Materials OneNotes

September 15, 2022 10:05 AM
Notes
Qualities of a good test
1. Conducted to a standard procedure (~ follow ASTM Standard)

a. The same test can be conducted by different people and comparable results can
be achieved.
2. Reliable and Valid
a. Reliability (repeatability) similar results for the same material on repeated tests
b. Validity - tests measures the required properties without being affected by any
other factor.
3. Objective (not subjective)
a. The results are not affected by personal judgement
4. Precise and Accurate
a. Precision - how close together values of the same measurement lie
b. Accuracy - how close to the true value is the measurement
c. Precision and Accuracy are both required for a good test.
i. This is achieved through calibration of the equipment
ii. Operator training
5. Minimize Error
a. Error can never be 100% eliminated
b. This means that you need to know the effects and sources of error
c. Eliminate human error by following standard procedure~
d. Sources of error and their effects is a standard section of all lab reports
e. Keep equipment calibrated
Destructive Tests
The part can not be used for its intended purpose after the test. The piece is physically broken
during the test. Destructive tests can be expensive and are most often used on raw materials
as opposed to finished parts. If finished parts are tested, then only a small sample set is
tested, (1 in 1000 or less)~
Types of Destru ctive Tests

We will be doing destructive tests in the 1alL )
These tests are typically named by the type of load used during the test
- Tensile (lab)
- Compression•
- Hardness (lab)
- Shear
- Torsion•
- Bending
- Impact•
- Fatigue
- Creep! 1
Non-Destructive Tests
Any test that does not render the part unusable for its intended purpose.
In most cases NOT is used on actual parts and assemblies, whereas destructive tests are
typically used on materials.
NOT is typically looking for naws or cracks in the part. If time permits, then every part can be
tested as part of a Quality program.
NOT is also used on in-service parts to check for fatigue. Often cracks will start to form in
metallic parts over their service life. The question is, how big are the cracks and what s ize
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Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 1

Non-Destructive Tests
Any test that does not render the part unusable for its intended purpose.
In most cases NOT is used on actual parts and assemblies, whereas destructive tests are
typically used on materials.
NOT is typically looking for flaws or cracks in the part. If time permits, then every part can be
tested as part of a Quality program.
NDT is also used on in-service parts to check for fatigue. Often cracks will start to form in
metallic parts over their service life. The question is , how big are the cracks and what size
crack will cause catastrophic failure of the part?
NDT is often used to confirm a parts suitability for continued use.
Destructive Tests:
Tensile Test - the material is subjected to a force that pulls from one end to another. Often iL
Li referred to as an axial load (or force) because it is being applied along the longitudinal axis
of the specimen.
From the test. properties such as Stress and Strain can be detennined where the stress is
F
<l = Ao
Force is the axial load or force applied and & is the original area of the specimen before the
load the was applied and it is the area in a plane perpendicular to the axial force.
Strain is e = L-LoLo
Original length Lo is the gauge leng1b and it is measured parallel to the axial force.
AflEA :
Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot

Maximum toad
TS - - - - - - - -- - - -
Fracture
i
0
Strain, e
Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a

tensile test of a metal.
111200/ John Wiley & Soos. Inc MP Groover Fundamentals of Modem Manufacturing 3·e

e.. -
l.. 0
Stress-Strain Graph
The graph starts with a linear line from 0,0 and continues with this linear path until the
proportional limit.
This linear portion of the graph defines the elastic range.
Within the elastic range, if the force is removed, the material will return to its original size and
shape with no permanent deformation.
After the proportional limit, the graph becomes parabolic (or curved in shape) and continues to
increase in stress until it reaches a maximum stress - the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) - at
this point a "neck" becomes visible in the material at the point if failure. The neck continues to
decrease in size until the material fails at the rupture point.
The proportional limit to the rupture point defines the plastic range. In this range, permanent
deformation occurs in the material.
Proportional Limit
- Up to this point, the graph is lim~_a r and stress is proportional to strain, ~ equation of
a straight line y = mx
Hooke's Law relates stress and strain in the elastic region and gives: a= Ee
In this case, Eis Young's Modulus of Elasticity (or the Elastic Modulus, or Young's
Modulus) and it is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain graph.
Is the end of the elastic range and start of the plastic range.
In reality it is rather difficult to exactly Rin point the proportional limit where the linear
line ends and the parabolic curve starts, so a point is defined and is called the Yield
Strength I

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Yield Strength
- One of the most important values for engineers
- In the design process it is important to know when the material will start to have
permanent deformation
- ASTM defines yield strength as: the stress at which a material exhibits a specified
permanent deformation of 0.2%
- Practically- yield point is found by drawing a line parallel to the linear the portion of
the graph and offset by 0.2% = 0.002 on the x-axis. Where this offset parallel line
intersects the stress-strain curve is the defined yield point
- Up to 0.2% permanent deformation is acceptable in most engineering designs since
small changes in size can occur with temperature changes as well.
- In the design process, a safety factor is applied to ensure that the final design
meets requirements. The safety factor increases the maximum design load so that
it real life an actual load can never exceed the design load.
- ie if the safety factor is set to 2, then the item is designed such that yield/2 is never
exceeded.
- Safety takes into account variances in the material, production and assembly.!
Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS (Tensile Strength)

- II is the largest stress the material can withstand before it starts to fail.
- The UTS gives an indication of internal defects, or stress concentrations present in
the material.
- The strength of the material starts to rise as the graph enters the plastic region as a
result of strain hardening within the microstructure as a result of cold-working during
the elongation of the test. Cold-working we will see later is a strengthening
mechanism for metals.
Modulus of Elasticity - Young's Modulus

- Is the slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve as defined by Hooke's
Law. E = ~
e
- A steeper slope results in a higher E value and since the Elastic Modulus is a
measure of the material's stiffness, higher E implies a stiffer material
- E is applicable only in the Elastic region,. since it is the slope of the linear line!
- For Steel E = 30 000 000 psi, or 209 GPa
Ductility
- Is measured as % elongation or% reduction in area
- Gives an indication of the materials ability to be plastically deformed and therefore
cold rolled .
- % elong = LrLo x 100% or% elong = final strain x 100%
Lo
- o/o AR = Ao-A[ X 100%
Ao
- If the % elong or% AR is > 5% the material is considered ductile

Toughness
- Gives an indication that a material is both strong and ductile. This means it has a
better ability to absorb energy
- It can be approximated by the area under the stress-strain curve and is more
~ properly measured using an impact test.
Poisson's Ratio
- When a specimen is placed under a force, an axial strain is created in a direction
parallel to the force. For a tensile test, the axial strain will be along the length of the
specimen.
- Due to the constant volume proposition the increase in length due to the axial strain
must be compensated for by a reduction in the other dimension(s). This reduction
in the other dimension(s) is due to lateral strain, ie strain perpendicular to the
applied force.
- The lateral strain is calculated much the same as axial strain:
lateral strain = do - dr , in this case the dimension d would be the diameter of a
do
round specimen or the thickness, t, of a rectangular specimen.
- Within the elastic range, Poisson's Ratio is defined as lateral to axial strain.
do - dt
PR = lateral strain = do
axial strain L , -L o
---i-;;-
- Most common structural engineering materials havef oisson's Ratio (PR, v)
Where 0.25 < v < 0.7, for steel v = 0.3!
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Hardness (Groover Section 3.2)
Hardness testing is a destructive test (kind of). It is a measure of a materials ability to resist
indentation.
The harder the material, the more difficult to indent. Harder materials are more wear resistant
Hardness values from testing shall be reported as whole numbers to 2 or 3 sig digs and shall
also include the test type and scale used.
The hardness of a material is a relative measure of the depth of indentation of an oject into the
surface of the specimen.
There are three standard hardness tests:

- Brinell
- Rockwell*
- Vickers
Brinell Hardness Test

- Uses a 10 mm diameter case hardened tungsten-carbide steel ball indenter
- There are 3 standard loads used for testing depending upon the hardness of the
material
o 3000 kg
o 1500 kg
o 500 kg
- The loads are applied for 30-60 secs with the longer dw ations for softer materials.
The lighter loads are also used for softer materials.
- After the load is removed the diameter of the resulting indentation is measured
using a micrometer microscope (or Brinell microscope)
- The hardness value is then calculated using the g,_q[t:
2
0 HB = F
nob(Du- Jo~ - of)
Where:
o HB is the Brinell hardness number in kg/mm2
o Old notation that you may still see is BHN instead of HB for Brine/I hardness
number
o Dbis the diameter of the ball (10 mm)
o D; is the measured diameter of the indentation in mm
o Fis the applied load in kg (3000, 1500, or 500)
The typical range is 90 < HB < 630 with larger number indicating harder materials. 0
If a HB value falls outside this range, it is unsuable.l
For best accuracy of the Brinell test the depth of indentation should not exceed 1 mm, based o
the geometry of the ball, this occurs when the diameter of indentation D; > 6 mm .
.So if the D; > 6 mm, you need to change to the next lower load value.
The Brinell test is not very accurate above HB = 600 since the diameter of indentation is small
and the rate of change of diameter with depth is also quite small at the bottom of the ball. If the
material is harder than the ball, then the ball may deform against the material and result in a
larger diameter from the squished shape of the indenter.
The specimen being tested should have a minimum thickness of 10 mm to ensure accuracy of
the test so all the deformation occurs within the sample and not the backing plate below the
sample.

Brinell Hardness Test
Widely used for
testing metals and
nonmetals of low to
medium hardness
A hard ball is pressed
into specimen Specimen
surface with a load
of 500, 1500, or (a) Brinell
3000 kg
Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell
©2007 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. M P Groover. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Brinell Advantages
- It is well established, widely accepted
- Not affected by small surface impurities/imperfections due to 10 mm ball size
- Quick and simple
Brinell Disadvantages
- The equipment is large and not portable - requires compressed air to function
- Measuring the size of the indentation can be subjective and requires training, but
results can still vary by about 10%
2F
- Results must be calculated with "the equation" HB = - - ---~
11'.Db(Db- JDG- D[)
- Nqt accurate for hard material (HB > 600)1
Vickers Hardness Test
The Vickers test uses a pyramid shaped diamond indenter that will leave a square indentation
mark.
Vickers tests use loads of 5 - 120 kg and therefore smaller equipment size.
1 54
The Vickers Hardness HV is calculated as: I-IV = · :, F
- Where F is the load in kg

- D is the diagonal length of the square indentation.
- HV has units of kg/mm 2
DPH or Diamond Pyramid Hardness is the old terminology for HV

Vickers Advantages
- The diagonal length of the square indentation is easier to measure than the
diameter of the Brinell test
- The diamond tip indenter allows harder materials to be tested.
- The equ ipment is more compact and portable than Brinell
Vickers Disadvantages
- Equipment is more expensive
- Is used mainly in research and quality control
Rockwell Hardness Test*
Rockwell tests use different indenters and different loads for various materials
- Three indenters are:
o 120° Diamond tipped cone
o 1/8" ball
o 1/16" ball
- Each indenter can use one of three loads of 60,100,150 kg resulting in 9 different
Rockwell tests. For this course we will use the Rockwell B and C tests.
- Rockwell test results are accurate within a range of O -100. If the result is outside
this range use a different Rockwell scale (where O is soft and 100 is hard)
- When reporting the results of a Rockwell rest, the SCALE designation must also be
included! HRC or HRB
Rockwell Advantages
- Fast
- No calculations required, read the final value from the display - reduces human
error
- Widely accepted
- Objective - the number is read from the display.
Rockwell Disadvantages
- Can be affected by material impurities and surface irregularities - to resolve this a
minimum of 3 tests are always done on the same specimen and then the values are
averaged to come up with a final hardness value. When doing the multiple tests, if
one value is significantly different (>1 0) from the others, throw it out and do another
test.
- Too many scales and indenters that require one to follow the procedure and ensure
the machine is properly set so the results are valid.
M.Q.li§_ Hardness Scale
M2.b'.§ scale is used to determine the relative hardness of minerals - it is a field test, not really
an engineering test.
How does it work? If an unknown material can be scratched by one known material, but not by
another, then the unknown material has a hardness between the two known materials.
Shear occurs when opposing forces lying in different parallel planes are applied to an object.
The distance between the opposing forces must be small otherwise bending occurs, and if
there is not distance between the forces, then compression occurs.
Shear loads can be categorized as single shear or double shear. The number of cross-
sectional areas that are holding the load give the count as to the type of shear load.

