GEOGUIDE 3

GUIDE TO
ROCK AND SOIL
DESCRIPTIONS

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
 GEOGUIDE 3

GUIDE TO
ROCK AND SOIL
DESCRIPTIONS

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING OFFICE

Civil Engineering Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
 2

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© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
First published, July 1988
Reprinted, April 1991
Reprinted, May 1994
Reprinted, January 1997
Reprinted, November 2000

Prepared by:

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Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Civil Engineering Department,
Civil Engineering Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon,
Hong Kong.

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66 Queensway,
Hong Kong.

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FOREWORD

This Geoguide p r e s e n t s a recommended s t a n d a r d of good practice f o r t h e

description of Hong Kong r o c k s and soils for engineering purposes. This need
was recognized in July 1983, when a Subcommittee of t h e Building Authority
Working P a r t y on Geotechnical Regulations reviewed t h e application in Hong
Kong of t h e British S t a n d a r d BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice f o r Site
Investigations. With r e g a r d t o Section 8 of BS 5930 (Descriptions of Soils a n d
Rocks), t h e Subcommittee concluded t h a t i t should not be recommended f o r
general u s e in Hong Kong, because p a r t s of t h e section were not r e l e v a n t to
local conditions o r conflicted with c u r r e n t Hong Kong practice.

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This Geoguide should b e used in conjunction with t h e companion
document, Guide t o Site Investigation (Geoguide 2). which c o v e r s t h e topics
dealt with in Sections 1 to 7 of BS 5930. Together, t h e s e two Geoguides
expand upon, and largely replace, Chapter 2 of t h e Geotechnical Manual f o r
Slopes (1984).

A s with o t h e r Geoguides, t h i s document gives guidance on good practice,

and i t s recommendations a r e not mandatory. Considerable debate has always
existed o v e r t h e u s e of ' s t a n d a r d i s e d ' methods and terminology f o r t h e
descriptions of r o c k s and soils. Many different schemes exist, a n d i t i s
recognized t h a t t h e practitioner may wish t o u s e alternative methods to t h o s e
recommended herein.

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The Geoguide was p r e p a r e d in t h e Geotechnical Control Office ( G C O )
u n d e r t h e general direction of M r J.B. Massey. I t was d r a f t e d by D r R.P.
Martin, with assistance from Dr R.L. Langford. who wrote most of t h e material
for Appendix A a n d provided many of t h e photographic illustrations. The final
production was s u p e r v i s e d by D r P.L.R. Pang. The Geoguide incorporates
background material and p a r t s of earlier d r a f t s p r e p a r e d by D r R . Shaw of t h e
G C O a n d by D r S.R. Hencher, a former member of t h e G C O staff. D r T.Y.
I r f a n , t o g e t h e r with many o t h e r G C O staff members, made valuable comments
on earlier versions.

To e n s u r e t h a t t h e Geoguide would be considered a c o n s e n s u s document

b y t h e v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t e d parties in Hong Kong. a d r a f t version was circulated
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widely f o r comment in e a r l y 1987 t o c o n t r a c t o r s , consulting e n g i n e e r s .

academic institutions and Government Departments. Many organizations a n d
individuals made v e r y helpful comments, and t h e i r contributions a r e gratefully
acknowledged.

Practitioners a r e encouraged t o comment a t a n y time to t h e G C O on t h e

c o n t e n t s of t h i s Geoguide, s o t h a t improvements can b e made t o f u t u r e
editions.
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E.W. Brand
Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer
July 1988
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CONTENTS

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NO.

T I T L E PAGE 1

FOREWORD

CONTENTS

1, INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

1.2 GENERAL GUIDANCE

1.2.1 Definitions of Rock a n d Soil
1.2.2 T h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y
1.2.3 Material a n d Mass C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
1.2.4 D e s c r i p t i o n i n D i f f e r e n t Locations

2, DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS
2.1 GENERAL

2.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF R O C K DESCRIPTION

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MATERIALS

2.3.1 Strength
2.3.2 Colour
2.3.3 Texture a n d Fabric
2.3.4 Weathering a n d Alteration
2.3.5 Rock Name ( I n c l u d i n g Grain S i z e )
2.3.6 Additional I n f o r m a t i o n
2.3.7 Examples

2.4 DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MASSES

2.4.1 General
2.4.2 Structure
2.4.3 Discontinuities
2.4.4 Rock Mass W e a t h e r i n g
2.4.5 Additional Information
2.4.6 Examples

2.5 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

3, DESCRIPTIONOFSOILS
3.1 GENERAL

3.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF SOIL DESCRIPTION

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3.3 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 36

3.3.1 Strength 36
3.3.2 Colour 37
3.3.3 Particle S h a p e a n d Composition 37
3.3.4 Soil Name 38
3.3.5 Additional Information 41

3.4 MASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 41

3.4.1 Structure 41
3.4.2 Discontinuities 42
3.4.3 S t a t e of Weathering 43
3.4.4 Additional Information 44

3.5 SOILS DERIVED FROM INSITU R O C K WEATHERING 44

3.6 COLLUVIUM 46

3.7 FILL 47

3.8 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION 48

3.9 EXAMPLES 48

4 ENGINEERING C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S OF ROCKS AND S O I L S 53

4.1 GENERAL 53

4.2 GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF R O C K MASSES 53

4.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES 54

5, LEGEND FOR MAPS, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 57

5.1 SYMBOLS FOR ROCKS AND SOILS 57

5.2 OTHER SYMBOLS 57

5.2.1 Symbols f o r Borehole Records 57
5.2.2 Symbols f o r Geological S t r u c t u r e s a n d Boundaries 57

REFERENCES 59

TABLES 69

LIST OF TABLES 71

TABLES 73
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FIGURES
L I S T OF F I G U R E S

FIGURES

PLATES
L I S T OF P L A T E S

PLATES

APPENDIX A
NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF HONG KONG ROCKS AND
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS

GLOSSARY
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE A N D SCOPE

The p u r p o s e of t h i s Geoguide i s t o p r e s e n t a recommended s t a n d a r d of

good practice f o r t h e description of Hong Kong r o c k s and soils f o r engineering
purposes. I t is a companion document t o Geoguide 2 : Guide t o Site
Investigation ( G C O , 1987a).

This Geoguide i s aimed primarily a t t h e practising civil o r geotechnical

e n g i n e e r , b u t i s also i n t e n d e d f o r u s e b y geologists, engineering geologists and

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o t h e r professionals working in t h e e a r t h sciences. I t has been p r e p a r e d on t h e
assumption t h a t t h e u s e r may not have a n y specialist knowledge of descriptive
systems o r methods.

The overall s t r u c t u r e a n d many individual t e x t sections of t h i s Geoguide

a r e based on Section 8 of BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice f o r Site
Investigations (BSI, 1981). This British S t a n d a r d (BS) has been selected a s t h e
basic r e f e r e n c e document for both t h i s Geoguide and Geoguide 2, in t h e belief
t h a t many of i t s sections a r e applicable t o Hong Kong conditions without t h e
need f o r major modification. However. t h e layout of t h i s document differs
considerably from t h a t of Section 8 of t h e BS, and a number of new t e x t
sections have been added. t o g e t h e r with many more tables, f i g u r e s a n d plates.
These c h a n g e s reflect not only differences of emphasis with r e g a r d t o local

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geological conditions, b u t also t h e need f o r more illustration and explanation
of geological terms f o r t h e non-specialist u s e r .

The following section of this c h a p t e r contains some g e n e r a l guidance on

descriptive methods and terms. The two major c h a p t e r s of t h e Geoguide
(Chapters 2 a n d 3 ) a r e devoted t o methods of description f o r t h e two main
g r o u p s of engineering materials (i.e. r o c k s a n d soils). Following t h e s e i s a
s h o r t e r c h a p t e r concerned with engineering classifications of r o c k s a n d soils
(Chapter 4 ) . The fifth c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s recommended rock a n d soil symbols t o
b e used for maps, plans a n d diagrams. Appendix A, which contains a
geological summary of t h e n a t u r e a n d o c c u r r e n c e of Hong Kong r o c k s and
soils, i s intended t o fulfil a similar role t o t h a t of Appendix G in t h e BS.
This is followed b y a glossary of terms. Also included s e p a r a t e l y i s a
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checklist f o r field o r laboratory use.

This Geoguide provides guidance f o r good practice in t h e u s e of one

scheme of rock a n d soil description. I t i s recognized t h a t practitioners may
wish t o continue t o u s e o t h e r descriptive methods and terminology. Whatever
scheme i s employed, t h e important principle is t h a t all descriptive t e r m s should
b e defined clearly and used consistently.

1.2 GENERAL GUIDANCE

1.2.1 Definitions of Rock a n d Soil

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The engineering u s a g e of 'rock' and 'soil' differs from t h e geological

u s a g e of 'rock' a n d 'superficial deposits' in c u r r e n t Hong Kong practice. The
two schemes can b e distinguished f o r most practical p u r p o s e s b y using t h e
following simple definitions. In engineering t e r m s , a 'soil' is a n y naturally -
formed e a r t h material o r fill which c a n be broken down by hand i n t o i t s
constituent g r a i n s ; conversely, a 'rock' c a n n o t be broken down, o r may only b e
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partially broken down by hand, depending on i t s weathered condition. In
geological terms, 'superficial deposit' covers a n y geologically recent.
unlithified, t r a n s p o r t e d material of sedimentary origin (Bennett, 1984a); 'rock'
r e f e r s t o a n y lithified, solid material of igneous, sedimentary, pyroclastic o r
metamorphic origin. Practically all of Hong Kong's superficial deposits were
formed within t h e Q u a t e r n a r y period (i.e. within t h e last two million y e a r s ) ,
whereas most of t h e r o c k s a r e much o l d e r t h a n t h i s ( s e e Appendix A). The
simplest way of relating t h e two schemes i s t o consider engineering soils a s
comprising all superficial deposits and fill those r o c k s which have
weathered insitu t o t h e condition of a soil in engineering terms. There a r e
one o r two exceptions t o t h i s general distinction, s u c h a s r e c e n t h a r d beach
rock and coral (both of which would b e mapped b y geologists a s superficial
d e p o s i t s ) , b u t s u c h materials a r e of v e r y r e s t r i c t e d e x t e n t in Hong Kong.

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The above engineering definitions of rock a n d soil a r e used t h r o u g h o u t
t h i s Geoguide, except in Appendix A a n d in a few o t h e r cases where t h e
geological definitions a r e clearly implied b y t h e text. I t should b e emphasised.
however, t h a t t h e r e a r e no h a r d and f a s t rules; i t may well b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o
u s e different definitions. depending on t h e particular requirements of t h e
engineering project.

1.2.2 The Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y

This Geoguide u s e s t h e classification system and nomenclature f o r r o c k s

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and superficial deposits developed by t h e Geological S u r v e y Section of t h e
Planning Division. Geotechnical Control Office ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e
Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y (HKGS)). The description a n d classification of
r o c k s used by geologists f o r mapping p u r p o s e s r e q u i r e s a detailed consideration
of mineralogy and p e t r o g r a p h y , which may be of i n t e r e s t t o e n g i n e e r s only in
special circumstances. However, t h e value of a n engineering rock o r soil
description i s often increased if t h e materials encountered a r e placed in t h e
context of t h e geological s t r u c t u r e of t h e a r e a a r o u n d t h e site. In this
r e s p e c t , t h e e n g i n e e r should consult t h e geological maps and memoirs produced
b y t h e HKGS. In cases of difficulty when identifying rock t y p e s , o r
i n t e r p r e t i n g geological maps, t h e e n g i n e e r should consult a geologist f o r
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A new programme of detailed systematic geological mapping b y t h e

HKGS. a t a scale of 1:20 000, has been underway in t h e Geotechnical Control
Office since 1983. As of t h e e n d of 1988, six maps a n d t h r e e memoirs will b e
available (Addison, 1986; G C O , 1986a; 1986b; 1987b; 1988a; 198813; 1988c;
Langford e t al, 1988; S t r a n g e & Shaw. 1986). The full mapping programme,
which i s summarised in Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a). will cover t h e whole of t h e
Territory. both o n s h o r e a n d offshore, and will eventually comprise fifteen maps
and six memoirs ( s e e pp 188-189). On completion, t h i s mapping will s u p e r s e d e
t h e earlier geological s u r v e y work c a r r i e d o u t b y Allen & S t e p h e n s (1971).

1.2.3 Material and Mass Characteristics

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Complete rock a n d soil descriptions should include information on both

material and mass characteristics.

For rocks, t h e distinction between material and mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

d e p e n d s on t h e size of t h e sample in relation t o t h e typical spacing of
discontinuities and o t h e r a s p e c t s of rock s t r u c t u r e . Rock material r e f e r s t o
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t h e relatively s t r o n g cohesive assemblage of mineral particles t h a t form t h e
i n t a c t rock blocks between discontinuities in t h e rock mass. Therefore, rock
material characteristics can b e observed a n d described most easily in hand
samples of rock a n d drillcore. Rock mass r e f e r s to a l a r g e r volume of rock
t h a t contains discontinuities s u c h a s joints, faults a n d bedding planes; s u c h
f e a t u r e s a r e b e s t described in field exposures, although some indication of mass
characteristics may be obtained from boreholes.

For soils, t h e distinction between material a n d mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s also

depends on t h e size of t h e sample being described. In practice, t h i s
distinction may not be a s clear a s f o r r o c k s because some of t h e
characteristics, a t both t h e material a n d mass scales, may b e d e s t r o y e d o r

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altered significantly if t h e soil has been d i s t u r b e d o r remoulded in relation t o
i t s original u n d i s t u r b e d condition. Therefore particular attention should b e
paid to t h e d e g r e e of sample d i s t u r b a n c e when making soil descriptions. Mass
characteristics in soils can only b e described satisfactorily in u n d i s t u r b e d
samples o r exposures. Weathering processes a r e of particular importance in
Hong Kong, and many of t h e soils encountered in engineering works a r e t h o s e
derived from insitu weathering of rocks. Where t h e y retain t h e original rock
material t e x t u r e a n d fabric, t h e s e engineering soils r e p r e s e n t a special case f o r
description, because t h e y can b e described both a s r o c k s a n d a s soils. This is
considered in g r e a t e r detail in t h e main text.

1.2.4 Description in Different Locations

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Rock a n d soil descriptions for engineering applications in Hong Kong a r e
typically c a r r i e d o u t in t h r e e main locations, viz :

(a) in t h e field, a t a n a t u r a l o r man-made exposure,

(b) in t h e field, on c o r e obtained from a ground

investigation drilling rig. a n d

(c) in t h e laboratory, on pieces of core o r o t h e r small hand

samples and various t y p e s of confined samples.

General guidance on description in each of t h e s e locations is given in

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Table 1. I t is emphasised t h a t t h e scope of t h e description, a n d t h e d e g r e e of

emphasis given to particular descriptive items, may need t o be varied t o s u i t
t h e particular application (e.g. projects involving slopes, t u n n e l s , foundations,
e t c ) . I t i s t h e responsibility of t h e p r o j e c t e n g i n e e r o r engineering geologist
t o decide on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e scope a n d detail r e q u i r e d .

With r e g a r d t o t h e description of core samples in t h e field and in t h e

laboratory, two common a s p e c t s of poor practice should be mentioned. F i r s t ,
descriptions should r e f e r only t o t h e specific locations from which t h e samples
have been taken. Descriptions of small d i s t u r b e d samples obtained from drill
bit c u t t i n g s a r e often used wrongly t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e n a t u r e of t h e material
t h r o u g h o u t t h e complete c o r e r u n o r a d j a c e n t c o r e r u n s . A second related
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point i s t h a t only a small percentage of soil samples recovered by t r i p l e - t u b e

c o r e - b a r r e l s a r e e v e r split open and described. Most samples a r e usually
r e s e r v e d f o r laboratory t e s t i n g . A significant proportion a r e often discarded
a t t h e e n d of t h e p r o j e c t without being opened f o r e i t h e r description o r
testing. Even if samples a r e opened for t h e p u r p o s e of selecting t e s t
specimens, t h e remainder of t h e c o r e i s often discarded without being
described. Adequate description of all borehole samples recovered i s essential
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to good ground investigation practice.

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2. DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS

2.1 GENERAL

The recommendations in this c h a p t e r a r e generally applicable t o all local

rock t y p e s . For some of t h e important descriptive characteristics, s u c h a s
s t a t e of weathering, specific recommendations a r e given only f o r some of t h e
common rocks. This disproportionate t r e a t m e n t reflects t h e g r e a t e r
engineering experience gained in certain rock t y p e s (mainly g r a n i t e ,
granodiorite and some t u f f s ) .

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2.2 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF R O C K DESCRIPTION

The main p u r p o s e of a rock description f o r engineering p u r p o s e s i s t o

give an indication of t h e likely engineering properties of t h e rock. A
complete description should comprise a simple rock name, qualified by selected
descriptive terms f o r s t r e n g t h , colour, t e x t u r e o r s t r u c t u r e , g r a i n size, s t a t e of
weathering and alteration, discontinuities and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s
appropriate.

Geological classification of r o c k s i s necessary t o i n t e r p r e t t h e geological

s t r u c t u r e of a n a r e a , and t o establish good geological correlation between
boreholes; i t can also be important when rock i s r e q u i r e d f o r construction

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purposes. for example a s building stone, c o n c r e t e a g g r e g a t e o r roadstone. A s
with o t h e r geological classifications, t h e HKGS rock classification scheme does
not include engineering properties of rock. In practice, however. engineering
properties a r e often closely related t o geological characteristics, a n d e n g i n e e r s
with local experience may i n t e r p r e t t h e HKGS rock classification t o some
extent in terms of likely engineering characteristics. This i s considered
f u r t h e r in Section 2.3.5.

In t h e following sections, "material characteristics" r e f e r s to essentially

uniform pieces of rock and drillcore; discontinuities a n d o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l
f e a t u r e s will not normally b e considered in t h e material description unless t h e y
occur a s an i n t r i n s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c with a spacing of less t h a n about 200 mm
(e.g. slatey cleavage). This i s t h e scale a t which detailed description a n d
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logging of samples, and most engineering t e s t s , a r e u n d e r t a k e n . "Mass

characteristics" r e f e r s t o l a r g e r volumes of rock t h a t incorporate t h e usual
s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s ; t h e y can be fully appreciated only t h r o u g h careful field
description. This is t h e scale which i s usually most r e l e v a n t t o engineering
design and construction. Mass engineering properties a r e generally much more
difficult t o determine t h a n material properties, because of t h e g r e a t e r influence
of s t r u c t u r a l defects a n d t h e i r r e g u l a r distribution of different component
materials within t h e mass.

In most Hong Kong r o c k s , t h e presence of discontinuities a n d t h e effects

of weathering will have a g r e a t influence on engineering behaviour. Hence,
t h e descriptive methods recommended in t h i s c h a p t e r place emphasis on s u c h
features.
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In a rock description, t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should preferably b e given

in t h e following o r d e r ( b a s e d on Hawkins. 1984) :

(a) s t r e n g t h (material),
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(b) colour (material),

(c) t e x t u r e and f a b r i c (material); s t r u c t u r e (mass),

(d) s t a t e of weathering and alteration (material a n d mass),

(e) rock name (in capitals, e.g. GRANITE), including g r a i n

size (material),

(f) discontinuities (mass), a n d

(g) additional geological information.

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In t h e following sections, each of t h e characteristics in t h i s l i s t i s
discussed in detail f o r both rock material and rock mass, a s appropriate. The
scope of t h i s scheme i s similar t o t h e schemes recommended by BSI (1981),
Geological Society (1972, 1977) a n d IAEG (1981). The differences i n t h e
p r e s e n t scheme a r e ones of detail, mainly with r e s p e c t t o t h e description of
t h e weathered s t a t e of t h e rock material and rock mass, a n d an expansion of
t h e description of discontinuities a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s of rock mass s t r u c t u r e .

I n addition t o description, in some circumstances i t may be useful t o

make an overall classification of rock masses f o r engineering p u r p o s e s .
Guidance on rock mass classification i s given in Chapter 4.

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2.3 DESCRIPTION OF R O C K MATERIALS

2.3.1 Strength

A recommended scale of s t r e n g t h , based on uniaxial compressive s t r e n g t h

t e s t i n g (UCS), i s given in Table 2. This scale i s similar t o t h a t used in BSI
(1981). b u t has been extended a t t h e weaker e n d in o r d e r t o cover t h e
extremely weak decomposed rock materials t h a t a r e commonly encountered in
Hong Kong. Simple field identification t e s t s have also been added s o t h a t t h e
s t r e n g t h terms may b e estimated p r i o r t o a n y laboratory t e s t i n g ; t h e s e a r e
based on t h e classifications given by t h e Geological Society (1977) a n d Miller
et a1 (1986).
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The s t r e n g t h of rock material determined i n t h e uniaxial compression

t e s t i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e moisture c o n t e n t of t h e specimen, anisotropy a n d t h e
t e s t p r o c e d u r e adopted. A review of compressive s t r e n g t h t e s t practice in
Hong Kong has been made b y Gamon & Szeto (1984).

