Thus putt i ng into .

,

a a ,

where i s a small angle and as we shall furth e r see with i n the necessary
a , ,

accuracy we can take

n sin 0 ,

80
we obta i n
2
V
2
l
v co s 0 + cos ’
0 n (1 +
n

D . M ed iu m a nd o bs e rve r moving .

Let us n w fi d the velocity f light in a medium moving at velocity

o n o v

w i th respect to absolute Space measured by an observer attached to the

medium .

S ince i n such a case for ( l I / n) t h part of the time u it the photon is n

hitched and does not move w i th respect to the moving frame K w hich i s
a t tached to the medium then the e ffective velocity of the frame with
,

respect to the trajectory f the free photo w il l be / Thus accordi g to

o n v n .
, n

formula the proper velocity f the free photon wi th respect to K

o
'

w i ll be [ write in V / ] v n

The photon moves with this velocity only ( 1/ ) th part f the time unit n o , so

that t he mean proper velocity of light with respect t K will be o

V
2
V

’ 2
eh c n

where 0 and 0 are the angles between the direction of light propagat i on and
'

the veloc i ty f the med i um measure d respect i vely in the moving and rest
o , ,

frames .

l3 2 . . R EF R A CTION
In th i s sub sect i on we shall show that our model for the propagation of
-

l i ght i n a medium as a process of successive absorptions and emis re -

sions of the photons leads immediately to S nell s law for the refraction of ’

light .

We shall perform the calculation by onsider i ng a bundle of photons ( a c

l i ght beam ) which is incident under an angle p on the boundary between the t

81
media A and B wi th refractive indices A and Consider two photons which n n8 .

lie the e xtremities f the bu dle d on a line which is perpendicular to

on o n an

the bundle S uppose that the distance bet w een the points at which both
.

flan k photo s cross the bou dary is d A fter the i stance at which the fi rst
-
n n . n

nank photo crosses the bou da y the seco d fl nk photon has t move a
-
n n r , n a -
o

certain time t with the velocity l in the medium A and cover a d istance
e nA

d in p until it also reaches the boundary Thus we can write

s t

“
.
,

d s '" D

c /n
A

uring this time t the fi rst photon will move with velocity / i the
D , c n, n

med i um B and will cover the distance d in p where f is the refractive angle s t , i

( note that when the second fl nk photon has reached the boundary the fi rst
a -

and second fl nk photons must lie on a line wh i ch is perpend icular to the

a -

bundle ) Thus we can write

.

From the last two formulas we obtain S nell s law ’

S ” "A
f
s n r (
p

COLLI S ION B ETWE E N PHOTON S A N D PA R TICLE S

w e sa i d when particles collide we shall descr i be the phe nomenon
As , , ,

taking i nto account only t he laws of conservation and applying them to the
systems f particles before d after the collision
o an .

In this s b section we shall consider only the la t ic c ll i i n ( i a

u -
e s o s o . e

coll i sion i n which the masses of the particles before and after the collision
remain the same ) bet w een a photon and a particle with mass di fferen t from
zero ( the called C m p t n ff t ) We shall show that the Compton e ffe ct
so - o o e ec .

represents noth i ng but a light D oppler e ffect w here the energy f the m ir -
o

ror receiver is comparable with the energy of the striking photon that
-
so ,

under the hit f the photon the m i rror receiver changes it velocity
o ,
«i -
s .

A s we have mentioned in M ino ( 19 7 8h ) several authors have po i nted

ar v ,

out the equ i valence between the Compton and D oppler e ff ects However all .
,

these authors have treated this problem by consider i ng the Compton t t sc a e

ri ng n particles at rest We shall cons i der the more general case of c llision
o . o

bet w een a photon and a moving particle where the D oppler essence of th e
Compton scatteri g becomes more obv i ous
n .

82
 The mome tum and energy conservatio la w s applied
n n to the ela tic s

collisio f photon d a particle w ith mass m are [

no a an se e and
m
£: n hv
'

v 11
n
V
z
/C 2
)
I /2
C C

h h
'

v v

where are the velocities of the particle before d after the collisio ;
v, v
'

an n V, v
'

are the freque cies d are the directio s f propagation f the photo
n an n, n
'

n o o n

before d after the collisio

an n .

S quaring both these equatio s d subtracti g the fi r t from the eco d n an n s s n

we O btai n
v
c os (v , n ) ,
2 2
v /c
V V

(v
' '

co s , n )
c

This i the dependence between the characteristics f the photo d f

s o n an o

the particle before d after the collision in w h ich only 3 d ime sio al i va
an -
n n n

ri ants are i nvolved If we intercha ge the places f the differe t terms in

. n o n

equations before squar i ng them other formulas be obtai ed f , can n or

t he description f the Compto effect w here the cosi es f other a gles w ill
o n n o n

a ean
pp
The collision can be considered absorptio f the photon by the as n o

particle followed by an immediate emissio The absorbed f re - n re

quen y f the photon will be denoted by

e o ( i ntermediary ) d the v V an

em i tted frequency ( which can be received by an observer at rest ) by

re - v
'

A ccording to the second formula where we write we it

shall have v
co s (v , n )
c
V
(I
s i nce 0 ( ) i s the angle bet w ee the velocity f the observer ( the h it
v .77 n o

part i cle ) and the d i rection of the w ave vector f the emitted light at the o

moment f reception absorpt i on

o

A cc rding to the fi rst formula

o where we write 7,

v we h l l have
v
'

, s a

(I V

83
since 0 ( ) is the a gle between the velocity f the source and the
' ' '

v ,
-
n n o

opposite directio f the wave vector of the reflected light at the mome t of
n o n

emission emission re -

From the last t w o formulas we obtain the result

We must emphasize that when the particle is elementary ( for example ,

an electron ) its mass ca not cha ge d the emission must follo w n n an t e-

immediately after the absorption i the photon will only be fl « . e re ec

ted by the particle If the particle is compound ( for example an atom ) it .

, , s

mass can change and the emission can follow a certain time after the re -

absorption .

The D oppler e ff ect formulas give the relation between the frequencies
o f the emitted and observed light when source and observer move with
respect to one another In the Compton e ffect source and observer are at rest . .

However between them there is a moving m i rror ( the particle ) which

, ,

moreover changes it velocity under the hit f the photon Hence it is obvious
, s o .

that the relat i on to which the D oppler effect formulas lead ( w here w e are
in terested only i n the mirror s velocity before and after the reflect i o of the ’
n

photon ) must be the same the relation which can be obtained from the as

momentum and energy conserva t ion laws .

Form ulas represent four relations for i unknown quantities s x

v
’

,
vThus two f these quantities must be taken arbitrarily d they are
'

,
n
'

. o an

determ i ned by the un i t vector which is perpendicular to the reflecting 77 ,

plane of t he mov i ng m i rror ( D oppler treatment ) by the u it vector or n n

'

along the direction of propagation f the emitted photon ( Compton o re -

treatment ) U si g the law f light reflection ( the incident and reflected rays
. n o

lie i n the same plane w i th the perpendicular to the reflect i g pla e d make n n an

equal angles with it ) we can fi nd when and are given or when and , n lr n n
'

, n
'

n, are g i ven .

Thus the Compton scattering represe ts a D oppler effect where n o ne

obser es reflection f l igh t from a mirror which changes its velocity u der
v o n

the action f any i g l incident photon o s n e .

ELA TION B ETW EE N R EF RA CTI VE IN D EX A N D D E N S ITY

R

Th e rela t ion between the refractive index f a transpare t medium n o n

and its density p i s g i ven by the w ell known formula f Lorentz Lorenz [ see
.
-
o -
,

f example Lorentz
or ,

n I 1
n
2
2 p.

where K i s a constant wh i ch we call the L r n t z L r z c

L o e -
o en t nt
o ns a .

84
(if l it )seconds and before will travel l / seconds si ce the m
(1 I / n) , as ,
n , n su

of the free flight dista ces remai s the same d only the number of the
! n n an

hitch points h cha ged Thus w e can write

-
as n .

From here formula ( 13 37 ) can immediately be obtained .

In M in ( l 97 8 i ) we show that our formula

ar ov fi ds a better n

support i n the experiment than the Lorentz Lore z formula In f g -

n i .

13 3 we give the graphs f

-
a funct i on f u according to formulas
o n as o

an d The experime tal points are taken from M ichels t l

n e a .

wh have measured this dependence f ethyle e (p is given in A m g t

o or n . a a

units ) .

However eve without look i g at the experiment we can sho w that

, n n ,

formula is d u ns o u n .

Indeed write formula , in the form

1 + 2 K L tt
1 K L”

ccording t this formula with the i crease of the density the refractive
A o , n .

i ndex increases ve y rapidly and for a certai critical density p

r l / K it n L

becomes equal to i n fi nity The Lorentz theory [ . f example Lorentz se e , or ,

( l 9 l 6 )] ca ot o ffer a sound explanation to this peculiarity A ccording to

nn . our

formula no such peculiar i ty exists d becomes equal to in fi nity , an it

only for 1 equal to in fi nity

1. .

86
 14 . I NT R O D U CT I ON
this seco d part w e h l l give short accou ts f the most importa t
In n s a n o n

experiments which w e consider decisive f the refutation of the principle of or

relativity f the rejection f the relativistic space time co ceptions d f

, or o -
n an or

the restoratio f the l d Ne w to ia absolute conceptions dressed in the

n o o n n

clothes f our absolute space time theory

o -
.

Certain f the experiments can reveal the absolute motion f the labo
o o

t y others ca not reveal it practically because all absolute e ffects ca cel

ra o r ,
n n

each other i n the e ff ect to be measured O the other hand certai p i . n , n ex er

ments can give reliable e ffects when today s experimental technique i used ’
s ,

others ca ot nn .

We d e scribe all these experime ts concentrating our attention n their n , o

esse ce without entering into the details which the reader

n ,
fi d in the ca n n

original papers A dditio al references to other authors can be found in the

. n

same papers .

We co s i der the coupled mirrors experiment ( § l 9) and the rota

n -

ting disk experiments and 26 ) as dec i sive f the rejection of E ins or

tein s conceptions The analysis f the other experiments ( ours and f other
’
. o o

authors ) can strengthe o e s fa i th in space ti me absoluteness

n n
’
-
.

§ 15 . TH E Q U AS I R( E M E R E X P ER I M E NT
-

With the help of the R m experiment the observation f the

te er o

eclipses f Jupiter satellite from the Earth during the course of a year ) for
o a

the fi rst time in history the velocity f l igh t was measured I f t h i experiment o . s

be performed with the aim f measuring the Earth s absolute velocity w e call
o
’
.

it the q ua i R m x p rimen t
s -
te er e e .

Now we shall show that according t absolute space time theory the o ou r -

Earth s absolute motion ca not be revealed by the help f the quasi R m

’
n o -
te er

exper i ment This problem i considered in detail i M in ( 19 7 8j )

. s n ar ov .

S uppose ( f g 15 1) that at the initial year f b

i .
-
t i n w hen the E arth o o se rv a o

and Jupiter are in opposition the absolute velocity f the S n system o u vs

makes a gle 0 with the O pposition line

an n .

Let observe the zeroth eclipse of the satellite at the moment t read n
us
"
, o

a terrestrial clock whe the E arth and Jupiter are at the positions E
, n i . e .
,

half a year before the moment when they will be in opposition .

88
 Fig . 15 1-

The fi rst eclipse w i ll occur at the moment

J rE t

where T i the period of revolution f the satellite E J are the positions of

s o , ,

the E arth d Jupiter at the moment t and , i s the proper relative velocity
an
'
, c

of light com i ng from Jupiter w i th respect to the S n system u .

A ccording to formula where we write V we have v5,

C
1 0 /c
'

v co s
s

where 0 i s the angle between and the line of light propagation registered
'

v8

w i th respect to the mov i ng S un s frame and 0 is the same angle registered

’

w i th respect to absolute space .

S i nce Jupiter covers ( 1 / 12 ) t h part of i ts orbi t during an E arth year we ,

shall assume that the pos i t i ons J J are ve y near to one another Thus in
, , , r .

we can onsider angle 0 ( 0 with i n the necessary accuracy ) to be

c
'

e qual t o angle 0 i n f g 15 1 i to the angle between the opposition line and

i .
-
, . e .
,

t h e S un s absolute velocity
’
.

89
 Let the t h eclipse be observed at the moment 1 when the E arth
n
"
a nd

Jupiter are in opposition We shall have .

J E , ,
= nT cos 0) ,

Co

where R is the radius of the Earth s orbit ’

.

n
“
Finally suppose that the Z t h eclipse is observed at the mome t 1 after n
2
,

a other half year when the Earth d Jupiter are at the positio s E I
n -
an n .

We have
2 nT .

From here we c an determine the period T of revolutio n of the satellite .

U s i ng in we fi nd

where A13 i this t i me i nterval which follo w s the i nitial moment after whose
s ,

elaps i ng n has to observe the t h eclipse if the absolute velocity f the

o e n o

S n i s equal to zero or if the veloc i ty f light is not direction dependent

u , o .

When R mm made h i observations he compared the calculated time

er s ,

inter al
v with the really measured time interval A13 and knowing R , ,

he established c .

A ny traditio al absolut i st would conclude that maki g use f formula

n n o

could establish the component f the S un s absolute veloc i ty in

o ne vS o
’

the plane f the ecliptic when performing observatio s of the eclipses f a

o n o

Jov i an satellite during 12 years in wh i ch the angle 0 betwee d the n v S an

opposit i on line takes different values in the range f that the diffe o so

rence 61 1t A12 will vary i the range ( 2 R / ) s 61 s ( 2

n V
s
C
2

However if we take i nto account the absolute kinematic time dilation

,

(§ l we h l l come to the conclusion that if we measure the time on a

s a ,

terrestr i al clock then pos i tive effect can be reg i stered

,
no .

Indeed l t assume that the E arth covers the path E E during the
, e us , ,

absolute t i me interval ( read n a clock which rests in absolute space ) At The

o
"
.

t i me A13 read n the proper terrestri al clock will be [ use the second form ula
o
 dl —
E (I ) Al
"

—0 + tzt ) d t

1 V
E
2
v
) A1
"

2 c
2

where i the E arth s velocity w ith respect t the S n 12 i i t angular

vE s
’
o u , s s

velocity d thus, an QR vE .

Compar ing formulas and we conclude that no posit i ve

effect can be registered i the quas i R emer experime t because the time
n -
o n

interval between the zeroth and t h eclipses actually registered a terre n on

stri al clock will vary exactly in such a manner that the effect 61 which a ,

trad i t i onal absolut i st expects to be registered w il l be compe sated f by a , n or

change i n the rate of the terrestrial clock

I B RAD L E Y E X P E R I M E NT
§ 16 . TH E Q U AS -

With the help of the B radley experiment ( i the registration f the . e o

di fferences in the angles under which a given star observed from the E arth 18

during a year ) f the second time in history the velocity f light was
or o

measured If th i s exper i ment be performed with the aim of measuri g the

. n

Bath s absolute velocity we call it the q ua i B ra d l y p r im nt

’
s - e ex e
, e .

Now we h l l show that the E arth s absolute motion can be revealed by

s a
’

the quasi B radley exper i ment Th i s problem is considered in detail in Mari

-
.

no v ( l 97 8j ) .

If we O bserve a star on the celestial sphere from a platform ( the E arth )

moving with an absolute veloc i ty then the relation between the em ission v,

angle 0 which represen ts the a gle between the velocity and the source
'

n v

observer l i ne at the moment f em i ss i on and the receptio angle 0 w hich

o ,
n ,

re presen ts th e same angle a t the moment of reception will be [ see formula ,

(1 + i co 3 0) = 1
c c

N ow suppose that our platform ( the E arth ) moves wit h velocity with vE

respect t another platform ( t he S ) w hich for i ts part moves with velocity

o un Vs

respect i ve to absolute space Thus we have .

v v
E
+ v
s
.
 F ig 16- 1
.

Le t us suppose that at the moment f emission an E arth s observer and o

’

an observer who rests with respect to the S n (called the S un s observer ) are u
’

at the poin t 0 (f g 16 The light em i tted at this moment by a star which i

8 i . s

at the point S w i ll be rece i ved by the S un s observer when he crosses point 0 ’ '

and by the Earth s observer when he crosses point 0 We have the follow i g
’
. n

picture
a ) O b a t i n by t h S n b
s e rv o r in a b lut pac For this case 0 i s
e u
’
s o s e rve so e s e.
'

the em i ss i on angle and 0 the reception angle distance S 0 i proportional t

3 ,
s o

th e absolute l i ght v e locity and d i stance S O to the relat i ve light veloc i ty

c
'

with respect to the S n u cs

’

b) O b a t i n by t h E ar t h b
s e rv o r in a bs lu t pac For this case
e
’
s o s e rv e o e s e .

0 i s the emission angle and B the reception angle distance S O i s propor

'

E E ,

t i n l to the absolut e l i ght veloc i ty and distance S o to the relat i ve light '

o a c s

veloc i ty w i th respect to the Earth c

'

c) Ob a t i n by t h E ar t h b
s e rv o in a fra m a t t a h d t t h S n
e
’
s o s e rve r
'

e c e o e u .

For this case 0 i s the emission angle and 0 the reception angle dista nce S 0 is
'

proportional to the relat i ve light veloc i ty w i th respect to the S n (since th is u cS

'

i s the veloc i ty of light wh i ch travels along the g i ven direction with respect to a
frame attached to the S n) and distance S 0 to the relative light velocity w i th
'

respect to the Earth c

'

We must e mphas i ze that we suppose all veloc i t i es ( absolut e and relative )

t be measured i n absolut e t i me
o .

Consider now an im g i bl emission which occurs at the moment when

a na e

the Earth s obse ver i s a t th po i n t 0 and a reception which occu rs at the

’
r e
‘

moment when th i s obse ver arr i ves at the poin t 0 the veloc i ty f light being
r , o

equal to By analogy w i th we have

92
 F ig 16 2
.
-

absolute space and the velocity of light com i ng S A b e equal to c .

However when the S n moves and the veloc i ty f ligh t com i ng from S A i s
, u o

c th i s star will be seen from E ti lted to an angle

Vs, l

V V
E S
9
2
C

i .along the direction to S M The same star when observed from the
e .
, .

posit i on E after s i x months will be tilted oppositely to the same angle i

, . e .
,

along the d i rection to S M Thus i n a year the stars w hich l i e near the apex
.

of the S n should describe over the celestial sphere m l l arc equal to

u a s a

A nalogically we conclude tha t th e stars which lie

'

2 2
a,, 2v /
a E s c
’
.

near the S un s anti apex will descr i be a small equal to

’
-
a re

2 2v / Fa E the difference between these two arcs w e

s c
’
. or

obtain
A = 2 a

It can be seen i m mediately tha t the star S will b e observed from the a

position E tilted add i ti onally to an angle

2 i along the direct i on a IE . e

to S and the same star will be observed a fter s i x months from the p sition
82 o

94
E, t i lted oppositely to the same angle i alo ng the direction to both a E, . e .
,

at rest and at motion of the S n u .

Taking 30 km / s vE 300 k m / ( see we obtain A , vS s

rad Thus at the prese t state f tech ique the quasi B radley p n o n ,
-
ex e

ri ment can be considered only as a challe ge to the experimenters n .