~=-F,,
• A5
[-lb] [N
in 2
]
n'> = [Pa],
Where T is the shear strength or shear stress

Fs is the force causing the shear
Asis area in shear.
As a rule of thumb shear strength is about 60% of the tensile strength for materials. So it takes
less force to break an item in shear than in tension.
The Shear Modulus

Similar in concept to Young's Modulus. The Shear modulus is calculated using shear stress
divided by shear strain within the elastic region
T
G =-
y
Gamma y is shear strain and is again in/in or mm/mm
Shear and Young's Modulus are related using:

E
G = 2(1 + PR)
Example for Shear

A crane Is required to 11ft exactly 20,000 kg. If the hook Is attached to the cable using 1.2 cm
diameter steel bolts (E = 206 Ge.a. PR = 0.33), how many bolts are required usin!l no safety
factor if the max strain the bolts should experience is 0.015 mm/mm?
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Compression - squeezes the material by applying forces in opposite directions in the same
plane. ~ opposite of tension)
F
- Compression testing is normally conducted only on those materials that will be used
in applications where the material experiences a compressive load.
- Bricks, concrete, cast iron, ceramics are normally used in compression since they
have poor tensile properties.
- When conducting compression tests it is important to ensure that buckling does not
occur during the test
- To do this use a length to diameter ratio of 2:1 max, or L :;; 2D
Torsion - Torsional stress is generated when a twisting motion is applied along the
longitudinal axis of the object
- The stress created by a torque load is
16
S1 = T3 - for a solid round bar
rrD
Where:
St is the torsional stress in psi or Pa
- T is the applied torque load
o Torque is a force applied through a distance T = F x d (and din terms of
shafts is usually the outside diameter)
- Do and D; are the outside and inside diameters.

Impact Testing
Most materials can withstand larger forces when the force is applied gradually. If a force is
applied suddenly, then a smaller force may cause the material to fail.
Impact testing measures the energy required to break a specimen under a sudden blow.
There are two standard tests for impact, the Charpy and lzod - both tests measure the impact
resistance in bending.
Both the Charpy and lzod tests use a pendulum to strike a specimen. The pendulum is
positioned at a starting height (call it h1), as it swings through and impacts the specimen, the
energy required to break the specimen is removed from the pendulum. This means that fina l
height of the pendulum (call it h2) is lower than ht
The difference in potential energy of the pendulum at the start and finish, must be the energy
required to break the specimen.
Fatigue Testing
Fatigue is the failure of a material due to repeated applications of a load below the ultimate
strength.
The repeated applications of a load are called cycles, each time a load is applied and
removed, lhat Is one cycle
An S-n (Stress - 'fl. of cycles ourve) is created from experimental data where the x-axis is# of
cycles and uses a Jogari'l11mic scale.
From these fatigue tests, the Important value Is lhe crlUcal stress, the level of stress that If
never exceeded should provide an infinite fatigue life for the part. However, exceeding this
critical stress just once can result i11 premature failure of the part.
The critical stress is found where the S-n curve becomes asymptotic (becomes parallel) wil11
the x-axis
Almost all objects experience fatigue during their life, so the problem for engineers is to
determine the critical stress, if it Will be exceeded in normal use and if !iO what life limit should
be placed on 1l7e part so as to replace It before It falls due to fatigue.
Of particular Interest Is the fact that FRP (fiber reinforced polymers, le, nber glass and carbon
fibre) structures do not have a fatigue llfe.
Creep Testing
Measures the effects of the long-term application of loads below the materials elastic limit.
Over long durations the material may deform plastically even though the stress remained
below the elastic limit.
Creep Is of the most concern in structures where long-term static loads occur - ~ bridges and
buildings. There are not many circumstances in Mech design where creep is a factor, but it is
for civil engineering.

Flexure (Bending) - places compressive stresses in one part of the material and tensile
stresses in another part of the material, then at the neutral axis there will be no stress.
When an object is loaded in bend ing, a certain amount of deflection will occur due to the
elastic deformation of the material, the amount of deflection is a primary design consideration
Flexure is most often associated with beams and flexure gives a measure of the stiffness of
the material.
3FL
Flex Stress = 2wh2
For a rectangular beam
Where:
F is the force being applied
L is the length between supports
w and h are the w idth and height
1Ipes of Defects - there are point defects and line defects
Point defects
1. Vacancy - missing atom In the structure - this produces a weakness al that point ln the
structure and likely failure poinL The number of vacancies lncreases as temperature
Increases as the additional energy allows atoms to move within lhe structure. This is
one reason why metals are weaker al high temperature.
2. Interstitial - aA:1 extra atoms within the structure.
a. The extra atom makes it harder for slip to occur as result of creating a blockage
between the · main" atoms of the material.
b. This resistance to sfip makes the material stronger and less ductile
c. Steel ~ an alloy of Fe + C, the carbon forms interstitials in the Fe cubic structure.
The higher the carbon (up to a point) the slfonger and m(l('e brittle the material
becomes.
3. Subsutu~Qfl.ils - an atom of a different type is substituted into the structure ln place of
lhe primary atom.
a. The effect depends upon how the different elements (atoms) react with each
other. So SJ.Jb.stiluliona,ls may increase the strength of a material (le bronze) or 1t
may weaken (re impurity)

Line Defects
1. Edge Dislocation - start as a missing atom and while under load the position of that
missing atom moves the net result is that the a. step occurs at the edge after the missing
atom position moves to the edge of the material while under load.
a. This edge dislocation facilitates slip along the line of the missing atom
b. Creates a weak point where failure is more likely to occur
2. Screw Dislocation - stacks of atoms in the cubic structure are twisted relative to the
cube below (like a deck of cards that has been fanned out, or a spiral staircase)
a. This affects the materials resistance to torsion loading
3. Stacking Faults - when different crystal structures are mixed together, ~
BCC/FCC/HCP
a. Molt likely to occur in alloys that have different crystal structures for each
element.
4. Twinning- crystal structures occur in a mirror image to each other.
a. The mirror line is a weakness as result of the ease of slip along a straight line
b. Twinning occurs naturally in Cu and quartz
c. Occurs under load in HCP structures
Groover Chapter 2
Review of BASIC atomic structure
Elements are the most basic chemical substance and may be combined to form
everything around us.
Elements are composed of atoms that consist of a central cluster, the nucleus, and
electrons (negatively charged particles) that form in orbits about the nucleus
- The atomic number represents the number of protons (positively charged particles)
in the nucleus and is also equal to the number electrons so that the overall charge
of the atom is neutral
- There are also neutrons with no electrical charge in the nucleus. The neutrons as
well as protons provide the mass of the atom.
- The atomic mass minus the atomic number equals the number of neutrons
- According to the Bohr model the number of electrons in each orbit is 2n2 where n is
the orbit number.
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II.M7 This shows the Atomic Number (26) and the Atomic Mass (-56)
- This tells us there are 26 protons and therefore 26 electrons in Iron (Fe)
And 56-26 = 30 Neutrons In Iron I
- The 26 electrons are distributed in the orbits based on 2rr so Iron has:
o Orbit 1: 2(1 )2 - 2 electrons - running total 2 -
o Orbit 2: 2(2)2 - 8 electrons - running total 10
o Orbit 3: 2(3)2 -18 electrons - running total 28
- Since 3 orbits can hold 28 electrons and Fe has only 26, then there is space for 2
more electrons in the outer orbit (or valence shell) and this allows Iron to easily
bond with other atoms
Isotopes
Within individual elements the numbers of neutrons in the nucleus can vary, these variants are
called isotopes.
For example, hydrogen typically has 1 proton an Oneutrorns giving an atomic mass of 1, but
there are two hydrogen isotopes:
- Deuterium with 1 proton and 1 neutron - atomic mass 2
- Tritium 1 proton and 2 neutrons - atomic mass 3
- Heavy water as a coolant in ~ nuclear reactors is an example of the use of
these hydrogen isotopes.
There are about 100 natural elements and 13,50 isotopes.
Elements
Can be classified as either metal or non-metal.
Metallic elements are generally solid at room temperature and good conductors of heat and
electricity
Non-metallic elements may be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature and are insulators (poor
conductivity)
The state of an element (solid , liquid or gas) can be changed through the addition or removal
of energy that changes the temperature.
All elements have solidification (freezing) and va.Qourization (boiling) points. The specific
temperature at which the state transitions depends upon the ambient pressure.
Compound
Is a combination of two or more elements. The smallest part of a compound is a molecule.

For example, H20. If the compound is broken up, it reverts to individual elements and atoms.
Molecules
Are formed when elements combine as a compound and this happens only if the outer (or
valence} orbit of an atom is not full.
Hydrogen has 1 electron and according to the 2n2 the first orbit can contain 2 electrons this
allows H2 to form where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons
Oxygen has 8 electrons. 2 are in the first orbit, leaving 6 out of a possible 8 in the second orbit.
The two empty spaces in the oxygen orbit can be filled by the 2 electrons from H2 giving H20

Mixture
Two or more pure substances are mixed_together mechanically. The pure substances may be
elements or compounds and mixtures can be separated
Four states of Matter
Solid - strongest atomic bonds

Liquid
Gas - weakest atomic bonds
e.tasm.a - ionized gas that is rare on earth (~ - the sun)
Figure 3-4 How atoms are arranged in (a) a crystalline solid, (b) a liquid, (c) a gas. (D. C . Giancoli, Physics, Prentice-l-Iall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980)
(a) (b)
James A. Jacobs & T homas F. Kilduff'

Copyn g.ht C2005 by Pearson Educauou, Inc.
Engmr.ermg ,MQtfrial.$ Teclurology: Srruct:ires,
Upper Sarld1e Rfrer, New Jer~ 07458
Processing. Properties. and Selec1ion, 5e All rig.bu rNtt\'ed.

Figure 3-10 A space or crystal lattice with a simple cubic unit cell outlined.
Jaw es A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kildurt

Copyt1ghl 0 2005 by Pean.on Education, lnc:
Engmeermg Matenal.s Teclvrology: Srructures,
Upper Saddle Ri\-el', New Jeney 07458
Processing, Properties, and Selection, 5e All righ1s re;.ef\·ed.
Figure 3-12 A body-centered cubic unit cell.
8 atoms (one at each corner)
1 atom (at center of cube)
James A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kilduff

Copyn ght 02005 by Pcaaon fulocahon, Inc.
Engm;-, enng Marerial.s Techuology: Structures,
Upper Sadd1e River, New Jm,ey 07458
Processing, Properties, and Selection, 5e All rights reserved.

Figure 3-13 A face-ceutered cubic unit cell.
8 corner atoms
6 face-centered atoms
J ames A. J11cobs & Thomas F. Kilduff

Copyn ght 02005 by P=r= Educalle>n, loc.
Engmeermg Materials Technology: Srrocmres,
Upper Saddle Ri\·e:r, New Jersey 07458
Processing, Propenies, and Selection, 5e All rip,hts rese11.·ed.
Crystalline Structures of solid metals
The crystal structure of a material will affect it mechanical properties so it is important to

understand these structures. There are five basic structures_ but each type has several sub-
categories.
1. Simple Cubic - has eight atoms, one at each corner of a cube. The cube has equal
side lengths and the faces are all perpendicular
a. Body-centered Cubic (BCC) is the same as the simple cube, but has one
additional atom at the centre of the cube.
i. Iron, tungsten, and molybdenum form as BCC
b. Face-centered Cubic (FCC) the simple cube has an additional atom centered on
each face of the cube. So there are 8 corner atoms and 6 face atoms
i. The face atoms provide better rigidity than the simple cube, but not as
much support as the central BCC atom. So softer and more ductile metals
are found with the FCC structure.
ii. Aluminum, copper, g_ old, lead, nickel, silver, platinum
2. Simple Tetragonal - similar to the cube, but one side is longer than the other two equal
sides. T hink of a 4 x 4 piece of lumber. Tin forms as simple tetragonal. There is not
much structure and the one long side increases brittleness.
a. Body-centred Tetragonal (BCT) - has one add itional central atom in the middle
of the structure. This results in a very hard and strong, but brittle structure.
i. Metallic ceramics form as BCT
3. Simple Orthorhombic - similar to the cubic structure, but all three side lengths are
different
a. Base-centered Orthorhombic - has one additional atom centered on the
bottom face of the "cube".
b. Body-centred Orthorhombic
c. Face-centered Orthorhombic
i. Orthorhombic structure will be a little weaker than the cubic structures with
additional brittleness due to the longer edges.
4 . Rhombohedral - none of the planes are perpendicular, but the distances between the
planes are equal

5. Hexagonal Close-packed (HCP) - the base shape is hexagonal with six vertical side
walls - so it looks like a hex-nut. There are 6 atoms one at each vertex of the top and
another 6 on the bottom hex face and then 1 central atom on each of the top and
bottom hex faces for a total of 14 atoms. Titanium and graphite form in the HCP
structure. The HCP shape is very strong and results in good mechanical properties.
From this look at the various crystal/cubic structures of metals we can see that soft and ductile
metals form in the FCC structure
Less ductile and stronger metals form in the BCC
Brittle materials form in the SC and Tetragonal
I
Imperfections
Imperfections in the cubic structure arise naturally since it is almost impossible for nature to
Produce perfect structures. When alloying metals imperfections are even more likely as we
are now mixing two or more structures.
Types of Defects - there are point defects and line defects
Point defects
~ 1. Vacancy - missing atom in the structure - this produces a weakness at that point in the
structure and likely failure point. The number of vacancies increases as temperature
increases as the additional energy allows atoms to move within the structure. This is
one reason why metals are weaker at high temperature.I
Figure 3-15 (a) A hexagonal crystal lattice nnit cell. (b) Top plane ofunit cell showing six equilateral triangles.
z
Top
basal Atom
pl ane
I C
I
--+---(
' ';:>-._--
I
/ .......
/ .......
a
(a) (b)
J ames A. Jacobs & T bow as F. Kilduff

Copyright C2005 by PclllM>D Educallon, Inc..
Engmeenng Material.s Technology: Structures,
Upper Saddle Rin~t , New Jene)' 07458
Processing, Properties, and Selection, 5e
All rights res.er,:ed.