The point load t e s t (PLS) is a useful index t e s t f o r estimating t h e

compressive s t r e n g t h of moderately weak t o extremely s t r o n g r o c k s (ISRM,
1985). Approximate PLS values f o r t h e granitic a n d volcanic r o c k s in Hong
Kong a r e included in Table 2. These values a r e derived b y applying a
correlation factor of 24 t o UCS values. They a r e based on t h e work r e p o r t e d
b y Lumb (1983) a n d Gamon (1984). a n d on a review of existing l i t e r a t u r e f o r
isotropic igneous a n d volcanic r o c k s c a r r i e d o u t within t h e Geotechnical
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Control Office. The correlation f a c t o r of 24 i s generally l e s s reliable f o r

r o c k s a t t h e weaker e n d of t h e PLS t e s t scale.
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2.3.2 colour

Colour may b e e x p r e s s e d quantitatively in terms of t h r e e parameters :

'hue', 'chroma' a n d 'value' (Munsell, 1941). 'Hue' i s a basic colour o r a
mixture of basic colours, 'chroma' i s t h e brilliance o r intensity of t h e colour,
and 'value' i s t h e lightness of t h e colour. The complete Munsell system
contains a l a r g e number of examples of different hues. chromas and values,
and is too detailed f o r general engineering use. A much simpler qualitative
system i s recommended, a s s e t o u t in Table 3. In cases where t h e colour
distribution i s non-uniform, an additional d e s c r i p t o r should b e u s e d in
conjunction with t h e t h r e e basic terms (Table 3).

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For a more detailed description of colour, t h e Rock-Color Chart
(Geological Society of America, 1963) i s recommended. This c h a r t is a
simplification of t h e Munsell system. b u t i t contains many more h u e s , chromas
a n d values t h a n Table 3.

I t should b e noted t h a t wetting a rock sample decreases t h e value (i.e.

makes t h e sample d a r k e r ) , b u t does not c h a n g e t h e hue o r chroma. Therefore,
a good rock colour description should s t a t e w h e t h e r t h e sample was wet o r d r y
when described. In written r e p o r t s , descriptions should ideally b e s u p p l e -
mented b y colour p h o t o g r a p h s , which should always include a s t a n d a r d colour
c h a r t f o r r e f e r e n c e (e.g. Kodak Color Control P a t c h e s ) .

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2.3.3 Texture and Fabric

'Texture' i s a broad term t h a t r e f e r s t o t h e general physical a p p e a r a n c e

of a rock. I t c o v e r s t h e geometric a s p e c t s , s u c h a s size a n d s h a p e of t h e
component g r a i n s o r c r y s t a l s , and t h e relationships between t h e s e a s p e c t s (e.g.
distribution of v a r i o u s grain sizes and crystallinity, o r t h e d e g r e e t o which
c r y s t a l s have developed in t h e rock). The t e r m i s usually applied t o t h e
small-scale f e a t u r e s visible in hand specimens. If t h e rock i s composed of
v e r y small g r a i n s , t h e description of t e x t u r e may not be possible without t h e
u s e of a hand l e n s o r a microscopic examination of a t h i n slice of t h e rock.
The term ' s t r u c t u r e ' i s used for t h e l a r g e r - s c a l e physical f e a t u r e s of a rock
a n d i s considered in Section 2.4.2. However, terms describing s t r u c t u r a l
f e a t u r e s with a spacing of less t h a n a b o u t 200 mm may also b e applicable t o
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rock material descriptions.

The most common t e x t u r a l terms applicable t o Hong Kong r o c k s a r e

illustrated in Plate 1 a n d a r e defined in t h e Glossary. The u s e of t h e s e terms
i s generally r e s t r i c t e d to t h e crystalline igneous a n d non-foliated metamorphic
r o c k s (Table 5; s e e also Appendix A.2.5), t h e g r a i n s o r c r y s t a l s of which have
usually formed in close mutual association (e.g. d u r i n g solidification of an
igneous rock from a magma).

The main a s p e c t s of rock t e x t u r e illustrated b y Plate 1 a r e relative grain

size (e.g. e q u i g r a n u l a r , megacrystic) a n d crystallinity. Some methods of
textural description, e.g. IAEG (1981), also cover absolute g r a i n size, o r t h e
a v e r a g e dimension of t h e mineral o r rock fragments which make u p t h e rock.
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However, i t i s common practice in Hong Kong t o link g r a i n size terms directly

t o t h e rock name. Therefore, grain size i s considered in Section 2.3.5. Grain
s h a p e is a n o t h e r a s p e c t sometimes t a k e n into account in t h e description of
sedimentary rock t e x t u r e s , b u t s h a p e terms a r e more commonly used in soil
descriptions when individual i n t a c t g r a i n s can b e easily s e p a r a t e d ( s e e Section
3.3.3).
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'Fabric' r e f e r s specifically to t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e constituent g r a i n s
o r c r y s t a l s in a rock. P r e f e r r e d orientation of t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s is often t h e
most noticeable a s p e c t of t h e rock fabric.

In igneous a n d o t h e r crystalline rocks, t h e f a b r i c i s t h e p a t t e r n

produced by t h e v a r i o u s s h a p e s a n d orientations of t h e crystalline a n d non-
crystalline p a r t s of t h e rock. I t is d e p e n d e n t on t h e relative sizes and s h a p e s
of t h e s e p a r t s a n d t h e i r positions with r e s p e c t t o one a n o t h e r a n d t o t h e
groundmass, where p r e s e n t . In sedimentary r o c k s , p r e f e r r e d orientation, where
p r e s e n t , of t h e individual g r a i n s a n d t h e i r position in relation t o a n y
cementing material a r e usually t h e most important a s p e c t s of t h e fabric.
Fabrics in fine s a n d s t o n e s a n d mudstones c a n n o t be described satisfactorily
without t h e u s e of a hand l e n s o r microscope.

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The orientation of g r a i n s and c r y s t a l s may b e described in qualitative
terms o r , alternatively, may b e quantified b y measurement with a compass-
clinometer if t h e f a b r i c directions a r e clear t o t h e naked eye. For r o c k s
insitu, f a b r i c orientations may b e s t a t e d e i t h e r directly a s a compass bearing
a n d dip angle, o r indirectly in relation t o o t h e r p a r t s of t h e fabric, o r t o
s t r u c t u r a l planes s u c h a s joints a n d bedding (e.g. elongate particles in a
sedimentary rock would often b e described a s having a p r e f e r r e d orientation
parallel t o t h e bedding planes). In recovered samples, f a b r i c orientations can
only b e described indirectly, unless t h e configuration of t h e whole sample in
t h e g r o u n d i s recorded accurately a t t h e time of sampling.

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'Fabric' also includes a n y small discontinuities o r planes of separation
t h r o u g h o r between g r a i n s o r crystals. These a r e commonly termed 'micro-
f r a c t u r e s ' and may b e caused by mechanical weathering, tectonic activity,
stress-relief o r o t h e r factors. Microfractures can have a significant effect on
engineering properties a n d a r e particularly common f e a t u r e s in t h e c o a r s e r -
grained granitic rocks. No specific terms a r e recommended for t h e description
of microfractures, b u t a s a general r u l e t h e i r i n t e n s i t y , spacing, continuity a n d
a n y p r e f e r r e d orientation should b e noted. Plate 2 shows f o u r examples of
microfractures, f o r which a p p r o p r i a t e descriptions would b e a s follows :

Plate 2A. Randomly-oriented microfractures intersecting

a n iron-stained joint s u r f a c e in highly decomposed,
coarse-grained GRANITE. Spacing variable. 2-20 mm.
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Some have open a p e r t u r e s u p t o 1 mm wide. Rock easily

crumbled t o fine g r a v e l and finer-sized fragments due. t o
microfracturing.

Plate 2B. Continuous s u b v e r t i c a l microfractures parallel

t o tension c r a c k s in s a n d y SILT (Residual Soil). Spacing
5-20 mm. Soil loose a n d v e r y friable a s a r e s u l t of
microfracturing.

Plate 2C. Continuous c u r v e d rnicrofractures following t h e

b o u n d a r y s h a p e of a l a r g e corestone of moderately
decomposed, medium-grained GRANITE. Spacing 5-10 mm.
Effect of microfractures i s t o form thin c u r v e d shells of
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rock.

Plate 2D. I n t e n s e random microfracturing between a n d

t h r o u g h q u a r t z a n d f e l d s p a r g r a i n s in slightly
decomposed, medium-grained GRANITE. Spacing generally
< 1 mm.
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The description o f t e x t u r e and fabric should include any other notable
features o f t h e small-scale physical appearance o f t h e rock. For example, i n
certain volcanic lavas, small pores or voids (termed 'vesicles') are sometimes
visible. The size, shape, spacing and orientation o f voids should be described
where appropriate.
Texture and fabric are probably t h e most d i f f i c u l t aspects o f a rock
description for t h e non-specialist. I t i s not easy t o give simple precise
guidance on t h e use o f appropriate terms. I f problems are encountered, t h e
engineer should consult a geologist for assistance.

Weathering and Alteration

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2.3.4

( 1 ) General Aspects o f Weathering. Weathering has a v e r y significant

e f f e c t on t h e engineering properties o f rock. Most engineering projects in
Hong Kong encounter substantial thicknesses o f weathered rock, which may
v a r y significantly i n degree o f weathering over relatively short distances.
T h e r e f o r e , careful description and assessment o f t h e state o f weathering o f t h e
rock material is o f particular importance.
The two main components o f weathering are mechanical disintegration
and chemical decomposition. Generally, both mechanical and chemical e f f e c t s
act together and are interdependent, b u t , depending on t h e past and present
climatic and hydrological regimes. one or t h e other o f t h e s e aspects may be

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dominant.
Mechanical weathering or disintegration is caused b y physical processes
such as f r o s t action, absorption and release o f water, and changes i n
temperature and s t r e s s at or near t h e exposed rock surface. I t results i n t h e
opening o f discontinuities, t h e formation o f new discontinuities b y rock
fracture, t h e opening o f grain boundaries, and t h e fracture or cleavage o f
individual mineral grains. Disintegration o f rock material can also be caused
or speeded up b y biological factors such as t r e e root growth in joints.
Decomposition or chemical weathering is t h e process b y which chemical
reactions, such as hydration, oxidation, ion exchange and solution, t r a n s f o r m
rocks and minerals into new chemical combinations t h a t are stable under
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prevailing environmental conditions. Decomposition causes some silicate

minerals such as feldspars t o change t o clay minerals, b u t o t h e r s , notably
quartz, resist t h i s action and may s u r v i v e largely unchanged. Solution is a
particularly important aspect o f chemical weathering in carbonate rocks such
as limestones. Chemical weathering also results in discolouration o f t h e rock
when compared with i t s colour i n t h e f r e s h ( u n w e a t h e r e d ) state.
Decomposition is t h e dominant aspect o f weathering in Hong Kong rocks.
Rock material weathering in Hong Kong rarely produces a homogeneous
weathered rock mass where all rock material is weathered t o t h e same degree,
or even a simple weathered profile where t h e degree o f weathering decreases
progressively with depth. Complex variation o f weathering throughout t h e rock
mass is more o f t e n t h e rule. This r e f l e c t s such variable factors as orientation
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and spacing o f discontinuities in t h e rock. groundwater flow paths and t h e

removal o f overlying weathered material b y erosion. To appreciate fully t h e
pattern o f weathering in a rock mass, i t is necessary t o make careful
observations o f t h e degree o f material weathering i n natural exposures.
excavations, borehole samples and trial pits.
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Weathering i s a g r a d u a l , continuous process. ~t i s difficult to describe
i t s effect quantitatively a s a precise d e g r e e of c h a n g e from an original
unweathered condition. For general descriptive p u r p o s e s , i t i s convenient to
classify t h e weathering s e q u e n c e into a number of easily recognizable g r a d e s .
In view of t h e dominance of chemical decomposition in Hong Kong r o c k s ,
material weathering g r a d e s have been traditionally classified using t h e term
'decomposed' r a t h e r t h a n t h e more general term 'weathered'. This practice is
retained here. The term 'weathered' i s used in t h e rock mass weathering
classification in Section 2.4.4.

(2) Classification of Decom~osition Grades. Recommendations f o r t h e

description of decomposition g r a d e s of rock material a r e given in Table 4. The

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left-hand side of t h e table gives a summary of t h e general characteristics t h a t
can be used t o a s s e s s decomposition g r a d e in most Hong Kong rocks. This i s
generally applicable t o all t h e igneous a n d pyroclastic r o c k s , b u t i t can also b e
used f o r o t h e r r o c k s which have s t r e n g t h s in t h e f r e s h condition similar t o
t h o s e of t h e g r a n i t e s a n d t u f f s , i.e. in t h e s t r o n g t o extremely s t r o n g r a n g e in
Table 2 (Lumb. 1983). However. not all t h e g e n e r a l characteristics listed in
Table 4 a r e applicable to some of t h e weaker sedimentary a n d metamorphic
rocks. I t may b e more convenient t o u s e a d i f f e r e n t classification for t h e s e
materials (e.g. Beggs & Tonks, 1985, used f o u r classes f o r description of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in t h e Yuen Long a r e a ) . If a d i f f e r e n t
number of classes is u s e d , a n d t h e class boundaries cannot b e e q u a t e d
conveniently with a n y of t h o s e in Table 4, i t is recommended t h a t alternative
t e r m s and symbols a r e adopted and defined clearly to avoid confusion.

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The g r a d e classification i s of v e r y limited u s e f o r description of
c a r b o n a t e r o c k s s u c h a s limestone and marble. Since p u r e carbonate material
dissolves completely in contact with weakly acidic g r o u n d w a t e r , t h e r e is no
g r a d u a l transition from f r e s h rock t o residual soil. However, most c a r b o n a t e
r o c k s contain a small percentage of non-soluble impurities (e.g. q u a r t z , iron
oxides, clay minerals) which can accumulate in t h e form of residual d e b r i s a s
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c a r b o n a t e material i s removed in solution. The only
significant c a r b o n a t e rock in Hong Kong i s t h e marble of t h e Yuen Long
Formation, which generally has a v e r y low p e r c e n t a g e of impurities (Pascall.
1987: Langford e t al. 1988). Hence t h e amount of residual d e b r i s produced by
weathering of t h e marble itself is usually negligible, and i s of little importance
for engineering. I t should b e noted t h a t t h i s d e b r i s should not b e classified a s
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a t r u e insitu r e s i d u a l soil since t h e solution of t h e carbonate material r e s u l t s

in a complete collapse of t h e original rock fabric.

The general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown in t h e left-hand s i d e of Table 4 a r e

based on observation o r simple t e s t s t h a t r e q u i r e a minimum of field o r
laboratory equipment (e.g. u s e of a geological hammer, breakage of lumps b y
hand, visual evidence of discolouration). A water s u p p l y a n d small container
a r e needed t o c a r r y o u t t h e slake t e s t , which is used t o distinguish between
completely a n d highly decomposed rock. The r e s u l t s of t h e slake t e s t may be
affected b y differences in t h e initial sample moisture content. Generally, i t i s
a fairly reliable indicator when u s e d in partly s a t u r a t e d soils, b u t i t i s difficult
t o apply in fully s a t u r a t e d soils sampled from below t h e water table (Howat.
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1986).

Discolouration may not b e an easy indicator t o use, because i t relies on

knowledge of t h e colour of t h e f r e s h r o c k , which is often not exposed.
Generally, i t i s a good indicator of t h e differences between f r e s h , slightly,
moderately and highly decomposed rock. Slightly decomposed material can
usually b e distinguished from f r e s h rock by staining in t h e vicinity of rock
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joints (often a brown staining caused by t h e formation of iron oxides).
Moderately decomposed rock i s usually stained t h r o u g h o u t , while highly and
completely decomposed rock commonly show a complete colour c h a n g e when
compared with t h e f r e s h rock.

Very few of t h e general characteristics in Table 4 a r e definitive f o r

assessing t h e decomposition g r a d e s . I t is recommended t h a t a number of
different t e s t s and observations should b e c a r r i e d o u t w h e r e v e r possible before
t h e assignment of t h e decomposition g r a d e .

The remaining columns of Table 4 give typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h e

f o u r most common rock t y p e s in Hong Kong. These can be used in addition to

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t h e general indicators discussed above, providing t h e rock t y p e can be
identified. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s include typical sequences of colour c h a n g e s .
decomposition of c e r t a i n minerals, a n d t h e r e s u l t s of o t h e r simple s t r e n g t h
index t e s t s .

A t t h e less decomposed end of t h e scale, t h e Schmidt hammer i s a rapid

a n d simple field t e s t . However, a s discussed in Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a), c a r e
i s r e q u i r e d when using t h e hammer on weak, c r a c k e d o r f i s s u r e d rocks, o r on
a n y r o u g h rock s u r f a c e . Notes on t h e u s e of t h e hammer a r e given in Table
4. A t t h e more decomposed e n d of t h e scale, a s t a n d a r d hand penetrometer
can be used to give a n approximate indication of undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h
(Table 4 ) . A s with t h e slake t e s t , t h e r e s u l t s may be affected by c h a n g e s in
t h e sample moisture content, b u t i t i s generally reliable f o r distinguishing

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between highly a n d completely decomposed rock in granitic materials. In t h e
medium- and c o a r s e - g r a i n e d igneous r o c k s , a n o t h e r useful t e s t i s t o a s s e s s t h e
d e g r e e of alteration of t h e f e l d s p a r g r a i n s by probing with a knife o r pin, o r
b y crumbling between t h e f i n g e r s . Different t y p e s of f e l d s p a r s may decompose
a t different rates: t h e e n g i n e e r should consult a geologist for a s s i s t a n c e in
identification a n d description where appropriate.

The six decomposition g r a d e s in t h e most common Hong Kong r o c k s a r e

illustrated in Plate 3. In general, decomposition effects a r e most obvious in
t h e igneous and highly metamorphosed r o c k s , particularly coarse-grained t y p e s
which possess l a r g e decomposable minerals. In sedimentary a n d less highly
metamorphosed r o c k s , t h e effect of decomposition on c h a n g e s in colour a n d
mechanical p r o p e r t i e s i s l e s s marked; i t may not b e e a s y to assign
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decomposition g r a d e s in t h e s e rocks.

Assessment of decomposition g r a d e using Table 4 i s a d e q u a t e f o r general

descriptions, b u t subdivision of t h e g r a d e s may b e justified if a more detailed
description is r e q u i r e d ; for example when making detailed correlations between
laboratory t e s t r e s u l t s f o r engineering design a n d d e g r e e of decomposition.
For t h i s t y p e of description, more detailed observations of t h e rock
t e x t u r e / f a b r i c should b e made and individual index t e s t r e s u l t s on specific
samples should be quoted. Other, more precise, laboratory and field index
t e s t s should also b e considered (e.g. quick absorption, density, slake durability
and point load s t r e n g t h t e s t s in g r a d e s 1-111 materials; SPT, d r y d e n s i t y a n d
particle size distribution t e s t s in g r a d e s IV - VI). F u r t h e r guidance on rock
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and soil index t e s t s is given by Brown (1981) a n d BSI (1975) respectively. A

review of t h e u s e of index t e s t s for engineering assessment of weathered r o c k s
has been made b y Martin (1986).

The most detailed method of describing d e g r e e of decomposition i s to

u s e a wholly quantitative index. A n example i s t h e X, index f o r g r a n i t e
proposed by Lumb (1962), which is based on a comparison of t h e weight ratios
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of q u a r t z t o f e l d s p a r in t h e f r e s h and decomposed rock. A number of o t h e r
quantitative indices have also been defined on t h e basis of mineralogical
examination ( I r f a n & Dearman. 1978). However, t h e calculation of t h e s e
various indices involves t h e u s e of detailed petrographical analysis, which i s
generally i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r routine descriptions.

The distinction between completely decomposed r o c k s and residual soils

(i.e. g r a d e s V and VI in Table 4 ) i s important f o r full description of t h e s e
materials. Grade VI residual soils have lost all evidence of t h e original rock
t e x t u r e . Therefore, a full description of t h e s e materials can only be made in
soil terms ( s e e Chapter 3 ) . Since g r a d e V materials retain t h e original rock
t e x t u r e , i t is recommended t h a t complete descriptions should be made in rock
t e r m s ( s e e Sections 2.3.1 t o 2.3.6), supplemented where necessary b y additional

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soil terms t o cover compactness/consistency and particle size distribution
applicable t o t h e remoulded condition. F u r t h e r guidance is given in Section
3.5.

13) State of Disintegration. The assessment of decomposition g r a d e

should b e supplemented by description of t h e s t a t e of disintegration of t h e
rock material. This can b e important in terms of t h e likely engineering
behaviour of t h e rock. For example, an intensely d i s i n t e g r a t e d , friable,
moderately decomposed rock may well show t h e engineering properties t o b e
expected of highly o r completely decomposed material. I t should be noted t h a t
small-scale cracking and f r a c t u r i n g of rock can b e caused by f a c t o r s o t h e r
t h a n disintegration (mechanical weathering), s e e f o r example Plates 28 a n d 2D.