§ 17 . TH E Q U AS I D O P P L E R E X P E R I M E NT
-

Observing from the E arth duri g a year the differe ces in the f q n n n re ue

cies f l igh t em i tted by a given star n can measure the light velocity d w e
o , o e an

call this the D oppler experiment If the D oppler experiment Should be .

performed with the aim for the measurement of the Earth s absolute velocity ’

we call it the q ua i D ppl r e p rim t s -

o e x e en .

Now we shall show that the E arth s absolute motion can ot be revealed ’
n

by the quas i D oppler experiment This problem is considered i detail in

-
. n

Mari nov ( l 97 8k ) .

Let us have ( f g 17 1) a distant light source ( a star ) S and two observers

i .
-

O 0 who rotate with relative velocities

,, 2 v ( it is ) about v , , v, , v v,

some centre C which for it part moves with an absolute velocity The s v .

absolute veloc i t i es of O and 0 which lie on the same line w ith the centre of
I 2

1 1
10 8 are
10 11
2 cos p v
2
v,
2
v v, t

2
v v,
2
2 v v , c os q>

where p i s the angle between the velocity and the velocity f the fi rst
( v o

observer D enote by 6 the angle between the source observers line and the -

veloc i ty at the moment of reception Obviously 6 i s a co stant angle while

v . n ,

1 changes w i th 2 during the peri od f rotation of O and 0

( ) 77 A ll angles are o , 2 .

t ken posit i ve clockwise and negative counter clockwise

a -
.

S uppos i ng that the source moves w i th velocity and em its light with v8

frequency we obta i n that an observer moving with veloc i ty will register a

v, v,

frequency given by the fi rst formula

9, i n which we have to write
v The angles 0 and 0 can be seen in f g 10 2 Writing in this formula
'

,
i .
-

fi rs t v, 0 0 and then
v , , v, v,, ,
0 0 ( see f g 17 1 ), v, v, , v, v, , , , i .
-

and d i viding the formulas obta i ned we get ,

1 cos 0 / I / v, . c v2
2
c
2

l v2 c os 02 / c 1

Thus the rela t ion be t ween the frequency rece i ved by the fi rst observer 17 ,

and the frequency rece i ved by the second observer does not depend on the
v,

veloc i ty f t he source
o

95
 Fig . 17 - 1

From f g i . 17 1
-
we have
v , cos t9l

vz cos t92 v cos 6

ubst i tut i ng
S and i nto we fi nd w i th i n an accuracy of

e cond ord e r i n l /
s c

—
2
—cos 6 co s (6
$
V
1 2 cos (6 )
tp 2 + tp ) ] 2
3
cos ’
(6 t
p
c 2

( 17 4 )

Th i s fi nal expression i s convenie nt for discussion Let us mesure . v,

and rece i ved from a given light ( radio ) sourc e f wh i ch 6 q

v, or !

1f 6 0 it will be
, f it ,
q howev e r if 6
v, or ) it wil l be
p, v,(1 2 / )f
vv , p c 0
2
Th i s result
or t leads to th
. e c nclus i on t h t w can o a e

96
 Fig 18 1 .
-

ligh t i em itted by the sources S d S A fter passing through the notches f

s , an , . o

the cog wheels C and C ( respectively C and C this light is observed by

-
, 2 , ,

the observers 0 and We shall call the direction from S t 0 direct

, , o ,

and from S to 0 opposite

, ,

S uppose that the veloc i ty of light i n the direct and opposite a !

d i ections i s the same equal to If both wheels have the same number of
r , c .

cogs placed respectively against each other cogs against cogs and
they are set in rotation then the observers w i ll establish maximum ph ton
, o

fluxes i n the case where t he d i stance d betw e en the whe e ls is covered by light
in the sam e time that the wheels are ro t ated an integer number of notches If .

any of the wheels has p notches and make N revolutions per second the s ,

wheels will rotate f p N notches i n a second We call this number f the .

,

frequency f chopping Obviously the condition f

o . observing a max i mum
, or

photon flux can be writ ten

where n i s an i nteger .

W i th the h e lp of the vern i ers V and V we can change the paths d and d
, 2 , ,

of the light beams b e tween both wheels If the velocity of light in direct .
it

and oppos i te direct i ons is the same then obviously 0 and 0 w i ll , , , , ,

obse ve max i mum ( min i mum ) photon fluxes when d d

r or , , .

N w suppose that the veloc i ty f l igh t i

o i n the direct and
o s c v c v

i n the opposi te directions The conditions for passing of t he chopped

.

a d i rect and oppos i te beams w i ll be

98
 ssuming tha t w i th a decrease of towards zero d and d should
A ,
v , , ,

become equal to d we shall have d thus w e obtain

,
n, n2 n, a n , ,

d, = d ( l

11
Ad d, d, 2 v
c

Obviously i f we choose a lower chopping frequency a longer shaft must

,

be used It i s easy to see that the chopping frequency which can be achieved
.

by a ro t a t i ng cog wheel requires a steel shaft long that practically it cannot

-
so

be onstruct e d Thus the question may be posed about the use of two
c .

independen t cog wheels not fi xed on a common shaft but rotating with the
-

same angular velocity .

For the sake f generality we shall now speak not of two independently
o ,

r o tat i ng cog wheels bu t of two i ndependently operating pairs of shutters ( for

-

i ns t ance K err cells) A ny pair of these shutters (f g 18 2 ) i s dr i v e n by a

, . i .
-

common chopp i ng mechanism say two resonators R and R , , A 9 .

Now the two follow i ng problems arise

Fi g . 18 2 -

a ) How t ma inta i n
o e
q ua l chopping frequenc i es for both pairs of sh ut
How t o maintain a phase d i fference between them equal to zero
b) ,

i
. e how t o ensure th a t both pa i rs f shutters will close and open t g t h
.
, o o e er .

The fi rs t d iff l ty n be overcome i f we use the same resonator f

i cu ca or

both pa i rs ofshutters which can be put near the shutters S A near the shutters
i

, ,

S B or i n t he m idd l
,
However i f we transmit the signals for opening and
e .
,

clos i ng the shutters by an electr i c line then a phase di ffere ce will appear ,
n it

between th e pai s It can eas i ly be shown that the phase di fference

r .
10
,

appea i ng a t the motion of our apparatus in absolute space will exactly

r ,

c ncel the e ff ect that we i ntend to observe

a .

99
 Hence the resonators produci g the chopping freque cy m ust be inde n n

pendent and for such two atomic clocks can be taken The chopping f
, . re

q ue n c
y f of the resonator
B
R can be maintai ed equal to the chopping
B
n

freque cy [ A f the resonator R if we tu e f in such a man er that the

n o A
n B n

beati g of the light spot observed by 0 will always be reduced to zero

n , .

Whe w e i dependent shutters we cannot know the phase diffe

n use n ,

rence bet w een them we ca not know when the fi rst pair f shutters i n o s

ope how far from open i ng is the second pair f shutters ) Hence again we
n, o .

are unable to measure the absolute velocity v .

However as D art ( 197 1) has suggested one can rotate the apparatus
, ,

w ith respect to absolute space When the axis f the apparatus is p p nd i . o er e

cu arl t will arrange the phase d i fference between both shutters

o v o ne so

that both obser ers 0 and 0 would see no light If now the apparatus i s put
v , , .

parallel to so that the d i rect d i rect i on w i ll coincide w i th the direction of

v,

v, then some l i ght w i ll b e s ee n by th e observers ; and only if we change the

d i s t ances d and d w i th t he h e lp f t he vern i e s V and V t o g i v e a d i ff erenc e
, 2 o r , ,

Ad accord i ng to formula w i ll no l i ght be left to pass through bo t h pairs

o f the coupled shutters .

However taki g into acc unt the absolute time dilation we can easily
,
n o ,

se e that this prediction f D art will not correspond to reality I deed duri g
o . n ,
n

the rotation both resonators will move at d i fferent velocities with respect to
absolute space Thus the i r time rates w i ll be d i fferent and exactly such that
.

the new phase d i fference that will appear after the rotation will
a t ly ex a c

ca nce l the effect to be observed if the phase di fference after the rotat i on
had remained the same as before the rotation .

To prove th i s le t us suppose that the ax i s f the apparatus is fi rst

, o

perpendicular t it absolute velocity Let us then rotate the apparatus with

o s .

angular velocity w say about the m idd l po i nt until the direct direction
, , e ,
a

o f i t axis becomes parallel to

s Let the readings of t w o clocks ( suppose for
v .
,

simplicity light clocks ) attached to R and R be t , before the rotation

, A B ,

after the rotation Let the proper t im l .tj t, t t es A

’

, , ,
'

c rrespond to the same absolute time interval 1 B ecause f the absolute time
o . o

dilation we have [ the second formula se e

“
,

0
l

f “ I
0
l

where v
2
w)
’
v dw cos (w t ) ,

d
V
2 — v dw c os (w t )
2

are the veloc i ties of the resonators during the rotat i on of the apparatus .

100
 TH E D EVI A TI VE CO U PLE D -
MI R R O R S EX PE R I ME NT
In th summer of 1973 we carried t the deviat i ve vari ant of the
e ou

c oupled m i rrors experiment The report on it performance is given in

-
. s

Marino v ( l 974 b) .

F ig .

In f g 19 1 w e g i ve the scheme of this experi men t Let us have two disks

i .
-
.

d ri ven always t ly w i th the same phase di fference ( imagine the w heels of

ex a c

a b i cycl e ) On e ach d i sk two antipodal face ts are cu t and n is made a

. o e

mi rror while th e other and the res t of t he disk s rim are not light reflecting
,
’
.

Th d i stance between both disks called the rotat i ng m irrors R M and R M is

e , ,

d Int e ns i v e light from the source S ( or S ) i s reflected by the semi t n p

.
, ,
-
ra s a

rent mirror M ( M ) and after pa sing through t he semi transparen t m irror

, , , s -

N , i s i nc i den t on the mirror face t f R M The ligh t beam then

o ,

re flect e d by th e sem i transparen t m i rrors N and N ( N and N ) whose

-
, , , .

d istanc e from the rota t ing m irror i s p i s incident on the mir or face t of R M
, r ,

I f the rotat i ng mirrors are a t rest the light beam reflected by the ,

cylindrical mirror CM ( CM ) will ill um i nate screen S from the righ t ( from
, ,

the left ) at a certa i n po i nt The ligh t path from the ro tating mirrors to the
.

cylindri cal m i rrors i s D and from the cylindri cal m i rrors to the screen i s d / 2 .

102
 If the rotating mirrors are t i n motion the because of the slit T o ly
se , n, , n

the light which is reflected by R M ( R M ) when the latter is perpendicular to

, ,

the incident beam will reach R M Ho w ever for the time spent by light
, ,

t cover the distance d

o 2p the facet f R M ( R M ) which i parallel ( an
, o , , s

exact parallelism is not necessary to the correspondi g facet of R M ( R M n ,

wi ll rotate by a certa i n angle

where 11 i s the angular veloci ty of the rotat i ng m irrors .

S uppose now that light velocity along the direction from R M to R M ,

(which w e call d i rect is and along the direction from R M to R M

c v , ,

(which w e call opposite is I n such a case duri g the time in which

c v . n

the light pulse reflected by R M will reach R M the latter will rotate t an
, , o

a gle 6 + while duri g the time in which the light pulse reflected by R M
n a , n

will reach R M the latter will rotate to an a gle 6

,, d we shall have n a , an

2
Bi a

from where ( assumi g n v c ) we get

a SZ d v/ c
’
.

Our apparatus takes part in the diurnal rotation of the E arth and i 24 n

hours i t w i ll make all possible angles with the component of the E arth s ’

absolute velocity in the plane determined by the d i fferent positions f the o

apparatus dur i ng the day ; this component we shall refer t o as the E arth s ’

absolute veloc i ty and designate by v .

S uppose fi rst that the unit vector alo g the direct direction i n ! 71 s

perpe d i cular to
n d le t adjust the cyli drical mirrors so that the
v, an us n

chopped light beams w ill i llum i nate the same point 0 n the screen S Now o .
,

if becomes parallel t
n both light beams will illuminate point P and for
o v, ,

the distance between 0 and P we shall have ( suppose 1 ( )

d
s 7
9
4 2 61 1)
7
where y 2 ( B) and B 2 ( D / R ) sec q ; ngl B y
a d q are shown
a ) a es , ,
an )

in f g 19 1 and R is the radius of the cylindr i cal mirrors Thus we have

i .
-
.

)1 .

The e tablishment of velocity i s to be performed as follows In regular

s v

inte vals of time during a whole day we maintain such a rotational velocity 12
r

10 3
that the chopped light beam from the left will always illum inate point 0 .

Then the light beam from the right will illum inate point 0 when is per n

p nd i l
e to ; i t w ill be displaced over a dista ce 2 upwards when i t
c u ar v n s n v

and over the same distance downwards w hen i t n v .

I n our factual set p both rotating disks were fi xed n a com mon shaft
-
u , o

because the most important requireme t f the coupled m irrors p i n o a -

ex er

ment is the maintai i g of an q l p h diff n n between both rotat i ng e ua as e e r e nce

mi rrors during the E arth s rotation Two H N lasers were used as ligh t
’
. e- e

sources We used three cyli drical mirrors for each beam and such a com bi
. n

na t ion f cyli dr i cal mirrors which i ncreases enormously the arm of a

o n n

li gh t beam is called by us the cylindr i cal mirrors indicator The light spo ts
were observed over t w o different screens because in our factual experiment
both rotating mirrors lay in two di ff erent parallel planes A ccording to the .

calculation for real adjustment i t mus t beou r mm for 100 k m / s v s .

This d i splacemen t i s large enough to be rel i ably registered However the .

inconstancy f th e cylindri cal mirrors rad ii and the trembling f the i mages
o o

were too considerable and exper i ment could not lead to an accurate
, our

quant i tative measuremen t of The observed displacement was maximum v .

3 i 2 hours after midn i ght and after noon and corresponded to a velocity
v 130 1 100 km / s the direct direction being the n after m idnigh t
, o e .

The d i stance between both rotating m i rrors was m the rad ius of the ,

cyl i ndr i cal m i rrors was R 8 cm and the veloc i ty of rotat i on f the shaft , o ,

taken from an ld torpedo boat was o 80 rev / s The az i muth f the

-
, 77 . o

apparatus was 84 and the observa t ions were performed in July A ugust in
° -

S fi a
o .

The error t 100 km / s was establ i shed i n the following manner A n

observer maintai ed f 2 3 m i nutes n f the light spots in a certain
n or -
o e o

pos i t i on adjust i ng by hand a correspond i ng tension f a d electromotor

,
o c

wh i ch drives the shaft A nother observer registered the diapason f trembling

. o

of the other light spot which was normally 2 3 mm If this d i apason i -

. s

A s mm t hen the fluctuation error i s j 100 km / s

,
: .

l9 2 . . THE INTE R F ER O MET R IC CO U PLE D -

MI RRO RS ii

EX PE R I M ENT
The result obtained w i th our deviative coupled mirrors experiment c( -

w very i naccurate and the scien t i fi c community remained sceptical whether

as

we really reg i stered the E arth s absolute motion For this reason in the ’
.
,

summer of 19 7 5 we carr i ed t the i n terferometric coupled m irrors ex ou -

peri m n t obtaining
e a very sure
, and reliable value f the Earth s absolute or
’

velocity The report n its performance is given i n M in ( l 97 8 )

. o ar ov c .

104
( R M ) when , the velocity f l igh t i equal to o s c v ) D enoti ng by 6 the
(c v .

a gle bet w een the radii of R M d R M ( R M

n , an
'

l a nd R M ;) and by a the a ngle

betw een the radii f R M, d R M; ( R M ; d o an

'

an we shall have

from where ( assuming ) we get the result ( 19 v c

The di fference in the optical paths f the refracted and reflected o

l ight pulses in the cases of availab i lity and non availability f an aether -
o

wind w il l be

A= 2 a R = 2 v = 2 d

where the linear velocity of the rotating mirrors

vr is .

l f t h wavelength of the used light i A and we maintain such

e a gular s an n

velocity $2 2 N ( N is the number of revolutions per second ) that the

77

observer 0 Should always register the same i nterference picture the d

, , n, u

ring the rotation f the apparatus over 360 in a plane parallel to the direction
o
°

o f the absolute velocity the observer 0 should register a change i his

v, , n

i nterference p i t within c u re
d R N
2 2 v
Ac z

wavele gths n .

In ac t ual set p the direct beams are tangent to the pp parts

ou r -
u ,
u er

o f the rotat i ng d i sks wh i le t he oppos i te light beams are tange t to their

,
n

l w
o parts Thus the reflect i on of the direct and opposite beams
er . !

proceeds on the same planes of the mirrors The observers i n our actual .

set p represent two ph t i t which are put i n the arms of a

-
u o o re s s o rs

Wh eat tone bridge The changes in both interfere ce pictures are

s . t ly n ex a c

o pp i t Thus i n our apparatus the mirrors R M and R M are exactly parallel

os e .
, ,

and the ph t i t are i llum i nated t by a pattern of interference fringes

o o re s s o rs no

but if m ly
un or .

A ve y important difference between the dev i ative

r d i terferometric an n

coupled mirrors experimen ts is that the e ffect registered in the latter is

-

i d p d t f small varia ti ons i n the rotational velocity In the i n t f

n e en en o . e r e ro

metric variant one d t keep the i llum ination over one of the ph t
ne e no o o re

i t
s s o rs co stant by changing the velocity f rotation when rotating the axis f
n o o

the apparatus about the d i rection f it absolute motion but need merely to o s ,

register the diff i n the i lluminatio s over the ph t i t during the

e r e nce n o o re s s o rs

rotation Th i s ( together with the high resolutio f the interferometric

. n o

method ) is the most import ant adva tage f the interferometric n o

coupled mirrors experiment

-
.

106
 i nce the illumination over the ph t i t changes with the change
S o o re s s o rs

of the di fference i n the optical paths of the refracted and reflected

beams according to the sine law then the apparatus has the highest n it i
, se s

v i ty when the illumination over the ph t si t is average ( for maximum o o re s o rs

and m i nimum i lluminations the sensitivity falls to zero ) Hence a change in .

th velo ity f rotation

e c o lead only to a change in the se nsitivity
can .

Le t us cons i der th i s problem in detail We suppose that the electric .

i ntens i t i es of the reflected and refracted beams when they meet again
on the semi transparent m irror S M ( S M ) are respectively
-
, or , , ,

E sm ( wt ) E s 1n ( 10 1 p)
(

where E the maximum electric i ntensity which is equal f both beams

rs or ,

i s the angular frequency of the radiation and q is the difference between the
to )

phases of the i ntensities i n the reflected and refracted beams .

The resul tant electric intensity after the interference will be

2E s rn ( wt E

( 19 10 )
where 2 E cos ( p / 2 ) is the maximum electr i c intensity ( the
m ,
t

ampl i tude ) of the resultant beam .

The energy flux density which will fall on the ph t i t will be o o re s s o rs

E 2
ma x
c os I max
cos 2

wh e re 1 the max i mum poss i ble energy flux density

Is .