Figure 3-31 Point defects (vacancies).
James A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kilduff

Copyright 0 2005 by Pcanon liducal.Jon, Inc;
Engmeenng MateriLll.s Technology: Strucmres,
Upper Saddle Ri\·er, New Jersey 07458
Processing, Properties. and Selection, 5e All l'igh1s rese11:ed.
Figure 3 -30 Interstitial solid solution.
Solvent or
Solute atoms matrix atoms

Figu re 3-29 Substitutional solid solution.
Solvent or
Solute atoms
matrix atoms
Point defects
1. Vacancy - missing atom in the structure - this produces a weakness at that point in the
structure and likely failure point. The number of vacancies increases as temperature
increases as the additional energy allows atoms to move within the structure. This is
one reason why metals are weaker at high temperature.
2. Interstitial - are extra atoms within the structure.
a. The extra atom makes it harder for slip to occur as result of creating a blockage
between the "main" atoms of the material.
b. This resistance to slip makes the material stronger and less ductile
c. Steel is an alloy of Fe + C, the carbon forms interstitials in the Fe cubic structure.
The higher the carbon (up to a point) the stronger and more brittle the material
becomes.
3. §.uf2~~!Y.ti.9.mal~ - an atom of a different type is substituted into the structure in place of
the primary atom.
a. The effect depends upon how the different elements (atoms) react with each
other. So substitutionals may increase the strength of a material (~ bronze) or it
may weaken (~ impurity)

Figure 3-35 Edge dislocation movement (slip). (a) Dislocation- incomplete row of atoms above slip plane. (b) Shear force (P), causing
dislocation to move. (c) Dislocation moved one row to the left. (d) Dislocation reaches surface of c1ystal, producing plastic strain
(deformation).
A
I
Incomplete
plane of
atoms
Atomic LJ---(.>-~>---<!'>-- "
u-
bond
Incomplete Bond
bond breaking---.-_ _ ,
(symbol 1)
(a) (b)
Step or
offset 7I -
(c) (d)
Line Defects
1. Edge Dislocation - start as a missing atom and while under load the position of that
missing atom moves the net result is that the a step occurs at the edge after the missing
atom position moves to the edge of the material while under load.
a. This edge dislocation facilitates slip along the line of the missing atom
b. Creates a weak point where failure is more likely to occur
2. Screw Dislocation - stacks of atoms in the cubic structure are twisted relative to the
cube below (like a deck of cards that has been fanned out, or a spiral staircase)
a. This affects the materials resistance to torsion loading
3. Stacking Faults - when different crystal structures are mixed together.~
BCC/FCC/HCP
a. Most likely to occur in alloys that have different crystal structures for each
element.
4. Twinning - crystal structures occur in a mirror image to each other.
a. The mirror line is a weakness as result of the ease of slip along a straight line
b. Twinning occurs naturally in Cu and quartz
c. Occurs under load in HCP structures!

Figure 3-37 (a) Grain boundaries. (b) Grain growth.
Grain (crystal)
Grain boundary
Sltucture in each grain

is d iffet~t
1,1
Nucleation and Grains forming Co mplete

deodrit• formation and o rienting solidification
lbl
How do Crystals Form
As the material cools (in the liquid state) the energy possessed by each atom decreases and
therefore there is less motion of each atom. Eventually the atoms are at a low enough energy
level that they now becomes attracted to neighbouring atoms and become locked into position
in their cubic structure.
The atoms within the liquid start to cool from the outside to inside and nucleation sites start the
formation of the solid cubic structure. Within the liquid there will be thousands of nucleation
sites and the crystal structure will grow from each one of these sites in a random orientation.
Eventually each site will collide with a neighbouring site and at this point create a grain
boundary. Within each grain there will be thousands of cubic structures.
The rate of change of energy (or the rate at which the liquid is cooled) has.an.effect.on the size
of the grains. Slow cooling rates result in large grains and rapid cooling results in small grains
Larger crystals have longer slip planes and therefore lower strength and higher ductility
Smaller crystals have shorter slip planes and therefore higher strength and lower ductility
Overall, the grain size will depend upon:

- The type of metal
- The temperature
- The cooling rate!

Chapter 6
Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with up to 2.1 1% C
Steel is the most common metal for industrial/engineering uses.
For Iron carbon alloys with 2.11 % < C < 4% it is called Cast Iron (C.I.)
Cast iron is harder, more brittle, but much weaker in tension than steel
Common alloy elements to improve the mechanical properties of steel are:

Nickel
Chromium
Manganese
- Vanadium
Molybdenum
Production of Iron a nd Steel (refining}
Raw materials are combined with iron ore to produce pig iron, this is then further refined into
cast iron or steel.
The main source for iron and steel production is Hematite Ore (Fe2O3)
In a blast furnace , limestone, coke, iron ore and air are combined to produce pig iron through
chemical reactions at a temperature of about 1650°C (or 3000°F)
For 1 ton of pig iron produced, 7 tons of raw materials are used:
- 2 tons of iron ore

- 1 ton of coke 1
- 0.5 ton limestone
- 3.5 tons of of gases (primarily air and CO - carbon monoxide)!
- The iron ore contains the elemental iron (Fe) that we want
- Coke is a high carbon fuel (comes from coal) that supplies the heat and carbon for
the reaction
- Limestone contains calcium carbonate (Ca CO3) and acts as a flux to react with and
remove impurities from the ore
- The final product that flows from the blast furnace is pig iron.
Pig iron contains too much Carbon (~4%C) and other impurities and is further refined.
Cast Iron needs less refining and is produced in a cupola by combining the pig iron from the
blast furnace with scrap iron (recycled) with coke and limestone and add desired alloy
elements. It is again heated to remove impurities.
To produce steel from Pig Iron further refining is required and this is done using either the
Basic Oxygen Furnace (~70% of production) or an Electric Arc Furnace (~30%)

Charge hopper
Small bell - - - --t-l-N--""211\

Blast furnace gas
Large bell - - --jJ~';::IJL, \ to cleaning plant
Skip bridge (or

conveyor) for - - - -----1~
charging furnace
with ore, coke,
and limestone
Hot blast air
Slag
__-_-_JJiJ1-=►==~FFfl:::=: Iron notch (for trapping)
Hot Iron trough
Slag I
___,,....,.....,..=
~;..._ Hot iron ladle car
Iron ore,
coke, and--~
limestone ,----► Gas to cleaning and reheating
~
Typical temperature profile
800°C (1500° F)
t Direction of motion of charge material
1100°C (2000° F) t Direction of motion of hot gases
1400°C (2500° F)
1650°C (3000° F)
Slag Molten pig iron

06-06

Lance
(1) (2) (3)
Slag pot on transfer car
(4) (5)
Basic Oxygen Furnace
- Pure oxygen is introduced to the melted pig iron and scrap steel(~ 30% of the melt
is recycled steel). The oxygen reacts with the unwanted elements to remove them.
- The oxygen also combusts and heats the surface of the molten metal
- Impurities oxidize and form compounds such as:
o CO, CO2, SiO2, 2MnO, 2P2Os
- The gases are collected in the fume hood and the other compounds form as liquid
in the slag layer
- The carbon content of the pig iron is reduced by the oxygen reacting with the
carbon and producing the CO, CO2
- The exact carbon content of the steel is achieved by controlling the amount of 0 2
that is introduced to the furnace
- Once the desired carbon content has been achieved in the steel, js tapped and alloy
elements are added as desired.

Water~ooled oxygen lance
Fume collection hood

Steel shell
Refractory liner
CO bubbles
Electric Arc Furnace
- High current, but low voltage electricity is passed through the steel heating the
molten steel and oxidizing the impurities
- The initial charge material for the furnace is recycled steel, not pig iron
- The electric furnace has a smaller capacity and higher production cost than the
BOF
- It is used for "expensive" steels, ie tool steels, stainless steels.

- - Electrodes
- - Roof (removable)
/ Tapping spoul
~'-(,,1,L...-.... Tilting direction for

pouring the heat
Ingot Casting
- Ingot casting was the primary method used in steel production until recently
- Ingots are large block of steel that are formed when the molten steel from the
furnace is poured into a mold and then cooled. (8 ft x 2 x 2)
- The problem with ingots is carbon at the surface reacting with air as it cools and
removing some of the carbon from the steel. To prevent this elements such as Al
and Si are added to the ingot to react with the air and preserve the C
- Cooling times for ingots are 10-12 hours
- Another problem is the variance in grain size from outer to inner points of the ingot
due to different cooling rates at the surface vs center of the ingot. This can be
mitigated by equalizing the temperature during cooling (IE the soaking pit in the
video)

..-- - Ladle
•---- - Tundish
Mold flux ___..:~ ~; F-- - - Submerged entry nozzle

,,1◄1-- Water-<:ooled mold
1':I:= - Molten steel
11. .tt-tt -- Solidified steel
Cooling chamber
Withdrawal rolls
Slab straightening rolls

1
,, Cutoff torch
Continuous slab + + +
Continuous Casting
- Is a process that originated in the aluminum industry and has been repurposed to
steel
- It is much faster, taking about 1 hr from molten steel to solid steel at the end of the
process
- At the end of the continuous cast, the steel is cut into manageable size slabs and
then moved to a rolling mill for further shaping
Creep Testing
Measures lhe effects of the long-term appli.c atian of loads below the materials elastic limit.
Over long durations the material may deform plas1ically even though lhe stra-ss, remained
below the al-astlc limit,
Cr,eep rs or the most concern in structures where long-t,erm static loads occur - le bridges and
buildings. There are not many circumstances In Mech design where creep is a factor, but il is
for civil engineering.
Flexure {Bending) - places compressive stresses in one part of the material and tensile
stresses In another part of lhe material, then at the neutral a:Jds there will ba no stress.
When an object is loaded in bending, a certain amount of deflection will occur due to the
elastic defonnation of the material. the amount of deflection Is a primary design con.sideralion
Flexure is most often associated with beams and flexure gives a meas11re of the stiffness of
the mal:eriaL

Types of Steel
Plain Carbon Steel (.02% < C < 2.11%)
- Carbon is the only significant alloying element, but will also contain < 1% Si~Mn
Low Carbon Steel (mild steel) (C < 0.20%)
- Cheap, soft, ductile, easily welded

- Can not be heat treated (not enough C)
- Sheet metal - auto bodies, appliances
- Structural steel - bridges, pipes
Medium Carbon Steel ( 0.20% < C < 0.50%)
- Stronger, harder and less ductile than low carbon steel

- Rebar, farm implements, gears, machinery components, crankshaft, connecting rod
High Carbon Steel (0.50% < C < 1.50)
- Stronger, harder and more brittle than medium carbon steel

- Knife blades, files, machine to<¥ing, hammer chisel, axe
,Low Alloy Steels
Will contain < 5% alloy content by weight and may use the elements previously
discussed, Cr, Ni, V, Mn, Mo
- Tool steels use the alloys to increase strength, hardness and hot hardenss,
toughness
- ~15 years ago, Volkswagen started using nickel alloy steels in their frames, this
increased strength for lower weight
High Alloy Steels
Contain > 5% alloy content by weight
- Stainless steel with 12-23% Cr and Ni for corrosion resistance
Plain carbon and low alloy steels are susceptible to corrosion since iron is highly reactive with
oxygen. In stainless steel, the Cr and Ni alloys increase the corrosion resistance because they
are less reactive and at the same time provide strength and •ductility.
Stainless steels are expensive because of the Cr and Ni and _also the Electric Arc furnace
refining, are more difficult to work with in manufacturing
There are 3 types of stainless, Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic

I

Steel Designations
AISI - American Iron and Steel Institute
SAE - Society of Automotive Engineering
Both groups have standard designations for steels (fortunately both are the same)
For this course the plain carbon steel 10XX is the alloy we will focus on the ' 10' is the
designation for plain carbon. ~
The XX is the hundredths of% carbon content
~ a 1018 is 10 = plain carbon
18 = 18/100 = .18% carbon content
Table 6.2 in Groover gives the recipes for various steel designations.
Effects of carbon content on steel
As carbon content increases (as interstitial atoms in the cubic structure)
Strength - increases
Ductility - decreases (brittleness - increases)
Hardness - increases
Machinability - decreases
Weldability - decreases
Qps_t_--:- increases
Melting point - decreases
Cast Iron
Cast iron contains between 2.11 - 4.5% carbon - this allows it enter the "gamma" y + L (l iquid)
zone on the phase diagram as it cools from liquid to solid during the casting process.
- Grey Cast Iron

o contains between 2.1 1 - 4% carbon
o contains between 1 - 3% silicon
o the carbon forms like graphite flakes within the structure
- Ductile Iron
o Same as Grey Cl , but the molten metal is treated to form spheroids instead
of flakes as it solidifies
o This results in a stronger and more ductile Cl
- White Cast Iron
o Less carbon and silicon than the other two
o It uses a more rapid cooling process that results in the formation of more
Fe3C (Cementite) instead of graphite flakes
o It is the hardest and most brittle form of Cl
Wrought Iron
Wrought means any metal that is formed into shape by hammering, twisting or bending
The metal is forged and formed into the desired shape, this is accomplished by heating to the
point where the metal is soft and more malleable.
Wrought iron actually went out production in the 1960's. It was a pure form of iron with very
little C. These days almost all wrought iron products are ac;1ll.clllYJD1;'!d~ from low carbon steel.