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In many r o c k s , i t i s not e a s y t o s e p a r a t e t h e effects of t h e different factors.
If t h e r e i s d o u b t on t h e origin of c r a c k s and microfractures, t h e y may be
described u n d e r t h e general non-genetic heading of 'rock fabric' ( s e e Section
2.3.3). A f u r t h e r difficulty with t h e description of disintegration i s t h a t ,
unlike decomposition, often i t i s not possible t o distinguish a p r o g r e s s i v e
s e q u e n c e of increasing disintegration o v e r t h e complete material weathering
scale. Once clay minerals s t a r t t o form in t h e weathering process, c r a c k s can
b e closed o r 'healed' a s t h e original rock f a b r i c begins t o be d e s t r o y e d ,
leading to an a p p a r e n t reduction in t h e d e g r e e of disintegration with
increasing weathering.

(4) State of Alteration. Rocks may be altered by circulation of hot

g a s e s a n d fluids associated with l a t e r s t a g e intrusion. Common alteration
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terms a r e kaolinized a n d mineralized ( s e e Glossary). The terms used f o r

description of decomposition g r a d e s of rock material may be used where
a p p r o p r i a t e (e.g. a kaolin deposit may be described a s completely decomposed),
because in many c a s e s t h e effects of alteration a r e not easily distinguished
from t h o s e b r o u g h t a b o u t b y decomposition. In Hong Kong r o c k s , alteration i s
often visible in t h e coarse-grained granitic rocks, particularly a r o u n d q u a r t z
veins. The most common e f f e c t s a r e f e l d s p a r s a l t e r e d t o s o f t white kaolin in
relatively undecomposed material, and a n overall reduction in t h e material
grain size. Also, t h e q u a r t z content may a p p e a r lower t h a n in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
unaltered material, d u e t o solution of original q u a r t z by hydrothermal activity.

2.3.5 Rock Name (Including Grain Size)

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Recommended rock names a r e given in Table 5. They should be written

in capital l e t t e r s . This table follows t h e system of rock classification a n d
nomenclature used by t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y , b u t i t is intended only
a s a general guide f o r engineers. Geological t r a i n i n g is r e q u i r e d f o r
satisfactory identification of rocks. The e n g i n e e r need n o t b e overly
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concerned about t h e large number of igneous rock t y p e s shown in Table 5, o r
t h e a p p a r e n t complexity of t h e i r classification. Outcrops of most of t h e basic
a n d intermediate t y p e s a r e only found in small a r e a s of Hong Kong. Granite,
granodiorite and rhyolite a r e t h e most common igneous r o c k s in t h e Territory.

Grain size terms, which r e f e r to t h e a v e r a g e dimension of t h e mineral o r

rock fragments comprising t h e rock, a r e included in Table 5, e i t h e r implicitly
in t h e rock name o r a s a specific qualifying term. I t should b e noted t h a t t h e
grain size d e s c r i p t o r s f o r g r a n i t e , a s h tuff a n d superficial deposits (i.e. coarse,
medium, fine) have different limiting dimensions. For t h i s reason, i t may not
b e possible to u s e t h e c o r r e c t term f o r g r a i n size unless t h e rock t y p e can be
identified accurately. In cases where t h e rock name i s not known, i t i s

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recommended t h a t t h e grain size should be written quantitatively a s p a r t of
t h e description, t o g e t h e r with an a p p r o p r i a t e textural term (e.g. 'megacrystic
rock with l a r g e g r a i n s 10 t o 25 mm s e t in a groundmass of smaller g r a i n s 2 t o
4 mm'). S t r a n g e (1984) has given a clear explanation of t h e system of textural
and grain size t e r m s used f o r t h e g r a n i t e s in Hong Kong.

The smallest grain size visible t o t h e naked e y e is about 0.06 mm.

Identification of g r a i n s smaller t h a n t h i s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of a hand lens o r a
microscope.

With experience, Table 5 can b e i n t e r p r e t e d to some e x t e n t in t e r m s of

broad engineering characteristics. For example, a v e r a g e joint spacing in t h e
igneous r o c k s t e n d s t o increase with increasing grain size; compressive

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s t r e n g t h of f r e s h igneous a n d pyroclastic r o c k s t e n d s t o d e c r e a s e with
increasing grain size. However, i t i s emphasised t h a t Table 5 c a n n o t be used
for detailed i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of engineering characteristics. Complete engineering
descriptions of r o c k s should include information on t h e o t h e r items covered
elsewhere in t h i s c h a p t e r , a s well a s t h e rock name.

If t h e r e i s d o u b t about t h e c o r r e c t rock name, this may b e indicated in

t h e description by u s e of a suitable qualifying term (e.g. 'probably') o r a
question mark. F u r t h e r guidance and explanation of t h e HKGS system of rock
naming a n d classification i s given in Appendix A.

2.3.6 Additional Information

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Any additional f e a t u r e s which could b e of importance in assessing t h e

n a t u r e and engineering properties of t h e material should b e described a f t e r t h e
rock name.

I t i s recommended t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of a n y quantitative index t e s t s (e.g.

point load s t r e n g t h , Schmidt hammer r e b o u n d ) should be recorded a t t h i s point,
e v e n if t h e y have been i n t e r p r e t e d in defining o t h e r descriptive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
s u c h a s s t r e n g t h o r s t a t e of weathering. These r e s u l t s may b e useful f o r t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o t h e r t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t on specific samples.
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2.3.7 Examples

The following examples of rock material descriptions a r e given f o r

guidance in t h e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e descriptive terms. Samples corresponding t o
t h e s e descriptions a r e illustrated in Plate 4.
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Plate 4A. (Igneous Rock). Very s t r o n g , d r y , brownish
g r e y s p o t t e d with single black biotite c r y s t a l s a n d
occasional c l u s t e r s of small biotite flakes, inequigranular,
slightly decomposed, coarse-grained GRANITE. Point load
s t r e n g t h 6.5 MPa. N Schmidt hammer rebound value 55
(measured on site).

Plate 4B. (Pyroclastic Rock). Weak, d r y , l i g h t yellowish

brown to pinkish brown, highly decomposed, coarse a s h
T U F F , with some small ( < 100 mm2) isolated a r e a s of
randomly-oriented microfractures, a v e r a g e spacing < 2
mm, located close t o t h e e d g e s of some of t h e l a r g e r
i n t a c t mineral grains.

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Plate 4 C . (Metamorphic Rock). Moderately weak, d r y ,
l i g h t g r e y mottled and s t r e a k e d with orangish brown,
very narrowly cleaved, moderately decomposed,
PHYLLITE. Prominent orangish o r r e d d i s h brown mineral
coating (iron oxides?) visible on joint s u r f a c e in p a r t of
sample. Exposed small a r e a s of cleavage planes a r e
undulating a n d shiny.

Plate 4 D . (Sedimentary Rock). Moderately s t r o n g , d r y ,

l i g h t brownish g r e y s t r i p e d with d a r k brown and black,
thinly-laminated. fine SANDSTONE a n d MUDSTONE.

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Mudstone forms t h e d a r k e r laminations: t h e s e a r e 0.1-
2 mm in t h i c k n e s s , mostly continuous b u t occasionally
impersistent with convoluted o r branching e n d s . Rock
not significantly affected by weathering, i.e. rock colour
a n d s t r e n g t h not significantly different from f r e s h
material (from field evidence).

2.4 DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASSES

2.4.1 General

Rock masses should b e described by f i r s t considering t h e material

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characteristics of t h e rock, t h e n adding information about mass-scale

characteristics. With r e f e r e n c e to t h e list in Section 2.2, a mass description
would normally include a statement of s t r e n g t h , colour, s t r u c t u r e , s t a t e of
mass weathering a n d alteration, rock name, discontinuities and additional
geological information. More detailed information about t h e t e x t u r e / f a b r i c a n d
s t a t e of weathering/alteration of different materials within t h e mass can b e
a d d e d if necessary, b u t t h i s may not b e r e q u i r e d , depending on t h e n a t u r e of
t h e p r o j e c t and t h e s t a g e a t which t h e descriptive information is used ( s e e
Section 1.2.4).

Initially, t h e mass should b e divided into suitable descriptive units. This

often p r e s e n t s t h e b i g g e s t problem f o r engineering assessment. I t i s not
possible t o give specific recommendations, a s t h e requirements may differ from
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one project t o a n o t h e r , b u t t h e general aim should b e t o divide t h e mass into

geotechnical u n i t s , each of which has reasonably uniform characteristics with
r e g a r d to overall engineering behaviour. In Hong Kong r o c k s , variations in
rock t y p e , d e g r e e / e x t e n t of weathering and n a t u r e / e x t e n t of discontinuities a r e
generally t h e most important characteristics t o consider in t h e selection of
geotechnical unit boundaries.
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In a relatively homogeneous rock mass in a single rock t y p e , t h e r e may
b e no need f o r t h i s subdivision and t h e description of mass a s p e c t s should be
quite s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . Conversely, in a complex exposure comprising two o r
more rock t y p e s , each of which may v a r y significantly with r e g a r d t o
weathering and discontinuities, t h e initial subdivision of t h e mass will b e of
g r e a t importance f o r good description. In particular, i n t e r b e d d e d sedimentary
a n d mixed pyroclastic/sedirnentary rock s e q u e n c e s often p r e s e n t problems for
mass description. For example, t h e presence of one rock which i s particularly
susceptible to weathering may affect t h e weathering of a d j a c e n t r o c k s , a n d t h e
overall engineering properties of t h e i n t e r b e d d e d rock mass may depend more
on t h e one rock t y p e t h a n t h e o t h e r s . Granitic r o c k s , and thick accumulations
of single t y p e s of pyroclastic rock ( t u f f ) , a r e usually easier to subdivide, with
variation in weathering often being t h e most important aspect.

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Once t h e rock mass has been divided into a p p r o p r i a t e geotechnical u n i t s ,
mass characteristics should b e a s s e s s e d in detail and combined with material
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( a s noted above) t o form t h e complete mass description f o r each
unit. The information on mass characteristics should include :

(a) description of geological s t r u c t u r e ( s e e Section 2.4.2),

(b) t h e n a t u r e , orientation, spacing, persistence, r o u g h n e s s ,

a p e r t u r e , infilling a n d s e e p a g e a s p e c t s of discontinuities
( s e e Section 2.4.3), and

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(c) details of t h e mass weathering profile ( s e e Section 2.4.4).

These t h r e e a s p e c t s may have t o b e considered separately f o r each rock

t y p e if a rock mass unit contains more t h a n one rock type. Reference may
also need t o be made t o major geological s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s faults a n d folds
a n d different t y p e s of igneous i n t r u s i o n s ( s e e Appendix A a n d Bennett. 1984b.
for f u r t h e r information).

The term ' s t r u c t u r e ' i s commonly used in different ways a n d r e q u i r e s

f u r t h e r explanation. In t h e b r o a d e s t geological s e n s e , s t r u c t u r e includes two
main g r o u p s of f e a t u r e s , i.e. f r a c t u r e s ( o r discontinuities), and folds ( s e e
Appendix A . 7 ) . The size of t h e s e f e a t u r e s can v a r y widely, both in areal
extent a n d cross-section. Large-scale a s p e c t s of regional rock s t r u c t u r e , s u c h
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a s major faults a n d folds, a r e often not r e l e v a n t a t t h e scale of an

engineering site. The e n g i n e e r i s usually concerned more with t h e smaller-
scale s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s ; for example, individual joint systems, lineation and
foliation. However, s u c h f e a t u r e s a r e ultimately related to regional s t r u c t u r e
and cannot b e appreciated fully without some u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e regional
structure.

With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l i s t of descriptive items in Section 2.2, f e a t u r e s

s u c h a s foliation and lineation a r e included u n d e r t h e item ' s t r u c t u r e ' in t h e
following section, whilst 'discontinuities' a r e considered separately in Section
2.4.3. Thus. ' s t r u c t u r e ' in Section 2.4.2 i s used in a narrow sense. f o r w a n t of
a suitable alternative heading. In t h e broad s e n s e , s t r u c t u r e includes
discontinuities, a s noted above.
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Another term in fairly common u s e by engineering geologists i s

' s t r u c t u r a l domain' ( s e e Glossary). This term should only b e applied t o
c h a n g e s in t h e discontinuity p a t t e r n in t h e rock mass, and not t o c h a n g e s in
rock t y p e o r weathering. I t would not be c o r r e c t t o u s e t h e term f o r t h e
geotechnical units c r e a t e d by subdividing a rock mass f o r description a s
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discussed above, unless t h i s subdivision were made solely on t h e basis of
discontinuity variation.

2.4.2 Structure

The s t r u c t u r e of t h e rock mass i s concerned with t h e larger-scale i n t e r -

relationship of t e x t u r a l f e a t u r e s ( s e e Section 2.3.3). Common terms used t o
d e s c r i b e sedimentary r o c k s include 'bedded', 'laminated' o r 'massive'; igneous
a n d pyroclastic r o c k s may b e 'massive' o r 'flow-banded'; metamorphic r o c k s
may b e 'foliated'. 'banded' o r 'cleaved'. 'Eutaxitic' is a term often applied t o
welded t u f f s containing flattened lenses of pumice o r o t h e r material which give
t h e rock a distinctive s t r e a k e d appearance. These terms a r e defined in t h e

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Glossary and a r e illustrated in Plate 5. Additional information on bedding i s
given in Section 3.4.1.

Recommended d e s c r i p t i v e terms f o r t h e s p a c i n g of p l a n a r s t r u c t u r e s a r e
given in Table 6. For sedimentary r o c k s , s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s bedding may be
described a s 'thick beds' o r 'thickly-bedded'; f o r example, a 'thickly-bedded
sandstone'. For igneous a n d metamorphic r o c k s , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e descriptive
terms f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e should b e used; f o r example. 'medium foliated schist',
' v e r y narrowly cleaved phyllite', ' v e r y thickly flow-banded rhyolite'.

There is some overlap between textural characteristics of rock materials

a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of rock masses. S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s with a

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spacing of less t h a n a b o u t 200 mm may also b e applicable to t h e description of
rock material ( s e e Section 2.3.3).

2.4.3 Discontinuities

(1) Nature a n d Descriptive Method. A discontinuity i s a f r a c t u r e o r

plane of weakness in t h e rock mass across which t h e rock material i s
s t r u c t u r a l l y discontinuous a n d has zero, o r a relatively low, tensile s t r e n g t h .
'Discontinuity' i s a collective t e r m and includes joints, f i s s u r e s , f a u l t s , s h e a r
planes, cleavages, schistocity, bedding planes a n d o t h e r planes of weakness. I t
i s important t h a t discontinuities a r e described carefully a n d precisely, because
t h e y control t h e engineering behaviour of most rock masses.
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Complete descriptions of discontinuities should include information on

t h e i r location and orientation, spacing, persistence, r o u g h n e s s , a p e r t u r e ,
infilling a n d s e e p a g e characteristics. This list i s based on t h e recommenda-
tions given by ISRM (1978). which should b e consulted f o r more detailed
information on all t h e s e a s p e c t s .

Some discontinuities, s u c h a s tectonic joints, usually o c c u r in more t h a n

one direction in a rock mass and often form a number of distinct s e t s . A
general description of a discontinuity s e t can often b e made by combining
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values, o r small r a n g e s of values, for each of t h e a s p e c t s in t h e
above list. Alternatively, s e p a r a t e full description of individual discontinuities
may b e r e q u i r e d if t h e y a r e of particular importance t o t h e engineering
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project. Other t y p e s of discontinuity, s u c h a s faults, t e n d t o occur a s u n i q u e

f e a t u r e s a n d should b e described individually if t h e y a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e
project. Where possible, i t i s desirable t o differentiate between t h e origins of
t h e various t y p e s of discontinuity, because t h e i r engineering properties may b e
related t o t h e i r genesis (e.g. discontinuities formed by tensile forces, s u c h a s
stress-relief joints, may behave differently t o discontinuities formed by s h e a r ,
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s u c h a s slip s u r f a c e s and faults). General information on various t y p e s of
discontinuity in Hong Kong has been given b y B u r n e t t & Lai (1984). Gamon &
Finn (1984a) and Nau (1984).

There a r e two levels a t which a discontinuity s u r v e y may b e c a r r i e d o u t ,

depending on t h e amount of detail r e q u i r e d . I n a s u b j e c t i v e (biased) s u r v e y ,
only t h o s e discontinuities t h a t a p p e a r to b e important t o t h e p r o j e c t a r e
described. In a n objective (random) s u r v e y , all discontinuities t h a t i n t e r s e c t a
fixed line, o r a r e located within a demarcated a r e a of t h e rock face, a r e
described. The main disadvantage with t h e objective approach i s t h a t i t i s
time-consuming a n d tedious. S u b s e q u e n t d a t a analysis may r e q u i r e some form
of automatic d a t a processing t o make t h e analysis efficient. However, if t h e r e
is a n y d o u b t about t h e n a t u r e of t h e discontinuity p a t t e r n , a n d i t s relation t o

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t h e proposed engineering works, an objective s u r v e y should b e c a r r i e d out.

Borehole c o r e s provide essentially one-dimensional d a t a on discontin-

uities. These d a t a may b e seriously biased if joint s e t s a r e oriented s u c h t h a t
unidirectional boreholes t e n d t o miss them (e.g. s u b - v e r t i c a l joints missed by
vertical boreholes). These e r r o r s can be r e d u c e d by drilling in different
directions ( e . g . inclined/horizontal holes) and b y checking regional joint
p a t t e r n s before commencing g r o u n d investigation. Even if borehole d a t a a r e
not seriously biased, c o r e s r a r e l y provide good information on p e r s i s t e n c e ,
infilling and s e e p a g e characteristics. Good field exposures a r e needed for full
description of discontinuities.

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I t i s common practice t o supplement t h e description of discontinuities in
rock c o r e with s e v e r a l quantitative indices relating t o t h e f r a c t u r e s t a t e of t h e
rock mass ( s e e item ( 9 ) in t h i s section).

A useful aid f o r t h e systematic recording of discontinuity d a t a is a

s t a n d a r d d a t a s h e e t . An example i s shown in F i g u r e 1.

( 2 ) Location a n d Orientation. I t is important t o r e c o r d t h e location of

each individual discontinuity described. This is often s t a t e d a s relative
position along a fixed datum line, o r g r o u n d co-ordinates plus elevation in a n
exposure. Information should preferably b e recorded on a map o r plan.

The orientation of a discontinuity i s described by t h e dip direction, t h e

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compass bearing of t h e maximum inclination measured clockwise from t r u e

n o r t h , and b y t h e dip, t h e maximum inclination of t h e discontinuity measured
from horizontal. Dip directions and dips a r e normally measured with a
compass and clinometer, and should b e expressed t o t h e n e a r e s t degree. In
o r d e r t o differentiate clearly between dip direction and dip, t h e dip direction
value should always b e given with t h r e e digits a n d t h e d i p with two digits
(e.g. dip direction/dip 025/60).

Orientation d a t a can b e obtained in v a r i o u s ways. The most common

method is t o measure t h e dip direction a n d dip of discontinuities which
i n t e r s e c t a line drawn across an exposed rock face. Data may also b e obtained
from oriented rock c o r e o r by means of a downhole i n s t r u m e n t s u c h a s t h e
impression packer ( G C O , 1987a).
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The f o u r main methods of p r e s e n t i n g orientation d a t a a r e by map

symbol, p e r s p e c t i v e diagram, joint r o s e t t e a n d spherical projection. Map
symbols a r e shown in Table 23. P e r s p e c t i v e diagrams a r e particularly helpful
f o r u n d e r g r o u n d work, because t h e y can depict t h e relationship between t h e
proposed engineering s t r u c t u r e and t h e rock mass s t r u c t u r e . Joint r o s e t t e s a n d
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spherical projections are commonly used for t h e quantitative presentation and
analysis o f orientation data. Detailed discussion o f all t h e s e methods is
beyond t h e scope o f this Geoguide. The I S R M (1978) report should be referred
t o for f u r t h e r guidance. A clear introduction t o t h e use o f spherical
projections has been given b y Hoek & Bray (1981).
Although stereographic projection analysis i s a popular and powerful
technique, i t can easily be misused i f i t s limitations are not fully appreciated.
(Brand e t al. 1983; Hencher. 1 9 8 5 ) . The project engineer should be aware o f
this when making discontinuity descriptions. Wherever possible, a f u r t h e r
inspection o f t h e rock exposure should be made a f t e r t h e analysis is complete
t o check t h a t t h e results are valid.

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( 3 ) Spacing. Recommended terms for t h e description o f discontinuity
spacing are given i n Table 7 . These terms can be applied t o both rock core
and rock face exposures. They may be used t o describe t h e spacing o f
discontinuities in a single set or for t h e average spacing o f all discontinuities
measured along a t r a v e r s e line.