The sens i t i vity i s

s in tp
d tp 2

and i s highest f p / 2 3 / 2 i when the di ff erence i n the optical paths

or t 77 , 77 , . e .
,

of the reflected and refrac t ed beams is ( 2 n l )

a being an n

i nt e ger The sensitiv i ty falls to zero for q 0 i when this d i fference is

. ) , 77 , . e .
,

n (A/
If the re s is tance of the ph t i t changes l i n ly with the change in
o o re s s o rs ea r

th illum i nat i on ( as was th e case i n our se t p ) then to a sm all change d I i n

e -
u ,

th e e nergy flux dens i ty a change

s i n tp dtp ( 19 13 )
-
in the resistance f the ph t i t will cor espond I be i ng a co stant F
o o o re s s o rs r ,
t n . or

a change Aq >the resistance will cha ge w ith R

77 k as it follows n

a ft er the integration
S i ce it i Ap
n Z A/ A then f
s t
p where the sensitivity is the
77 ,
or (

highest we h l l have
, s a

S ubstituting this i nto ( 19 w e obtain

Ac ’
AR
V 19 1 5
4 77
2
d R

The measuri g method i s Firs t we make the axis of the apparatus to be

n ,

perpendi cular to the absolute velocity f the laboratory W t such a v o . e se

rotational rate N that the illumination over the p h t i t t be m i i

, o o res s o rs o n

mum Let denote the resistance of the ph t i t under such a co di

. us o o res s o rs n

t ion by R and R ( it must be R

, , put the same consta t resista ces
, n n

in the other two arms of the br i dge that the same current J ( called the , so ,

i nitial current ) wi ll flow through the arms of the ph t i t well o o res s o rs , as as

through the arms f the constant resistors and no current w ill flow through
o ,

the galvanometer i n the bridge s diagonal Then we t such a rotational rate

’
. se

N that the i llumination over the ph t

, i t is maximum and we connect o o re s s o rs

in series w i th them two variable resistors R so that again the int i l current , , a ,

J has t fl w through all arms of the bridge A fter that we make the
o o .

i llumination average setting a rotational rate N ( N

, and w e ,

diminish correspondingly the var i able resistors R so that again the same , ,

i nitial current has to flo w through all arms f the bridge and no current o

through the diagonal galvanometer Now w e make the axis of the apparatus .
,

parallel to the absolute velocity and we transfer resista ce AR from the arm
v n

where the illumination over the ph t i t has decreased to the arm where o o re s s o r

it has increased again the same initial current will flow through all arms
, so

and no current through the diagonal galvanometer The absolute veloc i ty is .

to be calculated from
When the i lluminat i ons over t he ph t i t were average a change o o re s s o rs

6R R i n any of th e arms of the ph t i t ( positive in the one and o o re s s o rs

negative i n the other ) could be discerned from the fluctuation f the bridge s o
’

galvanometer and thus the resolution w as

3. 17 km / s .

10 8
where p i s the latitude
( of the laboratory and 6 is the declination of t h apex e .

From these we obtain

2 ( cos s i n (p )]
2 2 2 2
v, v ,, v , v ,, (p
V =
2 sm q> cos q7

v, + v,

W e take and as pos i tive when they point to the north and
v, v ,, as

negative when they po i n t to the south Obviously the apex f the absolute .
, o

velocity points to the meridian f th is component whose lg b i value i o a e ra c s

smaller Thus we shall always assum e

. and then the right ascens i on v, v ,, a

of the apex w i ll be equal to the local s i deral t i me of reg i stration f We o

could establ i sh th i s moment within a prec i sion f about 30 minutes Thus we o .

ca n calcula t e ( w i th an i naccuracy not larger than t 5 m i n ) the s i deral time t

for the mer i dian Where the local time i s the same as the standard time t of , ,

reg i strat i on tak i ng into account that s i deral time at a m iddle midnight i as
, s

follows
2 2 S eptember
22 Oc t ober
2 2 November
22 D ecember
2 1 January
2 1 F e bruary

Our first measurement f the Earth s absolute velocity by the help f the
o
’
o

interferome t ric coupled mirrors experiment was performed n 12 July

-
o

197 5 i n S o fi a (q 42 4 l A We r e gistered '

°
) ,

2 60 z 2 0 km / s 15 ,
7
,

80 z 20 km / s 6 3 1 1 15 ,
h m m

;
1 27 9 z 20 km / s ,

6 26 °
01 1 20 1"
( 19 2 0 )
We repeated t he m e surement e xactly six months later on 1 1 January
a

1976 when the Earth s rotational v e locity about the S n was opposit e ly
’
u

d i rected We reg i stered

.

v, 293 t 20 km / s 6 ,
h

12 1 i 20 km / s 18 t ,
h
.

1 10
 v 32 7 t 20 k m / s ,

21 °
t a 14 h
t
For and 6 we have taken the r m s error supposing f simplicity
V . . .
, or

The right ascension i s calculated from the moment w he is n v,

regi stered i from , . e s i nce for this case

.
, the sensitivity is v, v ,,

bet t er If our exper i ment i s accurate enough then which is taken as the
.
,

second must differ with 1 1 5 8 from t which is taken as the fi rst because f
h m
, , , o

the di fference between solar and sideral days .

The magnitude d the equatorial coordinates f the apex of the S un s

an o
’

absolute velocity will be given by the arithmetical means of the fi gures

obta i ned for the E arth s absolute veloc i ty i n July and January
’

303 z 20 km / s ,

m m
23 °
a 14 h
17 1 zo .

CC E L E RAT E D
§ 20 . TH E A
CO U P L E D M I RR O R S E X P ER I M E NT -

S ince the masses of the mater i al points are a measure of their kinetic
energy as well as of the gravitational energy to w h ich they contribute the ,

so - called p i ipl f q u ival nc can be formulated this asserts A y gra

r nc e o e e e , n

v it t i n l fi eld in a small region around a given space point can be replaced

a o a

by a suitable non inertial frame of reference ( and i

-
) so that the v c e ve rs a ,

b haviour f mater i al points i n an inertial frame of reference in the presence

e o

o f a gravita ti onal fi eld would be indistinguishable from their behav i our i n a

su i table non i nert i al frame withou t the gravitational fi eld
-
.

E instein generalized and made absolute this mechanical (or Gali !

lean ) pr i nc i ple f equivalence (as he has done with the Galilean pr i nciple of
o

relat i v i ty see postulat i ng that it i s by no means possible to establ i sh

whe t her the acceleration which i exerted n material points in a laboratory s o

h as a k i nematic ( mechan i c) character ( thus being due to the accelerated

motion f th e laboratory for example by thrust of a space ship ) or a dynam i c
o , ,

(g av i tat i onal ) character ( thus be i ng genera t ed by the act i on of nearby mas

r

ses , for example by the Earth s at t raction )

,
’
.

A ccord i ng to our absolute space ti me concept i ons such a generalization -

,

of the pr i nc i ple f equ i valence con t radic t physical reality The accelerated
o s .

coupled mirrors experi ment proposed in M in ( l 978 t ) can im me

-
ar ov

d i t ly reveal the i nvalid i ty f Eins t e i n s principle f equivalence Its essence

’
a e o o .

is as follows
lll
 Let measure with the help of
us coupled mirrors apparatus the our a -

absolute veloc i ty f an accelerated laboratory at two different moments If

o .

the a celeration is kinematic ( mechanic ) the absolute veloc i ty in these two

c ,

di ff erent mome ts will be d i fferent ho w ever if the acceleration i s dynam i c

n ,

(gravi t ational ) the absolute velocity will always remain the same
,
.

§LT R AS ONIC
21 . TH E U
CO U P L E D S H U TT E R S E X P ER I M E NT
-

By the help f observations and logical generalizations Galilei f m

o , or u

lated the called pri c ipl f r la t i ity w hich asser ts the follo w ing The
so - n e o e v ,

behaviour f a materi al system in two inert i ally moving frames of reference i

o s

i dentical ; thus perform in g measurements in a laboratory which moves in

,

er t i l l y w i th respect to absolute space

a n cannot establish this absolute , o e

motion .

E i nstein assumed that this principle is valid also for light propagation ( in
general f the electromagnetic phenomena ) and generalized it for all phy
, or

i l phenomena calling it the g n ra l p i nc ip l

s ca , f r la t iv i ty The principle f
e e r e o e . o

relat i vity which does not include light propagation phenomena was called
t he r t ric t d ( m han i al ) p in ipl f r la t ivit y
es e or ec c r c e o e .

By the help of our coupled mirrors experiment we have shown that -

,

the general pr i nciple f relat i vity is i nval i d However no experiment exists

o .
,

which has contrad i cted t he mechanical pr i nc i ple f relativity In our absolute o .

space t i me theory we c nsider the restricted pr i nciple of relat i vity as b

-
, o a so

l t ly val i d M
u e we have come to the conclusion that only by the
. o r e o ve r,

comb i nat i on f mechanic l and light (electromagnetic) phenomena n one

o a ca

establish the absolute velocity f a laboratory S i n our coupled m i rrors o . o, -

exper i ment the rotation f t he shaft represents a mechanical phenomenon

o ,

and i n a frame moving w i th respect to absolute space this rotation is i nde

pendent f the axis orientation On the other hand the propagation of light
o
’
.
,

pulses represents an electromag etic phenomenon and in a mov i ng fram e it n ,

depends on the direction of propagation .

B riscoe ( 195 8 ) has pointed to another comb i nat i on f mechanical and o

electromagnetic phenomena which perm its the reg i stering f the absolut e o

motion of a laboratory B ri scoe proposed the parallel transfer of light and

.

sound signals The propagat i on f sound i i sotropic in any inertial frame

. o s ,

since this i s a mechanical phenomenon while the pro pagation of light is ,

anisotropic and by comparing these two types f signal transfers one can
, , o ,

establish the absolute velocity of a laboratory .

1 12
ultrason i c pulses along the t rack E R E R A Mov i ng the emitter receiver A
-
B
- -
.
-

system E R A back and forth w e can change the number of pulses on that
A
-

track .

The propagat i on of sound i s a mechanical phenomenon and the

principle of relativity holds good for it Thus by the help f sound signals a .
, o ,

Newtonian time synchronization between spatially separated point can be s

realized .

S uppose fi rst that the absolute veloc i ty of the laboratory ( the Earth ) is
perpendicular to the axis t The wavelengths of light in both directions will be
a

A T and t here will be

C ,

11 d
" =
A cT

light pulses between the shutters S h A and S h Moving the em itt e r receiver a ~
-

system E AR A we choose such a position that 0 A and 0 should see an

-
, B

average light intensity In such a case a half i teger numb er f nd waves is

.
-
n o so u

placed along the track E R E R A and the low peaks w i ll be exactly

A
-
B
-
B
-
,

between the h i gh peaks In the real experiment where the time lost by the
.
,

pulses along the electr i c trac ts cannot be ig ored the low peaks wi ll have a n ,

certa i n pos i tion w i th respect to the high peaks .

S uppose n w t hat the absolu t e velocity becomes parallel to d pointing

o v ,

from left to ri ght wh i ch direction we shall call dir e ct The light wave
,

length in the direc t direction will become A ( ) T and i n the A c v

opposite direction A ( ) T so there will be

, c v ,

61 d d

(c
— v) T
’
AB (c + V ) T

light pulses between t he shutters S h A and S k respectively i n the direct B, ,

I)

and oppos i te directions .

If An i s less than ( or equal to )

nA 77 B the observer 0 will see 8

the average light i ntens ity plus a A t h part of the maximum light intensity n ,

while the observer 0 w i ll the average light intensity m inus a A t h part of

A see n

the ma imum light i ntensity Thus for An

x 0 will
. a maximum 8 se e

l i ght intensity and 0 n light If A A o we can reduce the t i me duri g

. n n

which the shutters remain O pen to A T ( see the small segments shaded in n

black i n the fi gure ) obta i n i ng that 0 A will see n l igh t w h il 0 will see a (2 A ) t h o , e l,
n

part f the nominal maxi mum light intens i ty ( N B S uch will be the case i f
o . .

d /A n where is an integer ; if d /A n all will be i n v ce

ve rs a ) .

From w e ob tain
c + v
n
B
+ An ,

1 14
and ma k i ng use of we obta i n for the absolute velocity
c An c
’
T An
V :

2 11 2d

Tak i ng f l / T M H ( this freque cy is used in the h yd l t z n ro oc a o rs

of S oviet submarines ) d 50 km we obtain for 300 km / s A

, , , v , n

In an actual experiment the water will not be homogeneous N t h . ever e

less th is i s f n importance because the direct and opposite sound

, o o it

waves cross exactly the same way and the number of sound waves in the
it d i rect and opposite directions will be the same However as a result of
it .
,

d iff erent influences ( temperature density currents the water can , , ,

change i ts sound conductive properties Th is signi fi es that dur i ng di fferent .

momen ts d i fferent numbers of sound waves will be placed along the tract
E R E R
A
-
B and the low peaks w i ll creep with respect to the h i gh
-
B
-
A,

pe aks Thus t hroughou t the experiment a corresponding sh i ft of the emit

.
,

te r rece i ver system E R A is to be performed and the low peaks are to be

-
A
-

ma i nta i ned a t their initial positions If the creep of the low peaks is .

consp i cuous the experiment should be performed i n win t er when the water
,

i covered by ice and preserves it sound conduct i ve properties for long

s s

e nough Th i s exper i men t w i ll be successful if the low peaks can be main

.

t in d at the i r i nitial pos i tions a whole day w i th an inaccuracy m uch less than
a e

on e A th part f the period T For convenience and h i gher accuracy the

n o .

compensat i on f the creep i s to be made not in the ultrasonic bu t in t he

o

electric tract .

If one can realize a stable multiplication of the frequency f and govern

the shutters S h A S h by this enhanced frequency then the absolute velocity
, B ,

v can be measured by changing the multiplication factor and by usi g a n

method similar to that used ( and explained in detail ) i n § 27 thus n t waiti g , o n

for the Earth s rotation ’

.

§ 22 . TH E K IN E M ATIC TI M E D ILAT I ON E X P E R I M E NT S
ccord i ng t o our absolute space t ime theory the kinematic ( Lorentz)
A -

ti me dilat i on i an ab olute phenomenon s th e comparison f the

s o

readings of clocks wh i ch move w i th d iff erent veloc i ties with respect to b a so

l t spac can gi v e i nformation about these absolute velocit i es

u e e .

Indeed i f tw clocks A and B move with the absolute veloc i ties A

, o v ,

th e n the relation between the i r readings A1 A At proper time intervals ) , ,

which correspond to the ab olute t i me i nte val At read by an absolute clock s r

wi ll be [ use formula
1 15
 TH E R O S S I H A LL M E S ON E X PE R I M ENT
-

The fi rst exper i ment which proved th Lorentz time dilation was the e

c lled meson exper i ment performed by R ossi and Hall

so - a it I n th i s
exper i ment the clocks were elementary particles namely p mesons and ,
-
,

their readings were the mean lifetimes of the mesons .

The mean life of p —meso s at rest i the time in which ( l / ) th part of

-
n , . e e

them will decay is T , R oss i and Hall measured the distance d

3 .

covered by high velocity I mesons produced near the top of the atmosphere
-
r-

as a result of nuclear interactions caused by pr i mary cosm ic radiation .

K nowing the i r velocity which i s near to they calculated the proper

v c,

m e an life T of the mesons from the relation

'

-
,

T, d/ v

Comparing T w ith T they have proved the relation , ,

A s i m ilar exper i ment for positive and negative muons in a circular orb i t
has been recently performed by B a i ley t l ( 1977 ) and h ve y rel i ably e a . as r

proved the relation ( 1

THE H A F E LE K EA TING -
CLOC K S R O U N D TH E WO R L D
- - - i.

EX PE R I ME NT
The fi rs t exp e ri men t where the Lorentz t i me dilat i on was proved by the
help of macroscopic clocks was the clocks round the world experiment of - - -

Hafele and K eating It cons i sted of the following

Two jet planes car y i ng atomic clocks left Washington i n eastern and
r

western directions flew round the world and returned to the starting point
, .

The read i ngs A1 At w of the clocks carried by the e stern and western planes
5 , a

were compared w i th the reading At of a third atom ic clock left i n Washing

ton .

In our treatment of th i s experi men t we assume that both planes fly

exac t ly along the parallel of Washington at the same height above sea level ,

a t wh i ch he i ght a stationa y clock i n Washington i also placed The corr e e

r s .

t i ons wh i ch are to be made when the planes fly at differen t heigh ts can b e

perform ed by t aking i n to ac ount the dynam i c ( E i nstein ) time dilation
c

(§ l In the actual exper i m e nt the planes made many landings during th e

tri p thus changing their grav i tational potent i als and the Hafele K eating
, ,
-

experi ment proved b t h th e Lorentz and E i nste i n time dilations

o .
 TH E A NTI PO D A L CLOC K S EX PE R I M ENT -

The essenc e of t h i s experi men t w i th whose help n can measure t h e o e

absolute veloc i ty of a laboratory w proposed by M i n ( l 97 2 b) and it as ar ov

w cons i dered i n d e tail i n M in

as ar ov

F ig 22 1
.

L et us have t wo atom i c clocks placed at two antipodal po i nts of the

E rth s equa t or ( see f g 22 1 where we have shown t he Earth se e n from
a
’
i .
-
,
as

th e north ce les ti al pol e) Le t t he Ear t h s absolute veloc i ty b e nd the l i near

.
’
v a

r o tat i onal veloc i ty of t h equator b e S uppose for the sake f simpl i c i ty

e vr o

that th e Earth s a i s i s p e rp e nd i cular to the plan e of the ecl i p ti c and t hat w e

’
x

c ns i der such a day f t h e y e ar when the absolut e v e loc i ty f the S n ( or a t

o o o
-
u

lea t its componen t i n t he plane f the ecliptic) i s parall e l to th e veloc i ty of

s o V8

t he Earth abou t t he S n Tak i ng the i n i t i al ze ro mom e nt when it i s sunri se

u v5 .

f
or th e fi st atom i c clock (clock A ) and sunse t for t he second atomic clock
r

(clock B) we shall have f t h e absolu t e veloc i ties f th e se clocks

, or p t i o , re s ec

vely ,

? 2 sin 2
v V v v,

2 77 1
-

where v vs and T i s th e length of th e s i deral day .

1 18
 Ifwe use these formulas i n we see that the rates f our clocks will o

be different at di ff erent hours f t he day The greatest di fference will be when

o .

for one clock it i s noon and for the other midnight and only during the sunset ,

and sun i se hours w i ll these rates be equal If we compare the readings of our
r .

cl cks for q l b l t i t l f t im between sunset d sunr i se we

o e ua a so u e n e r va s o e an ,

should establish the absolute character of the Lorentz time dilation and we
could measure the Earth s absolute velocity This represents the essence f
’
. o

th e antipodal clocks experi ment -

.

However a realization of Newtonian time synchro ization bet w een two

,
n

antipodal points on the E arth is problematic d later we shall show that a an

realizat i on f time synchronization by the exchange of electromagnetic

o

signals i f E i nstei ian time sy chronization leads to an a nih ilation f

, . e .
, o n n ,
n o

the appeari g absolute effect For this reason the antipodal clocks ex
n s .
-

per i men t is to be performed n a tur about as shown in f g 2 2 2

o n , i .
-
.