, - 0 1.. ~ , ,., , ne ,:nec.01 aroon on the strength of steels
0
SI C
Yield Tensile Yield Tensile
~rbon Strength Strength % Strength
%
Strength %
(psi) (psi) Elongation (psi) (psi) Elongation
0.20 42,750 57,200 36.5 50,250 . ' 64,000 . ~...,,;;:._.....,:-'36.0
0.40 51,250 75,250 30.0 54,250 85.SOO • ~ :_: 28.0
0.60 54,000 90,750 23.0 61,000 ' : /: 112,SOO . . .• . • 18.0 · '·
0.80 54,500 89.250 25.0 76,000 ~ .: _;n 46.SOO l • l J.0
, ..
0.95 55,000 95,250
Aller Muals ProgrnJ Maurial.s and Procusing Databoolc, 1981.
13.0 72,500 147,000
•. .
i ... :.·
9.5
! ..· ~,. . . . . -
1. Austenitic stainless have a typical compos ition of around 18% Cr and 8% Ni and
are the most corrosi on resistan t of the three groups. Owing to this compos ition. they
are someti mes identifi ed as 18-8 stainless. They are nonmag netic and very ductile:
but they show significant work hardeni ng. The nickel ha:; the effect of enlargi ng the
austeni te region in the iron-ca rbon phase diagram , making it stable at room temper -
ature. Austen itic stainles s steels are used to fabrica te chemic al and food process ing
equipm ~nt. as well as machin ery parts requirin g high corrosi on resistance.
~- Ferritic stainless have around 15% to 20% chromi um. low carbon , and no nickel. This
provide s a ferrite phase at room temper ature. Ferritic stainles s steels are magnet ic
and are less ductile and corrosi on resistan t than the austenitics. Parts made of ferritic
stainles s range from kitchen utensils to jet engine compo nents.
B. Martensitic stainless have a higher carbon conten t than ferritic stainlesses. thus per-
mitting them to be strengt hened by heat treatme nt (Sectio n 27.2). They have as much
as 18% Cr but no Ni. They are strong. hard, and fatigue resistan t. but not general ly
as corrosi on resistan t as the other two groups. Typical produc ts include cutlery and
surgica l instrum ents.
, Chromium (Cr) improves strength. hardn~ss, wear ~esista~ce. an ~ ot _a_r ncs~. ~ 1s
one o f the most effective alloying ingredients for mcreasm. g hardcnab1hty (Section
.
27.2.3). In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion resistance. .
, Man anese (Mn) improve s the strength and hardnes s or steel. When the steel 1s h:a_t
tgd hardena bility is improved with increased manganese. Because or these bench ts.
trea e ,
mangan ese is a widely used alloying ingre d"ient m · I
stee . . .
, Molybdenum (Mo) increases tough_ness and hot hardness. It also improves hardcnab1l
it and forms carbides for wear resistance. .. .
~ • •
, Nickel 1) 1mprov
es strength and toughness. It increases hardenab1hty but not ,l
· ·
f the other alloying element s in steel. In significant amounts it _m,prov~
much ~s som~ o d. the other major ingredient (besides chromiu m) m ccrtai
corrosio n resistan ce an ts
types of stainless steel.
Vanadium (V) inhibits grain growth during elevated temperature proccs..., ing anc.l he,11
treatme nt, which enhance strength and toughness of steel. It also forms carbHJL.. , th.it
increase wear resi tancc.

Chcmtcnl Analr~•"• '\, ·1cn,1lc Lrcngth
l)pt. Fe- Cr Mn Other' l\f Pa IW.n ' EJonJ:,.tll<lll ",.
Au,1cn11ic
111)
'.1412
"11-l
'1111,1
'\lo
1\
71
t,11
bl
·~
17
1•J
2,
7
IS
9
IJ
Cl I~
ti 1
llth
1).10
2
:!
z
l
620
'i]5
~1~
1,
'11.INJO
75.IIINI
75.000
75.
40
<I()
~I
4<1
M 17 1.! It Ill< ! l'i Mv 515 7V1..YJ .iu
h, rnll.:
~
IIY.> )\'i IJ ◄1 011 11 5 WJMO ;!I)
•00 17 12
\ l.s.rt1.rurlic "' (I 415 N)IM,O ~
11 Ill) ll 0.15 -4S5 'kJ.(J(l(I :'(I

.Ill ♦ '16 12 0.15 .,.~ l.:JO.ru:J
4 10 .. ~ 1J It.IS
12
;,,
J in''
.uo
x,
SI
l:.l II.IS "'''
~
i'O
H•H01 II)
17 06'i 725 IIM~ 20
-141i' M 17 (1.M 17Q(l 2N)IO) 5
Cdmp,leJ trull'I l'>I
AJI ot ,~ n~t k-. 10 the Ill Ml L'tonl.:lin .iboul I'' t11r ,~,) <;, phn ,nrnll .unounr, (• ·n bt•h,.,. I~) o( pbutpeon,.,,, 1111~1 1ul ·ur uud « hcf c ,~~ud,
,1,alummu111
~, flat ln-.itcJ
240
800 ##
-· 120
(\J
220 100 C:
r.:::::
co £1
a..
co ~ 600 0
0
I 200 .c
...... 80 0
T"""
Cl')
Cl')
(l)
C:
O>
C:
Q)
......
'-
...
.c
0)
"O
'-
160 Cl')
400 60 C:
Q)
co Q)
......
'-
I ·u5 Cl')
C: Cl)
120 ~ 40 ·u5
C:
200 ~
80 20
L 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0
/o Carbon (C)

l
4 -
3 -
Gray cast iron
- I
I
I
I I
I I
Steels I
I
1 - I
-----
...._
r--- White
cast iron
I I I I --
1 2 3 4
Carbon(%)
Drawing Spinning
Rolling Pressing

T HI .7(al Ji \ 111ugh1 ,lr
1
~, c lu
L I nurn lo. • .
llu, ( ru1 I'
hirnin um. 9.0 .:. , r I I lh.:l'
Im ir uri ,11 ys. h mJ u ch: rr t
np .: ~
4.. x.x
csa un ncJ 1i • u1
L C
m
( Ith f
Pipe
Mold
Cast steel
Stool

1800
3200
Liquid (L}
2800
2400
u0 L + Fe3C LL
0
(l) (1)-
.... 2000 ....
-
:::J
co
....
Q.)
113O°C (2O66oF)
-:::J
c....o
Q.)
Q. 1600 Q.
E Y + Fe3C Solid E
~
A, ~
723°C ( 13330F) 1200
600
a + Fe 3C 800
Solid
200 400
0 1 3 4 5 6
Fe C
% Carbon (C)

Liquid 600
300
500
(_) LL
0 0
Q) Q)
400
- -
'--
'--
::::, ioo a :::J
cu
~ 183°C
I
I 61.9% Sn '--
Q) (J)
a. (362° F) (eutectic composition) 300 a.
E I E
.~ ~
I
100
:o:+ ~ 200
100
0-------------------------- ---0 1
20 80 40 : 60
Pb 1 Sn
% Tin (Sn)

3000
1600 Liquid solution
14ss0 c 2800
Liquid+ solid (2651 °F)
Liquidus 2600
1400
() 1260°C LL
0 0
/ ____________________
(2300°F) 2400
...:>
Q) L ...
Q)
-~
Q) 2200
-
::J
~
Q)
a. a.
E E
~ ~
2000
SoId solution
1083°C
(1981 °F) ~ 1800
36% 62%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cu Ni
% Nickel (Ni)
Carbon and Alloy Steels

Mechanical propenies at indicated hardness (annealed)"
'li'Peud Tensile Yield

(UNS strencth. Modulus of MachinabDlly
Slnngtll, Elonsation Hardness.
Dllmbff) ksi (MPa) e.l-as1icity, Index•
ksi IMPa)
1010 (GI0IOO) 55 (380) 40 (275)
"'
JS
lfV 10• p•i (GPa) (unti1Jed)
1020 (Gl0200) 110 JO (206) 100

S8 (400) JJ (:196) 34
1040 (010400) 120 30 (206) ISO
1S (517) SI (35 1) 30
414-0 (041400) ISO 30 (206) ISO
95 (655) 60 (413) 25 10()
4340 (043400) 0110 (758)
30 (206) 230
70 (-1112) 20 220
8620 (086200) 78 (538) JO (206) 230
56 (386) JO 148
A36 70 (482)
JO 1206) 330
36 (248) 21 150 JO (206) 150
" AYCrage room tcmpc:n.turc pmpcruu frum v.t.OOUS s:Qurc:es. Do not u~ fot Ll:c.)1gn U1oe Ja1:a from lhc manu(1c1ure, ot the spcctfa.:-matcrial
lh.11 will be U>Cd,
'°SAE IJ 17 frce-mxhininl s1cc:l h:as '1n 1ndc.l of 100 HJghtr rniJ.n numbers m,an tba1 >time ma<han1ng upcr11klrb mi))' br morr: c•pcnmc ro
~dorm compartd 10 1117 itccl Thti indc:i. ~• bbc-d upon npcnC'nt:C' i,, .a PMIIICUl.1t Jlup 01hcr )bOP> tn.iy 111tc m-)(h1nabduy o( lhc.k ma1e,.
nab dJ/fcrcndy

Phase Diagrams
Are created for metal alloys and they show the what phases or specific structures are present
in the alloy.
They are also called equilibrium diagrams because they can only predict what phase{s} will be
present when the metal is at thermal equilibrium (ie constant temperature).
The liquidus line is the line above which the metal is 100% liquid- all molecules are in the
liquid state.
The so lidus line is lhe line below which the metal is 100% solid - all molecules are in the solid
state,
In this course we will limit the study to binary phase diagrams where only two elements are
included in the alloy composition.I
Eutectic IPoint - is the lowest point on the liquidus line and thus represents the alloy with the
lowest possible melting temperature. It also the alloy that can transition from liquid to solid
directly without passing through one of the two phase(?+ L) zones.
Determining the Chemical Composition of phases using the Phase Diagram
The overall composition of the alloy is given by the x-axis, ie 20% Ni/ 80% Cu
But when more than one phase Is present, such as alpha and beta we have seen that they
each have some of the two elements present. We want to determine how much of each
element is in each phase.
We determine chemical composition based on a temperature and overall alloy composition .

IE what 1s the chemical composition of a 50/50 Cu/Ni alloy at 12600C
1. Locate this~ pair on the graph

2. Draw a horizontal line through this point
3. Locate the intersection of this line with the llquidus and solidus lines (or more generany
the Intersection of that line wltti the tines defining the edge ol lhe two phase zone)
4. From these Intersection points drop a vertical line to the x-axis and determine the x-
lntercept value
5. The x-intercept from the liquidus line gives the chemical oompos1tion of lhe liquld phase
6. The x-intercept from the solidus line gives the chemical composition of the solid phase
In this example. the liquid phase contains 36% N1and 64% Cu
While the solid phase contains 62% N1 and 38% Cu
Dete_rmine the proportion o f e_ach phase that is pre_sent
1. Using the same horizontal line. determine the length of line from the composition polnt
(C) to the llquldus line (L) and from (C) to the sohdus line (S). This can be done using a
ruler or using the x•axis scale.
2. The proportion of liquid present is the length from the SOLID line to the composition
poirtfdivided by the overall length. ie CS/LS
3. The"proportion or SOLID present is the length from the liquid r.ne to the composition
point divided by the overall length. ie Cl/LS
4. This Is called the INVERSE RULE, to get liquid, use the solid line, to get solid, use the
CS
fiquld line.
/ , 1 _ s
o/o J t. .: "K·
/,qu'-G4 - - U •Is/
LS - 2.'-
1
'-' ~f.
-:: J!t- ; S"'I-/
u;
C, L.
0 ,4o/oC
0
c AUST£NrTE
FFA~lTF
1000 CEMENTITE
•
!
u,
AUSTENITE •·······•• ·· ••·· •• • •••
: i
Uil •,: .: ,:,: 600 ·············O • CEMEN;TITE
FERRITE + AUSTENITE i+..~.TENITE
,f.f,.....IS~ J .'.\.
---··· f(
• • •• ••• •·•··•···-?,L.---~=-- -....::s;," - - - -- - -.• L •·•---F ••••••
,oo 2
..........
. , ....... - "
~-••◊ ,!
FERRITE +? CEMENT! TE ?'•••------
•
i
..
...........
i i
(FERRITE + PEARLITE) (CEMENTITE' + PEARUTE)
I
;
sool.l!'."- - ~ --.,__ _ _ _ __ .,__ _ _ __ -'-:-- -:-:-~ i.

0 0.2 0 ,4 0 ,6 08 1.0 1,2 1.4
CARSON PER CENT
Part or the Jron- C:,rbon Thcrmnl-c.quilibriu,n DiaJtr:un.