The description o f discontinuity spacing can be supplemented b y

reference t o t h e shape o f t h e rock blocks bounded b y t h e discontinuities.
Common terms are 'blocky', 'tabular', 'columnar' and 'polyhedral'. These are
defined i n t h e Glossary and are illustrated in Figure 2. The use o f such terms
requires an understanding o f t h e distribution o f discontinuities i n three
dimensions; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y cannot be used in t h e description o f drillcore.

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(4) Persistence. 'Persistence' r e f e r s t o t h e areal extent or size o f a
discontinuity within a plane. I t is one o f t h e most important items in
discontinuity description; unfortunately, however, it is d i f f i c u l t t o quantify
accurately because i t is rarely possible t o see t h e three-dimensional extent o f
a discontinuity. For most practical purposes, persistence can only be assessed
v e r y approximately b y measuring t h e discontinuity trace length on t h e surfaces
o f rock exposures. A discontinuity set o f t e n t e n d s t o have a characteristic
range o f persistence which d i f f e r s from that o f other sets within t h e same
rock mass.
For t h e description o f individual discontinuities, i t i s recommended t h a t
t h e measured maximum persistence dimension should always be used where
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possible. The description should also state whether t h e discontinuity extends

outside t h e exposure, terminates against solid rock, or terminates against other
discontinuities. In t h e case o f general descriptions o f d i f f e r e n t discontinuity
s e t s , relative terms should be used. For example, i n a rock mass with t h r e e
discontinuity s e t s , t h e most persistent set could be described as 'persistent',
t h e intermediate set as 'sub-persistent' and t h e least persistent set as 'non-
persistent'.
( 5 ) Roughness. The 'roughness' o f a discontinuity is made u p o f two
components : large-scale 'waviness' and small-scale 'unevenness' (Figure 3 ) .
'Waviness' r e f e r s t o undulations o f t h e surface o f t h e discontinuity over
distances o f typically t e n s o f metres. 'Unevenness' r e f e r s t o t h e bumps,
asperities and small ridges on t h e surface o f t h e discontinuity over distances
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o f typically one centimetre t o a few metres. Other general terms which are
used quite commonly are 'first-order' roughness for waviness and 'second-
order' roughness for t h e smaller-scale superimposed unevenness.

Roughness may be measured quantitatively b y using linear profiling, a

compass and disc-clinometer or a photogrammetric method. A clear
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introduction t o t h e s e t h r e e methods has been given by ISRM (1978). The most
commonly-used i s t h e compass and disc-clinometer, which involves measuring
discontinuity dip direction a n d dip angles on a s e r i e s of circular plates of
different diameter ( G C O , 1987a). The r e s u l t s a r e usually p r e s e n t e d a n d
analysed stereographically.

For general descriptive p u r p o s e s , waviness should be a s s e s s e d by

estimating dimensions of wave length a n d wave amplitude ( F i g u r e 3 ) . These
could b e single values for a single discontinuity o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c values for a
discontinuity s e t . Unevenness should b e described using two terms, t h e f i r s t
r e f e r r i n g t o l e n g t h s of s e v e r a l centimetres and t h e second t o l e n g t h s of u p t o
several metres. Nine classes of u n e v e n n e s s a r e formed b y combinations of
t h e s e two terms, a s illustrated and defined in Table 8. The term 'slickensided'

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should only b e used if t h e r e i s clear evidence of previous s h e a r displacement
along t h e discontinuity, s u c h a s striations in t h e direction of i n f e r r e d
movement.

The main reason f o r describing discontinuity r o u g h n e s s is t o a s s i s t in

estimating discontinuity s h e a r s t r e n g t h ( G C O . 1987a; Hoek & Bray. 1981; ISRM.
1978). Hencher & Richards (1982) a n d Richards & Cowland (1982) h a v e
described in some detail t h e effect of r o u g h n e s s on t h e field s h e a r s t r e n g t h of
g r a n i t e sheeting joints in Hong Kong. If quantitative measurements a r e not
made, t h e descriptive terms in Table 8, in conjunction with t h e estimation of
waviness, can b e used to make comparative assessments of t h e contribution of
r o u g h n e s s to s h e a r s t r e n g t h . a s discussed by ISRM (1978).

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( 6 ) Aperture. 'Aperture' is t h e perpendicular distance between a d j a c e n t
walls of an open discontinuity, in which t h e i n t e r v e n i n g s p a c e i s filled by a i r
o r water. I t should b e distinguished from t h e width of a n infilled
discontinuity ( s e e item ( 7 ) below). A p e r t u r e s a r e caused by a number of
factors, s u c h a s tensile opening, washing o u t of infilling materials, solution, o r
s h e a r displacement of discontinuities with significant r o u g h n e s s . Description of
a p e r t u r e size i s important because i t has a marked effect on t h e s h e a r
s t r e n g t h and hydraulic conductivity of a discontinuity.

A p e r t u r e size should b e described using t h e terms given in Table 9. If

t h e discontinuity i s closed, with z e r o a p e r t u r e , i t should b e described a s
'tight'. The u s e of t h e s e terms may not provide a reliable indication of t h e
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hydraulic p r o p e r t i e s of discontinuities, particularly where t h e discontinuities

have been d i s t u r b e d by blasting o r s u r f a c e weathering. The influence of
a p e r t u r e on t h e hydraulic properties of t h e rock mass is b e s t a s s e s s e d by
insitu permeability t e s t i n g ( G C O , 1987a).

(7) Infilling. 'Infilling' i s t h e term for t h e material t h a t s e p a r a t e s t h e

a d j a c e n t rock walls of a discontinuity. This term is p r e f e r r e d t o 'filling',
which i s normally used to describe t h e placement of fill materials (see Section
3.7). I t should b e noted, however, t h a t not all infill materials a r e necessarily
t r a n s p o r t e d into t h e discontinuity a t a l a t e r s t a g e ; some can form insitu, e.g.
by t h e action of i n t e n s e weathering along a joint.

Infill materials a r e usually weaker t h a n t h e p a r e n t rock. This i s often

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t h e most important engineering characteristic. Typical infill materials a r e soil.

decomposed o r disintegrated rock, minerals s u c h a s q u a r t z o r calcite (often
termed 'veins'), manganese o r kaolin, o r , in t h e case of faults o r s h e a r zones
along which significant displacement has o c c u r r e d , fault gouge o r breccia ( s e e
Appendix A.7 and t h e Glossary).
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No specific terms a r e recommended f o r t h e description of infill
materials. If t h e materials a r e decomposed/disintegrated r o c k s o r soils, t h e y
should b e d e s c r i b e d i n accordance with Section 2.3 o r 3.3 respectively. If t h e y
a r e specific minerals, t h e mineral t y p e , particle size and s t r e n g t h
(compactness/consistency) should b e described where possible. Whatever t h e
t y p e of material, descriptions of infilling should always include some
information on t h e i r width (ideally maximum, minimum a n d a v e r a g e widths in
mm) a n d seepage a s p e c t s (e.g. a r e t h e materials d r y , damp/wet, do t h e y show
permanent seepage?)

( 8 ) Seepage. Seepage along discontinuities i s often of g r e a t engineering

importance a n d d e s e r v e s v e r y c a r e f u l assessment i n a comprehensive rock mass

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description. Seepage a s p e c t s of unfilled discontinuities should b e described
using one of t h r e e basic terms, viz 'dry', 'damp/wetl ( b u t with no f r e e w a t e r )
a n d 'seepage p r e s e n t ' . For t h e l a s t c a t e g o r y , t h e quantity of water flowing a t
t h e point of observation should b e noted in litres/second o r litres/minute,
e i t h e r by estimation o r approximate measurement. Unless t h e rock mass is
completely d r y , i t is often difficult t o select c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s of seepage
f o r discontinuity s e t s , in which case supplementary description of s e e p a g e
variability within t h e mass should be given. The d a t e of observation should
always b e noted when s e e p a g e i s d e s c r i b e d , s o t h a t t h e s e e p a g e amount can b e
related t o t h e wet and d r y seasons. If possible, s u b s e q u e n t observations
should b e made a t t h e height of t h e wet season and a t t h e e n d of t h e d r y
season in o r d e r t o give a n indication of maximum a n d minimum seepages.

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In most unweathered r o c k s a n d partially weathered r o c k s in t h e
PW90/100 zone (Table 10). t h e flow of water t a k e s place mainly t h r o u g h
discontinuities. Some sedimentary r o c k s may b e exceptions t o t h i s rule,
because a significant proportion of t h e flow can o c c u r t h r o u g h t h e i n t a c t rock
material. In more intensely weathered rock masses ( t h e PW50/90 t o PW0/30
zones in Table l o ) , i t i s much more difficult to give a general indication of
typical g r o u n d w a t e r movement. because t h e rock material weathered t o a soil
may b e a t l e a s t a s permeable a s t h e discontinuity system. Careful observation
of seepage sources in n a t u r a l exposures and excavations can provide valuable
information on t h e hydrogeology of t h e rock mass, particularly when related t o
o t h e r d a t a s o u r c e s s u c h a s piezometric levels measured in boreholes (GCO,
1982). Table of Contents

( 9 ) F r a c t u r e State. A number of indices c a n b e used for q u a n t i t a t i v e

description of t h e f r a c t u r e s t a t e of t h e rock mass a s determined from borehole
cores. These a r e Total Core Recovery, Solid Core Recovery, Rock Quality
Designation and F r a c t u r e Index. These indices should b e used whenever
possible to supplement t h e description of discontinuities in rock core.

Only n a t u r a l geological f r a c t u r e s should b e t a k e n into account f o r t h e

description of f r a c t u r e s t a t e . Artificial f r a c t u r e s produced, for example. by
drilling o r blasting should b e excluded from t h e assessment, although precise
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f r a c t u r e origin may be difficult. A r o u g h s u r f a c e with f r e s h
cleavage planes in individual rock minerals usually indicates an artificial
f r a c t u r e . A generally smooth o r weathered s u r f a c e , o r a s u r f a c e coated with
infill materials s u c h a s calcite o r kaolin, clearly indicates a n a t u r a l
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discontinuity. Additional guidance notes on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f r a c t u r e

origin a r e given by ISRM (1978). In c a s e s of doubt. i t i s customary t o r e g a r d
t h e discontinuity a s natural.

Previous inconsistency in t h e u s e of f r a c t u r e index definitions has led t o

some difficulty in measurement a n d interpretation. The definitions a n d t e r m s
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given below a r e based on t h e recommendations made b y Norbury e t a1 (1984).

'Solid core' i s t h e key t e r m t o b e defined in t h e assessment of f r a c t u r e

state; i t i s r e g a r d e d a s core with a t l e a s t one full diameter ( b u t not
necessarily a full circumference) measured along t h e c o r e axis between two
natural fractures. O n t h e basis of t h i s definition, t h e f o u r quantitative
f r a c t u r e indices a r e illustrated schematically in Figure 4 , a n d a r e defined a s
follows :

Total Core Recovery, TCR (%), i s t h e percentage ratio of

c o r e recovered ( w h e t h e r solid, i n t a c t with no full
diameter, o r non-intact) t o t h e total length of c.ore r u n .

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Solid Core Recovery, SCR (%), i s t h e percentage ratio of
solid c o r e recovered to t h e total length of core r u n .

Rock Quality Designation. R O D (%), i s t h e total l e n g t h of

solid core pieces, each g r e a t e r t h a n 100 mm between
n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s , expressed a s a percentage of t h e total
l e n g t h of c o r e r u n .

F r a c t u r e Index, FI (No./m r u n ) , i s t h e number of clearly

identifiable f r a c t u r e s p e r metre r u n of i n t a c t c o r e pieces,
measured o v e r core l e n g t h s of reasonably uniform
character. This index does not necessarily apply t o

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whole c o r e r u n s . If t h e r e i s a marked c h a n g e i n
f r a c t u r e f r e q u e n c y d u r i n g a c o r e r u n , t h e f r a c t u r e index
should be calculated f o r each p a r t of t h e r u n separately.
The term 'non-intact' (NI) should be used when t h e c o r e
is fragmented. Additional detail can be given by quoting
t h e maximum, mean and minimum length of core pieces
recovered f o r a n y core length of reasonably uniform
character.

I t i s important t o note t h a t measures of f r a c t u r e spacing s u c h as R Q D

and F r a c t u r e Index may b e biased, depending on t h e orientation of t h e
borehole in relation t o t h e dominant discontinuity s e t s . This problem i s
discussed in some detail by Beggs & McNicholl (1986) in relation t o site
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formation works a t Ap Lei Chau, Hong Kong.

2.4.4 Rock Mass Weathering

A section t h r o u g h a weathered rock mass often shows a r a n g e of rock

material a t various s t a g e s of decomposition a n d disintegration. Although t h e
proportion of t h e more intensely weathered rock is generally g r e a t e r close t o
t h e ground s u r f a c e , i t i s unusual t o e n c o u n t e r a weathering profile which
shows a n o r d e r l y progression of successively less weathered l a y e r s , from a
residual soil a t t h e s u r f a c e t o a n unweathered rock mass a t d e p t h .
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To account f o r complex weathering profiles, descriptive schemes f o r rock

mass weathering should b e flexible a n d simple t o apply in t h e field. For
engineering p u r p o s e s , t h e usual method of description is t o identify pre-defined
weathering zones within t h e rock mass. Different zonal classification schemes
may b e a p p r o p r i a t e , depending on t h e n a t u r e of t h e engineering p r o j e c t te.g.
tunnelling, foundation design, slope stability assessment). The scheme
recommended below may r e q u i r e modification (e.g. by subdivision o r
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amalgamation of zones), o r replacement by an alternative scheme. t o s u i t
particular situations.

Rock mass weathering classifications a r e usually established on t h e basis

of differing proportions of rock and soil, t h e p r e s e n c e o r absence of mass
s t r u c t u r e . a n d t h e d e g r e e of discolouration of discontinuity s u r f a c e s . A simple
general scheme based on t h e s e characteristics i s given in Table 10. I t should
b e noted t h a t t h i s zonal classification differs substantially from t h a t
recommended in BS 5930 (BSI, 1981). In o r d e r t o avoid confusion between t h e
two. new self-explanatory zone descriptions a n d symbols a r e used.

The scheme in Table 10 i s based on t h e four-zone scheme originally

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proposed b y Ruxton & Berry (1957). a modified form of which is given in t h e
Geotechnical Manual f o r Slopes ( G C O , 1984). The important differences
between t h e two schemes may be summarised a s follows :

(a) The p r e s e n t scheme ( Table 10) i s expanded t o six zones

because t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a broad c o n s e n s u s of opinion
t h a t a four-zone scheme i s not a d e q u a t e for engineering
purposes. The e x t r a two zones a r e c r e a t e d b y t h e
addition of a n 'unweathered' zone, comprising 100% rock
(which, in f a c t , i s implicit a s a fifth zone in t h e Ruxton
& Berry scheme), and by t h e introduction of a 30% rock
boundary.

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(b) Whereas t h e Ruxton & Berry scheme r e f e r s only t o
geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , some generalised engineering
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e included in Table 10. However, i t i s
emphasised t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e only i n t e n d e d
a s a v e r y approximate guide t o t h e engineering behaviour
of t h e different zones.

(c) Unlike t h e Ruxton & B e r r y scheme, t h e p r e s e n t scheme

i s not i n t e n d e d to r e p r e s e n t an idealised weathering
profile. Rather, i t i s intended t h a t t h e scheme should b e
applied in a flexible s e n s e to s u i t t h e actual distribution
of weathering zones in t h e rock mass. This point i s
illustrated in Figure 5 a n d explained f u r t h e r below.
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The rock p e r c e n t a g e s in Table 10 a r e notionally by volume. In most

cases, however. information on t h e three-dimensional e x t e n t of t h e mass i s
limited, and i t i s usually only possible t o make a r o u g h estimate of t h e s e
percentages.

One of t h e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s of mass weathering in certain r o c k s i s

t h e development of corestones (Ruxton & Berry. 1957; s e e also Plate 6). In
general, t h e c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d , more widely-jointed Hong Kong r o c k s s u c h a s
g r a n i t e a n d lapilli tuff t e n d t o weather with t h e development of corestones.
whereas t h e f i n e r - g r a i n e d , more closely-jointed r o c k s do not. In principle,
Table 10 i s applicable t o all rock t y p e s , b u t in practice i t i s much easier t o
a p p l y in corestone-forming rocks. because t h e d i f f e r e n t proportions of rock
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a n d soil in t h e partially weathered zones can b e recognized more readily i n t h e

field. For t h e non-corestone-forming r o c k s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o make a c a r e f u l
assessment of t h e d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of rock material decomposition before
dividing t h e mass into weathered zones using t h i s scheme. Sometimes, i t may
b e found t h a t t h e rock w e a t h e r s s o uniformly t h a t i t is impossible t o identify
t h e intermediate zones given in Table 10, in particular t h e PW50/90 and
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PW30/50 zones. In s u c h cases, i t may b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o u s e a smaller number
of classes by combining certain zones. Alternatively, u s e of a d i f f e r e n t zonal
classification should b e considered.

I t is often found t h a t some weathering zones a r e a b s e n t , o r a r e p r e s e n t

only t o a v e r y small extent. The distribution of weathering zones can be
determined b y mapping n a t u r a l exposures a n d excavations, b u t t h e s e may not
be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e whole mass. F i g u r e 5 illustrates a n idealised
weathered profile, an example of a complex b u t more realistic profile, a n d a
section t h r o u g h a corestone-forming rock mass showing t h e subdivision of t h e
mass into weathered zones using t h e scheme given in Table 10. Examples of
complex weathered rock mass e x p o s u r e s a r e shown in Plate 7.

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In c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , only small amounts of soil a r e produced d u r i n g
weathering unless t h e rock contains a high p e r c e n t a g e of impurities ( s e e
Section 2.3.4(2)). The partially weathered PW50/90 to PW0/30 zones a r e r a r e l y
developed t o a n y significant thickness. Typically, weathered profiles show a
relatively t h i n l a y e r of residual d e b r i s overlying a n i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e of
unweathered o r partially weathered PW90/100 rock. The contact between t h e
rock and soil i s usually v e r y s h a r p . Karst f e a t u r e s formed by solution along
discontinuities a r e t h e most distinctive a s p e c t s of mass weathering i n c a r b o n a t e
r o c k s a n d a r e often of g r e a t engineering significance a n d concern. Useful
information on t h e description and engineering assessment of weathering
effects in c a r b o n a t e r o c k s is given by Dearman (1981) and Fookes & Hawkins
(1988). The o c c u r r e n c e of cavernous g r o u n d in t h e buried marble a t Yuen

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Long is described by Pascal1 (1987).

When c o r e s in decomposed rock a r e logged, t h e decomposition g r a d e s of

t h e rock material should b e included in t h e description, b u t not t h e rock mass
weathering zones. Zonal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n should not be done a s p a r t of r o u t i n e
core description. A borehole is essentially a line sample t h r o u g h t h e rock
mass. a n d i t may not b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e overall p a t t e r n of mass
weathering. I t is particularly difficult t o c o n s t r u c t a reliable weathering zone
model in corestone-forming r o c k s from borehole evidence alone.

For examples of t h e u s e of specific weathering zone classifications f o r

engineering p r o j e c t s in Hong Kong, r e f e r e n c e should be made t o Gamon & Finn
(1984b) f o r a s s e s s m e n t of l a r g e excavations in g r a n i t e a t Kornhill, I r f a n &
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Powell (1985a) for foundation assessment in granodiorite a t Tai Po, a n d

Watkins (1979) f o r tunnelling a n d dam foundation s t u d i e s in various igneous
and volcanic r o c k s in t h e e a s t e r n New Territories.

2.4.5 Additional Information

Any additional information t h a t will a s s i s t t h e e n g i n e e r in u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h e n a t u r e of t h e rock mass should b e recorded. An example i s t h e possible
o c c u r r e n c e of voids in c a r b o n a t e r o c k s s u c h a s limestone a n d marble. If
discovered. t h e geometry of a n y voids should b e described w h e r e possible, a s
well a s t h e i r relationship t o discontinuities in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g rock mass and
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a n y s i g n s of g r o u n d w a t e r o r seepage.

Special note should b e made if a n y of t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s described

a r e considered t o b e unusual in relation t o t h e r e s t of t h e mass description.
I t is particularly important t o indicate w h e t h e r t h e sample of t h e rock mass
described is considered to b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e whole mass which i s
r e l e v a n t to t h e engineering project. The limitations i n h e r e n t in making mass
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d e s c r i p t i o n s from small isolated e x p o s u r e s , o r from borehole e v i d e n c e alone,
should always b e k e p t i n mind. A considerable d e g r e e of professional
j u d g e m e n t a n d commonsense i s r e q u i r e d . The e n g i n e e r should assess t h e
validity of t h e geotechnical model u s e d in t h e d e s i g n a s e n g i n e e r i n g w o r k s
proceed a n d f u r t h e r e x p o s u r e s become available. If v a r i a b l e g r o u n d conditions
a r e e n c o u n t e r e d , rock mass d e s c r i p t i o n s should b e r e v i s e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
where necessary.

