Respiration + photosynthesis

Aerobic respiration step in detail:

Glycolysis:
• Happens in the cytoplasm
• Glucose get turns into fructose 1,6 biphosphate by using 2 ATP, this will turn ATP into
ADP in the reaction ATP ADP + Pi
• The fructose 1,6 biphosphate then get broken down into 2 pyruvate molecules. This
process produces 4 ATP, and 4 NADH from NAD+ since when the fructose 1,6
biphosphate break in half to form pyruvate, it releases free electron which can be
taken up by NAD+. This process gives you a net gain of 2 ATP.
Link reaction:
• This happens in the matrix of the mitochondria
• What basically happen is one of the carbon on the pyruvate molecule get removed,
this turn into CO2 and that another NADH is form since a free electron is released.
• The two carbon molecule then bind to a coenzyme name coenzyme A (CoA), this help
to bring it to the kreb cycle
Kreb cycle
• Coenzyme A leave the two-carbon molecule so that a 4 carbon molecule name
oxaloacetate can join to the 2 carbon compound to form a 6 carbon compound name
citrate
• This goes in a cycle, starting with one of carbon on the citrate leaving the compound,
this will form one CO2 molecule and NADH
• Another carbon on the citrate leaves and also form CO2 and NADH
• The oxaloacetate regenerating mechanism: First, GTP will be turned into GDP, this is
the reaction to turn ADP into ATP
• Secondly, the 4 carbon molecule get oxidised more by having NAD+ get reduced to
NADH, and FAD get reduced into FADH2, this will regenerate the oxaloacetate so
that the cycle can keep continuing

Oxygen is needed in the Link reaction and Kreb cycle so that the electron transport chain can
work, but Link reaction and Kreb cycle does not need oxygen

Electron transport chain

• This when the NADH and FADH2 drop off their electron (get oxidised back to NAD+
and FAD) so that it can produce ATP
• The electron enter the complex 1, the movement of the electron will power the proton
pump in the complex, this will mean that H+ ion will be pump outside of
mitochondria into the intermembrane
• The electron then get transferred to complex 3 via the coenzyme name coenzyme Q
on complex 2, complex 2 is not a proton pump.
 • On complex 3, the electron passed through it, this will activate the proton pump in the
complex which will actively transport the H+ ion out of the matrix and into the
intermembrane space.
• The electron then move into complex 4 with the help with cytochrome C, when the
electron move pass the complex 4, the proton pump will be activate, and the
mechanism is the same as complex 1 and 3.
• Electron will leave the complex 4 and get turn into water by having oxygen as the
final electron acceptor, reaction will be H+ +1/2 (O2) H2O
• The H+ ion that is pumped out will create an electrochemical gradient, this will allow
the H+ ion to move from the intermembrane space back into the matrix of the
mitochondria via the ATP synthase
• The H+ ion move down the ATP synthase via facilitated diffusion. While the H+ ion
move down the ATP synthase, this will spin the F1 unit, and the interaction between
the stator and the F1 unit will generate the energy needed to create ATP. This will
produce 35-40 ATP

Anaerobic respiration:
There are two types: Alcohol and lactic acid fermentation
Alcohol fermentation
• This process is irreversible
• It goes like this
1. Glucose gets turn into
pyruvate via glycolysis
2. The pyruvate will have one
of its carbon removed, which
mean there is a CO2
molecule form.
3. The two-carbon molecule
then get reduced into
acetaldehyde (ethanal)
4. The ethanal then get reduce
into ethanol by using the
NADH as it gets oxidise
back into NAD+ since this is
a cycle and that NAD+ is the
main reducing agent, and that
it must be regenerated for the
process to repeat
• This only happen when there is not
enough oxygen to sustain aerobic
respiration
• This cannot be sustained for a long
time since alcohol at a high
concentration is toxic to the cell
Lactic acid fermentation
1. This process is reversible if
there is enough oxygen to
convert the lactic acid into
CO2 and water
2. It goes like this:
3. Glucose gets turn into
pyruvate via glycolysis
4. Pyruvate then get turn into
lactate straight away by
getting oxidise by NADH
5. This is because it is a cycle
and that NAD+ is the main
reducing agent, and that it
must be regenerated for the
process to repeat
• This only happen when there is not
enough oxygen to sustain aerobic
respiration
• This cannot be sustained for a long
time since lactic acid at a high
concentration is toxic to the cell
Similarity and difference
Similarity
• Both uses pyruvate as the substrate
molecule
• Both occur when there is a low
oxygen concentration
• Both use NAD+ as the reducing
agent
• Both cannot be sustained for a long
time
Difference
• Alcohol fermentation is irreversible
while lactic acid fermentation is
reversible
• Alcohol fermentation produce CO2
while lactic acid does now

Pros and con of anaerobic respiration

Pros
• This allows organism to live in
extreme condition
• It also allows the muscle cell to
continue working without the
oxygen
Cons
• Only produce 2 ATP, which is only
1/16th of the amount you normally
get from aerobic respiration
• Alcohol and lactic acid at high
concentration is toxic to the cell, so
it can be only be sustained for a
small amount of time