Hy[Per and Hypo Eutectoid steels. Hyper means more than, while Hypo means less than
Hypoeutectoid steels contain less than the eutectoid composition of 0.77%. When cooling a
hypoeutectoid steel from Austenite, the cooling trajectory crosses the ferrite + austenite zone,
so ferrite and pearlite both form in the final structure.
Hy[Pereutectoid Steels contain more than the eutectoid composition of 0.77%. When cooling a
hypereutectoid steel from Austenite, the cooling trajectory crosses the Fe3C + austenite zone,
so Fe3C and pearlite both form in the final structure.
Cold-Working Metals
Cold work is defined as the deformation of a metal below the re-crystallization temperature (-
0.4 Tme11 (In Kelvin))
The re-crystallization temperature is the temperature a t which the crystal structure gains
enough energy to be able to relieve stress from deformation , thus the atoms are able to move
within the structure to a more comfortable space based on their energy level (- 0.5 Trnett, (in
o
Kelvin)) K = -273 11 c I
Cold working causes dislocation within the cubic structure. The cubes are crushed and forced
into a different position and breaks atomic bonds. This makes steel itLP.ifiliculaLm_or~
susceptible to oxidation
The dislocation of the cubes and grains in the cold-worked structure act as blockages to slip
this as we have seen is a mechanism that strengthens and hardens a metal
% cold-work is calculated the same way as % area reduction in tensile testing.
Cold-Working Metals
Advantages
- (1) strengthens the metal while (2) producing the final shape
- (3) can produce dimensional tolerances and (4) surface finish
Disadvantages
- Brittle and has a limited potential for further cold working

- IDuctility, conductivity, corrosion resistance and weldability are all reduced
- Introduces internal stresses! in the material

Hot Working Metals
- Deformation above the re-crystallization temp (0.6 Jroe10
Advantages
- Strain hardening does not occur

- Less force is required to compress the metal so there is less wear on equipment
and larger deformations are possible in a single pass
- Results in better machinability than cold worked metal since it softer and more
ductile
Disadvantages
- Poor surface finish because of accelerated oxidation at higher temperatures

- The metal contracts as it cools and makes it difficult to maintain dimensional
tolerances
Chapter 27! Thermal processing of steel
Annealing
Creates the softest possible steel with large uniform grains resulting in good ductility.
1. Heat to 30°C above the 100% Austenite line (for that alloy)
a. This is called Austenitizing because we hold the steel in the Austenite zone until
all grains have transformed into Austenite
b. Austenitizing undoes all previous work or heat treatment since the steel re-
crystallizes from BCC to FCC
2. Hold at this temperature for 1 hour per inch thickness of material
a. This allows the temperature to equilibrate throughout the piece and all grains to
become Austenite
3. Cool slowly in a furnace over 48-72 hours to maintain equilibrium grain growth.I
Annealing results in a stable atomic structure with less distorted grains since the grains had
enough for enough time to settle in a "comfortable" position
The purpose of annealing is to reduce hardness, restore ductility, and to remove internal stress
that may be left over after manufacturing
The soft condition increases the machinability of the metal

Normalizing
Since annealing takes a long time to cool it is often not all that useful in a manufacturing
environment. In these cases Normalizing can be used to reduce time.
It creates a softer material with fine pearlite - but harder than an annealed piece.
1. Heat the steel to 55°C above the 100% Austenite line

a. It is heated higher to allow the temperature to penetrate to the center of the piece
since the air cooling process is more rapid .
2. Maintain at temperature for 1 hr per in thickness
3. Air cool in still air at room temperature
Normalizing is often used when further hardening of the piece is required
Quenching
Is rapid cooling to avoid the transformation of Austenite to Pearlite. Quenching uses a non-
equilibrium cooling process and thus the phase diagram can not be used to predict the
outcome of a quenching process.
There are different media that can be used to quench a metal:

I
- Water, which is the most severe (rapid)
- Oil - about half the quench rate of water
- Molten salt
- Molten polymers
- Gas (air)
The quench rate for each media can be adjusted by:
- Agitating the media (~ use a fan in air, or stir a liquid media) increases the cooling
rate
- Changing the temperature of the media
- Mixing the media (ie oil and water)
- Add~ng for example 10% salt to water creates brine and this almost doubles the
quench rate of pure water.
Slower cooling will result in less distortion of the piece and faster quench rates result in higher
hardness.

Atom-% Zn
20 40 60 80
800
0
-...
•
-...
:,
111
700
8. 'Y
E 600
~
500
453 • 47 0 •
400
300
1-
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cu Gew.-% 2n Zn
To mbak / Brass
Martensite is the very hard and brittle structure that is formed when Austenite is rapidly cooled
(quenched)
Consists of Ferrite supersaturated with carbon. The rapid cooling process does not allow
enough time for it to form the normal pearlite/ferrite or pearlite/Cementite structures as seen on
the phase diagram .
The carbon atoms are trapped interstitially in a body-centered tetragonal structure

Martensite i§ described as being needle-like or feathery in appearance under the microscope.
It looks completely different from air cooled structures.
One of the problems with quenched steels is that they can be too hard and brittle to be useful.
Most steels are Tempered after having been quenched. The process is then typically referred
to as a Quench and Temper Lo_[ QT).
The tempering step involves reheating the quenched steel to an intermediate temperature
below the Austenite transition temperature

. - . - . .
below the Austenite transition temperature and this allows the carbon that has been trapped
interstitially to move within the structure to relieve some of the internal stress.
This reduction in internal stress results in a tougher material.
Tempering increases the ductility of the quenched steel while leaving the UTS and yield
strength unchanged, the hardness is also reduced
The final structure is known as tempered martensite.
Is generally used for small parts such as springs, lock washers, needles where distortion from
quenching is undesirable
- The metal is quenched from Austentte to about 350°C and held there long enough
to pass both the Bs and BF lines where Bainite is fom,ed
- Then the metal is air or oil quenched to room temp
- The metal is then tempered
Balnlte ls more ductile and tougher than Martensite, but not as strong or hard.
Under the microscope it looks similar to Martensite, needle-like, feathery, straight line in
appearance.
Precipitation Hardening (or Age Hardening)

• Precipitation hardening is commonly used to harden
alloys of nonferrous metals for commercial use.
• The examples are aluminum-copper, copper-

beryllium, copper-tin, magnesium-aluminum, and
some ferrous alloys. r,

Prec1 pttato r
R~a
I
Alumina Fl~f,ning

Aluminum
Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust, but it doesn't exist naturally in
metallic form.
Aluminum is extracted from Bauxite ore and is found primarily in tropical and sub-tropical areas
(although there are also deposits in Europe). It was first discovered in 1825.
Bauxite is refined into aluminum oxide trihydrate (alumina) and then electrolytically reduced
into metallic aluminum.
The Bayer Process is used to produce alumina from Bau.l5lnte
- Bauxite is washed and ground to small size for the next step
- It is then dissolved in a caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) at high pressure and
temperature
- The resulting liquid contains a solution of sodium aluminate (gray) and undissolved
bauxite residue containirng iron, silicon, titanium (red). This residue is known as "red
mud"
- The sodium aluminate solution is pumped into the precipitator tank where fine
particles of alumina are added to seed the precipitation of the alumina out of the
solution.
- The particles of alumina that precipitate out of solution will sink to the bottom of the
tank where they can be collected and removed.
• The solid alumina is now moved into a rotary kiln at 1100°C to remove the
chemically combined water from the alumina.
- The caustic soda and removed water are returned to the start of the process and
used again.
- Powdered alumina Is the final product from the Bayer Process.
The Hall-fieroul! Process (1886)
- Alumina is dissolved in an electrolytic bath of molten cryolite (sodium aluminum

fluoride) within a large carbon or graphite lined container.
- An electric current passes through the electrolyte at low voltage, but high current
typically 150,000 amperes
- The current flows between a carbon anode (positive) and the cathode (neg) formed
by the carbon/graphite lining of the pot
- The energy from the electricity melts the alumina and removes it from solution
causing molten aluminum to be deposited at the bottom of the pot.
- The molten aluminum is periodically siphoned out of the pot, taken to a holding
furnace where it is typically blended to an alloy spec and then it is cast, extruded or
rolled to the final form.
Recycling - anything made from aluminum can be recycled repeatedly. Recycling aluminum
requires 5% of the energy required to produce new aluminum.

Properties of Aluminum
- Light weight
- Corrosion resistant
- Conductive ~ 60% the conductivity of copper
- Has low strength (as do almost all pure metals) but can be strengthened through
alloying and cold working
- FCC structure, leading to good ductility (but lower strength)
- Compared to steel aluminum has a good strength to weight ratio
Strengthening processes for non ferrous metals:

Cold-working - creates dislocations and therefor blockages in the structure that reduce slip,
strengthening and hardening the metal.
Alloying - creates blockages in the structure that reduce slip, strengthening and hardening the
metal.
Both also tcrease ductility
Aluminum Alloys: see table 6.7 In Groover for the alloy designations
Precipitation Hardening
1. An appreciable maximum solubility of one component in the
other, on the order of several percent
2. A solubility limit that rapidly decreases in concentration of the
major component with temperature reduction
a I:;-
a+ 13
a a+ 13
A B A B A B
(a) (b) (c)
"
Precipitation Hardening (or Age Hardening)
• Precipitation hardening is commonly used to harden
alloys of nonferrous metals for commercial use.
• The examples are aluminum-copper, copper-

beryllium, copper-tin, magnesium-aluminum, and
some ferrous alloys.

Requisite Features on Phase
Diagrams for Precipitation Hardening
• Two requisite features must be displayed by the
phase diagrams of alloy systems for precipitation
hardening
1. An appreciable maximum-solubility of one

component in the other, on the order of several
percent
2. A solubility limit that rapidly decreases in

concentration of the major component with
temperature reduction
Precipitation hardening is accomplished

by two different heat treatments
1. Solution heat treatment
During solution heat
treatment all solute atoms are
dissolved to form a single-
phase solid solution
Quench or rapidly cool to

room temperature to form a
nonequilibrium To
supersaturated solid solution!:!
::,
(to prevent diffusion and the ! T2

accompanying formation of !
any second phase)
Metal is not harderrpt this point

but is ready to be hardened
Compos1t1cn (wt% Bl

2. Precipitation heat
treatment (aging)
- The supersaturated
solid solution is heated
to an intermediate
temperature within the
two-phase region e
~a,
at this temperature E
a,
diffusion rates become I--
appreciable
- The precipitates of the

second phase form as Compostllcn Cwt% Bl
finely dispensed
particles. (aging)
700
L
600
5.65 548°
500 I
........ Solution treating
.u.....,, I
I
I
~ 400 I
::l I I
...
<ii I
I I
I
g_ 300 I
I
I
I
E I a+0 Quench ,
~ I I
E- I ;
I
200 ge
\ /'j'\ Age
\~
100
© Quench
0
Al 2 4 6 8
Weight percent copper
Figure 11.10 The aluminum-rich end of the aluminum-copper

phase diagram showing the three steps in the age-hardening
heat treatmelnt and the microstructures that are produced.

Microstructure of Copper-Beryllium before
and after Precipitation Hardening
(a) Solutio~ heat-treated (b) Precipitation hardened
Microstructure of A 7150-T651
Aluminum Alloy after Precipitation Hardening
Fig. 11.24 A traf)smission electron micrograph showing the microstructure of a

7 l50-T65I aluminum alloy (6.2Z n-2.3Cu-2.31Wg-0.l2 Zn-balanced Al) that has
been precipitation hardened. T he light matrix phase is an Al solid solution.
Mechanism of Precipitation Hardening

• Formation of very small particles of a second, or
precipitate, phase.
• There is an increased resistance to dislocation

motion as a result of the microscopically small
precipitate particles.

A Microstructural Sketch of Copper-
Beryllium after Precipitation Hardening
C)
C) C)
C)
C)
C) C) C)
Grain Boundary
Precipitates
a
a+ f3
a+f3
A B A B A B
(a) (b) (c)
Which of thie above systems can be precipitation-
hardened?

a.
h + J3
a.
A B A B A B
(a) (b) (c)
Which of the above systems can be precipitation-
hardened? The answer is (c)!
Precipitate Effect on Tensile Strength

2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with precipitation time
• Increasing T accelerates process
-~
a..
~
;;soo
+-'
C) Adapted from Fig.
~ 400 11.25 (a) and (b) ,
~ Callis ter 6e.
+-'
en
Q) 300
en
C 200,..___._ ___.__ __.__ _,..____,
.S 1min 1h 1day 1mo1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h)

Precipitate Effect on Ductility
• %EL reaches minimum with precipitation time
-Q)
~
30
E
(1l
20
"'C
~10
...J 204°c
w
"cF-
O 1min 1h 1day1mo1yr
precipitation heat treat time (h)
Adapted from Fig. 11.25 (a) and (b), Cs/lister 6e.
Heat Treating Al
No pure metal can be heat treated since a phase change is required to harden metal by heat
treating (by phase we mean alpha/beta, not state solid/liquid)
Some non-ferrous metals can be heat treated through a process called age-hardening or
precipitation-hardening. These are two step processes where the metal is first solution heat
treated then quenched to room temperature and then aged. (vliry similar to quench and
temper in steel)
Solution Heat Treating
The alloy is heated into a single phase solid solution (zone on the phase diagram).
Hold the alloy at this temperature while the second phase dissolves and disperses throughout
the primary phase (ie all the beta dissolves so the excess element B is now held in solution
within the alpha phase because at the elevated temperature alpha can hold more B in its
structure.
The alloy is then quenched to room temperature, this traps all of the excess B inside the alpha
phase and creates a super-saturated alpha
After the quench the alloy is not ~ t is ready to be hardened via the aging process.