Fi g . 22 2 -

Le t us have a ri ng b which enc i rcles the t urnabout but does not rotate
a

wi th respec t to absolute space S uppose that points and b lie on a diameter

. a

wh i ch i parallel to th e absolute veloc i ty Let the read ings 1A 1 A be

s v .
,
' '

1 19
registered on clock A when i t touches respectively po i nts b and let the , ,
a, .

readings t be registered n clock B when it touches respectively poin ts

,, o , ,

b, a .

The times At 1A t and A1 t

A
t obviously correspond to’

A B B
’

the same absolute time i nterval which we shall denote by At It is

“
.

A1 :
A1 0 V
z
/C 2
)
where At is the time read n a clock D which does not rotate
D
o .

On the grounds of formula we can write

A’A Al
f
B
A! (1 ”(
0
C O At f (1 ( 22 8)

ubstituti g here V A from

S n ,
v ,, and working with i n an accuracy of

second order in 1/ we obtain c,

A1 A ( l
3
1 W + -

c
’
v
A1 , “
hav i ng taking i nto accoun t that approx i mately it i s

A: A: T/ 2 ,

where T i s the per i od f rotat i on o .

D enoting 61 At A1 and taking i nto account A , only in the

terms of second order i n 1 / we obtain from c,

4 v w V R
2
4 2 ( 2 2 1 1)
77 C 6

Tak i ng 300 km / s and R

v 3 m we fi nd 61 s S upposing , .

that the revolutions per second f the turnabout are 5 At s ) we

o ,

shall have 6t / A1 wh i le the portable ces i um beam clocks show the

ti me w i th a relat i ve i naccuracy i
Now we shall show that the realizat i on of an E i nste i nian time synchro
ni t i n i n the
za o antipodal clocks experi ment leads t negative ( null )
-
a
o _

result becaus e f t he mu t ual annihilat i on of the absolute e ffects and thus in

o

such a manner the absolute veloci ty of the laboratory ( the E arth ) cannot be
measured We shall consider the antipodal clocks exper i ment on the
.
-

rotating Earth ( f g 22 i .

Let clock A send the i nitial electromagnetic signal being at point A ’

when for this clock it is sunri se ) and let it reading at this moment be t S i ce s
'

A. n

the ligh t signal travels a certa i n t ime clock B will move with the E arth and ,

will receive the signal being at point B Here w e do not take into account the ’

120
 Now we shall propose a var i ant of the antipodal clocks experimen t - ii

with whose help the equator i al comp nent of the Earth s absolute velocity o
’

ca n be measured .

Let have two passage instrument at a point on the E arth s equator

us s
’

whos f d e lie in a vertical plane parallel to the east west direction the
ix e a x es -
,

angle between them being 0 S uppose that an equatorial star A which lies .
,

about 90 from the projection on the celestial equator f the apex of the
°
o

E rth s absolut e velocity crosses the sight line of the first telescope at the
’
a ,

moment 1 A read n an exact clock and the sight line of the sec nd telescope
, o , o

at the moment t Let us further suppose that a star B which is antipodal to

’

A
'

the first n crosses the sight line of the first telescope at the moment 1 d
o e
’

B an

the sigh t line of the second telescope at the moment

S ince the E arth rotates uniformly the tim e s At 1 1 A and , A A

At B 1 obviously correspo d to the same absolute time interval A1

B ,
n ,

and we n formulas where and are given by formulas

'

ca u se VA vB

Thus assuming f simplicity 0

,
introduc i ng the notat i on
or 77 ,

61 A1 A1 A nd perform ing an analysis as above we shall obtain the

3, a ,

result Tak i ng 300 km / s R 63 70 km we get 61

v s , ,
.

I f a s i milar experi men t be performed throughou t a year using as a ,

rot t i ng d i sk not t he diurnal rota t ion of t he Earth about its axis but the
a

yearly revolution around the S n then i n formula we have to take for

u ,

v the c mponent of the S un s absolute veloc i ty in the plane f the ecl i ptic
o
’
o

and for R the rad i us f th e Earth s orb it Taking o 300 k m / and

’
. v s

R km we obta i n 61 2 s It is very i nstruct i ve to compare the

, .

analysis of this exper i ment wi t h the analysis of the quas i R mer experiment -
ae

23 . TH E W AT E R - TU B E E X P E R I M E NT
In M in ( 1978i) w e recons i der the h i stor i cal water tube
ar ov , p i -
ex er

ment f F i o ( 185 1) wh i ch w repeated by Zeeman 19 14 ) w i th the aim f

ze a u as o

establish i ng the D oppler e ffect i nfluence on the drag f light In that paper
-
o .
,

wh i ch will n w be rev ie wed we have shown that the formula proposed by

o ,

Lorentz and E i nstein for the drag of l i ght i n a mov i ng medium i not true and s

we have g i ven th e true formula ver i fy i ng i t by a very careful repetition of the

,

water tube exper i ment (see also

-

The ess e nce f the water tube exper i ment i s as follows

o -

Let us have a tube w i th length L along wh i ch water propagates w i th

veloc ity We generate two l i ght pulses at the same moment and let them go
v .

through th i s tube so that n pulse (called direc t travels with the flow of
, o e a

122
th ewater and the other (called opposite against i t S uppose that both .

puls e s cover paths with the same lengths and me e t again Obviously if the .
,

water i s at rest they w i ll arr i ve at the same moment However if the water is
, .
,

in mot i on the pulse travell i ng against the flow will be late for the rendezvous
, ,

the t i me delay be i ng

where we have used formula for 0 , 0 , 77 , working within an

accuracy of first order i / n v c .

Here is the refractive index of water for the frequency f the used
it v o

monochromat i c light However sinc e the molecules of the liquid move with
.
,

respect to the light source a D oppler effect occurs and the water molecules
,

wi ll receive photons with a frequency

v (l i v/ c ) ,

where the sign is for the oppos i te photons and the sign a

the d i rect photons

Qt .

A Taylor expansion f the refractive index as a function of yields

o it

dn v da
—
n ( ) v i v
dv dv

Thus putting i nto for 0 0 we obta i n for the veloc i ty of , 77 ,

photons i n flow i ng water taking i nto account the d i sper ion ( and within an
, s

accuracy of first oder in l ) v c ,

4 v (I
.

”
2
dv

For the t i me delay i nstead of we have

2L v dn
A _

c
2
dA

wh e re A i s the wavelength f the em itted light o .

Lorent ( 19 16) d E i nste i n ( 19 14 ) g i ve for the time delay i n the

z an

awater tub e experi ment the following formula

-

2 L dn
— 1)
v
” M
,
2
EX
These autho s come to formula
r proceeding not from the relation
(23 2 ) but from the following relation
 Their argument i s the following When the photons enter the water t ube
they first meet water molecules at rest and the frequency received by these
shield molecules will be equal to the emitted frequency Thus in the v .

water tube experiment there is a D oppler e ffect for light emitted by

-

water molecules at rest and then received by the moving water molecules .

However according to these authors the velocity f light in a medium i / n

, , o s c

and not c .

A ccordi g t n hitch hiker model

o ou r the photons move only in
-

vacuum d always with velocity One measures velocity / i a medium

an .
c . c n n

only because for a certain time the photons are hitched to the molecules and
e/ is their average velocity
h .

Formula i s obtai ed also by Lorentz ( 19 16 ) and E instein ( 19 14 )

n

but only f the drag of light in moving solids Th us they make a substantial
or .

di fference between the propagation f l i gh t i n a l i qu i d flowing in tubes and in

o

mov i ng b ul k ma t er i als For our theory there are only molecules vacuum and
.
,

photons ( free or h i tched ) ; and a D oppler e ffect always appears when the
emitting and receiv i ng molecules move with d i ff erent velocities .

With t he aim of establish i ng which drag f light formula cor « -

o - !

responds to phys i cal reality we have repeated ( M in 19 7 8 i) the ar ov ,

« water tube experiment using our very sensitive bridge method f

- !
, or

measurement f i nterference sh i fts (see

o

Fig 2 3 1
.

Our experimental arrangement was as follows ( fig 2 3 1) Light em itted .

-

by the source S i s split by t he sem i transparent mirror S M i nto two beams

-
.

The beam reflected by S M i s Spl it additionally by the semi transparent -

mirror S M i nto two daughter beams the beam refracted by S M after

, : ,,

reflecting n mirror M proceeds through the tube T while the beam

o ,, ,,

124
P, and P is to maximum ( when the curren t in the arms f P and P is
, o , ,

If additional resistances R put in y of the arms f P P will reduce ,

an o , ,

th cu rent i the last case to

e r nthen we put resistances R / 2 i n any of the
arms of P P and by changing the level f illumination over them ( by the
,, , , o

help of the tunner T) we adjust the cu rre t to be A t this co dition the n n

sensit i vity is highest and the temperature f T must be maintained so that o

cu rrent J always has to fl w through the arms of P d P It i expedient

m , o , an , . s

to al w ays maintain the current i n the diago al galva ometer ( the zero gal n n

va n m t o) equal to zero transferring resistance from the arm of P i to the

e er , , n

arm of P ( and i .
, ) when changing the velocity f the w ater The
v ce ve rs a o .

maximum sensitivity of the bridge is 6A si ce the fluctuations n

of the zero galvanometer are about 4 000 times smaller tha the current n

Jn r a x 1mm

The lengths f the tubes T and T are L 1 o cm if measured , , .

as shown i n the figure The manometer was calibrated with a precisio . n

t The values for and d l dA corresponding to the different n a ,

wavelengths are taken from a graph which w e have plotted n the basis of
, o

the data given i Landolt Bor stein The i accuracies estimated by us

n -
n n

are respectively 6 /
, d , i
n u an
3

The light source i s a tuned dye laser with neodym ium glass oscillator .

The i accuracy in the chosen wavelengths is 6A/ A i 10

n
'
3
.

TA B L E 2 3 -
1

In table 23 1 we give the used wavelengths A the corresponding values

-
,

for and d / dA the reg i stered veloc i t i es and the calculated values of the
n n , v

factor
1
(n
2

A (d a l dA)

where we have to put A c At A .

12 6
 It must be k 0 k F kM 1 according t the Fres el Lorentz
, L n, d , o n , an

M in formulas
ar ov d Taki g i to accou t all possible
an n n n

sources of errors w e obtain 6k / k t

, f A 300 nm or .

TH E D RA G AB E R R A T I ON E X P E R I M E NT
In M in ( 197 8 m ) we have poi ted to an
ar ov n w e call the dra g
ab rrat i which will n w be a alysed
e o n, o n .

F ig 24 1
.
-

Let have ( fig 24 1) a transpare t medium with parallel surface pla es

us .
-
n n

on which a light beam is incident u der an a gle p at a point P l f t h a gle of

n n ( . e n

refraction i s the beam will leave the medium at a point Q u der a gle p n an n (

equal to the angle f incidence o .

Let the medium now be t i motion with velocity from left t righ t
se n v o

i mag i ne that the medium is represented by a horizontal disk which rotates

about a vertical axis and the light beam strikes it somewhere near the rim .

Now the light beam will leave the medium at a particular point R We call the .

angle 6 QPR the d ra g a g l ( or the d ra g a b rra t i n )

n e e o .

We shall find th e drag angle proceeding from our hitch hiker model,
-

f light propagation and perform all calculatio s within an accuracy of first

or ,
n

order in W e .

Formula shows that w i thin an accuracy of first order in / the

,
v c,

velocity f l igh t i n a moving medium represe ts a vector m of the velocities

o n su

c / n and v (l 0 being the angle bet w een them .

Taking into accou t that the photons cross the medium f a time
n or

d n

c cos qz

12 7
where d i the thickness of the medium we obtain for the resultant d i stance
s ,

QR alo g which the photons will be dragged

n

1 d v

QR —V(l (n
c c os ¢

Thus the drag angle will be

cos (I t

Formula can be eas i ly verified exper i mentally by silvering the

parallel planes f the medium making them l i ght reflecting that the beam
o , , so

h t undergo a h i gh number of reflections before leav i ng the medium By

as o .

the help f cyl i ndr i cal m i rrors i ndicator

o our the appeari g drag n

aberrat i on can be reliably reg i stered We call such an experiment the drag .

aberra t ion exper i ment R ecently it was carried t by Jones ( 197 5 ) and
. ou

considered theoretically by Player ( 1975 ) and R ogers howeve r the ,

exper i ment and the theoret i cal considerations have been made ly f t h on or e

sp e c i a l cas e tp (b 0 .

layer and R ogers made th e ir analys i s by proceeding from the Lorentz

P
t ransformat i on and w i thout re ferring to the physical model of light p p ro a

g t
a i n i n a medium as one does i n conventio al physics when solv i ng all
o ,
n

problems about l i ght kinemat i cs i n a mov i ng medium .

We shall show the resul ts der i v i ng from such an automatic implication

of the Lorentz transforma t ion to the drag aberrat i on for the general case of
0 Let us attach ( fig 24 1) a moving frame K to t he medium and a rest
'

(
p 75 . .
-

frame K to the observer that their axes s h ould be parallel to the velocity
, so x -

V of t he medium and the i r y axes should point downwards -

.

The Lorentz transformation formulas for veloc i ties ( also called E instein
transformat i on formulas f veloc i t ie s ) can be obta i ned from form ulas
or

and for the direct t ransformation and from form ulas and ,

f the i nverse t ransforma ti on F a spec i al transformation V must be

or . or ,

parallel to the and axes and for t he direct transformation the following
x x
’
-
,

formulas can eas i ly be ob t ained

(1 / ) “ v, v
z
e
z 2

I — w wa

where ; ; are the componen ts f the velocity of a mater i al point w i th

v v o

respect to frame K and are it components with respect to frame K

'

, v, v
,
s .

12 8
 It i l that the automatic applicat i on f the Lorentz transformation
s c ear o

to the drag aberration leads t an u sou d result and this phenomenon o n n ,

cannot be explained without referring t it physical essence Thus the Lo o s .

rentz transformation is n t d m hi and is to be applied with atten

o e u s ex ac na

tio after a due physical a alysis f the problem considered Here w e have
n, n o .

once more to recog ize that physic is not a mathematical apparatus to w hich
n s

a physical reality i attached but a mathematical apparatus attached to

s ,

physical reality .

§ 25 . T H E H A R RE S S R OT ATING D SK I E X P E R I M E NT
The rotating disk exper i ment f H S gn Poga y D ufour o a r re ss - a ac - n -
,

repeated n the rotati g Earth by M ichelson G ale was the first and until the
o n -
, ,

performance f our light k i nematic experiments the iq experiment

o , un ue

wh i ch revealed the direction dependence f light velocity and the adequacy o

of the aether conception to physical reality Nevertheless sixty years after it .

, s

first performance hundreds f pens have tried to reconcile its decisive posi
, o

t i ve aether wind effect with the uni directional E instein s light velocity -
’

constancy and thus to convince the sc i entific community that black is white .

The history f this experiment d f it m istreatment by official physics is

o an o s

very instruct i ve hav i ng shown that when the experiments speak the gods
,

keep their silence but the theoreticians d n t o o .

W have considered this experiment i detail i M i n ( 19 7 8 1) w here

e n n ar ov

we have given also the account f two important modificatio s t it which o n o

were performed by us .

Fig 2 5 1 presents
.
-
t p for the performance of the rotati g disk
o u r se -
u n

experiment A medium with refractive i dex

. rotate ( i a clock w ise n n can n

direction ) with the sem i transparent m irrors S M S M S M and the m irrors

-
,

M M M M M _M A ,, A, ,
or w i thout them only the
A, , , or

mirrors can rotate and the medium remai at rest In the last ca e a medium n . s ,

with refractive ind e x 1 i vacuum ( air ) can also be taken S four

n , . e ,
. o

different combi ations are possible which w e name

n

l The H
. S g p r i m
a r res s -n t performed
a first
nac e x by S g n e in e ,
a ac

which the m i rrors rotate and a medium a vacuum is take as n .

2 The H
. P ga y r i m
a rres s -
p t performed
o n first by
ex H e en , a r re ss

and repeated ve y carefully by Pogany r in which the m irrors rotate

together with the medium .

3 The H
. M i x p rim t performed first by D ufour and
a rre s s - a r no v e e en ,

Prunier ( 1942 ) and repeated by M i n ( 19 7 8 1

) in a slightly di fferent ar ar ov

130
 F ig 25 1
.
-

rangement i n which the m irrors rotate and the medium is at rest F the
, . or

sake of unificat i on (see the Zeeman —M in experiment in § 2 8 2 ) we call the

ar ov

common type of the rotating disk experiment w here the medium i at rest s

and the m i rors rotate the H

r M i experiment arre ss - ar no v .

4 The H
. Fiz p r im t performed first by Fizeau ( 1 8 5 1) i a
a rres s - e au ex e en , n

substantially di fferent arrangement (called the w ater tube exper i ment -

se e i n which the medium rotates and the m irrors are at rest Our .

perfo mance f the H

r o Fizeau experiment ( M i
a rress - 19 7 8 1) can be ar no v ,

cons i dered the first one

as .

In fig 25 1 S i s a light source em itting coherent light S h is a shutter

.
-
, .

wh i ch i s gov e rned by the rotating d i sk and allows short light p l to pass u ses

only a t a stri ctly defined p sition of the d i sk when the diametrically opposite
o

face ts of the t n p nt medium are exactly parallel to the m irrors M M

ra s e ra

The are s of the face ts are small and the mirrors are placed near t the
a o

medium Thus we can ssume that the photons travel bet w een the single
. a

m irrors along the orrespondin g chords of a circle with radius R P d P

c .
A an ,,

are two ph t i t put in b th arms f a Wheatstone bridge A l w ays when

o o res s o rs o o .

th shutter S h allows ligh t to pass the p h t

e i t are illuminated if m ly
, o re s s o rs un or

13 1
by i terfered light With the aim of explaining the character of the int f
n . er e

rence let us consider four photons which are emitted by S at the same
,

moment and cover the followi g paths n

First photo SM SM — Mn M M M A A, Az A3 A2

PA .

Second photo n SM S M ,,
Third photo n : SM S M ,, 81
_
B,

Fourth photon S M — S M —M M — M S M : A , , , B

S ince the e ffects in the rotating disk experiment are f first order in o

v /c, they can be co sidered in the frame f the traditional aether Newto ian
n o - n

theory w hich w ithin such an accuracy is identical with ou r absolute

, ,

space time theory

-
.

The first and th i rd photons cover the same paths at rest and motion f o

the mirrors A a matter f fact there are differences w hich are of second
. s o ,

order in / and we consider them i § 29

v c, n .

