Heat transfer

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 Thermal expansion

 Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of an object

with an increase in its temperature.

 Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the

average separation between the atoms in an object.

 If the expansion is small relative to the original dimensions

of the object, the change in any dimension is proportional to
the first power of the change in temperature (to a good
approximation).

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Example: Thermal expansion

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 Linear expansion
 Assume an object has an initial length, L.
 The length increases by L as the temperature changes by
T.
 We define the coefficient of linear expansion  as:
L Li
  L  Li T
T

where L  L f  Li

therefore 
L f  Li  Li T f  Ti 
 has unit of (C)-1
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 The  depends on the material of the rod.
 The  does not change very much with temperature.
 Therefore, for most practical purposes it can be taken as a
constant.

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 Volume expansion
 All three dimensions of a solid expand with temperature, thus
the volume also expands.
 The change in volume is proportional to the original volume
and to the change in temperature.

1  dV 
V   Vi T    
V  dT  P

 and  is the coefficients of volume and linear expansions.

 For a solid sample,  =3 for isotropic material, expansion rate
is same in all directions.

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 For a liquid or gas, an increase in temperature results in an
increase in volume.
 For the liquid or gas sample,  is the only meaningful
expansion parameter.
 The  is given in the table.

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 Area expansion
 The change in area is proportional to the original area and to
the change in temperature.

A  2Ai T

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Average expansion coefficients for some materials near
room temperature (solids, liquids, & gas)

## Gas do not have a specific volume for the volume expansion coefficient
because the amount of expansion depends on the type of process through
which the gas is taken. The values given here assume the gas undergoes an
expansion at constant pressure. 9
Example: Solid, liquid & gas expansion

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Example: Bimetallic strip
 Each substance has its own
characteristic average coefficient
of expansion.
 This can be made use in bimetallic
strip
- As the temperature of the strip
increases, the two metals
expand by different amounts.
- The strip bends.
 It can be used in a thermostat.

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 Radius of curvature, r:

r

t 3 1  m   1  mn   m 2  1 mn  
2

6  α2  α1  T  T0  1  m 
2

where
t = combined thickness of the bonded strip (m),
m = ratio of thickness of low- to high-expansion materials ,
n = ratio of moduli of elasticity of low- to high-expansion
materials,
1 = lower coefficient of expansion, per C,
2 = higher coefficient of expansion, per C,
T = temperature, C
T0 = initial bonding temperature, C

 Bimetallic strip – a very widely used method of temperature measurement.

 Bimetallic strips are frequently used in simple on-off temperature control devices (thermostats).
Movement of the strip has sufficient force to trip control switches for various devices.
 The metallic strips has the advantages of low-cost, negligible maintenance expense, and stable
operation over extended periods of time.
 Alternate methods of construction can use a coiled strip to drive a dial indicator for
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temperatures.
Question:
A bimetallic strip is constructed of strips of yellow brass and Invar bonded
together at 30C. Each has a thickness of 0.3 mm. Calculate the radius of
curvature when a 6.0 cm strip is subjected to a temperature of 100 C.
By given the mechanical properties of Invar and Yellow brass:
Materials Thermal coefficient of Modulus of elasticity
expansion per C (GN/m2)
Invar 1.710-6 147

Yellow brass 2.0210-5 96.5

T  T0  100  30  70o C
m  1.0
147
n  1.52
96.5
α1  1.7  106o C 1 , α2  2.02  105o C 1
t   2   0.3  103   0.6  103 m

 0.6  10   3 2   1  1.52  1  1 1.52 

3 2

Thus, r 
6  2.02  0.17   105  70  2 
2

 0.132 m 13
 Heat Transfer
Processes of heat transfer can be classified into 3 categories:

a. Conduction- transfer of heat by molecular contact

b. Convection- bulk motion of a gas or liquid, usually
driven by the tendency of warmer material to expand
and rise in a gravitational filed. Convection of mass can
not take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows
nor significant diffusion can take place in solids.
Diffusion of heat can take place in solids, but that is
called heat conduction.
c. Radiation- the emission of electromagnetic waves,
mostly infrared for objects at room temperature

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 Heat transfer mechanisms
There are three mechanisms via which heat is transferred from
one object to another. These are conduction, convection and
radiation.
1. Conduction - transfer of heat by molecular contact
 Consider the slab of area A and thickness
L as shown in the figure beside,
sandwiched between a hot and a cold
reservoir of temperature TH and TC,
respectively.
 Experiment shows that heat will flow
from the hot to the cold reservoir A
through the slab at the rate of:
Q TH  TC
Pcond   kA
t L
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 Q dT
  kA
t dx

where k is called the thermal conductivity of the material.

 The thermal conductivity depends on the material out of which

the slab is made.

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 Conduction through composite slab
 Rate of heat flow is the same through
the composite slab.