2.4.6 Examples

Two examples of rock mass d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e given f o r g u i d a n c e in t h e

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u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e d e s c r i p t i v e terms. The r o c k s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e
d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Plate 8.

(a) Plate 8A. (Pyroclastic Rock Mass). The mass i s s p l i t

i n t o two b a s i c u n i t s f o r description :

(i) Unit 1 : Very s t r o n g . g r e e n i s h g r e y ,

massive, partially w e a t h e r e d PW90/100,
c o a r s e a s h TUFF, with t h r e e major joint
sets : ( a ) 010/87, medium-spaced.
p e r s i s t e n t , smooth a n d s t e p p e d , t i g h t .
d r y ; ( b ) 120/35, v e r y closely-spaced, s u b -
p e r s i s t e n t , smooth a n d planar, extremely

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n a r r o w , generally d r y b u t with s e v e r a l
minor s e e p a g e points of < 1 litre/rnin in
w e s t e r n lower half of face; (c) 345/60,
closely-spaced, n o n - p e r s i s t e n t , smooth
and planar, tight, d r y .

(ii) Unit 2 : Weak, r e d d i s h brown. partially

w e a t h e r e d PW0/30, c o a r s e a s h TUFF.

Unit 2 overlies Unit 1. The b o u n d a r y i s s h a r p a n d d i p s

a t approximately 30•‹ t o t h e w e s t a c r o s s t h e excavation
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(b) Plate 89. ( I g n e o u s Rock Mass). The l e n g t h of c o r e from

23.73 t o 27.05 m i s s p l i t i n t o two u n i t s on t h e basis of
d i f f e r i n g g r a i n size a n d f r a c t u r e f r e q u e n c y :

(i) Unit 1 (23.73 to 26.26 m) : Very s t r o n g ,

g r e y mottled with pink a n d d a r k brown.
slightly decomposed, medium-grained
GRANITE. with widely-spaced, r o u g h a n d
u n d u l a t i n g , brown-stained joints dipping
0 t o 10". TCR 100%. SCR 100%. R Q D
100%. FI 1.2.
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(ii) Unit 2 (26.26 t o 27.05 rn) : Very s t r o n g .

l i g h t g r e y i s h pink, slightly decomposed.
f i n e - g r a i n e d GRANITE, with closely- t o
medium-spaced, generally r o u g h a n d
s t e p p e d b u t also smooth a n d p l a n a r (one
s u b v e r t i c a l j o i n t ) , brown-stained joints
dipping 0 to loo, 40" a n d 85".
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TCR 100%. SCR 55%. R Q D 44%. FI 7.6.

The core was wet when described.

(Note : Since only a v e r y small portion of t h e mass i s

exposed in t h e core, t h e description is made essentially
in terms of rock material characteristics, plus
information on discontinuities.)

2.5 ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Once t h e material and mass characteristics of t h e rock h a v e been

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described, t h e final item in a complete rock description should b e t h e name of
t h e geological formation from which t h e sample rock material o r mass h a s been
selected. A guide to t h e name of t h e geological formation i s given in t h e
maps a n d memoirs produced b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y . The name
should b e written with capital initial l e t t e r s (e.g. Ap Lei Chau Formation).
The geological formation should be named where t h i s can be done with
confidence, b u t i t i s often difficult t o identify a formation name from a small
sample, o r to locate formation boundaries in a borehole o r exposure; c o n j e c t u r e
should b e avoided.

The principal rock t y p e s associated with a specific formation a r e often

indicated on t h e geological map, b u t i t should be remembered t h a t , a t a

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particular location o r horizon, t h e actual rock t y p e may b e completely
different from t h a t indicated u n d e r t h e heading of principal rock t y p e .
Geological formations may be quite variable in t h e i r r a n g e of rock t y p e s , and a
knowledge of t h e formation will often indicate t h e possible r a n g e of r o c k s t o
b e expected. For example, t h e Shing Mun Formation of t h e Repulse Bay
Volcanic Group is a complex formation t h a t contains lapilli, coarse a s h a n d
fine a s h t u f f s , t u f f i t e s a n d a r a n g e of sedimentary rocks from conglomerate t o
mudstone. The e n g i n e e r should r e f e r t o t h e HKGS maps a n d memoirs f o r
guidance, o r consult a geologist for assistance where necessary.

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3. DESCRIPTION OF SOILS

3.1 GENERAL
The recommendations in t h i s chapter are generally applicable t o all t y p e s
o f superficial deposits. including fill. Some o f t h e recommendations are also
applicable t o soils derived from t h e insitu weathering o f r o c k s . In view o f
their importance for engineering in Hong Kong, soils derived from insitu rock
weathering, colluvium, and fill are considered i n greater detail u n d e r separate
sections ( s e e Sections 3.5 t o 3 . 7 ) . These sections follow t h e recommendations
for a general descriptive method for soils given in Sections 3.2 t o 3.4.

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3.2 P U R P O S E AND S C O P E O F S O I L D E S C R I P T I O N

The main purpose o f a soil description for engineering purposes is t o

give an indication o f t h e likely engineering properties o f t h e soil. In t h i s
sense, soil descriptions i n principle can be made using t h e same approach
adopted for rock descriptions in Chapter 2 , b u t t h e r e is one important
d i f f e r e n c e . Unlike r o c k s , most soils can b e easily disturbed during excavation,
sampling or t e s t i n g , and t h i s may have a marked e f f e c t on engineering
properties. Soil descriptions should include a note on t h e degree o f sample
disturbance, where t h i s is considered t o be important. The degree o f
disturbance ranges from t h e completely u n d i s t u r b e d , insitu field condition t o

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t h e fully disturbed, remoulded condition o f a sample t h a t has been completely
broken down into i t s constituent grains. Further information and guidance on
sampling methods i n relation t o soil disturbance is given in Geoguide 2 : Guide
t o Site Investigation ( G C O , 1987a).

Soil descriptions can be made directly from field exposures and

excavations or from samples recovered from boreholes or excavations. In t h e
following sections, "material characteristics o f soils" r e f e r s t o those
characteristics t h a t can be described from visual and manual examination o f
relatively small volumes o f soil in either disturbed or undisturbed samples.
"Mass characteristics o f soils" r e f e r s t o characteristics t h a t can only be
described satisfactorily i f t h e original soil s t r u c t u r e remains intact, i.e. t h e y
can be observed only in t h e field or t o some extent i n a large undisturbed
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sample. Additional geological information, s u c h as t h e geological formation.

age and t y p e o f deposit, should also be included in t h e description whenever
possible, b u t t h e s e aspects may not be readily determined without a detailed
geological s t u d y o f t h e area around a site.
In a soil description, t h e main characteristics should be given in t h e
following order :
(a) s t r e n g t h , i.e. compactness or consistency (material),
( b ) colour (material),
(c) particle shape and composition (material),
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(dl structure (mass).

( e ) state o f weathering ( m a s s ) ,
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(f) soil name (in capitals, e.g. SAND), grading
a n d plasticity (material),

(g) discontinuities (mass), a n d

(h) additional geological information.

In t h e following sections, t h e material characteristics in t h i s s e q u e n c e

a r e considered in Section 3.3 a n d t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in Section 3.4. The
scope of t h i s scheme i s similar t o t h e schemes recommended b y BSI (1981) a n d
IAEG (1981), b u t t h e layout of t h e s e two sections, and t h e o r d e r in which
individual characteristics a r e considered, have been modified t o conform a s
closely a s possible t o t h e scheme used f o r rock description in Chapter 2.

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I t should be noted t h a t t h e term ' s t r u c t u r e ' a s used in t h i s c h a p t e r
r e f e r s t o m r n s t r u c t u r e , i.e. s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of a soil mass which can b e
identified by t h e naked eye. The description of soil -structure is
considered in Section 3.4.4.

The recommended scheme for t h e rapid identification a n d description of

soils i s summarised in Table 11. Each main item in t h i s Table is discussed in
f u r t h e r detail in t h e following text sections.

In addition t o description, i t may be useful in some circumstances t o

make an overall classification of soils f o r engineering purposes. Guidance on

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soil classification is given in Chapter 4.

3.3 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

3.3.1 Strength

The s t r e n g t h of a soil may b e altered significantly by d i s t u r b a n c e o r

remoulding d u r i n g sampling and t e s t i n g . S t r e n g t h should t h e r e f o r e b e
described in t h e u n d i s t u r b e d field condition whenever possible; alternatively,
t h e highest-quality, least d i s t u r b e d sample should be used.

The s t r e n g t h of cohesive soils i s noticeably affected by moisture

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content. In Hong Kong, t h i s i s particularly t h e c a s e f o r soils in t h e

u n s a t u r a t e d zone above t h e water table, where significant s h o r t - t e r m a n d
seasonal fluctuations in moisture content can occur. S t r e n g t h descriptions of
cohesive soils should t h e r e f o r e include a n indication of t h e moisture condition.
For example. possible moisture condition classes could b e ' d r y ' , 'moist', 'wet',
etc. Any classes used should b e defined in terms of simple field recognition
c r i t e r i a for particular soils, and should be related t o laboratory-measured
moisture c o n t e n t s where possible. A s a general r u l e , soil s t r e n g t h in t h e field
should b e described a t t h e n a t u r a l field moisture content, a n d a n y samples
t a k e n should be k e p t a t t h a t same moisture content. Guidance on t h e handling
a n d s t o r a g e of samples i s given in Geoguide 2 ( G C O , 1987a).

The recommended qualitative scales for s t r e n g t h assessment a r e given in

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Table 11. The s t r e n g t h of coarse and v e r y coarse soils ( s a n d s , gravels, cobbles

a n d boulders) is described in terms of compactness o r relative density (e.g.
'loose' o r 'dense'). The s t r e n g t h of fine soils i s described in terms of
consistency (e.g. 'soft', 'firm', 'stiff', e t c ) . Equivalent quantitative scales of
s t r e n g t h for t h e s e two g r o u p s of soils a r e given in Table 12. Compactness and
consistency terms cannot be applied easily t o o r g a n i c soils, which should b e
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described a s 'compact', 'spongy' o r 'plastic' (Table 11).

The compactness terms f o r s a n d s a n d g r a v e l s in Table 12 a r e based on N

values measured in boreholes by t h e S t a n d a r d Penetration Test ( B S I , 1975).
This scale is recommended for u s e only in t r a n s p o r t e d soils. There is no
generally accepted classification of N values a n d density terms f o r soils
derived from insitu rock weathering in Hong Kong; f o r descriptive purposes,
a n y measured N values in t h e s e soils should be recorded directly. When used
f o r design p u r p o s e s , a correction f a c t o r i s often applied t o N values to
account f o r o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e , e n e r g y dissipation in t h e drill r o d s , a n d t h e
effect of low permeability in fine s a n d s and silty s a n d s (Rodin e t al, 1974;
Skempton, 1986). If t h e descriptive terms a r e based on c o r r e c t e d N values.

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t h i s should b e noted.

The consistency terms f o r fine soils in Table 12 a r e based on values of

undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h . For descriptive p u r p o s e s , a r a p i d approximate value
of undrained s h e a r s t r e n g t h can be obtained by using a small laboratory s h e a r
v a n e o r hand penetrometer (Head, 1980).

The p r e s e n c e of a mineral cement in t h e soil may have a significant

effect on t h e soil s t r e n g t h . Very few s t u d i e s have been c a r r i e d o u t on
cementation in Hong Kong soils, b u t i t a p p e a r s t h a t colluvial matrix material
(Ruxton, 1986) and fine-grained marine soils (Howat. 1984; Tovey. 1986a; Yim &
Li, 1983) can have relatively high s t r e n g t h a n d stiffness d u e t o t h e p r e s e n c e
of iron oxide, and possibly o t h e r , cementing a g e n t s . The p r e s e n c e of iron

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oxides in t h e soil i s often indicated b y a distinctive brown o r r e d d i s h brown
colouration. If a mineral cement a p p e a r s to b e p r e s e n t , i t i s useful t o note
whether slaking o c c u r s on immersion of a non-saturated sample in water.
Non-cemented soils usually slake in water.

3.3.2 Colour

I t i s recommended t h a t soil colours should be described according t o t h e

scheme given for r o c k s in Table 3 . This scheme i s also summarised in Table
11. A s with r o c k s , i t should be s t a t e d if t h e soil was wet o r d r y when
described, because t h i s can have a marked influence on t h e colour description.
(Note t h a t t h e moisture condition may already have been recorded in t h e
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description of s t r e n g t h ; s e e Section 3.3.1).

Sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r remoulding may d e s t r o y some of t h e original soil

colouring. Therefore, soil colours should be described in t h e u n d i s t u r b e d field
condition whenever possible. Bedding planes, relict joints and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l
f e a t u r e s often show a distinctive colour c h a n g e when compared with t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g soil matrix, a n d this should be noted where applicable.

3.3.3 Particle Shape and Composition

Particle s h a p e may be described b y r e f e r e n c e to t h e three-dimensional

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form of t h e particles, t h e i r angularity (which indicates t h e d e g r e e of rounding

a t e d g e s and c o r n e r s ) a n d t h e i r s u r f a c e texture. In general, simple visual
assessment of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s a d e q u a t e f o r routine descriptions. b u t
more precise measurements may b e r e q u i r e d in some cases (e.g. assessment of
g r a n u l a r soils a s potential sources of a g g r e g a t e , detailed assessment of
sedimentary t e x t u r e a n d fabric, etc).
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Common terms f o r simple description of form and angularity a r e illus-
t r a t e d in Tables 13 a n d 14. For a more r i g o r o u s description of s h a p e c h a r a c t -
eristics, form and a n g u l a r i t y may be quantified by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e axial ratios
of t h e particle diameters and t h e radii of c u r v a t u r e of t h e particle c o r n e r s in
t h e projected plane. A quantitative classification of particle form i s shown in
Figure 6. A quantitative measure of particle r o u n d n e s s i s given by :

where r i s t h e r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of a c o r n e r of t h e particle s u r f a c e , R is t h e
r a d i u s of t h e maximum inscribed circle in t h e projected plane and N i s t h e
number of c o r n e r s . A s r o u n d n e s s i n c r e a s e s , r approaches R and P approaches

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one.

Common terms used to describe t h e s u r f a c e t e x t u r e of particles a r e

'smooth', 'rough', 'glassy', 'honeycombed', 'pitted' a n d 'striated' ( s e e Glossary).

The composition of particles visible to t h e naked e y e o r u n d e r a hand

l e n s may also b e described. Gravel a n d l a r g e r particles a r e usually rock
fragments (e.g. g r a n i t e , t u f f , s c h i s t ) . Sand a n d f i n e r particles a r e generally
individual mineral g r a i n s (e.g. q u a r t z , mica, f e l d s p a r ) . Gravel a n d s a n d
particles may b e coated with specific minerals, s u c h a s limonite a n d o t h e r iron
oxides, manganese o r calcite. Soils containing an appreciable proportion of
shells may also b e described a s 'shelly' ( s e e also Section 3.4.1).

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3.3.4 Soil Name

( 1 ) General Aspects. The basic soil t y p e s a n d t h e i r sub-divisions a r e

shown in Table 11. The soil name i s based on particle size distribution and
plasticity properties. These characteristics a r e used because t h e y can b e
estimated with sufficient a c c u r a c y f o r descriptive p u r p o s e s , a n d can be
measured with reasonable precision if r e q u i r e d . They give a general indication
of t h e probable engineering characteristics of t h e soil a t a n y particular
moisture content. Table 11 provides guidance essentially f o r t h e rapid
identification of t h e soil t y p e by hand a n d e y e in t h e field o r in t h e
laboratory. If n e c e s s a r y , t h e soil t y p e can b e confirmed by determining t h e
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particle size distribution and plasticity properties from laboratory t e s t s (BSI,

1975).

Because of t h e s u b j e c t i v e n a t u r e of t h e rapid identification procedure, i t

i s often found t h a t t h e initial description of soil t y p e i s not c o n s i s t e n t with
t h e r e s u l t s of laboratory g r a d i n g a n d plasticity t e s t s . In s u c h cases, i t i s good
practice t o r e v i s e t h e soil name in line with t h e laboratory t e s t data, b u t t h e
original description should still b e p r e s e r v e d a s a record of t h e o b s e r v e r ' s
opinion. A note should always b e a d d e d t o t h e description if t h e soil name
has been modified on t h e basis of laboratory t e s t s .

Table 11 i s a slightly modified and r e a r r a n g e d form of t h e version given

b y BSI (1981) . This method of naming and identifying basic soil t y p e s has
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been criticised in some detail by Child (1984) and Norbury e t a1 (1984). They
proposed an a l t e r n a t i v e method which i s based more on t h e probable mass
engineering behaviour of t h e soil (following t h e scheme used in CP 2001 (BSI,
1957)), r a t h e r t h a n on s t r i c t grading limits a s in t h e p r e s e n t scheme.
However, t h e u s e of t h i s alternative method d e p e n d s more on t h e judgement of
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t h e individual who makes t h e description. The scheme outlined in Table 11 i s
considered to b e easier f o r t h e non-specialist t o apply a n d i s t h e r e f o r e
recommended.

In addition t o identification of t h e soil name, g r a d i n g and plasticity

characteristics can also b e used t o make a n engineering classification of soils.
This i s considered f u r t h e r in Chapter 4.

(2) Particle Size Distribution. From Table 1 1, i t can b e s e e n t h a t ,

where a soil (excluding a n y boulders o r cobbles) contains a b o u t 35% o r more of
fine material, i t i s described a s a 'silt' o r 'clay' (fine soil). With l e s s t h a n
35% of fine material, i t i s described a s a 'gravel' o r 'sand' (coarse soil). In

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t h e field, o r when laboratory descriptions a r e made in advance of g r a d i n g
t e s t s , t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s can only b e estimated. If a c c u r a t e determination i s
r e q u i r e d , laboratory t e s t s a r e necessary. The gravel, s a n d and silt particle
size r a n g e s can b e f u r t h e r subdivided into coarse, medium a n d fine particles
(Table 11). The g r a d i n g of s a n d s and g r a v e l s may b e qualified a s 'well-graded'
o r 'poorly-graded'; poorly-graded materials may be divided f u r t h e r into
'uniform' a n d 'gap-graded' a s defined in Table 11. Terms s u c h a s well- o r
poorly-graded a r e used h e r e in t h e engineering s e n s e and a r e t h e r e v e r s e of
t h e s o r t i n g terms used in t h e geological s e n s e . For example, a soil t h a t
comprises a wide r a n g e of particle sizes is a well-graded soil t o a n e n g i n e e r ,
b u t a poorly-sorted soil t o a geologist.

The broad basis f o r t h e description of composite soils (i.e. mixtures of

basic soil t y p e s ) i s also given in Table 11.
t h e percentage of s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s
name. These t e r m s r e f e r only t o mixtures
o r clay with a g r a v e l o r s a n d ) .
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The terms a r e defined according to
and a r e prefixed t o t h e main soil
of two basic soil t y p e s (e.g. a silt

Since t h e coarse fraction in a composite soil can itself be divided into

approximate proportions of s a n d a n d g r a v e l by estimation, i t i s possible t o
describe more complex soil mixtures in terms of t h r e e basic soil t y p e s . o r more
t h a n t h r e e if t h e soil also contains v e r y coarse material (cobbles and boulders).
The full explanation of t h e u s e of s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s f o r describing
composite soils is given in Tables 15 a n d 16. Both tables include examples t o
illustrate t h e a p p r o p r i a t e u s e a n d s e q u e n c e of terms. Table of Contents

I t should b e noted t h a t no guidance is given for t h e simultaneous

description of silt a n d clay where both a r e p r e s e n t in a fine soil o r in a
composite soil. Terms s u c h a s 'silty clay' o r ' v e r y clayey silt' can only b e
used satisfactorily a f t e r determination of grading a n d plasticity properties by
laboratory t e s t s (Norbury e t al. 1984). For r a p i d descriptions, one of t h e
names should b e used if t h e fine fraction a p p e a r s to be dominated by e i t h e r
silt o r clay. Where no distinction can be made between silt a n d clay, both
names should b e u s e d , s e p a r a t e d b y a s t r o k e . This method can be applied t o
t h e fine fraction a s e i t h e r t h e principal o r s e c o n d a r y c o n s t i t u e n t (e.g. ' v e r y
silty/clayey SAND'. 'slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY'). The term 'FINE SOIL' may
also b e used a s t h e name of t h e principal c o n s t i t u e n t when i t i s not possible
to distinguish between silt and clay.
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The recommended method of naming v e r y coarse (boulder a n d cobble

size) soils, a n d soils comprising mixtures of v e r y coarse a n d f i n e r ( g r a v e l to
clay size) material. i s given in Table 16. Usually, t h e s e soils can only b e
described satisfactorily in excavations o r exposures. I t i s often useful to
record t h e rock t y p e of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t boulders o r cobbles (Table 5), because
t h i s may help in c o n s t r u c t i n g a geological model of t h e site. F u r t h e r guidance
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on t h e description of colluvial soils containing v e r y coarse material i s given i n
Section 3.6.