The second photon (which we shall call d i rect ) travels along the !

direction of rotatio and the fourth photon ( w hich we shall call opposite
n

travels aga i nst the direction f rotation The di fferences in the optical paths
o .

of the first and second photo s on n hand and f the third and fourth n , o e , o

photons n the other ha d w i ll change oppositely when changing the rota

, o n ,

t i n l velocity A t rest the i llum i nat i ons over both p h t

o a . i t are the same o o re s s o rs

and the br i dge is in equilibrium When increasing the rotational velocity the .
,

bri dge comes into greater and greater disequilibr i um passes through a state ,

o f maxi mum disequilibr i um and at a certain angular velocity 52 comes again

i n to equ i libr i um If the time spent by the second ( or fourth ) photon for
.

c ver i ng it path at the angular veloc i ty 17 di ffe s by At ( A1 ) from the time

o s r A ,

spent at rest and w e introduce the notation At At

, At then A At A
c

w ill be equal to the wavelength A f the used light o .

Fig 2 5 2
.
-

132
 S ince mirror M (or m i rrors S M and S M in fig 2 5 1) moves then A 8 .
-
, ,

because f the D oppler effect the frequencies of the direct photons

o ,
it

rece i ved by the molecules of the medium will be

—co s
v (1 + 2 -

Z v (l

while the frequencies of the opposite photons received by the molecules

of the medium will rema i n the same .

Hence if we take i nto account the dispersion the refractive index of the
, ,

medium for the direct photons bec mes o

i
n
12 4 -
fl y
V

Thu i f the mirrors rotate a direct photon w il l return

s ,

a fter an opposite pho ton with the following t i me delay

a ) f the H orM i n experi ment
a rr ess - ar ov

d —Ad
" '
M 4
c/n

b) fo r the H a rr ess - D ufour experiment

d Ad 11
2
dn
) — 4( ( n —A )
" 0
'

c /n c /n dA
7

+
c

Le t us note that i n our realization f t he H M in experiment o a rr e ss ar ov

( fig 25 we have to take into a coun t the d i fference i n the ligh t paths which
c

app e ars along the contour S M S M M S M S M when t he m irrors A 8

rotate D enoting by b the distances between S M A and S M we obtain f the

.
9, or

area enclosed by this con tour

cot n )

w here i s the di ff erence between the angles o f incidence and refraction and
a ,

we have used S nell s law wh i ch for our case gi ves

’

Thus when the m irrors rota t e w i th an angular veloc i ty 52 the second

,
,

photon w i ll come f a rendezvous with the fi st photon on m i rror S M w i th

or r A

the following additional time anticipation

134
while the fourth photon will c me for a rendezvous with the third photon on
o

m i ror S M with the same time delay

r 8
.

TH E H A R R E S S F I ZEA U EX PER I ME NT
The H Fizeau experime t can also be performed in t w o some w hat
a rre s s - n

di fferent arrangemen ts shown in fig 25 2 nd fig 25 2b which we shall call.

-
a a .
-
,

respectively the H , Fizeau M i n and H

a rre ss - Fizeau D ufour ex
-
ar ov a r re s s - -

per iem nst We

. shall consider only the fi st which was carried out by r o ne , u s,

calling it the H Fizeau experiment

arre ss - .

We suppose that the medium rotates in direct ( clockwise ) d irection and

the mirrors are at rest i n absolute space Now as be seen from fig 2 5 3 .
, can .
-

the molecular velocity that makes an angle 0 with the direction of propaga
t ion of the d i rect photons will have a magnitud e

S ince the medium moves with respect to the m irrors then because f , , o

the D oppler effect the frequenc i es of the d i rect and opposite photons
,

rece i ved by the molecules will be respect i vely , .

i
2 QR
C
Hence i f we take i nto account the dispersion the refractive i dices f
, , n or

the direct and opposite photons become respect i vely , ,

11
t fi QR
”
dn
( 2 5 1 1)
2 c dv

Thus i f the medium rotates a d i rect photon will return to mirror M

, ,

b e fore an opposite photon w i th the time anticipation [ use formula

and compare with formula
4 d 4 d
_
H -
F
c;, c

13 5
 T H E H A R R E S S S A G NA C E -
X PE R I M E NT
The formula for the e ffect i n the Ha ress S t -
a
g nac exper i ment is to be
obtained from d putting there an 77 1 ,

u 5

TH E H A R R ESS P OG A NY E X PE R I M E NT
In the Ha ress Poga y experiment the time delay with which a d irect
t -
n it

photo retu rns to mirror M after an opposite photon is equal to the

n

difference in the time delays in the Ha ress M in and H Fizeau t -

ar ov a rre ss -

experiments Thus from formulas

. and we obtain
Q R ’

H P H M H F
C
We mus t emph size tha t i n the H a M in and H F i zeau a rress - ar ov a r ress -

expe i men ts there i s the m l t i m t i n between mirrors and medium

r sa e re a ve o o .

However the e ffects i n th e se two experi ments are substantially di fferent

because in the H M in experi ment the medium rests with respect to
arre ss - ar ov

absolute space while i n the H

, F i zeau experiment the m irrors rest with
arress -

respect t absolute space The theory f relativ i ty meets severe di ffi culties
o . o

when trying to expla i n th i s di fferenc e .

PRA CTICA L PE R FO R MA NCE OF TH E H A R R ES S -

MA R I N O V
A N D HAR R ES S -
FIZEA U E X PE R I M E NTS
Our per fo m ance f the H r M in and H o Fizeau arre ss - ar ov a rre ss - ex
p e ri

ment by the help f the set p shown in fig 2 5 1 is reported in M

s o -
u .
-
a ri no v

Th e d i ff erence be tween scheme ( fig 2 5 1) and the tradit i onal

our .
-

s heme f the rotat i ng disk experi men t ( fig 25 2 ) i s the following In our

c o .
-

real i zat i on the d ire ct and opposite light pulses interfere w i th light
4! ! a

pulses that always c ver th e same path Thus t he illum inations over the
o .

p h t i t
o o res s o rs P and P change
A oppositely and we n
,,use our convenien t , ca

b i dge method descr i bed i n § 23 A second di fference consists in the follo

r .

w i ng In fig 25 2 t he m i ors M M M are tangent to the circumference of

.
-
, rr ,, ,, ,

th e medium ; however sem i transparen t m i rror M is not tangent and cannot

-

be placed close enough to the medium In our real izat i on th e separation f .

,
o

136
We have not searched f the highest sensitivity by the help O f a tu er as
or n

described in § 23 d w e have take an average se sitivity 6A

, an 10 A n n
"
.

The tuner de cribed i § 2 3 can be used also f calibratio duri g the

a s n or n n

run however in our method where we change the rotatio al velocity u til
,
n n

A C At becomes equal to A calibration need be made no .

The number f revolutions per second of the disk N

o is ,

measured by a light stroboscopic cyclometer maintained automatically with

prec i s i on 6N t / We rotated the disk first counter clockw i se
re v S .
-

w i th angular velocity 12 d then clockwise with angular velocity Q taki g

, an , , n

12 (I ) ,

When the disk i s at rest the Wheatstone br i dge can be t into se

equilibrium by a micrometrical move of m i rror M M l f w do n t care A3 or 93 . e o

to do this and i f at the beg i nning the bridge i disequilibrated with a certain s

positive current then at the angular velocity 9 (cou ter clock w ise
! ,
, n -
or

clock w ise ) the br i dge w i ll be d i sequilibrated with the same negative

current Ho w ever i n such a case at rest the shutter has to operate with the
.
,

same chopping frequency w i th which it operates at the rotational velocity 12 .

In the case where the apparatus i s t h m t b il i d a maximum sensitivity er os a ze ,

can be achieved by a micrometrical move f both m irrors M A and M o , 83 .

We obtained N 1 rev / s f t he H M in p i or arre ss - ar ov e x er

ment and N 3 rev / s for the H F i zeau exper i ment a rre s s - .

S ubstituting the numer i cal values i nto formulas and we

ob t a i n suppos i ng that the velocity of light is an unknown quantity
, .

C H _ ,
m /s ,

0 0 7 ) 10 m / s
, .
a
,

where for 6 we have taken the maxim um measuring error

c .

§ 26 TH E D S R U P E D
. I T « R OTATING I
D S K it E X P E R I M E NT
The proper time delay i n the H a rre ss - S a
g na c exper i ment ( see can
be written in the fo m r

f O dr
'

v cos ,

where we have used form ula and with d w designate the whole path
e .
 If working with i n an accuracy of first order in / a di ffere ce bet w een v c, n

proper and absolute time i tervals cannot be made

n we have to assume
A1,
A1( 1 / )v
z
A1] nd formula
c
’ "2
; can be written i the form
, a n

v . dr ,

wh e re d i s the eleme t f the light path of the direct photons and i s the
r n o v

velocity f the correspo ding point n the rotating d isk with respect to
o n o

absolute space .

In the rotat i ng disk experiments the po i nt f separation of the o

d i rect and opp site photo s is the same so that the light path f the
o n , o

d i rect as well as f the opposite photons mus t be a closed cu rve If we

o .

should disrupt these closed paths and make the po i n ts of separation and
meet i ng different the light paths f the direct and opposite photo s
, o n

wh i ch are di fferent at rest d motion of the disk can be made straight lines
an .

We call such an experimen t the disrupted rotating disk experiment Its .

performance is reported in M in ( l 97 8 n ) and i t patently sho w s that the

ar ov

veloc i ty of light i s direction dependent even alo g a straight l i ne on a rotat i ng

n

d isk .

Fig . 26 1 -

13 9
 The scheme f the disrupted rotati g disk experiment is as follo w s
o n

( fig 26. The light source S i a H N laser S h is a shutter wh i ch is s e- e .

governed by the rotating di k d lets light pass only at a strictly defi ed s an n

position f the disk when both ph t i t P P are illum inated I the

o o o re s s o rs A, ,, . n

case where S P d P would also be mounted n the rotating disk the

, A an B
o ,

shutter S h is u ecessary S M i a semi transparent mirror M a m irror and

nn . s -
, ,

S M a corrective sem i tra sparent mirror which reduces the number f

,
-
n o

photons along the path to S M to equal the number of photons along the A

path to S M B

Let four photons be emitted by S at the same moment and suppose that
they cover the following paths
F irs t ph o t o n S — S M — S M C — S M A —S M A
’

: ~

S eco d photon
n S SM S MC SMA SM
Th ird ph o to n : S — SM — M — SM — SM
B

Fourth photon : S SM M SM S M ,,

s i ng formula
U and fig 26 1 we find tha t in the case of rotation .
-
,

( w i th respect to the cas e at rest ) the t ime i n which the th i rd ( fourth ) photon
will reach P will be w i th
ZQ R
2
sin 0)
c

Shorter than the time in wh i ch the first ( the second ) photon will reach
P A (P )
a .

The ph t i t P P are put i n the arms f a Wheatstone bridge

o o re s s o rs A, B o .

They are illuminated if m ly by i nterfered light Let us suppose that when

un or .

the disk i at rest the bridge is in equilibrium i both ph t i t are

s , . e .
, o o re s s o rs

i lluminated by equal light intensities If th is is n t the case we move micro . o ,

metr i cally S M and chang i ng i n such a way the path d i fference

’

be tween the first and th i rd photons until the bridge comes into equilibr i um .

Then we t the disk in rotation W i th the increase of rotational veloc i ty the

se .
,

bri dge comes i n t o greater and greater disequilibrium passes through a state ,

o f max i mum d i sequilibr i um and at a certain angular veloc i ty 12 when the

, ,

sum f the di ff erences i n the optical paths A ( A1

o A1 ) will become A 8 c

equal to the wavelength A f the used light the bridge will come again i nto
o ,

equilibrium Thus we shall have .

sin
where we have to put A A .

14 0
SA ( or passes through the semi tra sparent mirror M ( M ) and through
S ,) -
n A a

the high frequency operating shutter S h ( S h ) The chopped light reflects A e

.

on the m irrors M passes through the shutter S h ( S h ) and being B A ,

reflected by the semi tra parent mirror M ( M ) i s observed by the b

-
ns B A , o

server 0 ( 0 ) The shutters operate with the same chopping frequency f

A B
.

bei g driven by the c mmon resonator R put at the centre of the d isk Thus
n o es .

the shutters operate sy chro ously at rest and when the disk i in motio A
n n s n . S

a matter f fact si ce the dista ces between the common resonator d the
o , n n an

Shutters which the electromagnetic signals have to cover are equal ( w ith
respect to the disk but also with respect to absolute space I ) the shutters will ,

always be opened d closed together an .

Let us suppose fi rst that the disk i at rest and let us denote by d the light s

path bet w ee both shutters A t the conditio that

n ( d / ) f is i teger ( or
. n n c an n

an i teger plus
n both observers will register maxim um ( m i imum ) n

photon fl u x If n w w e t th disk i n rotation in a clockwise direction then

. o se
'

e ,

the observer 0 will register maximum ph t i n flux at the ondition that

A o on a c

nA (d / ) f ( l / )
c is an i teger while the observer 0 will register
v c n , 8

max i mum ph t ni n flux at the condition that

o o a (d / ) f ( 1 / ) i s an na c v c

i teger
n .

If d and are given and f changes then both observers consequently

v ,

should register equal or opposite pictures g 0 and 0 together , e . .

, A 8

se e maxi mum light 0 sees maximum light when 0 or m inimum A 8 s e c s

ligh t Indeed we have ,

c + v
= n n + 2 — n = n + An
1’ B B
c c

Thus if A 2 d f/ is an integer the observers 0 and 0 should

n v c
2
, A B

register equal p i ctures and if A is equal t an integer plus

! the n o

observers 0 and 0 should reg i ster opposite pictures

A B .

If the angle 0 i s almos t equal to 2 and the rad i us f the disk R i s very 77 o

large then we can consider the mot i on of the coupled shutters as i nertial
,
.

Th is can be practically realized i f n takes a rotating disk our Earth and o e as

pu t the common resonator at the pole A shutters two K err cells can be
s . s

u e d separated by a short distance 1 (about 100 km ) along the equator

s ,
1

( placed say n the peaks f two moun t a i s ) A light sources lasers can be
, , o o n . s

used The ommanding signals can be sent from the pole to the shutte s by
. c r

th e h l p f several retranslation stations F

e o km / s ( that is . or v

appro i mately the l i near rotational velocity of the Earth s equator) and
x
’

d 100 km one should have A , 0 for f low A f f = Hz n , n or ,

An l f f = 10 Hz andor n Thus changing the commanding f

’
, so o .
,
re

queney i n this range one should change the pictures registered by both
,

14 2
observers from equal to opposite agai to equal nd so n and it
,
n a o ,

the l i ear rotatio al velocity of the Earth s equator can be measured usi g
n n
’
n

the direction dependence of light velocity along a straight line .

It can easily be seen that i f t h reso ator is put n a parallel w ith latitude
e n o

)
q and the coupled shutters along a parallel with latitude p it will be ( , ,

QR
An 2 ’
d f (c o s q> ,
co s q) a .

§ 28 . TH E Z EE M AN M O VING P L ATFO R M E X P E R I M E NT
The moving platform experime t is cons i dered by us in detail in n

M inar l 97 8 m ) where we give also an account of three important m d ifi

ov o

cations performed by us .

The movi g platform experiment is an analogue f the rotating

n o

d i sk expe i ment where the motion f the medium l and the m irrors ( the
r , o or

in terferometer) is not rotational but inertial Now again four combinatio s .

, , n

can be realized which w e call

I The Z man F iz a ee p r im n t i n which the mirrors are at rest and
e u ex e e
-
.
,

the medium moves This exper i ment w as performed first by Fizeau ( 18 5 1)

.

with water d by Michelson and Morley ( 1886 ) with a solid medium It was
an .

very carefully repeated by Zeeman ( 19 14 19 15 1920 1922 ) with liquid and , , ,

solid media .

2 The Z m an M i
. ee x p rim t in which the medium is at rest and
-
a r nov e e en ,

the m i rrors move Th i s experiment was performed first by M in ( l 97 8 m )

. ar ov .

3 The Z m an P g any x p r im n t in which mirrors

. ee -
o d medium
e e e , an

move together This experiment was performed by M in ( l 9 7 8m ) and as

. ar ov ,

a matter f fact it can be car i ed out by anyone who would take the care to
o , r

observe whether the i nterference picture in a Zeeman type implement in -

,

which m i d m di m
rro rs a n t t should cha ge duri g a day when the
e u a re a r es ,
n n

absolute veloc i ty f the implemen t changes as a result f the Earth s rotation

o o
’
.

4 The Z m an S g
. ee x p r im n t in which the mirrors move d a
-
a nac e e e ,
an

vacuum ( a i r) is taken as a medium This experiment w performed by . as

Marinov ( l 97 8 m) .

Fig . 2 8- 1
 Let us reduce t he mov i ng platform experi ment stripped of all fun
a: ,

d m t ll y irrelevant details t the follo w ing ideal arrangement ( fig 2 8 1)

a en a , o .
-

The b S co tains a monochromatic source together with a dev i ce p d

ox n ro u

c i ng two parallel coherent beams B which propagates in vacuum and B , , ,

which propagates i n a medium with refractive index A fter travelli g a n . n

distance L they enter a seco d box 0 in which they are united and their
, n

i nterference observed Both boxes are halfway immersed in the medium

. .

F i rst the boxes ( also called m i rrors ) and the medium are at rest and a specific
i nterference picture i s observed Then one realizes the four different combi.

nat i ons ment i oned above and from the di ff erence in the obse ved int f
, r er e

re nce pictures conclus i ons can be drawn about the character of light p p ro a

ga toi n.We suppose that the motion f the medium of the boxes or both o , or , ,

proceeds from left t right o .

TH E Z EE MA N FIZEA U EX PER I M ENT -

In § 23 we have obtained the form ula for the Zeeman F i zeau ( i for the -
. e

water tube exper i ment [ see formula

-
For methodological reasons
we shall g in d d th i s formula
a a
'

e uce .

Th e velocity f l igh t in a medium moving with velocity i f measured by

o v,

an obser er a t rest i s [ see formulas

v , and
v dn 1
V (1 + ) cos 0 ,

11 n
2
dv n
’

where is the frequency of the l i ght used and 0 is the angle between and the
v v

direction of light propagation .

When mirrors and medium in fig 2 8 1 are at rest a photon proceeding .

-
,

along the path B ( a E photon ) w i ll arrive at box 0 w i th the follo w ing time
", m
-

delay after a photon proceed ing along the p t h B ( a B photon ) ar v ,

-
.

L L L
(n
—1 .

c/n c c

When the medium i s set in motion the time delay will become ( f fig or .

28 I it i s 0 0)

t in
n —l —v
dv

Hence for the Zeeman Fizeau exper i ment the e ffect to be observed in
,
-
,

the interference p i cture will correspond to a t i me difference

L v
Z —F I) c os 0 .

144
 When the m irrors are t i n motion w i th the med i um the t i me delay
se ,

wi th which a B photon arrives at b 0 after a B photon will be ( for fig

m
-
ox ,
-
.
’

2 8 1 it i 0
-
s 0)

n 1)

Hence f the Zeeman Pogany experimen t the effect to

, or -
,
observed in
the i nterference p i cture will correspond t a time di ff erence
o

and thus no cha ge can be registered

n .

TH E Z E E MA N S A G N A C EX PER I M E NT
-

The ef fect for the Zeeman S gn experi ment can be obtained imme
-
a ac

d ia t l y from formula
e putting l or from formula
n , i . e .

Z —S 0

F ig 28 - 2
.