Ageing
The second element (B) will start to precipitate out of solution in the alpha phase and form
small and well dispersed grains of beta. Recall, there is more B in the alpha than it should be
able to hold at room temperature. So this is called precipitation or age hardening
There are two ways to age the alloy, naturally, or artificially
Natural ageing occurs at room temperature and it takes several days for the second element to
precipitate out and form the small and dispersed grains of the second phase.
Natural ageing will produce the hardest and strongest possible alloy. but takes the most time.
Artificial ageing accelerates the ageing process by elevating the temperature (200°C - 400 °C)
giving the atoms more energy so they move out of solution more quickly, but result in larger
grains of the second phase being created.
Given the options natural ageing is often preferred, but in industrial settings time is money!
When artificially ageing it is important not to leave the alloy at temperature for too long as
g_yerag,Ln.9 can occur. In this case, the grains of the secondary phase start to grow too large
and thus reduce the blockages and this weakens and softens the final alloy. ~
Lower ageing temperatures result in higher final strength and hardness, but it takes more time
to achieve. The reason being the rate at which the second phase can form based on the
energy available at that temperature.
Naturally aged specimens are not prone to OVfilpQi'l9
Polymer Monomer Repeating mer Chemical formula
H H
I I
Polypropylene c- c
I I
H CH3
H
I
H
I
H
I
Hl
I
t?-?I
Polyvinyl chloride C= C
I I
H Cl H Cl n
H H
I I
Polystyrene C= C
I I
H C5H5
F F
I I
Polytetrafluoroethy1ene C= C
(Teflon) I I
F F
H H H
I I I H
I H
I H
I t
t
c- c- c- c
Polyisoprene C - C= C - C
(natural rubber) I I I I I I
H CH3 H H CH3 H n
08-03

Chapter 12 - Polymers
Plastics are more correctly called polymers from the Greek root "poly" meaning many and
rner§ being the repeating chemical structure of the substance.
Polymers are characterized by chains of molecules that have been artificially joined.
Most polymers are carbon based where carbon forms the spine of the polymer chain because
of its partially filled valence shell
Other elements that combine in the MER are:

- Hydrogen
- Oxygen
- Nitrogen
I
- Chlorine
- Fluoride
Most polymers are b.Ydro_carboos and come from the paraffin in petroleum and natural gas
Polymerization is the process that artificially forms the long chain molecules
(C2H3Cl)n ~ poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
n represents the degree of polymerization (ie how many mers can be put together in a chain).
It typically varies from 100-1000
As n increases viscosity, op11,c;Ity,rigid_l~.Y and melting point also increase
Polymers are generally placed into one of three categories:
1. Thermoplastic Polymers ~
a. Soft and ductile
b. Formed at elevated temperatures and cooled for use
c. Can be melted and reformed without changing the material properties
(recyclable)
d. Manufacturing methods include:
i. Injection molding
ii. Extrusion molding
iii. Blow molding
e. Acrylic, nylon, polystyrene, polyethylene, PVC, 12olypJ,QR,!:!!Y,ne. vinyl
2. Thermoselling Polymers
a. The shape is formed by curing either through a chemical catalyst or heating
b. Once the polymer is cured (hardened) it can not be softened or reshaped
c. Once cured any attempt to reheat it will simply bum it and tum it to ash (non-
recyclable)
d. Strong and brittle
e. Manufacturing methods include:
I. Compression molding
ii. Transfer molding
f. Epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, amJ11oe§.

Epoxies when cured are strong; provide good adhesion between malerlals and are heat and
chemical resistant
Epoxies are used for.
- Surface coatings
- Industrial flooring
- Adhesive
- Fiber reinforced composites (fiberglass, carbon fibre construction)
- Electronic applications as an insulator covering IC's and circuit boards
3. Elastomers
a . Natural and synthetic rubber
b. High elastic deformation - up to 500% or more
c. Like thermosetting P;Qoonera they must be cured before use using a process
called vulcanizing
Vulcanization
Natural rubber (latex) has limited usefulness due to it I.ow tensil:e strength and melt ing
temperature.
In 1836, Charles Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanization by adding sulphur to

natural rubber. The sulfur produces cross-links between the long chains of molecules resulting
in stiffer and harder material.
Missig notes ---
Advantages of Plastics
1. Low density compared to metals and ceramics

2. Good strength to weight ratio for some of the polymers
3. High corrosion reJistanbe
4. Low electrical/thermal conductivity (good insulator)
5. Iy_gically cheaper to produce than metals
6. Can be transparent or translucent
7. Can be made in "any" colour
Disadvantages
1. Low strength compared to metals and ceramics

2 . Low modulus of elasticity
Disadvantages
1. Low strength compared to metals and ceramics

2. Low modulus of elasticity
3. Low service temperature
4. May degrade in UV light
5. Viscoelastic behaviour (shape memory after stress)

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
08-07
F <-o1)~1,1)
Polymer Chain Structures
O
... f_~i. O --"""l~~ F
a. Linear polymer - a long chain molecule with the Jnfil~ joined end to end
i. Typical of thermoplastic polymers
ii. The strength (or lack thereof) comes from entanglement of adjacent
chains.
b. Branched polymer - side branches form randomly along the length of the chain
molecule
i. The side branches increase entanglement making for a stronger and
harder polymer than the linear polymer
ii. Thermoplastics also form in this structure
c. Cross-linked polymer - where primary bonds are formed between branches and
adjacent long chains
i. This is typical of elastomers
ii. The primary bonds to adjacent chains provides good strength and high
ductility
d. Networked (or tightly cross-linked) polymer - an even larger number of cross-links form
i. This increases the strength of the polymer, but now slip is reduced to the
point that the polymer starts to become more brittle.
ii. Typical of thermoset polymers after curing
Polymer Chain Repetitions
Homopolymer - the long chain molecules consist of repeating mers that are the same.
O-f)-l)-0-{)..o,...()
Copolymer - the molecule is made of two types of mers.

a. Alternating mers: a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b-a-b
b. Random mers: a-a-b-a-b-b-b-b-b-a-a-b
c. Blocks of mers: a-a-a-a-b-b-b-b-a-a-a-b-b-b-b
d. Graft - mers of one type form the long chain and the second type of mers form the
branches

Terpolymers - three different types of [Jlers
Temperature Effects on Thermoplastic Polymers
Have a melting temperature Tm. Above Tmthey are liquid and can be cast.
Just below Tmthey are solid, but very pliable and can be easily molded or extruded
Glass-transition temperature is the temperature below which the polymer becomes hard and
brittle, i,e more glass-like. Depending upon the type of polymer the Glass-transition
temperature may be above room temperature or not. For example Styrofoam is below its
Glass-transition temperature at room temperature so is "brittle"
Polymer Additives (see handout on Econestoga)
Ceramics
Ceramics are complex compounds of both metallic and non-metallic elements.
Ceramic properties:
a. Hard and brittle
b. High compressive strength
c. Very high melting point 2000-4000°C
d. Low thermal and electrical conductivity u
e. Show no deformation before they fail - so are perfectly elastic.
f. Resistant to abrasion (due to high hardness)
g. Resistant to heat (due to high Tm)
h. Resistant to staining and chemical attack (due to molecular bonding)!
For ceramics, manufacturing is typically the greatest % of the cost, the materials are usually
much cheaper.
Manufacturing Method:
- Blend materials with water to make it more malleable and moldable

- Form the desired shape through
o Extrusion
o Pressing
o Casting
- After the shape has been formed the product is dried to remove excess water
- It is then fired at elevated temperature to provide fusion
- Fusion is also called sintering where adjacent particles form atomic bonds.
- This bonding is what gives ceramics its desirable properties.Ir

Ceramic Applications
- Clay construction products

o Bricks
o Tiles
o Roofing
- Whiteware
o Pottery
o China
o Porcelain
- Refractory
o Fire brick
- Abrasives
o Aluminum oxide
o Silicon carbide
- Cutting tools
- Insulators
- Magnetic Ceramics
o Computer memory
- Bio ceramics
o Artificial teeth and bones
Most of these fall into the traditional ceramics category and are made from clay, silica, feldspar
(KAISi50a)
New or Technical Ceramics are compounds of oxides, carbides and nitrides that have
superior mechanicial and physical properties (hard, strong, heat resistant).
Have the highest hardness of all engineering materials this makes them extremely useful for
tools and wear components. It also makes them very difficult to machine! I
Oxides - refractories - withcstand high temperatures

- Spark plugs
- Refractory brick (fire brick)
- Space shuttle tiles
Nitrides - primarily electrical insulators
Carbides - typically forms as cemented carbides which are called cermets for ceramic metals
- Cermets will typically uses a hard carbide ceramic as the wear and heat resistant
component and then use nickel or cobalt as the metallic binder or glue that holds
the composite system !Qg_e_tb_e_r:_.
- The problem with carbide, for example tungsten carbide (WC) is that while it is hard,
it also rather brittle.
- Cutting tools, the composite structure gives them higher impcitt resistance, oaq
better hardness and wear.
- They can be 2-6 x more expensive, but last up to 50 x longer.I

Chapter 9
Composite Material Defined
A materials system composed of two or more

distinct phases whose combination produces
aggregate properties that are different from those
of its constituents
■ Examples:
■ Cemented carbides (Cermets with Co binder)
■ Plastic molding compounds with fillers
■ Rubber mixed with carbon black
~
■ Wood (a natural composite as distinguished
from a synthesized composite)
Why Composites are Important

■ Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet
very light in weight
■ Strength-to-weight ratio stiffness-to-weight
ratios are several times greater than for
steel or aluminum
■ Some composites do not corrode
■ Fatigue properties are generally better than for
common engineering metals
■ Toughness is often greater
■ Possible to achieve combinations of properties
not attainable with metals, ceramics, or
polymers alone
■ Better appearance and surface smoothness is
possible

Disadvantages and Limitations
■ Properties of many important composites are

anisotropic (properties differ depending on the
direction in which they are measured)
■ May be an advantage or a disadvantage
■ Many of polymer-based composites are subject
to attack by chemicals or solvents
■ Composite materials are generally expensive
■ Manufacturing methods for shaping composite
~
materials are often slow and costly and can be
manpower intensive
Types of Composites
1. Traditional composites - composite materials

that occur in nature or have been produced by
civilizations for many years
■ Examples: wood, concrete, asphalt
2. Synthetic composites - modern material
systems normally associated with the
manufacturing industries
■ Components are first produced separately
and then combined to achieve the desired
structure, properties, and part geometry

Components in a Composite Material
Most composite materials consist of two phases:

1. Primary phase - forms the matrix within which
the secondary phase is imbedded
2. Secondary phase - imbedded phase
sometimes referred to as a reinforcing agent,
because it usually strengthens the composite
material
■ The reinforcing phase may be in the form
of fibers, particles, or various other
geometries
Our Classification of Composite Materials
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of

ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) -Al 2 O3
and SiC imbedded with fibers to improve
properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - polymer
resins imbedded with filler or reinforcing agent
■ Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders
Functions of the Matrix Material
■ Primary phase provides the shape of the part

made of the composite material
■ Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually
enclosing and often concealing it
■ When a load is applied, the matrix shares the
load with the secondary phase, in some cases
deforming so that the stress is essentially born
by the reinforcing agent

The Reinforcing Phase
• Function is to reinforce the primary phase
• lmbedded phase is most commonly one of the
following shapes:
■ Fibers
• Particles
• Flakes
• Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
• Example: a powder me, allurgy part
infiltrated with polymer
Our Classification of Composite Materials
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of

ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) -Al 2 O3
and SiC imbedded with fibers to improve
properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PM Cs) - polymer
resins imbedded with filler or reirlforcing agent
• Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders

The Reinforcing Phase
■ Function is to reinforce the primary phase

■ lmbedded phase is most commonly one of the
following shapes:
■ Fibers
■ Particles
■ Flakes
■ Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
■ Example: a powder metallurgy part
infiltrated with polymer
Physical Shapes of lmbedded Phase
Figure 9.1 Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in

composite materials: (a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c) flake.
tr-<r:t=-=-=-=-==-==-==::::::..::::-==-=-::::~ 0 c;;;
(a) (b) (c)

Fibers
Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular
in cross-section
■ Diameters from less than 0.0025 mm to about
0.13 mm , depending on material
■ Filaments provide greatest opportunity for
strength enhancement of composites
■ Filament form of most materials is
significantly stronger than the bulk form
■ As diameter is reduced , the material
becomes oriented in the fiber axis direction
and probab~ity of defects in the structure
decreases significantly
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers
■ Continuous fibers - VfN.Y long; in theory, they

offer a continuous path by which a load can be
carried by the composite part
■ Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of
continuous fibers) - short lengths (L/O =
roughly 100)
■ Whiskers= discontinuous fibers of hair-like
single crystals with diameters down to about
0.001 mm (0.00004 in.) and very high
strength

Fiber Orientation
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 9.3 Fiber orientation in composite materials: (a)

one-dimensional , continuous fibers; (b) planar,
continuous fibers in the form of a woven fabric; and (c)
random , discontinuous fibers.
Materials for Fibers
■ Fiber materials in fiber-reinforced composites

■ Glass - most widely used filament
■ Carbon - high elasti~ modulus
■ Boron - very high elastic modulus
■ Polymers - Kevlar
■ Ceramics - SiC and Al 2O 3
■ Metals - steel
Particles and Flakes

■ A second common shape of imbedded phase
is particulate, ranging in size from microscopic
to macroscopic
■ Flakes are basically two-dimensional
particles - small flat platelets
■ Distribution of particles in the composite matrix
is random
■ Strength and other properties of the
composite material are usually isotropic

The Interface
■ There is always an interface between
constituent phases in a composite material
■ For the composite to function, the phases must
bond where they join at the interface
Primary (matrix) phase
Secondary (reinforcing)
phase,fiber
Interface
(a)
Figure 9.4 Interfaces between phases in a composite material: (a)

direct bonding between primary and secondary phases.
lnterphase
■ In some cases, a third ingredient must be

added to bond primary and secondary phases
■ Called an interphase, it is like an adhesive
Primary (matrix) phase
Secondary (reinforcing)
phase,fiber
lnterphase (third ingredient)
(b)
Figure 9.4 Interfaces between phases: (b) addition of a third

ingredient to bond the primary phases and form an interphase.