Organic soils may often b e recognized by t h e p r e s e n c e of plant remains.

Soils t h a t consist predominantly of plant remains, e i t h e r fibrous, o r pseudo-
fibrous o r amorphous, may b e described a s 'peat'.

A rapid assessment of particle size distribution has to be made on t h e

basis of t h e a p p e a r a n c e a n d 'feel' of t h e soil sample. I t i s relatively e a s y t o
distinguish between g r a v e l s a n d s a n d s , o r between gravelly a n d s a n d y fine
soils, b e c a u s e t h e particle size which s e p a r a t e s g r a v e l and s a n d (2 mm) i s
easily visible. Particles of 2 mm size a r e about t h e l a r g e s t t h a t will cling

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t o g e t h e r when moist owing t o t h e capillary attraction of water. Well-graded
a n d poorly-graded materials can also b e distinguished by visual inspection,
although t h i s i s more difficult for s a n d t h a n f o r gravel. I t is less e a s y t o
distinguish between s a n d and silt. Material of 0.06 mm size feels h a r s h b u t
not g r i t t y when r u b b e d between t h e f i n g e r s , a n d t h e particles a r e a t t h e limit
of visibility with t h e naked eye. Finer p u r e silt-sized material feels smooth t o
t h e touch. The 'feel' of a fine soil can also b e used t o make a v e r y
approximate distinction between silt a n d clay. Silt feels slightly g r i t t y when
r u b b e d on t h e t e e t h whereas clay feels g r e a s y ( t h i s simple t e s t should only b e
c a r r i e d o u t on non-organic samples, for health r e a s o n s ) . A r a p i d assessment of
plasticity usually provides a more reliable means of distinguishing silt from
clay ( s e e item (3) below).

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( 3 ) Plasticity. As shown in Table 11, clay a n d silt, both alone a n d in
mixtures with c o a r s e r material, may be classified f o r descriptive p u r p o s e s i n t o
t h r e e g r o u p s , viz non-plastic o r low plasticity (generally silts), intermediate
plasticity (lean clays), a n d high plasticity ( f a t clays). For rapid description in
t h e field o r in t h e laboratory, t h e s e classes may b e estimated on t h e basis of
visual identification a n d hand t e s t s , which a r e summarised in Table 11 a n d a r e
discussed in more detail below. A more a c c u r a t e description of plasticity can
also be made on t h e basis of laboratory determination of t h e liquid limit (BSI.
1975) a n d t h e extended classification scale given in Table 17.

The rapid method i s based on t h e general assessment of cohesion a n d

plasticity in coarse soils which contain a significant fine fraction. I n fine
soils, t h e method i s based on t h e assessment of d r y s t r e n g t h , t o u g h n e s s a n d
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dilatancy.

In o r d e r t o examine c o a r s e soils f o r cohesion a n d plasticity, a sample

should f i r s t be loosened if n e c e s s a r y , for example by c r u s h i n g with t h e foot o r
a hammer. A handful of t h e material should t h e n b e moulded a n d p r e s s e d
t o g e t h e r in t h e hands. I t may b e n e c e s s a r y t o a d d water and t o pick o u t t h e
l a r g e r pieces of gravel. A soil shows cohesion when, a t a suitable moisture
c o n t e n t , i t s particles stick t o g e t h e r t o give a relatively firm mass. A soil
shows plasticity when, a t a suitable moisture c o n t e n t , i t can b e deformed
without r u p t u r e , i.e. without losing cohesion. A firm cohesive piece of soil
which deforms readily without r u p t u r e will generally contain a significant
proportion of clay. Conversely, a soil which loses cohesion quickly and
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crumbles quickly when deformed will t e n d t o have a high proportion of silt in

t h e fine fraction.

Notes on d r y s t r e n g t h of silts a n d clays a r e included in Table 11.

'Toughness' of a fine soil r e f e r s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r of a t h r e a d of moist soil
rolled on t h e palm of t h e hand, moulded t o g e t h e r , a n d rolled again until i t has
d r i e d sufficiently t o break a t a diameter of a b o u t 3 mm, a s in t h e plastic limit
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t e s t (BSI. 1975). In t h i s condition, inorganic clays of high plasticity a r e fairly
stiff a n d tough. t h o s e of low plasticity a r e s o f t e r a n d more crumbly.
Inorganic silts give a weak a n d often s o f t t h r e a d t h a t b r e a k s u p , crumbles
readily, a n d may b e difficult t o form.

In t h e dilatancy t e s t , a small piece of soil moistened t o b e soft, b u t not

sticky, i s held on t h e open horizontal palm of t h e hand. The side of t h e hand
i s t h e n j a r r e d a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r hand s e v e r a l times. Dilatancy i s shown by t h e
appearance of a s h i n y film of water on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e soil; when t h e soil
i s squeezed o r p r e s s e d with t h e fingers. t h e s u r f a c e dulls a s t h e soil stiffens
a n d finally crumbles. These reactions a r e marked only f o r predominantly silt-
sized material and v e r y fine s a n d , a n d will generally indicate t h e p r e s e n c e of

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t h e s e materials.

F u r t h e r u s e f u l guidance on t h e rapid description of plasticity with

r e f e r e n c e t o d r y s t r e n g t h , t o u g h n e s s a n d dilatancy i s given by ASTM (1985a).

In organic soils. small quantities of d i s p e r s e d organic matter can produce

a distinctive o d o u r a n d a d a r k g r e y , d a r k brown o r d a r k bluish g r e y colour.
With l a r g e r quantities of o r g a n i c matter, fine soils usually h a v e high, v e r y high
o r extremely high liquid limits, sometimes extending u p t o s e v e r a l h u n d r e d p e r
c e n t , b u t t h e s e values may d r o p significantly if t h e soil i s air-dried. Close t o
t h e plastic limit, o r g a n i c soils and p e a t have a v e r y weak, s p o n g y o r fibrous
t h r e a d , which may b e difficult t o form a t all, a n d t h e i r lumps crumble readily.

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3.3.5 Additional Information

Any additional information on t h e s t r e n g t h . colour, composition, g r a d i n g

a n d plasticity of t h e soil t h a t would be of value in a s s e s s i n g i t s n a t u r e a n d
engineering p r o p e r t i e s should b e recorded. Special note should be made if a n y
of t h e descriptive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e material a r e considered t o b e u n u s u a l
in relation t o t h e r e s t of i t s description. I t should be indicated if t h e r e i s
d o u b t a s t o w h e t h e r t h e sample described i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e material
from which i t was sampled, d u e , f o r instance. to t h e f r a c t u r e of particles o r
loss of fines d u r i n g sampling, o r t o t h e sample size o r borehole diameter being
too small in relation to t h e grading of t h e material being sampled. Some
information should also b e given on t h e d e g r e e of d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e sample if
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t h i s i s considered t o b e important (e.g. in relation to description of s t r e n g t h

a n d colour).

3.4 MASS CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

3.4.1 Structure

The important t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e in soils a r e bedding in superficial

deposits, a n d relict rock s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e Plate 5 ) and discontinuities in soils
derived from insitu rock weathering.
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General c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t should b e considered in t h e description of

bedding include t h e t y p e of bedding, a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e b e d s , a n d t h e spacing
between bedding planes. Other characteristics t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t specifically t o
individual bedding planes, s u c h a s orientation, s u r f a c e t e x t u r e , o p e n n e s s , e t c ,
a r e considered in Section 3.4.2.

Common t y p e s of bedding a r e illustrated in Figure 7 and a r e defined in

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t h e Glossary. In Hong Kong soils, t h e o c c u r r e n c e of bedding i s usually limited
t o alluvial a n d marine deposits.

The a r r a n g e m e n t of b e d s may b e described b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e g r e e of

stratification and t h e spacing of t h e s t r a t a . 'Interstratified' deposits a r e t h o s e
i n which t h e r e a r e l a y e r s of different t y p e s of material. which may b e of
c o n s t a n t t h i c k n e s s , o r may t h i n o u t locally o r o c c u r a s lenses. If b e d s of
alternating soil t y p e s a r e too t h i n t o b e described individually, t h e soil may b e
described a s ' i n t e r b e d d e d ' (e.g. 'SAND with i n t e r b e d d e d CLAY'), t h e f i r s t soil
t y p e mentioned being dominant; o r a s 'interlaminated' (e.g. 'thinly i n t e r -
laminated SILT a n d CLAY'). 'Partings' a r e bedding s u r f a c e s t h a t s e p a r a t e
easily. e.g. a thin l a y e r of silt in more cohesive material. The n a t u r e of a n y

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p a r t i n g material should b e noted. Where two o r more soil t y p e s a r e p r e s e n t in
a deposit, a r r a n g e d in an i r r e g u l a r manner, t h e soils may be described a s
'intermixed' (e.g. 'SAND intermixed with CLAY'). Thick b e d s which consist
essentially of one soil t y p e a n d show no significant variation in material can
b e described a s 'homogeneous'.

Apart from variation in basic soil t y p e s , bedding f e a t u r e s can also b e

identified by o t h e r sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s shell b a n d s and root holes.
Knowledge of shell t y p e s a n d density within a bed may a s s i s t in s t r a t i g r a p h i c
correlations. Dominant shell t y p e s should b e noted ( b y c o r r e c t scientific
name), s k e t c h e d o r photographed ( S t r a n g e & Shaw, 1986; Wang & Yim, 1985;
Whiteside. 1983).

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Multiple sequences of deposition involving combinations of marine a n d
alluvial soils have been identified in Hong Kong (Liu & Gammon, 1983; Yim,
1983). A b r u p t c h a n g e s in bedding characteristics may occur in s u c h sequences.
F u r t h e r general information on bedding characteristics a n d t h e depositional
environment of local alluvial a n d marine soils i s given by Dutton (1984), Holt
(1962) a n d Lumb (1977).

Two o t h e r general s t r u c t u r a l terms commonly applied to sedimentary

soils a r e 'fissured', if t h e soil i s cracked o r fragmented, and 'intact' if no
f i s s u r e s a r e p r e s e n t . F i s s u r e s a r e most common in fine-grained marine a n d
alluvial soils, particularly where t h e s e soils have been exposed t o a i r d r y i n g .
Organic soils a r e commonly described a s 'fibrous' o r 'amorphous' (Table 11). Table of Contents

The spacing of bedding planes, f i s s u r e s , shell b a n d s a n d o t h e r

sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s should b e described using t h e terms given f o r planar
s t r u c t u r e s a n d discontinuities in Tables 6 a n d 7, a s summarised in Table 11.

Apart from sedimentary soils, planar s t r u c t u r e s may also be visible in

soils derived from insitu rock weathering. They should be described in
accordance with t h e terms defined in Section 2.4.2 and Table 6.

3.4.2 Discontinuities

As discussed f o r r o c k s in Section 2.4.1, detailed description of soil

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s t r u c t u r e (in i t s b r o a d e s t s e n s e ) should include a full account of individual

discontinuities. in addition t o t h e g e n e r a l description of planar s t r u c t u r e s
outlined in t h e previous section. The discussion in Section 2.4.1 of t h e
variable u s e of t h e term ' s t r u c t u r e ' f o r rock descriptions applies equally well
t o soils.

Soil discontinuities a r e individual bedding planes, lamination planes and

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f i s s u r e s in t r a n s p o r t e d soils, a n d relict joints in soils derived from insitu rock
weathering. Faults and s h e a r planes may also occur in both t y p e s of soil b u t
a r e generally much less common.

If a full description of discontinuities in a soil mass i s r e q u i r e d , t h e

same p r o c e d u r e s a n d terms given for rock discontinuity description in Section
2.4.3 should b e u s e d . However, with r e g a r d t o s t r e n g t h , deformation,
permeability a n d o t h e r engineering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e influence of discon-
tinuities on mass behaviour i s generally much less marked in a soil mass t h a n
in a rock mass. Therefore, a full description of soil discontinuities may only
be r e q u i r e d in particular circumstances (e.g. discontinuities which control slope
stability ) .

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F u r t h e r information on t h e description a n d engineering a s s e s s m e n t of
discontinuities in some Hong Kong soils i s given by Harris (1985). Hunt (1982)
a n d Koo (1982a, 1982b).

3.4.3 State of Weathering

A clear distinction must be made between t h e weathering of superficial

deposits (i.e. t r a n s p o r t e d soils) a n d t h e weathering of r o c k s insitu which has
led to t h e formation of engineering soils ( s e e Sections 2.2.4 a n d 2.3.4).
Description of soils derived from insitu rock weathering i s considered f u r t h e r
in Section 3.5. This section is concerned only with t h e description of

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weathering in t r a n s p o r t e d soils.

I t i s highly likely t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils in Hong Kong a r e generally

much y o u n g e r t h a n t h e soils derived from insitu rock weathering (Bennett,
1984a). Also, t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils, unlike t h e igneous and pyroclastic r o c k s ,
have not formed u n d e r conditions of high t e m p e r a t u r e a n d p r e s s u r e , which
means t h a t t h e i r susceptibility to weathering processes in general is much
lower. Therefore, t h e d e g r e e a n d extent of weathering in t h e t r a n s p o r t e d soils
is generally much l e s s marked t h a n in t h e thick zones of intensely weathered
rock found o v e r much of t h e Territory. Nevertheless, t h e c h a n g e s b r o u g h t
about by weathering can still have a significant effect on t h e engineering
properties of t r a n s p o r t e d soils.
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The o c c u r r e n c e of weathered t r a n s p o r t e d soils in Hong Kong i s generally

limited t o t h e older colluvial and alluvial deposits. Most of t h e marine
deposits show no obvious s i g n s of weathering, b u t some weathered marine soils
can be found in a r e a s where t h e y have been exposed previously d u r i n g periods
of lower sea-level.

In fine soils, where individual mineral a n d rock fragments c a n n o t be

identified by eye, t h e most distinctive a s p e c t of weathering i s discolouration
caused by decomposition of t h e soil particles a n d precipitation of various
oxides. Discolouration is most noticeable in alluvial sediments. A non-uniform
colour distribution (Table 3). often comprising mottled yellow, r e d a n d brown
colours, can be a distinctive f e a t u r e in t h e s e soils (Shaw e t al, 1986; Willis &
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Shirlaw. 1983). In offshore sedimentary s e q u e n c e s , t h e r e i s often a marked

c o n t r a s t between mottled, weathered alluvial sediments a n d t h e overlying
unweathered marine muds (Plate 9).

In coarse soils, o r composite soils containing coarse fragments, t h e

weathered s t a t e of individual gravel a n d larger-sized rock fragments can also
b e described. in addition to discolouration of t h e whole soil. Since t h e s e
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fragments a r e pieces of rock material, t h e terms a n d methods given in Section
2.3.4 can b e used t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r weathered state. Common weathering
f e a t u r e s a r e decomposition of individual mineral g r a i n s o r whole rock
fragments, a n d c r a c k i n g o r disintegration, which may show u p a s concentric
layering approximately parallel t o t h e fragment boundary. F u r t h e r guidance on
weathering description in colluvium i s given in Section 3.6.

Weathering f e a t u r e s in soils may b e d e s t r o y e d by sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r

remoulding. These f e a t u r e s should t h e r e f o r e be described in t h e field when-
e v e r possible; alternatively, t h e highest-quality u n d i s t u r b e d sample should b e
used.

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3.4.4 Additional Information

Because of sample d i s t u r b a n c e o r inadequate sample size, i t i s often

difficult t o make a full description of t h e mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of soils. Even
in a field exposure, v e r y c a r e f u l and detailed inspection may be n e c e s s a r y f o r
a c c u r a t e identification of s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s . Additional information should b e
a d d e d t o t h e description if t h e sample i s not considered t o b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of t h e soil mass, o r if i t shows s i g n s of significant disturbance.

One o t h e r g r o u p of f e a t u r e s which should always b e described if p r e s e n t

in t h e soil i s voids. The most important t y p e s of void a r e pipes a n d t u n n e l s
caused by s u b s u r f a c e erosion (Nash & Dale. 1983), b u t o t h e r f e a t u r e s s u c h a s

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animal b u r r o w s a n d r o o t holes should also b e noted if t h e y a r e likely t o h a v e
a significant effect on t h e mass properties of t h e soil. Soil pipes h a v e been
recorded in Hong Kong in both colluvium and soils derived from weathered
rocks. In some c a s e s t h e y h a v e been o b s e r v e d within landslide s c a r s (Nash &
Chang, 1987), and h a v e t h e r e f o r e been considered a s a possible c a u s e of slope
instability. The geometry a n d s e e p a g e a s p e c t s of voids should b e r e c o r d e d
where possible.

The recommendations in Sections 3.4.1 a n d 3.4.2 d o not cover t h e

description of soil microstructure. This can b e important f o r engineering
p u r p o s e s , e.g. soils with pronounced small-scale f a b r i c s , s u c h a s v e r y t h i n
laminations i n marine clays, microfractures t h r o u g h a n d a r o u n d mineral g r a i n s
i n soils derived from insitu rock weathering, etc. Partial assessment of t h e s e
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f e a t u r e s b y e y e may b e possible, depending on t h e i r spacing and continuity.

b u t , if t h e soil microfabric i s of particular importance t o t h e e n g i n e e r i n g
project, t h e u s e of a microscope i s recommended. A general introduction t o
t h e s t u d y of soil microfabric. using optical microscopy, electron microscopy a n d
X-ray diffraction t e c h n i q u e s , i s given by Tovey (1986b3. F u r t h e r information
on microfabric description in granitic soils, and i t s relationship t o engineering
properties. i s given b y Baynes & Dearman (1978a. 1978b). A t a slightly l a r g e r
scale, McGown e t a1 (1980) provide useful guidance on t h e classification a n d
description of f a b r i c f e a t u r e s visible to t h e naked e y e o r u n d e r a hand l e n s in
sediments.
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3.5 SOILS DERIVED FROM INSITU R O C K WEATHERING

Soils derived from insitu rock weathering o c c u r o v e r much of Hong

Kong. both on land a n d offshore. Assessment of t h e engineering behaviour of
t h e s e soils is of g r e a t importance f o r many a s p e c t s of t h e design and
construction of s i t e formations and foundations. The s t a r t i n g point f o r s u c h
assessments is a good engineering description.
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These soils can be divided into two main t y p e s , viz :

(a) soils t h a t retain t h e original t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e

of t h e p a r e n t rock, also known a s 'saprolites', a n d

(b) soils in which t h e rock texture/fabric/structure has been

d e s t r o y e d , properly described a s 'residual soils'.

Both t h e s e soils a r e shown in t h e context of weathering of t h e p a r e n t

rock in Tables 4 a n d 10. A t t h e material scale, t h e f i r s t of t h e s e soil t y p e s
(saprolite) c o r r e s p o n d s to completely decomposed rock ( g r a d e V ) i n Table 4.
b u t may also include less decomposed intensely disintegrated material (e.g.

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g r a d e IV) t h a t can be completely broken down t o a soil. The second t y p e i s
t h e g r a d e VI residual soil.

A t t h e mass scale, saprolite forms t h e non-rock material in t h e partially

weathered (PW90/100 t o PW0/30) rock mass zones in Table 10. The second soil
t y p e ( t h e s t r u c t u r e l e s s residual soil) comprises t h e RS zone in Table 10; t h i s is
identical t o t h e r e s i d u a l soil ( g r a d e VI) in Table 4 b u t simply r e f e r s t o a
l a r g e r volume of material.

Different approaches a r e recommended f o r making full descriptions of

t h e s e two main soil t y p e s .

Saprolites (i.e. soils t h a t retain t h e rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e )

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a r e a special case f o r description, because t h e y can be described e i t h e r in rock
( s e e Chapter 2) o r soil ( s e e Chapter 3 ) terms, o r both. The recommended
scheme i s t o u s e t h e rock terms given in Chapter 2, t o g e t h e r with t h e soil
s t r e n g t h ( s e e Section 3.3.1) a n d soil name ( s e e Section 3.3.4) applicable t o t h e
remoulded condition a d d e d in b r a c k e t s . For example, t h e description of a hand
sample might b e 'extremely weak, d r y , light yellowish brown, e q u i g r a n u l a r .
completely decomposed, coarse-grained GRANITE ( d e n s e , slightly silty gravelly
SAND)'. The exception t o t h i s recommendation comes when t h e r e i s d o u b t
about t h e origin of t h e soil, e.g. a v e r y small sample might not contain
sufficient evidence of original rock t e x t u r e f o r t h e origin t o b e determined.
In s u c h cases, t h e sample should be described by means of t h e soil t e r m s given
in Chapter 3, followed by a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e p a r e n t rock a n d weathered
s t a t e in b r a c k e t s , e.g. 'stiff, moist, g r e y i s h brown, slightly gravelly s a n d y
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SILT/CLAY (completely decomposed coarse a s h TUFF?)'. A t t h e mass scale, a

full description of a saprolite should include a detailed description of
discontinuities s u c h a s relict joints ( s e e Section 2.4.3).