146
 TH E NON IN E R TI A L - MO VING P A L TFO R M
EX PER I MENT
The scheme of our t p for the performa ce f the Zeema p i se -
u n o n ex er

men ts is sho w i fig 2 8 2 W call this varia t of the Zeeman experime t the

n n .
-
. e n n

no n-i n r t ial moving platform experime t while the variant sho w i fig

e n , n n .

2 8 1 can be called the in t i al movi g platform experiment

-
er n .

a light source S h a shutter w hich is gover ed by the rotati g

S is , n n

turnabout and lets light pulses ( f duratio 10 ) pass o ly w hen th e

"
o a n 3 5 n

mirrors M M M are parallel to the diametrically opposite small sides of

,, ,

the medium A a tra sparent medi m w e have take d istilled w ater put in a
. s n u n

m e tallic ves el of the form Sho w n i fig 2 8 2 which w as the same that used
s n .
-
, as

in the rotating disk experiment G lass windo w s are placed at poi ts n

where the light beams must cross the w alls G lass w i do w s are placed also in . n

the metallic i terfaces w hich divide the ri g into compartments Taking i to

n n . n

account the thick e s of the glas plates and their refractive i dex w e have
n s s n ,

put the mirrors M M M in such positio s that the real light path ( distance , n

multiplied by refractive i dex ) alo g the co tour M M M M M hould be n n n -

,
- - -
s

exactly equal to the light path w hich i to be covered if mirrors M M M s , ,

w ere im m d in w ater The dista ce between m i rrors M and M and also

e rs e . n , , ,

bet w ee mirror M d poi t M i 2 R

n an n , s .

The light beam emitted by S spli ts at semi transparent mirror S M i to -

n

A beam and B beam w hich follow i dentical paths and f thi reaso w e shall
- -
or s n

follow o ly the A beam A fter reflection mirrors M and M the A

n -
. on A A ,,

beam reflects on semi transparent mirror S M A and goes p w d Then it-

, u ar s .

splits i nto two daughter beams at semi transparent mirror S M w hich is -

A2

placed above S M A and their pla es make a right angle The I n .

A daughter beam reflected on S M A then reflects n mirror M

- -
enters i to , o AZ, n

the med i um reflects successively on mirrors M M M d leavi g the

, , , ,, an , n

med i um reflect on m irror

, Then it reflects n semi transparent mirror
s o -

SM and going d w w d through the semi transpare t m irror

B2 , o n ar s -
n

i llum i nates the ph t i t The A daughter beam refracted n S M A

o o res s o r - -
o ,

goes furt her p w d reflec ts n mirror Mu ar s , d proceeding b the o A4 , an ,

a o ve

med i um reflects successively n mirrors M M M d M The it reflects

, o ,, , an 04 n

o n mirror M and go i ng d w w d through the semi transparent mirror

B3 , o n ar s -

SM ( where it interferes w i th the A daughter beam ) and through sem i

’
- -
,,2

transparent m irror S M m illuminates the ph t i t P B , o o res s o r .

The angle bet w een the projections f the A d A daughter beams

a o an - -

in t he plane f the figure before the entrance of the A beam i nto the
o ,
-

med i um and a fter i ts exit can be determined from S nell s law ,

’

14 7
 The ph t i t P and P which are illuminated if m ly by the
o o res s o rs A ,, un or

interferi ng B and A daughter beams are put in the arms of a Wheatstone

- -

bri dge which i described in more detail in § 2 3 and § 2 5 We have not

, s .

searched for the highest sensitivity by the help of a tu er as described in n

§ 23 , d we have assumed an average sensitivity M

an t ( r

We take ( Landolt Bom stei 1962 ) -

f the light n, n or

with A nm f the H N laser used The error b corresponds to a

o e- e .
‘

cha ge in the refractive i dex with the temperature which w maintained at

n n as

T 20 1 3 C s i nce it i d / d T
° °
,10 degree From the same source
s n
" "
.

we have taken d / dll nmn assum i ng 0 We had "

, .

R 3 cm We measured N . 1 rev / s for the

Zeeman Fizeau experiment and N M
-
1 rev / s for the Z ,
:

Zeeman M in experiment having N

-
ar ov P utting these figures i nto
,

formulas d and taking i nto account that it is

an

g
‘ 2 Q R
v
00 8 0
we obtain supposing that the velocity
, of light is an unknown quantity ,

C
Z -
F
1: m /s ,

c
Z M
z m /s ,

where for S we have taken the ma imum absolute measuring error

( C x .

In the Zeeman Pogany and Zeeman S gn experi men ts we registered

- -
a ac

no perceptible disequ i librat i on of the bridge when rotating the disk .

Let us mention that the measur i ng procedure in the rotating disk

experi ment i s very s i m i lar to that in the non inertial moving -

platform experi ment We performed the mov i g platform experiment

. n

in it non inert i al variant aiming to use the t p constructed for our

s -
, se -
u

rotating disk experi ment On the other hand we think that the result of
.
, s

th non inert i al variant are m

e -
i mp t t than the same results wh i ch could
o re or a n

be obtained w i th the inertial var i an t Indeed since we already know that the .
,

velocity of light w i th respect to a rotating disk i s direct i on dependent then ,

t he i dent i cal e ff ects i n t he Zeeman F i zeau and Zeeman M in p i - -

ar ov ex er

men ts can be expla i ned only by our t heo y which obtains these effects by r

proceed i ng from b t t i lly d iff t f m l su s an a eren or u as .

§ CON D O RD E R E FF E CT S I N T H E
29 . TH E S E -

R OT AT I NG D I S K E X P E R I M E NT

The measuremen t of the second order effects in the H M in -

arress - ar ov,

H arre ss Fizeau and Zeeman M in Zeeman F i zeau e xperi men ts i s a d if

- -
ar ov , -

14 8
 S uppose first that the disk i a t res t Light emitted by the source S i s split
s .

by the semi transparent mirror S M into reflected and refracted beams The
-
.

reflected beam reflec ts on mir or M and after refraction on S M illuminates

r , ,

P The refracted beam reflects su cessively on M

. c clockwise on ,

counter clockwise and after reflection n S M illum inates P

-
, o , .

If we now set the disk i n rot tion t hen the reflected beam will not
a ,

change the time in wh i ch it covers it path because it moves only along the
s

rad i us of the ro t at i ng disk while the refracted beam ( which has the same
,

rad i al motion if the distances from S M to M and M are equal ) changes it s

ti me with At Now we shall calculate th i s time difference for the four di fferent
.

types f the rotating disk experi ment

o .

THE H A R R ES S -
MA R I N O V X PE R I M ENT
E

U sing formula at the condition 0 0 and taking into account

,

that it i s [ see
c
'

(I v
2
/c 2
)
“ 2

we find that the d i fference i n t he absolute t i mes which the refracted beam has
to spend coveri ng i ts path i n the cases of rest and rotation of the m i rrors will
be

TH E H A R R ESS - S A G N A C EX PER I ME NT
F or nl i f the second order e ffec t in the H
, . e or -
a rre ss - S a g nac e x p e

ri ment we obta in from formula

,

d v
’

TH E H A R R E S S FIZEAU E X PE R I M E NT
U si g formula
n a t the condition 0 0 we find that the , ,

di fferen ce in the absolute t i mes which the refracted beam has to spend
c v e ri ng i ts path in t he cases f rest and rotat i on of t he med i um w i ll be
o o

150
 TH E H A R RES S P -
OG A NY E X PE R I ME NT
Using formula at the co dition 0 0 0 and formula we n
'

find that the di fference in the absolute times which the refracted beam h to as

spend cove ing it path in the cases f rest and rotation of mirrors and
r s o

medium w i ll be
H p

This formula for 1 gives again the second order effect

n -
in the
H arress
S gn -
experiment
a ac .

CONN E CTION WITH K IN E MATIC TI M E D ILA TION

As we have sa i d ( § 2 l and a light clock represents a light source
.

and a mirror placed i n front f it between which a light pulse goes to and fro
o , .

Instead of n mirror we can have an arbi t rary number It is f importance

o e . o

only that a light pulse which leaves a give point returns to it and repeats this n

cycle uninterruptedly Thus mirrors M M M M M also p

. our , re re

sent a light clock .

Let the time which a light pulse spends cover i ng path d to and fro be T
when the mirrors are at rest Thus .

is the rest per i od of clock When the mirrors are set in motion with a
our .

ro tat i onal velocity QR where Q is the angular veloc i ty the period f the
v , , o

li ght clock in motion measure d i n absolute time i by the help of a clock , . e .

,

wh i ch rests i n absolute space will be [ use formula at the condition

,

0 0 0]
'

2d
c (l (l
while the same period measured in proper time i by the help f a clock , . e .
, o

which is attached to the r i m f the moving disk will be [ use formula

o at ,

the condition 0 0 0] '

?
C 0

Thus the period of our light clock rotating with velocity in absolut e
,
v

space well as the per i od of any light clock proceeding as a whole with
, as

15 1
veloc i ty becomes lo ger according to formula
v, We have called th i s
n

effect the absolute kinematic time dilation

A ccording t te th axiom the t i me unit for y observer i s de
o our n , an
'

t mi
er d by the period f a light clock which h
ne the same arm f all o as or

observers Whe the arm is d . km this time unit is called a

n ,

second I f the ob erver is at rest in absolute space h i seco d i called

. s , s n s

absolute I f the observer moves with a certain velocity in absolute space his
.
,

seco d i called proper A ny proper seco d is larger than the absolute second
n s . n

an d the relation is given by formula where the durations f T and T o ,,

are given in the same time Thus the cha ge in the duration of the period f . n o a

light clock when in mot i o can be established by comparing i ts period with a n

periodical process of a system which is at rest i absolute space ( in ge eral n n ,

one that does not change its velocity when the light clock under investigation
changes its velocity ) If we should compare the period f the light clock
. o

considered with the periodical process of a system which constantly moves

.

w i th the same veloc i ty as the light clock then no cha ge can be registered as , n ,

follows from formula where the period f the moving light clock is o

g i ven i n proper time and the period of the same clock at rest in absolute time .

This i due to the absolute time dilation by wh i ch the rhythm of y

s , an

per i odical process decreases according to formula if the p , c o rre s on

ding system is set i n mot i on w i th velocity v

.

A ll these asser ti ons f our absolute space time theory can be verified o -

experi mentally i f n measures the seco d order effects in the o e n -

Ha ress S gn experi men t

t -
a ac .

The second order effec ts in the H S gn

-
experiment have been a rre ss - a ac

t reated by B ( 1974 ) who proposed also an exper i ment f their m

u rc e v or e as u

re m nt Be . proposal cons i sts f the following Let us have a number

u rce v s
’
o

( 2 3) of art i fic i al satellites moving along the same c i rcular trajectory round

the Earth w i th certa i n velocity If a radar pulse i s em itted from one f th e
.
a v . o

satell i tes then by means of reflect i ons i n the other satellites this radar pulse
, , ,

can be again rec ei ved after hav i ng covered a closed path round the Earth and
th e t i me of delay can be measured with a h i gh prec i sion If we suppose tha t .

th e satell i tes are placed close enough to e ach other then the traj e ctory of the ,

radar wave can be assumed as c i rcular and the grav i tational potent i als at all
po i n ts crossed by the wave equal We can treat B proposal by the as . u rc e v s
’

help of our figure 29 1 assum i ng that clock C ( an atom ic clock ) i s attached to

-
,

th e mirrors M and so tha t the time i n which a light pulse covers the path
,

from M to M and from M to M can be measured

, ,, ,, , .

A ccord i ng to Einste i n s t heo y of general relativ i ty ( see for e xample

’
r , ,

Landau and L i fsh i t this time for the direct z, and opposite ,

pulses respec ti vely i s , ,

15 2
 When we try to measure the absolute time intervals t by the help f a :
o

clock which rests in absolute space the problem arises about the time ,

synchro izatio f spatially separated clocks This problem i solved by us

n n o . s

( theoretically d experime tally ) w ith the help of a rotating rigid shaft

an n .

However i n the rotating disk experiment the problem about the time
,

synchronizatio f spatially separated clocks can be elim inated if we choose

n o

an appropri ate rotational velocity that the light pulse em itted by M

v , so , ,

when it passes near t the clock C which is at rest will arrive at M when M
o , ,( ,,

passes ( after n more revolutions ) near to C

o e or .

In fig 29 2 we give the graphs f the relation t / t versus / dra w

.
-
o
+
v c n

according to formulas and Thus experiment as that an

proposed by B can choose between these three rival theories We th ink

u rc e v .
,

however that there is n need to perform this costly experiment si ce in the

, o , n ,

light of the present book it is obvious formula will correspond t physical

, ou r o

reality .

§ 30 T H E . LIGHT D O P P L E R E FFE CT E X P E R I M E NT S
-

Now we shall discuss certain light D oppler e ffect experiments i -

, c o ns

dered i M in ( 197 8 ) i n wh i ch second order i n W effects have been

n ar ov e ,
-
e

observed .

THE I VE S S TI LW E LL LONG IT U D IN A L C A N A L
-
RA!
E X PE R I M ENT

The experimental verification f the second order terms in formula o -

was per formed first by Ives and S til w ell 193 8) who used light em itted
by t he mov i ng i ons in a canal ray tube and we have called this the canal ,

ray experi ment .

F ig 3 0 1 .
-

The scheme of the i r experiment i i mp l if d i i s shown in fig n a s ie ve rs o n .

30 1 Positive ions ar e produced i n a hydrogen

-
. between the heater H and a re

the per forated electrodes E and E B e t ween E and E the ions are accelerated
154
by an electric field thus forming the beam S that represents the movi g
, n

source T hese n proceed with a consta t velocity which depends n the

. lo s n v o

voltage applied between E and E The photo s emitted by the excited '

. n 1o ns ,

passing through the large slit Q illumi ate the arrow slit 0 w hich represents
, n n

the observer at rest To analyse the energies

. the frequencies ) of the
photons a spectroscope is used of which we show the focusing lenses L L
, , ,

the refractive prism P and the screen D .

The mirror M will fl t t h light emitted by the ions which move a w ay

re ec
. ,
e

from it with velocity Thus three groups of photons w ill flow to the screen
v .

a ) Photons with frequency emitted by the ions at rest before being v ,

l t d by the electrodes ; they w ill illuminate the zero point 2

acc e a ra e .

b ) Photons with frequency sh i fted to the blue end which are V

t

emitted by the moving ions ; they will i llumi ate poin t B n .

c ) Photons w i th freque cy shifted to the red end which are em it

n if a

ted by the mov i ng ions and then reflected by the mirror M ; they will il l m i u

nate po i nt R.
A ccording to formula under the co dition 0; 0 0 we obtain n ,

Thus the m i ddle f these t w o freque cies will be shifted from the
o n

frequency over a frequency i nterval

it

W v
_ p =
2

which was experimentally verified by Ives and S tilwell .

TH E T RA N S V ER S E C A N A L RA ! E X PER I ME NT a

The transverse canal ray exper i ment was proposed by M in ar ov

( 1970 l 972 a l 97 8 ) Its scheme i s shown i n fig 30 2 The system f pro

, , e . .
-
. or

duct i on and acceleration f the i ons i s as i n fig 30 1 The photons em i tted by

o .
-
.

the excited ions passing through the large slit Q illum inate the narrow slit 0
, ,

beh i nd which there is an i ndicator that g i ves i ndicat i on only when photons
are i ncident with frequency equal to the frequency em itted by the ions used
v

when they ar e at rest .

From fig 30 2 and from th first formula

.
-
we obtain that on the
e

ind i cator photons will fall w i th frequency

15 5
 ” ”
W C

F ig 3 0 2
.

where 0 i s the angle between the perpendicular O N to the i ons beam and the ’

l i ne 0 C connect i ng slit 0 with the centre of sl i t Q; i s the angle under which a

slit Q i s seen from point 0 If we choose . 0 then on the indicator photons

a ,

w i th frequency w i ll fall only at the condition

it

0 v / ZC

Hence t he exper i men t i to be p e rformed as follows For any voltage

s

appl i ed t the e lectrodes i f any veloc i ty f the i ons we search for a

o , . e .
, or v o ,

pos i tion f slit Q at which t he i ndica t or w i ll show availab i lity f photons w i th

o o

frequence Then the theory i s to be proved by plott i ng ZO versus ; the

v . C v

locus must be a t ingh t line d i v i d i ng the quadran t

s ra .

TH E H A! R OTO R EX PE R I ME NT
The scheme of the called rotor expe i men t performed first by Hay
s o- r

et a l
. where the Mossbau e r e ff ect is used i s follows ( fig 30 3 ) , as .
-
where 12 i s the angular velo ity of rotatio into the first formula
c n, and
keeping in mind we obtain the relation
1 11
2
/c 2

l v , /c
3
2

which w as verified experimentally .

We emphasize that fo mula is valid for any position

r of source and
observer n the circumferences with radii R and R
o 0
.

TH E R OTO R R OTO R -
E X PER I M E NT
Now we shall consider the rotor rotor experiment proposed by us i n
-

Ma r o v
in ( l 97 8 )
e d to a cer tain extent carried out by C h m p n y t l
an , , a e e e a .

( 1963)

Fi g . 30 4
-

It can be realized ( fig 304 ) when the centre of the rotor considered

.

above (which we shall call the small rotor) rotates at angular velocity 12 and
linear velocity with respect to some centre thus mak i ng another rotor
v,, ,

15 8
which we call the big rotor The rad of the small and big rotors are de oted . 11 n

by and R The a gular velocity of rotation of the small rotor about its w
r . n o n

cen t re is denoted by We shall suppose that the source is placed at the tip of
03 .

the small rotor and the observer i at it ce tre The linear velocity f rotatio s s n . o n

of the source i denoted by and its absolute velocity by Thus it will be

s vr v .

v vr

The angle between and is denoted by p The angle bet w ee R and vr v ( . n r

i denoted by p The small angle bet w een the observer s radii at the emissio
’
s ( . n

and reception moments i s de oted by and the small a gle u der which the n a n n

emiss i on and reception positions of the observer are seen from the em ission
pos i tion of the source i s denoted by B .

We have from fig 30 4 (see also fig 10 2 ) .

-
.
-

—v + B
Z , a + 9

where
V°'
a cos (p .

c R 0

utting
P into (30 9) and taking i nto account that and B are small a ,

quantities we can write

,

cos 0 '

in l o B
s q in B
i z in l
c
7
s cos z s s i z

—s in q> cos (a + B) c o s <p s in (a B)

r
s m (p co s (P cos P ‘
c R

From the figure we further obta i n

+ V0 CO S (p
( 30 13 )

and from here we get

’ = Z
v v§ + V i l
- -
vo v r co s q) .

s i ng the las t four form ulas in the first form ula ( 10 17) d working
U an

wi t hin an a curacy of second order in V we obtain the following relation

c a,

cos (p )

15 9
 If we take into account that it i s

we can write i n the form

cos p ) (

Th is formula can be proved by the exper i ment .