Properties of Composite Materials
■ In selecting a composite material, an
optimum combination of properties is often
sought, rather than one particular property
■ Example: fuselage and wings of an
aircraft must be lightweight, strong, stiff,
and tough
. Several fiber-reinforced polymers
possess these properties
■ Example: natural rubber alone is
relatively weak
. Adding large amounts of carbon black
increases its strength dramatically
Three Factors that Determine Properties
1. Materials used as component phases in the

composite
2. Geometric shapes of the constituents and
resulting structure of the composite system
3. How the phases interact with one another
Example: Fiber Reinforced Polymer

t Ee (longitudinal)
Matrix
Reinforcing fibers
Matrix
Strain
(a) (b)
Figure 9.5 (a) Model of a fiber-reinforced composite material showing

direction in which elastic modulus is being estimated by the rule of
mixtures (b) Stress-strain relationships for the composite material
and its constituents. The fiber is stiff but brittle, while the matrix
(commonly a polymer) is soft but ductile.

Variations in Strength and Stiffness
250
Ee 35"'
~
&200 30 N X
CJ C:
CJf 25 ~
~ 150 Cl)-
& TS
-0
0
20 :, ~ 600
E ::i £
15] 0)
._g 100
Cl) E ~ 400
l1l
10 ~
[iJ
50 l1l
[iJ
"'
Q)
'vi 200
5 C
~
0 30 60 90 0 30 60 90
Fiber angle, degrees Fiber angle, degrees
Figure 9.6 Variation in elastic modulus and tensile strength as a

function of direction of measurement relative to longitudinal
axis of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composite.
Other Composite Structures
■ Laminar composite structure - conventional

■ Sandwich structure
■ Honeycomb s~ndwich structure
Laminar Composite Structure

Two or more layers bonded together in an
integral piece
■ Example: plywood, in which layers are the
same wood , but grains are oriented
differently to increase overall strength
Figure 9.7 Laminar composite

structures: (a) conventional
laminar structure.
(a)

Sandwich Structure: Foam Core
Relatively thick core of low density foam

bonded on both faces to thin sheets of a
different material
Foam
material
Figure 9. 7 Laminar
composite structures:
(b) sandwich structure
using foam core.
(b)
Sandwich Structure: Honeycomb Core
Alternative to foam core

■ Foam or honeycomb achi,e ve high ratios of
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight
Honey
comb
Figure 9.7 Laminar

composite structures:
(c) sandwich structure
using honeycomb core.
(c)

Other Laminar Composite Structures
■ Automotive tires - multiple layers of rubber
bonded together with reinforcing agent
■ FRPs - multi-layered, fiber-reinforced plastic
panels for aircraft, boat hulls, other products
■ Printed circuit boards - layers of reinforced
copper and plastic for electrical conductivity
and insulation, respectively
■ Snow skis - layers of metals, particle board,
and phenolic plastic
■ Windshield glass - two layers of glass on
either side of a sheet of tough plastic
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
Polymer primary phase in which a secondary

• phase is imbedded as fibers, particles, or
flakes
■ Commercially, PMCs are more important than
MMCs or CMCs
■ Examples: most plastic molding
compounds, rubber reinforced with carbon
black, and fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)
■ FRPs are most closely identified with the term
composite

Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)
PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded

with high-strength fibers
■ Polymer matrix materials:
■ Usually a thermosetting plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or epoxy
■ Can also be thermoplastic, such as nylons
(polyamides), polycarbonate, polystyrene,
and polyvinylchloride
■ Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as tires and conveyor belts
Fibers in PMCs
■ Various forms: discontinuous (chopped),

continuous, or woven as a fabric
■ Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass,
carbon , and Kevlar 49
■ Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and
Al 2 O3 , and steel
■ Glass (in particular E-glass) is the most
common fiber materia~in today's FRPs
■ Its use to reinforce plastics dates from
around 1920

Common FRP Structure
■ Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar

structure
■ Made by stacking and bonding thin layers of
fiber and polymer until desired thickness is
obtained
■ By varying fiber orientation among layers, a
specified level of anisotropy in properties
can be achieved in the laminate
■ Applications: boat hulls, aircraft wing and
fuselage sections, automobile and truck body
panels
FRP Properties
■ High strength-to-weight and modulus-to-weight
ratios
■ A typical FRP weighs only about 1/5 as
much as steel; yet, strength and modulus are
comparable in fiber direction
■ Good fatigue strength
■ Good corrosion resistance, although polymers
are soluble in various chemicals
■ Low thermal expansion for many FRPs
■ Significant anisotropy in properties

FRP Applications
■ Aerospace - much of the structural weight of
today's airplanes and helicopters consist of
advanced FRPs
■ Example: Boeing 787
■ Automotive - some body panels for cars and
truck cabs
■ Low-carbon sheet steel still widely used due
to its low cost and ease of processing
■ Sports and recreation
■ FRPs used for boat hulls since 1940s
■ Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts,
helmets, skis, bows and arrows
- GRAPHITE STABI LIZER

TIP FAIRING
- KEVLAR
GRAPHITE/KEVLAR
FIXED TRAI LING

EDGE PANELS

Model aeroplane
"-380 Ol<l1 ()(ISltecomponents
(
■ Ca1bon nb,e
Wing box {
Aramtd nbre
I Horilont.sl
■ Gla.ssnbre ..__ Stab1l!ser
O<Jler bo>-6
D H1t11d (carbon• 9ta~)
-
I
· 'aooo
Radom• ---. o•~~ H.in ~nd

Sp«lm
li>nd1ng-9e
Nostl.1 ndlng-
gu, d0011 Central
torsfonbox
Soutcc: Air'tJ-.3 :nduUric
747 777
others
1%
ti~nium
4%
composltH
1°4
compositH
11 %
aluminium
10%
aluminium
s1 •1o

Technology Advanced Structures
Eurofighter - Tornado
Advantage by using fibre reinforced composites
Euroflghter in aircraft design
Typhoon
Lower structural weight - 13%
2000's
Higher stiffnes +30%
No corrosion (even no problems with corrosion at a contact

with other materials}
CFC is not fatigue critical (like metal}
Reduced number of detail parts
Meet s all req uirements of the design

( Layers build up is optimized to the load characteristics}
TORNADO
1970's - Carbon Fibre Composite
~ - Glass Rei nforced Plastic
Aluminium Alloy
- Titanium
Magnesium
07112/2010 History E.urofighter CAS
C 2010 CASSIOIAN • An rights reserved NATO UNCLASSIFIED
The Time-Temperature Transformation Diagram (TTT)
Since the phase diagram gives information for only equilibrium cooling processes, the TTT was
created to allow the prediction of the crystal structure after nonequilibrium cooling processes
from Austenite.
On the TTT there are start and finish lines that represent where a certain structure will start
and finish forming.
- P for pearlite
- B for Bainite
- M for Martensite
There is not just one TTT for all steels! Each alloy of steel will have it's own TTT and it is
important to use the correct TTT for each alloy.
To understand the TTT we need to look at possible cooling trajectories and see what lines are
crossed during cooling to determine the final structure in the cooled steel.
One possible trajectory as drawn in blue, first crosses the Ms line, so this tells us that
Martensite starts to form. It then crosses no other lines until crossing the MFline so this tells
us that 100% Martensite is achieved in the structure.
~
The red cooling trajectory first crosses the Ps line, so this tells us that Pearlite starts to form . It
then crosses no other lines until crossing the PF line so this tells us that 100% Pearlite is
achieved in the structure. BUT - remember only the Eutectoid composiont of steel at 0.77% C
can have 100% pearlite in the structure - so what this is really telling us is that ALL of the
POSSIBLE pearlite that can be achieved is achieved.

Austenite, y
800
1400
700
1200 ,'()
0 Pearlite, P
~-
~
600
u. 1000
0 CS> (.)
0
(')
....
Cl) 0 a+ Fe3 C 500 ...:::,
CI>
-...:::,
m
CD
a.
800
'Y
~-
i
400
76
._
CD
Bainite, 8 C.
E
Cl)
E
Cl)
I- 600 I-
M., 300
... ...
400 ... ~
' ... ...... 200

...Bs
~ 200 M,
y+ M ... ... ...
....... 100
Martensite, M
Tempering
After the quench process
Reheat the steel above the Ms line

Hold for 1 hr per inch of thickness
Steel is cooled
Martempering
Results in more uniform grain structure and more stress-free metal
- The metal is quenched from Austenite to just above the Mi. line (below the nose of
the TTT.
- It is held at this temperature to allow the internal temperature to equalize with the
surface temperature
.L •
A ustempenng
Is generally used for small parts such as springs, lock washers, needles where distortion from
quenching is undesirable
- The metal is quenched from Austenite to about 350°C and held there long enough
to pass both the Bs and BF lines where Balnite is formed
Bainite is more ductile and tougher than Martensite, but not as strong or hard.
Under the microscope it looks similar to Martensite, needle-like, feathery, straight line in
appearance.

For an alloy 10% Sn and 90% Pb
- Determine the liquidus (melting) temperature = 323 °C

- Determine the solidus (solidification) temperature = 281 °C
- What is the first solid phase to appear as the alloy is cooled from the liquid state? =
alpha
- How much tin is present in this first solid alpha that appears? 4% tin
- How much Pb in the first solid alpha? 100 - 4 = 96%
- How much tin is present in the liquid at 323 °G.? Liquid has 10% Sn 90% Pb
For a Tin/Lead alloy with 20% Sn/ 80% Pb at 450° F

- What is the composition of the solid phase? ALPHA has 14% Sn 86% Pb
- What is the composition of the liquid phase? 43% Sn 47% Pb
- How much liquid and solid are present? Liquid 20% solid 80%
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Alpha phase is also called Ferrite. It occurs only at the left hand side of the diagram
- Ferrite can hold a maximum of .008% carbon in solution at room temperature - so

Ferrite is almost pure iron
- Since the 2 nd element (carbon) is held interstitially, the term in solution is used in
chemistry to indicate this. So we would call the alpha phase a "single" phase solid
solution
- Ferrite has a BCC crystal structure
- Magnetic
Delta phase
- Called delta iron, occurs only at elevated temperatures.

- The carbon content is again held interstitially
Gamma Phase is also called Austenite
- It is a single phase solid solution of carbon in Iron but it has FCC crystal structure
- This is what I call the etch-a-sketch zone. As a result of the change from BCC to
FCC, the entire cubic structure has to reform - this is what undoes all previous work
that has been done to a piece of steel. Heat treating, cold rolling
- Austenite is non-magnetic
- All heating-treating processes for steel require that the metal be heated into this
austenite zone, held for period a time so that all atoms can re-form into the FCC
structure - then depending on the cooling process used, new properties are
developed in the piece.

The fact that iron can exist in both BCC and FCC crystal structures means that it is allotropic.
Iron Carbide - also called Cementite and. .also Fe3C
- It is a compound not an alloy like steel

- It is very hard and brittle and of very limited use in engineering
Eutectoid Point - occurs at the bottom of the Austenite zone at 723°C and 0. 77% C (often
rounded to 0.80)
When a Eutectoid steel (0.77% C) is cooled below 723°C, the Austenite transforms into the
alpha and Iron Carbide phases. But, since the cooling trajectory does not cross through the
alpha + gamma zone no grains of alpha can be formed, instead a special structure called
Pearlite forms.
Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite (alpha) and cementite (iron carbide/ fe3C) that forms as
alternating layers of ferrite and cementite
The ferrite is almost pure iron (.008%C) so it is very soft and ductile. The cementite is very
high in carbon and is strong but brittle. This creates an inherently strong structure with the
soft ductile ferrite helping the strong brittle cementite.
When a 0.77% C steel (Eutectoid Steel) is cooled below 723°C, all grains of the resulting steel
are pearlite. S_o we would have a 100% pearlite structure composed of both ferrite and Fe3C.
Hyper and Hypo Eutectoid steels. Hyper means more than, while Hypo means less than
Hypoeutectoid steels contain less than the eutectoid composition of 0.77%. When cooling a
hypoeutectoid steel from Austenite, the cooling trajectory crosses the ferrite+ austenite zone,
so ferrite and pearlite both form in the final structure.
Hypereutectoid Steels steels contain more than the eutectoid composition of 0.77%. When
cooling a hypereutectoid steel from Austenite, the cooling trajectory crosses the fe3C +
austenite zone, so fe3C and pearlite both form in the final structure.