Full descriptions of residual, s t r u c t u r e l e s s soils should b e made b y means

of t h e soil terms defined in Sections 3.2 a n d 3.3. If t h e r e i s sufficient field
evidence in t h e weathering profile to identify t h e p a r e n t rock from which t h e
r e s i d u a l soil has formed, t h i s should b e a d d e d in b r a c k e t s , e.g. 'firm, d r y ,
brown, slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Residual soil derived from fine a s h TUFF)'.
Residual soils may b e difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r soils s u c h a s colluvium
and fill. This i s considered in Section 3.6.
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True residual soils a r e r a r e l y developed t o a n y significant t h i c k n e s s in

Hong Kong (usually l e s s t h a n 3 m). Generally, t h e y a r e much less important
t o engineering t h a n t h e saprolites.

F u r t h e r information on t h e n a t u r e , description and engineering p r o p e r t i e s

of Hong Kong soils derived from insitu rock weathering i s given by Bennett
(1984a). G C O (1982), Hencher & Martin (1982), Lumb (1965) a n d Ruxton &
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Berry (1957). Some illustrated examples of complete descriptions a r e given in
Section 3.9.

3.6 COLLUVIUM

Colluvial soils o r 'mass wasting deposits' ( s e e Appendix A.6.2) a r e formed

b y e a r t h materials slipping, flowing o r rolling down slopes u n d e r t h e action of
gravity. Typical colluvial deposits in Hong Kong a r e s t r u c t u r e l e s s mixed
accumulations of soil a n d rock fragments deposited on and a t t h e base of
n a t u r a l slopes. The y o u n g e r colluvium is often loose, whereas some of t h e
older colluvium may be partially o r wholly cemented. The deposits often have
a distinctive lobe- o r fan-shaped s u r f a c e form a n d may b e interlayered with

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alluvial fan deposits formed by t h e action of r u n n i n g water. Colluvium i s
widely d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e hilly t e r r a i n of Hong Kong. I t o c c u r s mostly
in t h e form of s c a t t e r e d , relatively small accumulations on t h e lower p a r t s of
t h e s t e e p major slopes. The maximum t h i c k n e s s of colluvium recorded in Hong
Kong i s about 35 m, b u t t h i s is exceptional; most colluvium deposits a r e less
t h a n 10 m thick.

Detailed field s t u d i e s of t h e locations, s h a p e s and compositions of

colluvial deposits b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y has enabled a
classification of t h e deposits t o b e made according t o t h e i r mode of formation
b y d i f f e r e n t mass movement processes. On t h e 1:20 000 HKGS Maps (e.g. GCO.
1986a), mass wasting deposits a r e subdivided into d e b r i s flow deposits, t a l u s

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(rockfall) deposits, mixed d e b r i s flow a n d talus deposits, a n d slide deposits.
F u r t h e r information on t h e n a t u r e of t h e material in each of t h e s e classes is
given b y Addison (1986) a n d Bennett (1984a).

For routine p u r p o s e s , t h e description of colluvium should follow t h e

recommendations given in Sections 3.2 t o 3.4. Since most colluvial deposits
contain v e r y coarse (cobble- a n d boulder-size) fragments, t h e discussion of
composite soils in Section 3.3.4 (2) a n d Table 16 i s of particular relevance f o r
description. Although colluvial deposits a r e usually described a s ' s t r u c t u r e l e s s ' ,
Ruxton (1984) s u g g e s t e d t h a t a variety of s t r u c t u r e s exist in t h e colluvium i n
t h e Mid-levels a r e a of Hong Kong Island. If p r e s e n t , s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s can only
b e identified and described adequately in large exposures. Table of Contents

Use of t h e p r o c e d u r e s a n d terms in Sections 3.3 a n d 3.4 should give a

satisfactory basic description. However, if t h e colluvium is of particular
importance t o t h e e n g i n e e r i n g project, i t i s recommended t h a t t h e following
additional a s p e c t s should b e described :

t h e proportion of v e r y coarse fragments (cobbles a n d

boulders) t o t h e nearest lo%,

a n y preferential distribution of the very

c o a r s e fragments,

t h e a n g u l a r i t y , s t r e n g t h a n d decomposition g r a d e of t h e
v e r y c o a r s e fragments, using t h e terms given in Table 14,
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Section 2.3.1 a n d Section 2.3.4, a n d

t h e t h i c k n e s s of a n y clearly identifiable weathering r i n d s

developed on t h e v e r y coarse fragments (measured in
mm), t o g e t h e r with a n y o t h e r notable f e a t u r e s of t h i s
r i n d (e.g. colour, decomposition grade. d e g r e e of
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f r a c t u r i n g ) relative t o t h e remainder of t h e cobble o r
boulder.

The importance of t h e s e additional observations has been demonstrated

b y detailed investigations c a r r i e d o u t in t h e Mid-levels a r e a of Hong Kong.
These investigations have indicated t h a t t h r e e s e p a r a t e classes of colluvium
may b e recognized on t h e basis of t h e colour a n d stiffness of t h e matrix, t h e
ratio of v e r y coarse fragments t o matrix material, a n d t h e d e g r e e of
decomposition of t h e v e r y coarse fragments (GCO, 1982; Lai & Taylor, 1983).
These classes probably reflect different a g e s of deposition. Where d i f f e r e n t
classes can be o b s e r v e d clearly in t h e field, i t i s useful t o note t h i s in t h e
description. Recognition of different classes may a s s i s t in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e
geological s t r u c t u r e of a site, a n d in a s s e s s i n g laboratory test r e s u l t s on

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matrix materials.

Colluvium may b e difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r t y p e s of soil,

particularly soils derived from insitu rock weathering and fill. Distinctive
f e a t u r e s t h a t can help to distinguish between t h e s e soil t y p e s a r e shown in
Table 18. One particular problem t h a t i s often encountered in t h e description
of drillcore and small excavations (e.g. trial p i t s ) i s t h e definition of t h e
boundary between t h e base of t h e colluvium a n d t h e underlying decomposed
rock. The two most reliable distinguishing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e usually a c h a n g e
in colour and t h e a b s e n c e of small-scale rock t e x t u r e in t h e colluvial matrix
material. Examples a r e shown in Plate 10.

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An example of t h e description of colluvium i s given in Section 3.9.

3.7 FILL

Fill o r 'made ground' is a v e r y common t y p e of soil found in t h e

developed a r e a s of Hong Kong. The e x t e n t and t h i c k n e s s of fill soils v a r y
widely, r a n g i n g from relatively small fill platforms used f o r building
developments on s t e e p slopes, t o l a r g e a r e a s of coastal reclamation.
Characteristics of fills s u c h a s colour, compactness/consistency a n d grain size
can v a r y o v e r a v e r y wide r a n g e , d e p e n d e n t mainly on t h e origin of t h e
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Good engineering descriptions a r e of g r e a t importance in fill materials,

which may b e difficult t o sample a n d t e s t satisfactorily if t h e y a r e
heterogeneous, o r if t h e y contain l a r g e fragments of 'foreign' materials.

The description of fill should follow t h e recommendations given in

Sections 3.2 t o 3.4. However, t h i s t y p e of r o u t i n e description should b e
accompanied by additional information, where considered r e l e v a n t t o t h e
engineering project, on t h e following a s p e c t s :

(a) origin of t h e fill material, w h e t h e r n a t u r a l e a r t h material

o r otherwise (e.g. domestic ref use, pulverized fuel a s h ,
etc).
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(b) p r e s e n c e of l a r g e 'foreign' objects, s u c h a s pieces of

concrete, masonry. brick. wood, metal o r plastic,

(c) p r e s e n c e of voids o r collapsible hollow objects.

(d) p r e s e n c e of chemical waste, particularly if i t a p p e a r s t o

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contain d a n g e r o u s o r poisonous s u b s t a n c e s ,

(e) o r g a n i c matter c o n t e n t a n d a n y s t r o n g smell,

(f) s t r i k i n g colours, a n d

(g) d a t e s readable on buried newspapers, etc.

With r e g a r d t o item ( a ) in t h i s list. information a b o u t t h e origin of t h e

fill i s often useful in major e a r t h w o r k s , e.g. in t h e assessment of laboratory
t e s t r e s u l t s and field measurements of compaction performance.

Concerning t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e soil ( s e e Section 3.4.1). i t i s important

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t o describe a n y layering t h a t may be p r e s e n t . On slopes, layering
approximately parallel t o t h e original slope s u r f a c e indicates t h a t t h e fill has
probably been e n d - t i p p e d a n d i s likely to b e in a loose condition. The
boundaries between different fill l a y e r s , o r between fill a n d t h e underlying
n a t u r a l soil, a r e often marked b y a b r u p t c h a n g e s in r o o t content of t h e soil
a n d t h e presence of older, buried topsoils r i c h in organic matter.

Fill t h a t does n o t contain obvious inclusions of foreign materials may b e

difficult t o distinguish from o t h e r t y p e s of soil. The penultimate p a r a g r a p h of
Section 3.6 and Table 18 should b e noted.

An example of t h e description of fill i s given in Section 3.9.

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3.8 ADDITIONAL G E O L O G I C A L INFORMATION

Once t h e material a n d mass c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have been d e s c r i b e d , t h e

final item in a complete soil description should b e a geological name which
indicates t h e geological origin o r soil t y p e . Many of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e names
a r e shown in t h e l e g e n d s on t h e geological maps produced b y t h e HKGS. The
name should be written with capital initial l e t t e r s (e.g. Alluvium, Fill, Marine
mud, Colluvium). A s a general rule, a geological name should only be added t o
a description where t h e origin of t h e material i s reasonably certain; c o n j e c t u r e
should b e avoided. However, if t h e o b s e r v e r wishes t o record doubtful
interpretation. an acceptable alternative i s t o indicate t h e u n c e r t a i n t y b y u s e
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of a suitable qualifying term o r a question mark (e.g. 'probably Colluvium'.

'Residual soil?')

3.9 EXAMPLES

Seven different soils a r e illustrated in Plate 11. The f i r s t f o u r a r e hand

samples a n d t h e l a s t t h r e e a r e mass exposures. The full descriptions of t h e s e
soils a r e listed below for guidance in t h e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e terms.

(a) Plate 11A. (Residual Soil). Loose, d r y . yellowish brown.

with occasional r o u n d e d q u a r t z g r a i n s 2 t o 4 mm size,
silty gravelly SAND (Residual soil, from field evidence
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probably derived from coarse a s h o r lapilli TUFF).

Slakes readily in water.

(b) Plate 1l B . (Completely Decomposed Granite). Extremely

weak, d r y , l i g h t yellowish brown s p o t t e d with g r e y , d a r k
brown a n d white, completely decomposed, medium-
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grained GRANITE, with occasional, discontinuous.
randomly-oriented microfractures. of a v e r a g e spacing 2
t o 5 mm, visible in several small a r e a s ( < 50 mm2) on
s u r f a c e of sample, generally s e p a r a t i n g i n t a c t f e l d s p a r
g r a i n s from s u r r o u n d i n g matrix. One prominent
microfracture, a p e r t u r e 1 mm. length 20 mm, c r o s s e s
c e n t r e of sample. Slakes readily in water. Hand
penetrometer s h e a r s t r e n g t h index 180 kPa. (Loose,
slightly silty/clayey, gravelly SAND). (Note : material i s
described a s a decomposed rock, except f o r t h e
compactness a n d particle size distribution applicable t o
t h e remoulded condition, which a r e added in p a r e n t h e s e s ) .

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(c) Plate 11C. (Marine Mud). Stiff, moist, d a r k brownish
g r e y , slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Marine mud). Shear
v a n e s t r e n g t h index 120 kPa. Contains occasional small
fragments of white shells.

(d) Plate 11D. (Marine Sand). Loose, moist, light brown,

slightly gravelly fine t o c o a r s e SAND (Marine s a n d ) .
Contains some a n g u l a r a n d s u b a n g u l a r shell fragments
a n d whole shells u p to 30 mm in length. SPT N value of
8 recorded in borehole A1 a t t h e level of t h i s sample.

(el Plate 11E. (Colluvium). For descriptive p u r p o s e s , t h e

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colluvial deposit is divided ( t o p downwards) into t h r e e
l a y e r s , mainly on t h e basis of differing size a n d
proportion of t h e v e r y coarse fragments a n d d e g r e e of
cementation of t h e matrix. Layer 1 i s a b o u t 2 m thick
a n d forms approximately t h e u p p e r half of t h e deposit.
Layers 2 and 3 a r e both about 1 m thick.

(i) Layer 1. Dense. d r y , yellowish brown

( l a r g e cobbles and boulders a r e l i g h t
g r e y ) , bouldery COBBLES with much
f i n e r material (slightly gravelly, s a n d y
silt/clay). (Colluvium). Very c o a r s e
fraction comprises mostly a n g u l a r a n d
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s u b a n g u l a r cobbles of v e r y s t r o n g to
moderately s t r o n g , slightly to moderately
decomposed, fine a s h t u f f ; also contains
some a n g u l a r a n d s u b a n g u l a r boulders u p
t o 0.8 m diameter and s e v e r a l detached,
partly fragmented blocks of rock (fine
a s h t u f f ) u p t o 1.2 m diameter showing
closely -spaced joints. The f i n e r material
i s partially cemented; removed easily by
hammer b u t crumbled b y hand only with
difficulty.

(ii) Layer 2. Very stiff, d r y . yellowish

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brown, slightly gravelly, sandy

SILT/CLAY with many (approximately
30%) s u b a n g u l a r t o s u b r o u n d e d cobbles
a n d small boulders of s t r o n g to mod-
e r a t e l y s t r o n g , moderately decomposed.
fine a s h tuff (Colluvium). The matrix i s
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partially cemented ( a s in l a y e r 1).

(iii) Layer 3 . Very stiff, moist, d a r k brown

( b o u l d e r s a r e l i g h t g r e y ) , slightly s a n d y
gravelly SILT/CLAY with many (approx-
imately 40%) s u b a n g u l a r t o s u b r o u n d e d
cobbles and occasional r o u n d e d boulders
of v e r y s t r o n g t o moderately s t r o n g .
slightly to moderately decomposed, fine
a s h tuff (Colluvium). The matrix i s
wholly cemented; r e q u i r e s firm blows of
hammer t o remove a n d c a n n o t b e
crumbled completely b y hand.

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Based on t h e d e g r e e of cementation of t h e matrix, l a y e r s
1 a n d 2 a r e probably much y o u n g e r t h a n l a y e r 3.

(f) Plate 11F. (Alluvium). This small exposure i s described

a s an i n t e r b e d d e d deposit because t h e scale of t h e
individual l a y e r s is too small t o w a r r a n t a s e p a r a t e
description f o r each layer.

Loose, moist, l i g h t brown, slightly silty/clayey, gravelly

SAND with i n t e r b e d d e d soft, moist. greyish brown.
slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY (Alluvium). Thickness of s a n d

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b e d s in t h e r a n g e 80 t o 200 mm ; clay b e d s 20 t o 60 mm.
I n t e r b e d boundaries generally planar a n d sub-horizontal.
occasionally highly i r r e g u l a r a n d show slump s t r u c t u r e .
Some s a n d b e d s have a thickly-laminated s t r u c t u r e .
o t h e r s a r e homogeneous; clay b e d s a r e thinly-laminated.

(g) Plate 11G. (Fill). Four distinct l a y e r s a r e visible in t h e

t r i a l p i t and a r e described from t h e top downwards. The
t h i r d , dark-coloured l a y e r i s much t h i n n e r t h a n t h e o t h e r
t h r e e layers.

(i) Layer 1. Soft, d r y , l i g h t yellowish

brown. s a n d y SILT/CLAY with many
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a n g u l a r cobbles and small boulders of

moderately s t r o n g t o moderately weak,
moderately to highly decomposed, a s h
tuff a n d occasional pieces of brick (Fill).
Boulders concentrated a t t h e base of t h e
l a y e r with occasional discontinuous voids
u p t o 100 mm diameter. Roots u p t o 5
mm diameter a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t
t h e layer.

(ii) Layer 2. Soft, moist, brownish r e d ,

slightly s a n d y SILT/CLAY with some
rootlets and small a n g u l a r cobbles of
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moderately s t r o n g t o moderately weak,

moderately t o highly decomposed. a s h
tuff (Fill).
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(iii) Layer 3. Soft to firm, wet, dark g r e y i s h
brown, slightly gravelly sandy
SILT/CLAY (Fill).

(iv) Layer 4. Firm, wet. brown, slightly

sandy SILTICLAY with occasional small
subangular cobbles of moderately weak.
highly decomposed. ash tuff (Fill).

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4. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS AND SOILS
4.1 GENERAL

A complete rock o r soil description gives information on t h e

characteristics of a specific sample, whether t h i s is a hand-sized piece of
material, a length of drillcore o r a mass exposure. Few samples have identical
descriptions. Engineering classification, on t h e o t h e r hand, involves placing
t h e rock o r soil i n t o a limited number of broad g r o u p s , each of which can b e
expected t o show reasonably distinctive engineering behaviour. I t is empha-
sised t h a t classification in t h i s s e n s e r e f e r s t o t h e overall grouping of r o c k s o r

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soils with r e g a r d t o general engineering behaviour. I t should b e distinguished
from t h e HKGS geoloqical classification of r o c k s a n d superficial deposits (Table
5, see also Appendix A ) a n d from s ~ e c i f i c classifications of individual
characteristics, s u c h a s t h e classification of rock material s t r e n g t h (Table 2) o r
decomposition g r a d e (Table 4 ) .

The main value of broad engineering classifications i s to give a simple

general guide t o t h e behaviour of t h e rock o r soil d u r i n g construction.
Because of t h e emphasis on construction a s p e c t s , t h e s e classifications a r e
usually established mainly with r e f e r e n c e t o mass behaviour. There a r e various
methods of classifying t h e mechanical behaviour of rock masses. These a r e
considered in Section 4.2. For soils, engineering classifications based on
grading and plasticity can give a good guide a s to how t h e remoulded soil will

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behave when used a s a construction material. This i s considered in Section
4.3.

Engineering classifications of r o c k s a n d soils have not been applied

extensively in Hong Kong. The text in t h e next two sections i s t h e r e f o r e
deliberately s h o r t . The aim i s t o provide brief general guidance, and t o quote
key r e f e r e n c e s a n d examples t h a t can be followed u p in g r e a t e r detail if
required.

4.2 GEOMECHANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF R O C K MASSES

Geomechanical classifications of rock masses a r e based on combining

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s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e rock mass and rock material into g r o u p s which

can b e used to a s s e s s t h e overall engineering behaviour of t h e rock mass. A
general introduction t o t h i s topic is given by Bieniawski (1976).

The best-known examples of t h e s e classifications come from t h e field of

tunnelling a n d u n d e r g r o u n d excavations, in particular t h e Norwegian (NGI)
system (Barton e t al, 1974) and t h e South African (CSIR) Rock Mass Rating
system (Bieniawski. 1974). These systems were s e t u p by combining s u c h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s drillcore quality ( R Q D ) , compressive s t r e n g t h of rock
material, spacing a n d condition of discontinuities, and g r o u n d w a t e r conditions,
t o give a n overall r a t i n g o r rock mass quality in relation t o t h e requirements
for t u n n e l s u p p o r t . For example, t h e CSIR system has five rock mass classes
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r a n g i n g from v e r y good rock t o v e r y poor rock.

o t h e r well-known classification schemes a r e t h e f r a c t u r e spacing/point

load s t r e n g t h classification c h a r t s u s e d t o a s s e s s rippability o r e a s e of
excavation (Franklin e t al, 1971). and t h e empirical s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i a developed
b y Hoek & Brown (1980) f o r a rock mass classification based on rock t y p e ,
joint spacing and d e g r e e of joint weathering. Rock mass weathering zones
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( s e e Section 2.4.4.). when used in conjunction with o t h e r mass a n d material
properties (e.g. discontinuities a n d s t r e n g t h ) , can also form t h e basis of a rock
mass engineering classification. For example, Dearman e t a1 (1978) used t h e
BSI (1981) mass weathering scheme t o make a six-fold classification of
weathered g r a n i t e s a n d gneisses from t h e point of view of e a s e of excavation,
t u n n e l s u p p o r t , foundation suitability, drilling r a t e s and o t h e r factors. A
useful summary of seven different rock mass classifications developed f o r
various engineering works in Japan has been compiled b y t h e Japan Society of
Engineering Geology (1987).