N w we shall show tha t formula

o is already checked p im n ex er e

tally t a certain extent Indeed if we suppose 9

o then form ula
.
, . «3,

shows that w i th the help of t he rotor exper i ment one cannot measure the
absolute translational velocity C h m p n y t l ( 1963) tried t register v . a e e e a . o

absolute e ffects in the rotor experiment since according to the traditional , ,

Newton t heory if a rotor moves with the absolute translatio al velocity

, n

then the e ff ect i s to be described by formula which must be w ritte n,

however w i thout the factor Q / w The a i m f C h m p n y t l w as t o

, . o a e e e a .

measure the Earth s rotational velocity ( which is 3 10 m / n the 4 5 parallel )

’
s o
"
.

The exper i men t has shown that must be less than 1 m / and this v0 s,

result was treated a new and better verification f the E i nstein principle f
as o o

relativity ( with respect to the accuracy of the h i storical M ichelson Morley -

expe i ment )
r .

It i clear that this conclusion i s untenable When we analyse Cham pe

s .

ney s experiment w ith

’
formula then we that if 52 our rad / s , se e

( the Earth s diurnal angular velocity ) rad / (the roto r! angular

’

, to s

veloc i ty ) 3 10 m / t hen ( fl / w)
, v,, m / This effect i lower
s, v,, s . s

than the accuracy of C h m p n y experiment by i orders S ince in Nature

a e e
’
s s x .

all motions f the celest i al bodies are rotational then ( at least theoretically
o ,

we can establish any such mot i o us i ng the rotor i the rotor rotor n, . e .
,
-

experi ment where the big rotor represents the rotation of the celestial body
,

( about its rotational ax i s about the primary about the galactic centre )
, , or .

TH E SA NTO S EX PE R I M E NT
In the rotor experi ment there is n relative motion between source o

and obse ver W i th th im of realizi ng a transverse D oppler effect p i

r . e a -
ex er

ment where source and observer have to move with respect to one another ,

S antos ( 197 6) prop sed the following exper i ment o

Let us have tw disks rota ting in opposite d i rections ( ) about two

o : 1

parallel axes so tha t the disks lie i n the same plane ( ii ) about the same
, , or

160
§ 31 . TH E Q U AS I WI E N E R
- S TAN D ING W AVES E X P E R I M E NT
The standing waves experiment o sidered i n de tail in M in , c n ar ov

represents a modification of the historical W i ener experiment with

wh i ch W i ener measured the length of light waves i n the most direct manner .

I t essence i s as follows
s

Let a light source d an i deal mirror be placed n the axis f a given

an o x -
o

frame K If this frame is at rest in absolute space ( it absolute velocity i s

. or s

perpendicular to the axis ) the electr i c intens i ties of the incident and
x -
,

reflected by the mirror light waves will be

E E sin (wt k ) ‘
m , x

E ma , S in (wt kx )

where E the amplitude of the electr i c i ntens i ty w 2m ) is the c i rcular

15 ,

frequency and k Z k ) i s the circular wave number ; t i s the time registered

a

o n a clock attached to the frame i on an absolute clock if frame K is at rest , . e .

,

or n a proper clock if i t mov e s w it h veloc ity om it t i ng i n th e last case for

o v, ,

br e vity s sake the subscri pt i the d i stance from the frame s or i g i n

’ ’

, o
x s

where a t the i n i t i al zero moment the electric i ntensities of the incident

and reflected waves are equal to zero .

The incident and reflected light waves will interfere F the electric . or

intensity f the produced standing wave w e obtain

o

E sin (wt ) cos (k )

E "
E
“

2 Em a, x

S uppose now that we set frame K i n motion w i th veloc i ty directed i n v

parallel t the axi s (or that we rotate the mov i ng frame K so that i t veloc i ty
o x -
s

vbecomes parallel to the axi s) Inst e ad f w and k i n formula

x -
we now . o

have to w i te the quantit i es [ see formulas

r and
2 ”
k 1 +

and f the electr i c i ntensity

or of the produced stand ing wave we obtain
f
‘
E = E E
’ “

C
Hence t he d i stances between the nodes of the stand i ng waves i n the
cases where the Wi e ner experi men t i s perform ed at rest and in motion w i th
respect t absolute Space will be
o t ly t h m and no fi t or ex a c e sa e, rs

second order d i ff erences i n the pattern w i ll be registered The un i que d i ffe

-
.

rence i s When the laborato y i s a t rest i n absolut e space (or it velocity is

r s

162
perpendicular to the direction f light propagatio ) E obtains its maxim um
o n ,

at all antinodes for m / k where i an integer ) t t h

x m m m tr , n s a e sa e o en ,

and when the velocity f the laboratory is parallel to the direction f light
o o

propagatio E obtains it maximum at the different anti odes t d iff t

n, s n a e re n

m m t
o en s For a given moment t the electric i te sity in
. obtai s it n n n s

maximum at the antinodes with coordinates ear to n

2n + 1 77

w 2

while for this moment t it is zero at the antinodes w ith coordinates ear to n
2

This i the u ique effect which is offered by the quasi Wiener p i

s n -
ex er

ment d w e are sceptical about its experimental verification

an .

We must point t that the histori cal M ichelso Morley experiment

ou n-

sho w s immediately that the quas i Wiener exper i ment can ot reveal y -
n an

second order in W e ffect Indeed i f the sta di g waves have different

e .
, n n

lengths (within terms of second order i n / ) in cases where the pattern is v c

parallel and perpendicular t the absolute velocity t his should sig ify that
o , n

di fferent umbers of wavelengths are to be placed i n the M ichelson Morley

n -

e xpe rime t between the semi transparent m irror and the t w o m irrors placed
n -

a t equal distance from it i n parallel and perpendicular d irectio s t the n o

absolute motion .

§ 32 . TH E COH E R E NT L AS E R S E X P E R I M E NT
A s is well known the coherence f light em i tted by lasers is m uch higher
,
o

than the here nce f light em i tted by other sources The coherent length of a
co o .

laser beam can be hundreds f k i lometers while that of other light sources is
o ,

only cent i meters For this reason light em i tted by two d i fferent lasers can
.
,

i n terfere i n the same manner as light emitted by a si gle source and split into n

two beams i nterferes i f the two beams meet after having covered slightly ,

di fferent l i ght pa t hs Before the i nvent i on f the laser a single light source
. o ,

w as always used in all optical experiments wi th whose help an aether

w i nd was searched for Th i nevitable result was that in all inert i al
. e !

e xperi ments those performed with inert i ally moving implements ) light ,

beams had t cover the pa t hs there and back and the fi t order in W
o - -
rs -
e

effects always van i shed i n the final result ( as we have shown several times in
th is book no second ord e r effects can appear either) The iq i t f
,
- . un ue n e r e ro

me t r i c experi ment in wh i ch fi t order in W effects have been observedrs - e

163
( exclud i ng
our exper i mental activity 1) represents the rotat i ng disk p ex e

riment where the i mplement is not moving inertially and the light beams
cover closed paths between splitting d meet i ng propagating o ly an n

there
However if we have two di ffere t light sources wh i ch produce coheren t
,
n

light then fi t order in W experi ments can be set up also i nertially

, rs -
e on

mov i ng i mplements This was the i ntention f Carnahan ( 196 2 ) who propo
. o

sed the c heren t lasers experimen t analysed in detail in M i n l 97 8p)

a o , ar ov ,

and also descr i bed below .

TH E IN E R TI A L COH ER E NT LA S E R S 10 E X PER I ME NT
The schem e of t he coherent lasers experiment ( which if performed ,

in a laboratory will be call e d i n e rt i al ) i s as follows ( fig 32 1)

, .
-

ap pos i 16

F ig 3 2 1
.

L i ght em i tted from laser L A (or L ) is partly reflected and partly 3

refracted by the semi transparent mirror S M ( S M ) The refracted beam

-
A
'

B .

proceed i ng from L ( L ) i n t erferes with the reflected beam proc e eding from
A B

L ( L ) a ft er the latter h
B A , covered distance d in oppos it e ( direct )
as a: a
!

d i rect i on and aft e r being reflected by the sem i t ransparent m irror S M -

'

( S M ) The photodetector D ( D ) i ndicates the r e sult of the int e rference

B .
A I, .

For the sake f s i mplic i ty we sha ll assume that the sem i transparen t
o ,
-

m irrors S M A and S M ( S M and S M ) l i e at the same point ( see fig 32 2 )

'

A 3
'

3 .
-

wh i ch we shall call point A ( B ) .

Le t us suppos e first that the implemen t is at re st i n absolut e space Le t .

the i nstantaneous electri c i ntens i t i es of the light beams produced by L at ,

po i nt A and by L at po i n t B be respectively
B , ,

164
proper time of a clock at tached to the i mplement ( for brevity w e om it the
subscript w e shall obtain for the electric intensities at points A and B ,

respectively , [see a nd

(E A E B )A I 1

Em , s in (w A t d
A)
Em , sin ( 03
8
1 “+
13

1 d
[ 2wt + a
A
+ 01
8
+
T
(w

l
2 Em , cos ( ( wt BA )
7

(B A + E
B )B

E sm (w A t + a +
A

1 d
——(w
2E si n { i C
+

1 d
{ 7 [ Aw t l
- -
a
—a l
-
(w +
A B
?

1
2 E ma cos ( (p ) s 1n ( wt BB ) (32 4)
7
.
,
a

Let the photodetectors transform the incident light intensity i nto electr i c
tension which we lead t a point ( call i t point C) in the m iddle between poin t s
o

A and B D esignate by U
. U the electric tensions on the outputs of the
A, 9

detectors D S ince U A U are proportio al t the squares of the , B

n o

variable amplitudes f ( E E ) nd ( E M
o E ) we can write
A B A
a B B,

I
— m)
A)
tp cos ,

2
1
U cos
’
( p a)
( Um (I cos p ( )
7
,
N , , g

166
where U N , is the amplitude of the electric tension whose angular frequency
is Aw .

Leading the electric tensions U U to the m iddle point C and taking A, s

into account the additio al phase shifts for U and U because of the n A B

different velocit i es of propagatio of the electromagnetic energy in direct n it

an d opposite directions we obtain f their sum , or

1 d V

(UA + U B) C

d
l co s [ <p B + E Aw U

1 +
—a + Aw + w v cos t9) cos (
8

Let us analyse this result Obviously .

for d n A
— 1 for
0 for
n be i ng an i nteger Thus the percentage modulation of the resultant
.

electric tens on depends on the number of the average wavelengths A placed

1

along distance d Hence to be able t measure a change

. o i n the
, o v cos

co mponent f t he absolute velocity of the implemen t al ong i ts axis the

o ,

following two condi t ions must be available

Aw = o ,
d ¢ (n i 1/ 4) x .

In such a case if dur i ng a definite time the compone t f the absolute

, n o

velocity f the implement along its axis changes from O to coso this will lead
o v ,

to a phase shift in the argument of the resultant electric tension equal to

dw O/ radians assum i ng that during this time the initial phases
v c os c
2
, a a B

remain constant .

However we show i n M in ( l 978p) if we take into account the

, as ar ov ,

absolu t e time dilat i on then it can easily be established ( in a manner y

, ve r

s im i l to that used i n
ar that when rotat i ng the implement with respect to
i t absolute veloc i ty i
s when switch i ng on an aether wind by rotation
, . e .
, it
,

the initial phases of the lasers do not rema i n constant They change t ly in . ex a c

such a way t hat the absolu t e e ff ect which a tradit i onal absolutist expects to ,

be reg i stered will be annih ilated

, .

167
 Thus w i th the coherent lasers experiment we can measure only a
,
a
,

l change i n the velocity f the i mplement The experime t i to be

re a o . n s

performed follows A ssuming that the condit i ons

as are fulfilled let us ,

measure some phase of the electric tension ( U aU ) l f w know A A 9 C . e a , a a,

we can calculate fl However the i nitial phases

v co s f the lasers are
.
, o

u known Let us then set the implement in motion with a certain velocity
n .
v

along the direct direction I f the new phase which we should measure i s
.

a it will be
'

which correspo ds t the following change in the sum of the phase shifts of
n o

the electric tensions U and U A a

w v .

Taki g w/ 2 n Hz d l m
ir 45 m / 162 k m / h we obta i n
, ,
v s ,

a phase shift i n the argument of the resultant electric tension /2 a

'

a 7r .

TH E COH ER E NT LAS E R S ON A R OTA TING D I S K i.

E X PER I M E NT

T show more clearly why the i nertial

o coheren t lasers experimen t is
to be explained i n the manner presented i n we shall consider the
a coherent lasers on a rota ti ng disk expe i men t ( M in 197 8 p) whose r ar ov ,

es ence i s as follows ( fig 32 2 )
s .
-

Let mou t the i mplemen t from fig 32 1 n a rotat i ng disk and

us n .
-
o

measure the e lec t ric tensions U A U on the outpu ts f the detectors D A D , B

o , 8 .

Let the first condition be fulfilled If the disk i s first at rest and then set .

i n rotation in a clockw i se direction with a li ear rotat i onal velocity of i ts rim n

v, then the arguments f U and U w i ll obtain additional phase shifts [ see

o A H

formulas whose m is given by formula This su

a coherent lasers on a rotating disk experiment is analogical to the rota

ting disk experiment as can be seen immediately from fig 32 2 i f both
,
.
-

lasers should be replaced by a unique l i ght source S and the mirrors

The substant i al difference between the rotat i ng disk exper i ment and
the coheren t lasers on a rotat i ng disk experi ment consis ts i n the fact that
there are t w sources em i tting coheren t light in the latter while there is a
o
'

un iq light source in the former Thus if we should make angle 0 in fig 32 2

ue . .

almost equal to 2 and the source S i s very near to the r i m f the d i sk then
17 o ,

the rotating disk experi ment cannot g i ve any pos i tive e ffect because the
to

t i me lags which should appear along path d will be compensated by the

168
where

represents some additional frequency i ncrease .

Thus when accelerating the i mplement the frequency f the resultant

, , o

electric tension should increase (we repeat the acceleration i along the , s

a i s f the im pl m n t) Taki g the data given after form ula

x o e e e and
. n

t 100 i 4 5 cm / s we obtain 12
s, . e .
, u rad / s Hence the lasers”
, .

can now have di fferent freque cies w w and a change in the beat n A, B,
a !

frequency Aw is to be registered Nevertheless si ce it m ust be 6w $2 we .

, n ,

have to co clude that also this accelerated coherent lasers experiment

n

cannot be performed at the present state of techn i que .

Howev e r there is no need to perform it because this would be only a

,

repetition of Bommel s ( 1962 ) exper i ment where the freque cy cha ge

’
n n

w established by using the Mossbauer effect and by accelerati g a

as n

gamma em i tter and absorber with 10 m / The accuracy of the Mo u

°
s
’
. s

sb e ffect (6w / w
au e r is not h igher than that f lasers however such o , ,

large accelerations cannot be real i zed with lasers .

The essence f Bommel s experiment and f o accelerated ’

o our

coherent lasers experiment i s the same S ince the em itter ( y m irror . sa ,

S M i n fig 3 2 1) and the r e ceiver ( m i rror S M ) move with acceleration

' '
-
D .
A ,

then a , asl t of th e D oppler e ffec t the frequency received will di ffer from
re s u ,

the em i tted one Indeed as there i s a certa i n t ime during which light has to
.
,

cover distance d the veloc i ty f the rece i ver at the receptio moment will be
, o n

d i ff erent ( h i gher f po i nting along the em i tter receiver line ) from the
or u -

veloc i ty f the em i t t er at the emission moment E i nstein ( 19 1 1) pointed to th i s

o .

s i mple and clear physical phenomenon many years before i ts experi mental
confirmation .

The analysis f the coherent lasers experi ment given here allo w s n
o o e

to understand that when th e em i tter and receiver move with acceleration ,

then the sh i ft i n the received frequency leads to an additional phase sh ift

a
'

wh i ch is equal to th product of the frequency shift 12 and the time t of

a e

accelerat e d motion Thus the number f light waves ( wavelengths ) placed

. o

along the distance between em i tter and receiver changes ( the number in
creases for c i t and decrea es for 1 1 i ) Hence as the veloc i ty of light i s
u s c i .
,

the prod uct f frequency and wavelength then light velocity w i ll be d i fferent
o ,

for di fferent veloc i ties f the i m plement ( w i th respect to the implement )

o

because the frequency rece i ved rema i ns unchanged .

170
 § 33 . TH E WI R E D P H OTOC E LL S E X P E R I M E NT
The w ired photocells experiment performed first by Godart ,

is cons i dered by us in detail in M in ( 19 78 q) W review this paper here

ar ov . e .

TH E IN E R TI A L W I R ED PHOTOC E LL S E X PE R I M EN T
The essence of the wired photocells exper i me t ( w hich if performed n ,

i n a laboratory i called inertial ) is as f l w ( fig 33 1)

, s o o s .
-

Fig . 33 1 -

Two photocells P P w ere put on the opposite sides f a light source S

2 o

( an electri c bulb ) The cells and the bulb were mounted n an optical bench
. o

and covered with a light t ight cloth The cells w ere wired to each other and to
-
.

a galvanometer i n such a way that only the difference in current bet w ee the n

cells flowed through the galvanometer In our realization all elements ( ex

.
,

cluding the galvanometer) were mounted on a wheeled table which could

rotate Godart ( 1974 ) cla i ms that by rotating such an implement increased
.
,

current is to be observed when the axis of the im plement is aligned pp i a ro x

mately north south In our realization during a rotation f

-
. we registered o

no e ffect .

This negat i ve ( nu l l ) e ff ect w explained by s as a result of the mutual

as u

a nn i h i lat i on f the aether w ind e ff ec t ( analysed i n

o n
o and the e ffect of
rela ti v i st i c distribution of the radiation ( analysed i n is the case in a as

number of high veloc i ty experi ment analysed already in this book

-
s .

We proved our assertion about the mutual annihilation f these two o

h i gh velocity absolute e ff e c ts in the wired photocells experime t

- a n ,

perform in g t he wired photocells on a rotating disk experi ment wh i ch i s

a 1.

reported in
17 1
 TH E A ETH E R WIN D EFFECT
Fig 33 1 demonstrates the case where the absolute veloc i ty of the
.
-
a v

laboratory i s perp e dicular to the axis of the apparatus ; when the light source
n

is at the m iddle position bet w een the photocells P and P n current will flow , , o

through the galvanometer .

Let us rotate the axis of the i mplement that the absolute veloc i ty f so o

the labora t ory will be pointing from P to P ( fig 33 l b ) N w proceeding , , .

-
. o ,

from the aether conception for light propagation we co clude that in a unit , n

o f t ime more photons w i ll str i ke Thus the currents produced by the

photocells w i ll be J J AJ/ Z J J AI / 2 w here J is the current
, , , .
,

produced by them i n the case a and the difference i n current A] will flow ,

through the galvanometer .

Indeed now the effective d i stances of the photocells from the source
,

t he d i stances between t he em i ssion position of the source and the

reception posit i ons of the cells ) w i ll be
r (1 W e) , r (l v/c ) ,

where i s the actual distanc e

r .

Hence th e energy flux dens i ty over P and P w i ll be , ,

a ) For the case i n fig 33 l a .

-

P
4 wfl

w here P i s the energy flux radiated by the whole light source ( for simplic i ty
w e suppose the source as a po i n t and the radiation isotrop i c) .

b ) For the case in fig 33 l b .