Examples
November 3, 2022 5:42 AM
L The following data was collected during a tensile test in which the starting gauge length was 25.004 mm
the circular cross-section has a diameter of9.9987 mm (20 marks).
Load (kN) 0 8892 17752 22780 25660 27455 28560 22880
Length 25.004 26.092 27.176 28.251 29.542 30.692 32.149 33.333
The final data point occurred immediately prior to failure.

a) Create a table that shows all of the stress and strain values (5)
b) Show sample calculations for each different type of calculation (4)
c) Plot the engineering stress-strain curve on a hand-<lrawn graph. (5)
d) Determine yield strength 0y using the 0 .2% offset method
e) Determine the Modulus of Elasticity
f) Determine the UTS
g) On your hand-drawn graph, indicate the following:
i. UTS
ii. Yield point
iii. Young's Modulus
iv. Toughness
v. Per cent elongation (6)
(Ql) Givens:
In it ial guage length 10 ; 25.004 mm

Diameter of cross section d; 9.9987 mm
Load F; 8892 kn
Final length 11; 26.092 mm
-rr • d2
Area of cross section ; - -
4
2
-ir • (9. 9987)
4
; 78.51939731 mm2
A; 78.51939731 • 10-6 m2
Elongation ; 11- 10
; 26.092-25.004
Elongation ; 1 .088 mm
p
r; ; -
A
8892 • 103
78. 519397 • 1u6
; 113.2459417• 109 N/m2

; 113.245 941 Gpa
r;; l13.2 Gpa

St rain = ..!:_
lo
1. o,88 mm
25. 004
e=0.043513037 mm/ m m
Modulus of elast icity :
E=!!..
e
113. 2 GPa
0. 043513037
=2601 .5191 Gpa
E=2602 Gpa
Fmax
Ult imate tensile strength UTS = - A
--
28560 kn
78. 51939731 • 10- 5
= 363 .7317• 10- 6

UTS = 363.8 Gpa
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2. A specimen of steel was hardened by a water quench. The diameter of the indentation from a 1500 kg
HB test using the standard 10 mm ball was 4.66 mm before hardening and 2.68 mm after hardening.
What are the before and after HB hardness? (4 marks)

(Q2) Givens:
F=lSOO kg
Db=lO mm
D;=4.66 mm
DF=2.68 mm
Before Hardness:
2 ( 1500) kg
2
rr • 10 mm ( 10 mm - V102 - 4. 66
2 (1500) kg
,r • 10 mm (!. 152)
3000
36. 19594786
=82.88220582 kg/mm 2
=82.890 kg/mm 2
After Hardness:
2 (1500) kg
rr • 10 mm ( 10 mm - V102 - 2 . 68
2
2 (1500) kg
,r • 10 mm (9. 634)
3000
302. 6669776
=261.0446301 kg/mm 2
=261.04 kg/mm2
3 . A report was received that a 3000 kg HB test on a metal plate left an indentation with a 2.45 mm
diameter. Would you accept this report without verification? Why or why not? You must show
calculations. (3 marks)
(Q3) Givens:
F=3000 kg
Db=lO mm
D;=2.45 mm
2 (3000) kg
HB = -------'----'---'- ,...-_-~-_-_-_-_-~-~
rr • 10 mm ( 10 mm - 2
VlO
- 2. 45
2
6000 kg
rr • 10 mm (10 mm - 9. 695230786)
6000
9574607227
= 626.6575597 kg/mm2
= 627.00 kg/mm2
As answer falls between 90< HB < 630 range

So it is usable.

4. If a 226.0 N tangential force is applied to the outside diameter of a 49.8 mm pipe whose wall thickness
is 16.8 mm. determine the Torsional stress created in the pipe. (3 marks)
(Q4) Givens:
Tangential Force F=226 N

Outer d ia D0 = 49.8 rnm
Wall thickness t = 16.8 rnm
Inside dia D;= 49.8 - 2 (16.8)

= 16.2 mm
Now Torque = F' • Do

2
= 226 . 49. 8
2
= 5627.4 N• mm
16
Torsiona l stress St = • 7.' • Do
n • ( DJ - D,4)
(16) • (5627. 4) N • mm • 49. 8 mm

rr • ( 49.8 4 mm - 16. 2 4 mm)
4483912. 32
19106298. 33
= 0.2346824 N/mm22
= 234682.4 Pa
= 0.2346824 Mpa
= 0.234MPa 2
5.
a) calculate the Transverse Rupture (Flexure) Strength for a load of 7868 lb placed on a rectangular
steel bar measuring (1 and 5/32 inch) wide by (7/16) inch high. The distance between the supports
is measured at (1 ft and 11/16 in and the load is placed in the middle of the span.
b) Does the bending stress change if the bar is rotated 90° and the height is now the (1 and 5/ 32 ) inch
dimension? Why? (3 marks)
(QS) (a) Givens:
Force rect angular steel bar F=7868 lb

5 37
Length o f rectangular steel bar L= 1 = inch
32 32
7
Width of rectangular steel bar W = inch
16
. . 11 203 .
Height of rectangular st eel bar h = 1/it- = - inch
16 16
3 FL
Transverse rupture strength a flex = - - -
2Wh2
(3) (7868) lb (%)inch

2
(2) ("½)inch ( 22,;1) inch
27292.125
140. 8510742
= 193.765827 lb /i n2
a flex = 194.00 lb/in2

(OS) (b) Givens:
Force rectangula r steel bar F=7868 lb

37
Length of rectangular steel bar l = inch
32
7
W idth of rectangular steel bar W = inch
16
5 37
Height of rectangular st eel bar h = 1- = - inch
32 32
3 FL
Transverse rupture strength a flex = - - -2
2Wh
(3) (7868) lb (N) inch

7) inch (37)2.inch
(2) (16 32
27292. 125
l.169799805
= 23330.59459 lb/in 2
a flex = 2331.00 l b / in 2
6. A Bridge is supported by 6 concrete columns rated for a maximum stress 893480 Pa. If the diameter of
each column is 889.0 mm, what total mass in kg can be supported by the bridge? What type of loading
is this? (2 marks)
(06) Givens:
Maximum stress = 893480 Pa

Diamet er of column d = 889 mm = 0.889 m
2
1r • (0. 899)
4
A = 0.620716661 m 2
Now Maximum load = Stress • Area • No of col,umns

= 893480 Pa • 0.620716661 m 2• 6
= 3327587.53362168 N
= 3327590 N
Now F= m •A
F
m=-
A
3327587. 5
9. 81
m = 339203.622 kg
m = 339200 kg
It is compressive type of load.
Question 3 1 I 3 points
3. In the materials lab the tensile tester is capable of exerting a force of 86,000.0 lb on a circular
cylinder with a diameter of .515 ft. What stress is introduced on the cyl inder in units of lb/ in 2 ?
Show all steps in your so lution, show how all units are cancel led to achieve your final answer.
Submit a handwritten solution as an attached image for full marks.

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sig digs for final answer
Does not show how all units are cancelled to achieve your final answer. ..
Do not round area value and then use rounded value in subsequent calculation
for correct unit conversion, use: .515 ft x 12 in/ ft ; 6.18 in <-- do you see the difference?
4. For a tensile test of metallic materials. the ASTM standard E8 suggests a maximum speed of
15.00 mm per minute for the application of the load. What is this speed in meters per second and
kilometers per hour? Show all steps in your solution: show how all units are cancelled to achieve
you r fina l answer. Submit a hand written solution as an attached image for fu ll marks.

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15.00 mm/ min DOES NOT EQUAL 0.01/ 60 mt/sec!!!!!!!!!!
Correct format is:
15 mm x 1m x 1 min = 0 _00025 m
min 1000 mm 60 s s
symbol for meters is m, NOT mt
8. Look up (on the internet) the value of tensile strength for grade 5 and grade 8 bolts (in PSI). What maximum load can 13/16 inch diameter grade 5 and 8 bolts
hold based on these strengths? For simplicity, use t he nominal 13/ 16 inch size in your calculations (not t he actua l minor diameter of the t l1read). Submit a
handwritten solution as an attached image for full marks.
Feedback:
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3(a).
Based on the data below for the tensile test of a cylindrical specimen, construct a hand-w ritten table
showing load, e longation, stress and strain, then prepare a hand-drawn stress-stra in curve for the
tensile test specimen. Show one hand-written sample calculation for each different quantity ca lculated
(area, stress, strain, etc) to complete t he tab le and graph. DO NOT use Excel for this question, draw the
table and graph on paper. The final diameter measured after rupture is .468 in. Where possible, label
the points from Q 3(b) on the graph.
Diameter 0.505 Inches
Original Length 1.997 Inches
Load (lb) 0 2593 5178 5959 10570 12580 15650 13790 8420
Elong (in) 0 0.001 0.002 0.0023 0.005 0.015 0.043 0.056 0.089

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try this math again: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
the answer CAN NOT be 5.008! (·2)
You used a rounded area value of .2003 in subsequent stress calculation so all calculated stress values are wrong by a little bit
points not indicated on graph (·2)

l!fD 1:'I"' O
~!'1.00" ,Oo(I l .,,.•

;µ:,, oo,on-r.. •! ..-ie
r;:;:; (:; 0,0-t><> o OD ~

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Question 5 2 / 3 points
4. What must be the minimum diameter of a cylinder to keep a tensile load of 16190 lb if the stress is
not to exceed 198,600 lb/ in2 ?
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sig digs for final answer7
5. A rectangular copper bar must not be strained over 0.0151 in/ in If the bar is exactly 28 ft long, what
would be the total elongation of the bar at maximum stra in in inches?
-
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Question 7 3 I4 points
6. If Kevlar has a Young's Modulus of 67 GPa and a 0.056 mm diameter thread of Kevlar has a mass of
198.6 g suspended from it , how much would a 13.8 cm long piece be expected to elongate?

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Question 8 3.5 I 4 points
7. If the Poisson's ratio of a plastic is 0.295 what would be the new diameter of a 6.089 inch long solid
cylindrica l plastic bar initially with a diameter of 0.6198 in. under a tensile load that elongates the bar
0.1826 in?

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8. Two very large I-Beams are to be bolted together and the assembly resembles an inverted "T". If the
bottom of the "T" is loaded with 83232 lb of weight and the steel bolts that attach to the top of the "T"
are 8/32 inch diameter, how many bolts a re needed to hold this tensile load? Assume that each bolt has
a tensile strength of 89680 psi

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September 15, 2022 10:05 AM

Qualities of a good test

1. Conducted to a standard procedure (~ follow ASTM Standard)

Types of Destru ctive Tests

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 1

NDT is often used to confirm a parts suitability for continued use.

Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot

Figure 3.3 Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 2

This linear portion of the graph defines the elastic range.

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 3

Ultimate Tensile Strength - UTS (Tensile Strength)

Modulus of Elasticity - Young's Modulus

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 4

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 5

There are three standard hardness tests:

Brinell Hardness Test

If a HB value falls outside this range, it is unsuable.l

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 6

Figure 3.14 Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell

Vickers Hardness Test

- Where F is the load in kg

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 7

Rockwell Hardness Test*

M.Q.li§_ Hardness Scale

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 8

Where T is the shear strength or shear stress

The Shear Modulus

Shear and Young's Modulus are related using:

Example for Shear

e:, ,::; 2,.C)( C,f'<c

I c:- 3vvit .- . 3"'-!"'

L c-o-£- -z_( I '-f'il-)

__, '7'7.L/4:3,GG~ ~ ~'1)41-13. l M~

11 /-1--L\ 3. (;, µ\,fc_ ( o -C\ I _)-wv~ v>'\,) -= 11 ~ l ,{ N M fc.._

Zdocl~ XCf.81ffi xLf- @

~ .5d U,X.,, Z bul+s.

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 9

5 ,f d{ 2- rt.-- __,, (2-K) c-=-

'2. ,Cj '6 brr~ ~ 3 hot--t_s

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 10

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 11

1Ipes of Defects - there are point defects and line defects

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 12

Review of BASIC atomic structure

-- - - - - - "i1 'tib - - - .... ,.,Ag_

- ·- ·=- -·- - - - = - "t:1... ---· -- - -

-.._- ~ --- - --- · - ··- - -__ -

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 13

Is a combination of two or more elements. The smallest part of a compound is a molecule.

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 14

Four states of Matter

Solid - strongest atomic bonds

James A. Jacobs & T homas F. Kilduff'

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 15

Jaw es A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kildurt

Figure 3-12 A body-centered cubic unit cell.

8 atoms (one at each corner)

1 atom (at center of cube)

James A. Jacobs & Thomas F. Kilduff

Engineering Materials MECH1130 - 1 Page 16

J ames A. J11cobs & Thomas F. Kilduff

Crystalline Structures of solid metals