TH  TX T𝑇H
𝑋−T 𝑇𝐶X
Pcond  k2 A  k1 A
L2 L1

k2 L1TH  k1L2TC
TX 
k2 L1  k1L2

 So, the conduction rate

A TH  TC  A TH  TC 
Pcond  
L1 k1  L2 k2 
i
Li ki

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2. Convection
 bulk motion of a gas or liquid, usually driven by the tendency
of warmer material to expand and rise in a gravitational filed.
Convection of mass can not take place in solids, since neither
bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in
solids. Diffusion of heat can take place in solids, but that is
called heat conduction.
 When a fluid comes in contact with an object whose
temperature is higher than that of the fluid, the temperature
of the fluid increases and the fluid expands and becomes less
dense.
 The lighter, warmer fluid rises while some of the surrounding
cooler fluid takes its place. In the process, heat is transferred
by convection.

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3. Radiation
 This exchange of heat occurs via the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Thus this process can occur in vacuum.
 The rate Prad at which an object of area A and temperature T
emits radiation is given by

Prad  AT 4

where the constant  is called the Stefan-Boltzman constant,

5.670310-8 W/m2K4.

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 The constant  is the emissivity of the object surface.

 For a totally absorbing surface,  = 1.

 Such an object is known as a “blackbody radiator“.

 The rate at which an object absorbs thermal radiation from its

environment at temperature Tenv is given by the equation:
Pabs  ATenv
4

 The net energy gain is:

Pnet  Pabs  Prad  ATenv

4
 AT 4  A Tenv
4
T 4  
Note: Pnet  0 if Tenv  T

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 Metal pots used in cooking on top of a stove are usually very shiny on
the top and sides. Which one of the following choices indicates why this
is a good idea thermally?

a) The shiny parts of the pot have greater thermal conductivity.

b) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via convection.

c) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via radiation.

d) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via conduction.

e) The shiny parts of the pot do not allow any heat to be lost to the
environment.
 Metal pots used in cooking on top of a stove are usually very shiny on
the top and sides. Which one of the following choices indicates why this
is a good idea thermally?

a) The shiny parts of the pot have greater thermal conductivity.

b) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via convection.

c) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via radiation.

d) The shiny parts of the pot have greatly reduced losses via conduction.

e) The shiny parts of the pot do not allow any heat to be lost to the
environment.
 A device that is to be primarily used in the desert is being designed. The
user would like the side facing the sun, the front, to absorb as little heat as
possible and to lose as little heat on the opposite side, the back, of the
device. Two materials for these sides of the device are being recommended:
(1) a dull black material and (2) a shiny, metallic material. Which of these
materials should be used for the front and back sides of the device?

a) The front should be material 2 and the back should be material 1.

b) The front should be material 1 and the back should be material 2.

c) Both sides should be material 1.

d) Both sides should be material 2.

e) Using either of these materials for the front and back will have the same
result.
 A device that is to be primarily used in the desert is being designed. The
user would like the side facing the sun, the front, to absorb as little heat as
possible and to lose as little heat on the opposite side, the back, of the
device. Two materials for these sides of the device are being recommended:
(1) a dull black material and (2) a shiny, metallic material. Which of these
materials should be used for the front and back sides of the device?

a) The front should be material 2 and the back should be material 1.

b) The front should be material 1 and the back should be material 2.

c) Both sides should be material 1.

d) Both sides should be material 2.

e) Using either of these materials for the front and back will have the same
result.
 Just before spring arrives, an airplane flies over some mountains and drops black soot on
the snow and ice. This procedure is done to prevent flooding of the valley below when
the warmer weather arrives with spring. How does this procedure prevent flooding?

a) The areas where the soot fails should melt earlier than those without the soot as sunlight
will be absorbed. Melting the snow gradually reduces the amount that will melt as
temperatures rise in spring.

b) The soot increases the temperature at which snow and ice melt causing the areas that have
soot to melt later.

c) The soot lowers the temperature at which snow and ice melt causing the areas that have
soot to melt earlier.

d) The soot has a higher thermal conductivity than water and ice and can transmit heat from
the air more efficiently to the snow and ice underneath the soot.

e) Air convection warms the soot covered snow more efficiently than the snow without soot.
 Just before spring arrives, an airplane flies over some mountains and drops black soot on
the snow and ice. This procedure is done to prevent flooding of the valley below when
the warmer weather arrives with spring. How does this procedure prevent flooding?

a) The areas where the soot fails should melt earlier than those without the soot as sunlight
will be absorbed. Melting the snow gradually reduces the amount that will melt as
temperatures rise in spring.

b) The soot increases the temperature at which snow and ice melt causing the areas that have
soot to melt later.

c) The soot lowers the temperature at which snow and ice melt causing the areas that have
soot to melt earlier.

d) The soot has a higher thermal conductivity than water and ice and can transmit heat from
the air more efficiently to the snow and ice underneath the soot.

e) Air convection warms the soot covered snow more efficiently than the snow without soot.