-

P P P
4 (1 )
’ ’
v/ c (l
’ ’
vr r r v/ c )

However we also have to take i nto account that cell P will collect in a
, ,

un i t f t i me all photons i n a cylinder (suppose the photocells circular ) whose

o

ax i s i s equal to m i the photons i n the cyl i nder P P ; whose ax i s i s equal to

c nu s ,

v,while t he cell P w i ll collect in a unit f t im all photons i n a cyl i nder whose

, o e

ax i s is equal to p l the photons i n the cylinder P P , whose ax i s is equal to

c us , v .

Thus the actual energy flux densities will be

P P

4 7r r
’
(l v/ c )
’
4 wr ’
(l v/ c )
’

172
then it will be the m as the e ffect obtained by a shift f the light source to
sa e o

the photocell P over a ( / ) t h part of the dista ce A ssum ing

2 v 300 km / s
c n r . v

and taking into account that w e had 5 00 mm we obtain that f such a r , or

velocity the aether wind effect described by formula is to be

the same the effect provoked by a shift f the light source over a distance
as o -

A r ( / ) v mm S uch a sh i ft of the electric bulb has provoked an

c r .

electri c current A] f about A o .

FFECT OF R ELA TI VI S TIC D I ST R I B U TION

TH E E
IN TH E RA D I A TION
We expla i n the negativ e ( null ) result in the w i red photocells p i ex er

ment taking into account the relativistic distribution in the rad iation flux
,

dens i ty f a rapidly moving light source S uch an effect has already been
o .

observed in betatrons and synchrotrons where the radiants are elementa y r

part i cles We ssume that the same e ffect m ust exis t also when the rad i ant is
. a

a macroscop i c l i ght source d we have confirmed this assumption with the an

help f the w i red photocells on a rotating disk experiment ( see § 33

o .

The theory of the relat i v i stic d i str i bution i n the radiation f a o

macroscopic light source is g i ven in M in l 97 8q ) S i nce n t he treatment ar ov . 1

of this phe omenon a heav i er mathemat i cal apparatus i s needed we shall

n ,

merely direct the interested reader to original publ i cation Our th t i ou r . eo re

cal analysis ( M in l 97 8q) shows that the e ff ec t of the relat i vistic d i t i

ar ov , s r

b t i n in the radiation i exactly equal and oppos i te to the

u o s aether wind
effect i the energy flux densities over P and P are given
, . e .
, , 2

a ) For the case shown i n fig 33 1 by the formula .

-
a

b ) For the case show ni n fig 33 l b by the following form ulas .

-

P
( 33 12 )
4 7r r
’
(1 v/c )
’
4 vi r
z
(l v/ c )
’

Thus as a result of these two effects [ compare form ulas ( 33 9) and

,
.

no positive absolute effect can be observed i n the wired ph oto a:

cells experime t n .

TH E WI R ED PHOTOCELL S ON A R OTA TING D I S K so

EX PE R I ME NT
We have proved our theoret i cal prediction about the m utual annihila
t i on f the absolute e ff ects descr i bed in
o and by the help of the
w i red photocells n a ro t ating disk experiment whose scheme i s the
o

follow i ng ( fig 33 2 ) .
-

174
 F ig 3 3 2
.
-

The source S and / or the photocells P P can be mounted on a turna ,

bout which rotates clockwis e T and T are two slits which are l w y at rest
.
, , a a s .

A l l other details are as in the wired photocells experiment .

We have performed this expe ime t in three var i ants

r n

a ) Source moving cells a t re st In such a case one registers only the

, .

e ff ec t of relativist i c d i str i bution in the radiation described by formulas

and for t he relative change of the difference in current we obtain [ f o

wi th and taking into accoun t that now AI J J 0] , ,

AJ v

b ) Cells mov i ng source at rest In such a case n registers only the

, . o e

aeth e r wind e ff ect described by formulas and for the relative

ch ange of t he di fference in current AJ we obtain (AI J J 0) , ,

A]
J
s i nce now the aether wind effect described by formulas see
fo m ula
r does not ex i st .

c) Source and cells moving In such a case the e ffects described by

.

formulas and appear together and one registers no change i n

th e d iff erence i n cu rrent wh e n chang i ng the veloc i ty f rotation o .

In ll form ul s re l e vant to the wired photocells on a rotating disk

a a

experi ment is the component of the velocity f t he s urce or the cells

,
v o o or

bo t h along the line f ligh t propagation Thus suppos ing that the slits are
o .
,

nar ow enough we can assume that th i s i s the velocity of a po i nt n the

r ,
o

ro tat i ng d is k whos e radius R i equal to the distance from the centre f

s o

ro tat i on to the centre of the ligh t source .

17 5
 In our realization we used a stabilized gas discharge lamp as a light
,

source The c nductors from the lamp and from the photocells were im m
. o e rv

sed i n mercury at the centre f the disk we did not register a b t nt i n l

o , so su s a o a

di ff erence in the fluctuation of the galvanometer at rest and at rotation of the

disk The difference in current A] was fed to a direct current electronic
.
-

amplifier with a low resistance input wh i ch can be considered a as

galvanometer) whos e fluctuat i on corresponded to 8J t A ( at

maximum rotational velocities ) A t low rotational velocities the
. nt J was
c u rre

peri odically ( with the per i od of rotation ) increasing ( when the l l were ce s

i llum i nated ) and decreas i ng A t a rate of rotation higher than 5 rev / s the
.

cur ent was stable equal to

r , A and did not change with the increase of
5

the rate of rotation For l w rotat i onal velocities a slight s i ngle sinusoidal
. o ,
- i.

d i fference in curre nt AJ was also obse ved The d i sta ce of the lam p from the
r . n

centre f rotation ( measuring from the centre f the lam p s windows ) w as

o o
’

R 1 cm and the d i st ance of the cells about 98 cm The rate f . o

rotat i on N was measured by a light stroboscop i c cyclometer and maintained

au t omat i cally with a prec i s i on SN / N t
( W e made the di fference i n
current to be zero for W e th i s corresponded to a rota ti onal rate
N rev / s by a correspond i ng sh i ft of the cells (case ) or of the lamp
a

( cas e b) For
. Al was made equal to zero wh e n lamp and cells were at
e a se c ,

rest.

F ig 33- 3
.

176
the right and the axis ( with unit vector x ) downwards to the E arth s centre
z - “ ’
.

The masses lie in t h y plane and f the sake f im pl i ity we suppose that
e z- , or o s c ,

the absolute velocity of the laborato y i parallel to the pla e l f w d t r s x z- n . e o no

take into account the mutual gravitational attraction between masses and ou r

the attractio caused by the other celestial bodies then the follo w i g t w o
n , n

forces will act n any f these masses

o o

a ) The full g im g t i force caused by the g im g t i interact i on

ra v a re c ra v a re c

w i th the Earth whose mass i s M [ wr i te the Newto M in equation in n- ar ov

a form analogical to d take into account that for the case considered
an

dA , / d t 0]

m. grad (v z
°
F ,
°
z ,

where m is the proper mass f any of the small masses M is the proper mass
o
o , ,,

of the Earth D i s the distance between their centres and is the velocity of the
,
v

Earth ( we i g ore the ro tat i onal velocity about its axi s )

n .

b) Th full electromagnetic force caused by the m utual electromag etic

e n

i n teraction between t he charges ofour masses [ see formula and take into
account that f the case considered dA / d t 0]
or

o grad ( t

where the sign is for the electromagnetic force acting on the right mass
a
,

the sig n is for the electromagnetic force acting on the left mass and d i , s

the d i stance between the i r centres .

The masses will be in equ i l i brium at the cond i tion

Es cos t9 = E ,, s in o ,

where 0 i s the angle between the horizontal plane and the radius pointing
from the centre f the cauldron to any f masses
o o our .

S uppose now that the velocity of the cauldron has cha ged with A 0 n v

because f the yearly motion f the E arth It is easy t see that the electro
o o . o

magne t ic forces will change and a new state of equilibri um will be i nstalled ,

so t ha t angle 0 w i ll change with A0 0 and distance d will change w i th

Ad 2 AOR i n0 0 ( we ignore the change AD as i t i s very small w i th
s

respect t D )o

From and the equation which we can write f the new state of or

equ i l i br i um we obta i n within the necessary accuracy

,

V AV
co t 0 .

2
C

17 8
 ssuming the E arth s absolute velocity to be
A
’
v 300 km / s we obtain a
,

yearly variation about the state f equilibrium ( f o or Av 30 km / s and

7r / 4)

4
10 1
-

This experiment is difficult to realize By the light lever f Jones . o

angles unt i l 10 rad can be measured However there are difficulties i

“ H
.
, n

producing spheres ( very likely has to electrets ) which have to main o ne use

tain a constant charge for a w hole year .

Nevertheless this experiment is extremely fruitful f theoretical phy

, or

sics as a thought experiment

1) It shows that mag et i sm i not a relative but an absolute ph n mn s e o e

non Indeed according to t he principle of relat i v i ty no variations about the

.
, ,

state of equilibrium are to be observed when t he absolute velocity of the

apparatus changes This however contradicts the everyday fact that whe
.
, , n

changing the velocity f the electrons in a vacuum tube their magnetic field
o

also changes .

2 ) If the relativists consent that the electromagnetic force bet w een

two charges changes when they are t i n motion ( because f the appeari g se o n

magnetic force ) then the pr i nciple f relativ i ty will t m t i l ly fail if

, o au o a ca ,

conside i ng the cauldron experiment only as a thought experiment

r « ! .

Indeed if w are n a ship saili g with velocity in a canal and we move our
, e o n v ,

c uldron with velocity ( relati vely to the sh ip ) first to w ards the stern d
a v an

then with the same velocity towards t he prow then an observer relativist on .
-

the ship will conclude that the stern bou d and prow bound states f -
n -
o

equilibri um must be the same and different from the rest state f q ib i m o e u r u

where the cauldron is at rest with respect to the sh ip However a other .

, n

observer relativis t n the bank will c nclude that all three states f
-
o o o

equil i br i um must be di fferen t ( remember the clocks round the world - - -

exper i ment It is clear tha t the experiment h ve a iq result c an a un ue

as pred i cted by an observer absolutist w h is at rest in b solute space -

o a .

3) The cauldron experi ment can throw abundant light on the law f o

g av i tat i onal attraction If grav i tat i on is a Newtonian analogue f

r . o

electromagne ti sm i i f there i s a gravitational analogue t the magnetic

, . e o

e nergy and th e m are responsible for the g im g t i interaction f the

as s es ra v a re c o

bod i es then no yearly vari ation w i ll be observed However i f gravitation is a

, .
,

M in ar analogue of electromagnetism i if there i s a gravitatio al

ov , . e .
,
n

analogue to the magnetic energy and the p p m are responsible for ro er as s e s

the g im g t i interact i on of the bodies then a yearly variation as

rav a re c ,

d e cri bed above w i ll be observed The same yearly var i ation w ill be ob erved
s . s

179
al o in the case i f there i s no grav i tat i onal analogue to the magnetic energy
s

and the masses are responsible for the gravitational i nteraction f the bodies o

( was assumed by Newton )

as .

§ 35 . T H E T R O U TO N - NO B L E E X P E R I M E NT
The historical T t n Nobl e ( 190 3) experiment is generally considered
ro u o -

as one of the most im portant experi men ts to prove the principle f relativity o

for electromagnetic phenomena .

One expects a pos i tive effect in the T t n Noble exper i ment ro u o

p
-
, a cc e

ting that Newton s th i rd law breaks down in the doma i n ofel ectromag etism
’
n .

However we have shown in § 6 Newton s third law has an universal

, as ,
’

validity and holds good also in the domain of electromag etism Thus the n .

pos i t i ve e ffect which conventional physics predicts in the T t n Noble

, ro u o -

exper i ment i s based on wrong theoretical calculations We present here the

, .

theoretical analysis and description f the T nt n Noble experiment given

o ro o -

by Jan y
o ss taking § 82 and § 83 of his book i t t n o o

8 2 Consider two oppos i te po i nt charges

. and ; the e e

radius vector pointing from to be denoted by If thee e r .

charges are at rest th e force act i ng upon can be wr i t t en e

’
e r

)
r

th e force ac ts in the direct i on f the moment of force

As o r

produced by the pair of charges van i shes i , . e

M ,, r X F, 0 .

If the pair f charges i s made to move w i th a constant velo

o

city then the positive charge will be under the action f the
v, o

Coulomb attraction of and also under the influence of the

e

magnet i c fi l d
e
(v )/r
’
x r
c

Th us the total force acting upon is given by e

S ince
'
v ( v . r ) v r ,

180
 uri ng the rotation of the Earth the total time derivatives of the
D ,

magnetic potentials caused by both electric charges co sidered above are n

equal to zero ( the dista ce between these two charges well as their velocity
n as

do n t change Thus the full electromagnetic forces acting on them are

o

equal to the corresponding kinetic forces O the other hand according to the . n ,

full Newton s third law the full electromag etic forces acting on t w o isolated
’

, n

charges are equal d oppositely directed along the line connecting them
an ,

and no rotational moment of force can be produced by these two charges .

Jan y (
ossas w ell conventional physics )
asdoes not take into account that
when one of the charges moves the refere ce point where the other charge is , n

placed also moves and he calculates the effect in the T t n Noble p

, ro u o -
ex e

riment by the help f in pp p i t formulas Our formula

o a i the right
ro r a e . s

one t be used in this case

o .

§ 36 . TH E S YNCH R OT R ON E X P ER I M E NT
We have proposed the synchrotron exper i ment i n M in ( l 977b) ar ov

w i th the a i m f sho wi ng that the ball i st i c ( R itz) model of light propagation is

o

not adequate to phys i cal real i ty i that t he veloc i ty f light is always equal , . e .
, o

to (with respect to absolute space but not to the geometrical sum f and
c o c

the veloc i ty f the em i tt e r

v o .

The essence of the synchrotron experi ment wh i ch arose from an ,

outline given by K t y n i s as follows ( fig 36 1)

ara s o a ov .
-

Let us have a c i rcular accelerator of electrons A S hort light pulses .

( packages of photons ) are emitted by the emitter E in regular short i ntervals

o f time AT These light pulses a ft er being reflected by the sem i transparent
.
,
-

m i ror M p ss through the narrow slit S and reach the electrons revolv i g in
r , a n

the accelerator along the tangent to the i r trajectory The photons after being .
,

reflected by the electrons turn back and passing t hrough the sem i t n p
, ,
-
ra s a

rent mirror M are reg i stere d by the rece i ver R

, .

We can consider the revolv i ng electrons ( representing as a matter of ,

fact a fast moving mirror see

, as a new source of rad iat i on Chan .

g i ng the velocity f the electrons w e change the velocity f this ligh t source I f
o , o .

t he velocity f light depends n the velocity f the source f radiation then

o o o o , ,

wi th the i crease f the velocity of the revolving electrons the time f

n o v , or

wh i ch the photons will cover the d i stance from the accelerator to mirror M
will become shorter Hence i f we obtain electric pulses from the em itted and
.

rece i ved light pulses and if we lead them to the electrodes of an electronic
oscillograph U on it screen w e should the p i cture shown in the figure
se, s se e .

L t the high peaks described by the electron i c beam cor espond to the
e r

182
 F ig 36 1
.
-

e m i tted light pulses and the low peaks to the re ceived light pulses If the
.

veloc i ty of light does not depend n the veloc i ty of the source of rad i ation the
o ,

d i s t ance d between the high and low peaks will remain the same when the
veloc i ty f the electrons along t he circular trajectory f the accelerator in
o o

creases I f the velocity of ligh t depends on the velocity of the source of

.

radiation distance d will change when the veloc i ty of the electron s changes
,
.

Let us show this .

When the light pulses are em i tted at intervals f AT and D is the

o ,

d istance betwe e n them ov e r the screen i t will be D k AT where k is the

, ,

18 3
so -called constant f scann i ng f t he oscillograph and is e qual to the hori
o o

zo nt l distance which the electronic beam covers over the screen for a unit of
a

time .

Let the velocity f the electrons in the accelerator be first and then
o v

v A If the velocity f the source must be added geometrically to the

v . o

velocity f light then the velocity of the photo s n the track from the
o , n o

accelerator to mirror M will be in the first case and c, c v

c c A in the second case

v v .

Hence the t i me At with wh i ch the light pulses w i ll come earlier to the

rece i ver in the second case w i ll be ( suppose A ) v, v c

L AV

( c t
-
) (c
v v Av)

where L is the d i stance between the accelerator and mirror M .

The d i fference between t he d i stances d and d in the first and second , ,

cases w i ll be Ad k At .

If we choose AT s L 9 m and A / 300

, 10 m / we v c
°
s,

obta i n At AT Thus for such an increase of the electrons velocity i n the

.
’

accelerator the low peaks will be shifted w i th respect to the high peaks over a
,

d i stance Ad equal to the distance D between the high peaks .

If the velocity of light does no t depend n the veloc i ty f the source as o o ,

our absolute space time t heory asserts then it must be Ad 0 for any
-
,

i ncrease f the e lectrons velocity

o
’
.

184
 Marino v S .
, 1970 P hy s L e t t 3 2 A 183
, . .
, , .

Mari nov S 197 2 a P hy s L e t t , 4 0A 7 3

, . .
, .

Ma rino v S .
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, . .
, , .

Ma rino v S .
, 19 7 3 P hy s L e t t 44 A 2 1
, . .
, , .

Ma rino v S .
,
1 9 74 a I Th eor P hy s 9 , 139
, nt . J . .
, .

Ma ri no v S .
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, .

Mari no v S .
, 1975 a I ,
nt . J . Th eo r P hy s 1 3 1 89 .
, , .

Ma rino v S .
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, , .

Marino v S .
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, .
, .

Marino v S .
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Marino v S .
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, , .

Marino v S .
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, . .
, , .

Marino v S .
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Marinov S .
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Marino v S .
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Ma rinov S .
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Marino v S .
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Marinov S .
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Marino v S .
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Ma rino v S .
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Mari no v s .
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,

Marino v S .
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, . .

Marino v S .
,

Marino v S .
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Ma rinov S .
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Ma ri no v S 197 8 r Sp e c S c , . . Tech n 1 , 2 39 .

Mari no v S .
,
197 85 Sp e c S c , . . Tech n 1 , 2 35 .

Ma ri nov S .
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Marinov S .
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Menzel D . H . et a l .
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-
,

Je rsey .

Mic h e l s A c l . al .
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M ichelson A . and orl ey E M W 1886 , A m . .

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.
, . . .
, .

P ogany B .
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.
, ,
r oc . o . oc .
, , .

S gn
a acG 19 13 C mp t R d 15 7 708 14 10 , o es en us , , , .

S antos A N dos 1976 1 1 N

. Cim t 3 2 B 5 19
.
, ,
u o vo e n o, , .

186
72 Tro u t o n
. F T and Noble H
. . . R
1903 P r o c R oy S oc 7 2 13 2
.
, , . . .
, , .

73 . Zeeman P .
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, . R oy A ca d A m s t e r da m 17 4 4 5
. .
, , .

74 . Zeeman P .
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. .
, , .

75 . Zeeman P .
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, . . .
, , .

76 . Zeeman P .
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, ,
. . .
, , .

18 7