Photosynthesis (condense note)

• This is when plant convert CO2 and water into glucose and O2 in the reaction:
6CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
• This occurs in the chloroplast
• This process only occurs when the organism can carry out autotropism: This is
basically when plant or plant-like organism make chemical energy by using light
energy
• Reason why this process is important
1. This process is essential as it produces oxygen
2. This is the start of most food chain – many foods chain depends on plant to do
photosynthesis so that other organism can have food to supply
3. This process makes organic molecule from inorganic molecule (CO2 and water)
• Light basically a package of high energy particle name photon
• Photosynthesis has two steps:
1. Light dependent step – produce ATP, NADPH (essentially free electron) as fuel
for the light independent step. Also form oxygen
2. Light independent step - use ATP and NADPH to form organic molecule such as
glucose from CO2

• Light dependent step (known as non-cyclic photophosphorylation):

• This process happens in the thylakoid of the chloroplast
• The step goes like this:
 1. Photon hits the antennae molecule on the surface of the thylakoid. The photon
then gets transferred around the antennae molecule until it reaches the reaction
centre (this happens in PS2 or P680)
2. An electron will get excited to a high energy level, and leave the reaction centre of
the P680, this electron will then get to a site call the primary electron acceptor
3. The high energy electron will lose some of it’s energy and then go down an ETC
(electron transport chain) to produce ATP
4. The electron will reach the PS1 or P700 site where it will get excited once again
by photon (mechanism is the same as PS2)
5. The high energy electron then enters the primary electron acceptor site, where it
gets picks up by NADP+ which reduce it into NADPH, this is then carried into the
light independent reaction.
6. At PS2, water undergoes photolysis, this is essentially the splitting of water into
H+ ion and O2 in the reaction:
H2O → H+ + ½ O2 + e-
The e- produce is for filling the e- ‘hole’ that the high energy that leaves the
reaction centre in PS2 for the light dependent reaction.

• Cyclic photophosphorylation
• This is basically when the high energy electron in PS1 does not get accepted into
NADP+ and it basically returns to PS1 to get excited again, in depth step:
1. When the electron gets excited again in the PS1, the ETC still pump out H+ ion to
create an H+ ion potential gradient so that the H+ ion can move down the ATP
synthase (this is to power it up) by facilitated diffusion or chemiosmosis so that
ATP can be produce.
2. The electron that got excited does not get accepted into NADP+, it returns back to
PS1 so it can get excited once again
3. This process generates no NADPH or O2
4. This process is not efficient since over time, you will run out of e- since PS2 is not
undergoing photolysis, this is the main process to get e-
5. This process happens when there is not enough water to carry out photolysis in the
plant

• Light independent reaction:

• This process happens in the stroma of the chloroplast
• Does not require light
• Convert CO2 into glucose
• Use NADPH and ATP as fuel for this reaction
• Process is like this (Calvin cycle):
1. 3 CO2 molecule combines with 3 molecules of RuBP, this is joined by an enzyme
name Rubisco to form three 6-carbon compounds
2. This 6-carbon compound is very unstable which then break apart to form six 3-
carbon molecules
 3. The six 3-carbon molecules then get reduced by NADPH and then it get
rearranges, 6 ATP is needed to rearrange the molecule, one for each 3 carbon
molecule. After all of this, the 3-carbon molecule is G3P
4. There are 18 carbons, and that is a net gain of 3 carbon since we started of with 15
carbons
5. One of the 3 carbon compound (G3P) leave the cycle, and that this is use to create
glucose or another organic compound
6. When the cycle turned twice (repeated twice) a glucose or another organic
compound will form
7. The regeneration of RuBP goes like this:
• The 5 G3P will be rearrange by using ATP (3 ATP)
• This will ensure that the rearrange the molecule which turn into RuBP
fragment will allow it to have the amount of carbon needed to regenerate the
5-carbon molecule RuBP, and we are regenerating 3 RuBP molecule
• The combining of the RuBP fragment will require 3 ATP, one for each RuBP
molecule.

• Limiting factor:
• It is the physical factor that limit a reaction rate that is controlled by many physical
aspects. Limiting factor in photosynthesis could be:
1. Light intensity
• As light intensity increased, this will increase the rate of photosynthesis in the
light dependent stage
• But if the light intensity is too high, this could potentially decrease the rate of
reaction since it could potentially damage the chloroplast
2. Temperature
• The reaction of photosynthesis is all enzyme controlled, and that it is at the
maximum rate when it is at its optimum temperature, which is 10 to 20°C
• As if you increase the temperature pass the optimum temperature, the enzyme
will get denatured, which will slow down the rate of photosynthesis
3. CO2 concentration
• CO2 concentration increase will increase the rate of reaction, but this is up to
one point as the chloroplast cannot process the CO2 any faster
4. Water availability
• So that photolysis can occur (for electron donor)