I n Hong Kong. rock mass classifications have been applied t o a limited

e x t e n t in t h e field of tunnelling a n d l a r g e rock excavations. McFeat-Smith e t
a1 (1985) used a simple five-fold classification based on mass weathering a n d

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joint spacing f o r t h e assessment of temporary t u n n e l s u p p o r t a n d f o r
contractual t e n d e r i n g a n d payment purposes. Beggs & McNicholl (1986)
examined t h e u s e of a simplified CSIR system d u r i n g t h e investigation a n d
design s t a g e of l a r g e rock excavations for housing development a t Ap Lei
Chau. Hong Kong Island. Six-fold weathering-based classifications were used
b y Watkins (1979) f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n - s t a g e mapping of foundations a n d t u n n e l s
f o r t h e High Island water scheme, a n d b y Powell & I r f a n (1986) for preliminary
assessment of failure modes a n d design of remedial measures a t t h r e e landslide
sites. Whiteside & Bracegirdle (1984) developed a five-fold classification,
similar t o t h e NGI system, f o r a s s e s s i n g rock mass looseness a n d t h e
requirements for u n d e r g r o u n d s u p p o r t in small excavations i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
Hong Kong rocks.

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The Hoek & Brown (1980) rock mass s t r e n g t h classification has also been
applied in Hong Kong in s e v e r a l cases of slope stability design in d i s t u r b e d .
closely jointed volcanic r o c k s (unpublished work b y t h e G C O ) . Hoek (1983,
1986) has commented on t h e practical application of t h i s approach to mass
s t r e n g t h assessment.

4.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

The aim of most engineering soil classifications i s t o place a soil i n t o a

limited number of g r o u p s on t h e basis of t h e g r a d i n g and plasticity of a
d i s t u r b e d sample. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e particular
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condition in which a soil o c c u r s , a n d t h e y d i s r e g a r d t h e influence of t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e soil mass. Therefore, t h e value of t h i s t y p e of classification
i s t h a t i t gives a guide a s t o how t h e d i s t u r b e d soil will behave, a t d i f f e r e n t
moisture c o n t e n t s , when u s e d a s a construction material. I t does not provide
a n y guidance a s t o how t h e u n d i s t u r b e d soil mass will perform d u r i n g
construction (e.g. in relation t o settlement u n d e r foundation loading o r
stability of excavation faces).

A well-known example of a soil classification system i s t h e British Soil

Classification System (BSCS), which i s described b y BSI (1981). This system,
slightly modified in accordance with Table 15, i s summarised in Tables 19 a n d
20, and in Figure 8. The principal soil g r o u p s a r e t h e same a s those shown in
Table 11, b u t t h e s u b g r o u p s a r e divided f u r t h e r on t h e basis of laboratory
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tests.

This classification i s c a r r i e d o u t on material nominally f i n e r t h a n 60 mm.

Coarser material (boulders a n d cobbles) should b e removed a n d i t s proportion
of t h e whole soil should be estimated a n d r e c o r d e d a s 'cobbles' a n d / o r
'boulders' ( s e e Section 3.3.4(2)). The g r a d i n g of t h e gravel a n d finer material,
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a n d t h e plasticity of t h a t fraction of t h e material passing a 425 pm sieve, i s
t h e n determined from laboratory t e s t s .

Grading a n d plasticity characteristics a r e divided into a number of

clearly defined r a n g e s , each of which may be r e f e r r e d t o by a descriptive name
a n d a descriptive l e t t e r , a s shown in Table 19. The soil g r o u p s in t h e
classification a r e formed from combinations of t h e r a n g e s of characteristics.
Table 20 gives t h e names of t h e g r o u p s a n d t h e symbols t h a t should b e used.
The l e t t e r describing t h e dominant size fraction should b e placed f i r s t in t h e
symbol (e.g. CS, s a n d y C L A Y ; SC, v e r y clayey SAND; S-C, clayey SAND). Any
g r o u p may be qualified a s 'organic' if o r g a n i c matter i s a significant
constituent, in which case t h e l e t t e r '0' is suffixed to t h e g r o u p symbol (e.g.

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C H O , o r g a n i c C L A Y of high plasticity; CHSO, o r g a n i c s a n d y C L A Y of high
plasticity). However, t h e most important g r o u p of organic soils i s t h a t which
plots below t h e A-line, MO (Figure 8 ) , and which comprises most M-soils of
high liquid limit a n d above.

Particle size distribution can b e plotted on a grading c h a r t , a s shown in

Figure 9. This a s s i s t s in designating t h e soils a s 'well-graded' o r 'poorly-
graded'. a n d , if poorly-graded, whether 'uniform' o r 'gap-graded'. Typical
examples of t h e g r a d i n g c u r v e s of t h e s e a n d o t h e r materials a r e shown in
Figure 9. Many Hong Kong soils. particularly colluvium a n d soils d e r i v e d from
insitu weathering of coarse-grained igneous r o c k s , a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a v e r y
wide r a n g e of g r a i n sizes from gravel to clay (excluding v e r y coarse material)
a n d can b e described a s 'widely-graded' ( F i g u r e 9).

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Soil classification systems have not been widely used in Hong Kong, b u t
t h e y may have application in p r o j e c t s involving major earthfilling works o r t h e
u s e of n a t u r a l o r s c r e e n e d soils a s road construction materials. However,
caution i s needed in t h e u s e of t h e s e systems f o r soils derived from insitu
rock weathering.

The g r a d i n g a n d plasticity characteristics of saprolites a n d r e s i d u a l soils

may be affected b y pretreatment methods o r variations in moisture c o n t e n t
(e.g. w h e t h e r t e s t e d in an air-dried o r n a t u r a l condition). BS 1377 (BSI, 1975)
draws attention t o t h e difficulty of t e s t i n g "certain tropical soils" and "highly
a g g r e g a t e d soils", with r e g a r d to t h e u s e of dispersing a g e n t s and p r e t r e a t m e n t
methods in grading t e s t s . and air-dried o r n a t u r a l moisture condition samples
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in A t t e r b e r g limit t e s t s . However, no explicit recommendations a r e given in

BS 1377 f o r dealing with t h e s e problematical soils. Very little work has been
done on t h i s topic i n Hong Kong. Useful background information a n d d a t a for
saprolites a n d r e s i d u a l soils in o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world a r e given by Mitchell
& Sitar (1982) a n d t h e Committee on Tropical Soils of t h e ISSMFE (1985). In
addition t o normal g r a d i n g a n d plasticity t e s t s , dispersion t e s t s (ASTM, 1985b;
Decker & Dunnigan, 1977; Flanagan & Holmgren, 1977; S h e r a r d e t al, 1976;
S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia, 1980, 1984) may prove useful in t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e likely engineering behaviour of t h e s e soils. I t is
recommended t h a t t h e u s e of a n y p r e t r e a t m e n t methods o r d i s p e r s a n t s for
grading and plasticity t e s t s should always b e r e c o r d e d in full on laboratory
t e s t r e s u l t s s h e e t s a n d in r e p o r t s .
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Apart from t h e general difficulties which may be met in t h e classifica-

tion of soils derived from weathered r o c k s , t h e u s e of t h e BSCS in particular
has been criticised when applied t o coarse-grained granitic soils. The
distinction between coarse a n d fine soils in t h e BSCS (i.e. 35% passing a 63 pm
sieve), means t h a t a significant proportion of decomposed granitic soils would
b e classified a s fine soil, according to t h e a v e r a g e g r a d i n g s given b y Lumb
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(1962). Granitic soils tend to be regarded as coarse soils in current Hong
Kong practice as far as their general engineering behaviour is concerned.
Therefore, other classification systems, such as the American U C S system
(ASTM, 1985c), may be more appropriate for this type of soil.

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5. LEGEND FOR MAPS, PLANS AND DIAGRAMS

5.1 SYMBOLS FOR ROCKS AND SOILS

Recommended symbols a r e listed in Table 21 for t h e principal rock a n d

soil t y p e s t h a t a r e likely t o b e encountered in Hong Kong. The symbols a r e
simple a n d distinctive, a n d t h e y combine easily into symbols f o r composite
t y p e s of r o c k s a n d soils. The symbols a r e based upon t h o s e given b y t h e
Geological Society (1972), with some alterations; additional symbols a r e also
given in t h e same publication.

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5.2 O T H E R SYMBOLS

5.2.1 Symbols f o r Borehole Records

Recommended symbols f o r borehole r e c o r d s a r e given in Table 22.

Examples of completed borehole logs a r e given in Geoguide 2 : Guide t o Site
Investigation ( G C O , 1987a).

5.2.2 Symbols f o r Geological S t r u c t u r e s a n d Boundaries

Recommended symbols f o r g e n e r a l planar s t r u c t u r e s a r e given in Table

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23. For each s t r u c t u r a l t y p e , t h e long b a r of t h e symbol indicates t h e s t r i k e
direction, and t h e s h o r t b a r indicates t h e dip amount in d e g r e e s measured from
t h e horizontal. Formerly, t h e dip arrow was used exclusively t o indicate t h e
direction a n d amount of dip of bedding planes. I t i s still used occasionally
a n d provides a n acceptable a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e b a r symbol.

Bedding, foliation, banding and cleavage in sedimentary a n d metamorphic

r o c k s may b e c o r r u g a t e d o r undulating, although t h e general disposition may b e
horizontal, inclined o r vertical. These conditions may b e indicated by sinuous
strike bars.

Recommended symbols f o r o t h e r geological s t r u c t u r e s a n d geological

boundaries a r e given in Table 24. A distinction i s made on t h e Hong Kong
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Geological S u r v e y maps between boundaries of superficial deposits a n d

boundaries of solid rock. Some indication i s usually given of t h e a c c u r a c y of
boundaries, broken lines denoting u n c e r t a i n t y in t h e positions of solid rock
boundaries and faults. This principle may b e applied t o t h e t r e n d a n d , where
a p p r o p r i a t e , to t h e position of t h e t r a c e s of o t h e r planar s t r u c t u r e s .

On large-scale engineering geological plans, faults and fault zones d o not

call for distinctive s t r u c t u r a l symbols. They a r e usually mapped a s zones. of
which t h e margins a r e plotted a n d f o r which t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s a n d filling
materials a r e mapped in detail. The symbol on Table 22 may be used to
indicate t h e margins of t h e fault, a n d t h e same principle may b e applied t o t h e
details included in t h e borehole r e c o r d .
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Hawkins, A.B. (1984). Rock d e s c r i p t i o n s . Proceedings of t h e 20th Regional

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Hencher, S.R. & Martin, R.P. (1982). The d e s c r i p t i o n a n d classification of

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vol. 1, p p 125-142. (Discussion, vol. 2, p p 167-168).

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 Table of Contents
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years. Proceedings of t h e Conference on Rock Engineering a n d
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Hoek, E. & Brown. E.T. (1980). Empirical s t r e n g t h c r i t e r i o n f o r rock masses.

J o u r n a l of Geotechnical Enqineerinq, American Society of Civil
E n g i n e e r s , vol. 106, p p 1013-1035.

Hoek, E. & Bray, J.W. (1981). Rock S l o ~ e Enqineering. ( T h i r d edition).

I n s t i t u t i o n of Mining a n d Metallurgy, London, 358 p.

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Proceedinqs of t h e Conference on Geoloqical Aspects of Site
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Huntley, S.L. & Randall. P.A. (19811. Recognition of colluvium i n Hong Kong.
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IAEG (1981). Rock a n d soil description a n d classification f o r e n g i n e e r i n g

geological mapping. Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of
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I r f a n . T.Y. & Dearman, W.R. (1978). The e n g i n e e r i n g p e t r o g r a p h y of a

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ISRM (1978). S u g g e s t e d methods f o r t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of

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ISRM (1985). S u g- g- e s t e d methods f o r determining point load s t r e n g t h .
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J a p a n Society of Engineering Geology (1987). Rock Classification in J a p a n .

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Koo. Y.C. (1982a). Relict joints in completely decomposed volcanics i n Hong

Kong. Canadian Geotechnical J o u r n a l . vol. 19, pp 117-123.

Koo, Y.C. (1982b). The influence of relict joints on slopes i n w e a t h e r e d ,

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S o u t h e a s t Asian Geotechnical Conference. Hong Kong, vol. 1, p p 23-30.

Lai, K.W. & Taylor, B.W. (1983). The classification of colluvium i n Hong Kong.
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Langford, R.L., Lai, K.W., A r t h u r t o n , R.S. & Shaw, R . (1988). Geoloqv of t h e

Western New T e r r i t o r i e s . 1 : 20 000 S h e e t s 2. 5 a n d 6. Hong Kong
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Liu, K.H. & Gammon, J.R.A. (19831. Q u a t e r n a r y geology, w e a t h e r i n g a n d
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Lumb, P. (1962). The p r o p e r t i e s of decomposed g r a n i t e . GBotechnique, vol. 12,

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Lumb, P. (1965). The r e s i d u a l soils of Hong Kong. GBotechniaue, vol. 15,

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Lumb, P. (1977). The marine soils of Hong Kong a n d Macau. Proceedings of

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t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on Soft Clay, Bangkok, p p 45-48.

(Published u n d e r t h e t i t l e Geotechnical Aspects of Soft Clays, e d i t e d b y
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i n t e r p r e t i n g soil macrofabric data. GBotechniaue, vol. 30, p p 417-447.

Martin, R.P. (1986). Use of index tests f o r e n g i n e e r i n g assessment of

w e a t h e r e d r o c k s . Proceedings of t h e Fifth I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, Buenos Aires, vol. 2.
p p 433-450.
 Table of Contents
Miller, D.R.. B a r r e t t . J.R. & Bamford, W.E. (1986). A field c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r
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J o u r n a l of t h e I n s t i t u t i o n of E n g i n e e r s . A u s t r a l i a , vol. 27, p p 281-299.

Munsell, A.H. (1941). A Color Notation : Munsell Soil Color C h a r t s . Munsell

Table of Contents
Color Co. I n c . , Baltimore, USA.

Nash, J . M . & Dale, M.J. (1983). Geology a n d h y d r o g e o l o g y of n a t u r a l t u n n e l

e r o s i o n i n s u p e r f i c i a l d e p o s i t s i n Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n q s of t h e
Meeting o n t h e Geology of S u r f i c i a l Deposits i n Honq Kong, Hong Kong,
p p 61-72. ( P u b l i s h e d as Geological S o c i e t y of Hong Kong. Bulletin no. 1,
e d i t e d b y W.W.S. Yim, 1984).

Nash, J.M. & C h a n g . D.C.H. (1987). A p r o p o s e d e r o s i o n model f o r c u t s l o p e s i n

Hong Kong. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e E i g h t h Asian Reqional C o n f e r e n c e o_n_
Soil Mechanics a n d F o u n d a t i o n E n q i n e e r i n q . Kyoto. vol. 1 . p p 477-482.

Nau. P.S. (1984). J o i n t s y s t e m of Hong Kong g r a n i t e . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e

Table of Contents
C o n f e r e n c e o n Geological A s p e c t s of S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n , Hong Kong, p p
89-98. ( P u b l i s h e d as Geological S o c i e t y of Hong Kong. Bulletin no. 2.
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N o r b u r y , D.R.. Child. G.H. & S p i n k , T.W. (1984). A c r i t i c a l r e v i e w of S e c t i o n 8

(BS 5930) - Soil a n d Rock D e s c r i p t i o n . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 2 0 t h Regional
Meeting of t h e E n g i n e e r i n g Group of t h e Geological S o c i e t y . G u i l d f o r d ,
UK, p p 331-342. ( P u b l i s h e d as S i t e I n v e s t i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e : A s s e s s i n g BS
5930, e d i t e d b y A.B. Hawkins. Geological S o c i e t y , E n g i n e e r i n g G r o u p
S p e c i a l P u b l i c a t i o n no. 2, 1986). (Also p u b l i s h e d i n p r e p r i n t vol. 2,
p p 353-369).

Pascall, D. (1987). C a v e r n o u s g r o u n d i n Yuen L o n g , Hong Kong. Geotechnical

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E n g i n e e r i n g , vol. 18, p p 205-221.

Powell. G.E. & I r f a n , T.Y. (1986). Slope r e m e d i a l w o r k s i n w e a t h e r e d r o c k s f o r

d i f f e r i n g r i s k s . P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n Rock E n g i n e e r i n g a n d
Excavation i n a n U r b a n E n v i r o n m e n t , Hong Kong, p p 347-355. ( D i s c u s s -
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R i c h a r d s , L.R. & Cowland, J.W. (1982). T h e e f f e c t of s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s o n t h e

field s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s h e e t i n g j o i n t s i n Hong Kong g r a n i t e .
Kong E n g i n e e r , vol. 10, no. 10, p p 39-43.

Rodin, S., C o r b e t t , B.O., S h e r w o o d , D.E. & T h o r b u r n . S. (1974). P e n e t r a t i o n

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t e s t i n g i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom : S t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t r e p o r t . P r o c e e d i n g s of
t h e E u r o p e a n Symposium o n P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t i n g , Stockholm, p p 140-146.

Ruxton, B.P. (1984). T h e s t r u c t u r e of some d e b r i s flows i n Hong Kong.

P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n Geological A s p e c t s of Site
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 Table of Contents
Ruxton, B.P. (1986). I r o n cementation i n boulder colluvium matrix u n d e r Hong
Kong city. P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e S y m ~ o s i u mon t h e Role of Geology i n
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Ruxton, B.P. & B e r r y , L. (1957). Weathering of g r a n i t e a n d associated

erosional f e a t u r e s in Hong Kong. Bulletin of t h e Geological Society of
America. vol. 68, p p 1263-1291. p l u s 1 plate.

Shaw, R., Zhou, K., Gervais, E. & Allen, L.O. (1986). Results of a
palaeontological investigation of Chek Lap Kok borehole (B13/B13A)

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North Lantau. Geological Society of Honq Konq Newsletter, vol. 4,
no. 2, pp 1-12.

S h e r a r d , J.L., Dunnigan. L.P.. Decker. R.S. & Steele. E.F. (1976). Pinhole test
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Division, American Society of Civil Engineers. vol. 102. pp 69-85.

Skempton, A.W. (1986). S t a n d a r d penetration test p r o c e d u r e s a n d t h e e f f e c t s

i n s a n d s of o v e r b u r d e n p r e s s u r e , r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , particle size, ageing
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S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia (1980). Determination of Emerson Class

Number of a soil. Australian S t a n d a r d Methods of Testinq Soils f o r

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Engineering P u r p o s e s , no. AS 1289. C8.1-1980, S t a n d a r d s Association of
Australia, S y d n e y . 3 p.

S t a n d a r d s Association of Australia (1984). Determination of pinhole d i s p e r s i o n

classification of a soil. Australian S t a n d a r d Methods of Testing Soils f o r
Engineering P u r p o s e s . no. AS1289, C8.3-1984, S t a n d a r d s Association of
Australia, S y d n e y , 5 p.

S t r a n g e , P.J. (1984). Towards a simpler classification of t h e Hong Kong

g r a n i t e s . Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site
Investigation, Hong Kong, p p 99-103. (Published a s Geological Society of
Honq Konq, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d b y I. McFeat-Smith, 1985). Table of Contents

S t r a n g e , P.J. & Shaw, R . (1986). Geology of Hong Kong Island a n d Kowloon,

1:20 000 S h e e t s 11 a n d 15. Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y Memoir No. 2,
Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 134 p.

Tovey. N.K. (1986a). Microanalyses of a Hong Kong marine clay. Geotechnical

Engineering. vol. 17. p p 167-210.

Tovey, N.K. (l986b). Microfabric, chemical a n d mineralogical s t u d i e s of soils :

t e c h n i q u e s . Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 17, p p 131-166.

Wang, P. & Yim, W.W.S. (1985). Preliminary investigation on t h e o c c u r r e n c e of

marine microfossils in a n o f f s h o r e drillhole from Lei Yue Mun Bay.
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Geological Society of Hong Kong Newsletter, vol. 2, no. 1, pp 1-5.

Watkins, M.D. (1979). Engineering geological mapping f o r t h e High Island

w a t e r scheme i n Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Symposium on
Engineering Geological M a p ~ i n g , Newcastle-upon-Tyne. (Published in
Bulletin of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Association of Engineering Geology, no.19.
p p 166-1751,
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Whiteside, P.G.D. (1983). P a t t e r n of Q u a t e r n a r y sediments revealed d u r i n g
piling works a t S h a Tin, Hong Kong. Proceedings of t h e Meeting on t h e
Geoloqy of Surficial Deposits i n Honq Konq. Hong Kong. p p 153-159.
(Published as Geological Society of Hong Kong, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d by
W.W.S. Yim, 1984).

Whiteside, P.G.D. & Bracegirdle. D.R. ( 1984). Geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some

Hong Kong r o c k s a n d t h e i r importance i n u n d e r g r o u n d excavation works.
Proceedings of t h e Conference on Geological Aspects of Site
Investigation, Hong Kong, pp 175-187. (Published a s Geological Society
of Hong Konq, Bulletin no. 2, e d i t e d by I. McFeat-Smith, 1985).

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Willis, A.J. & Shirlaw. J.N. (1983). Deep alluvial deposits b e n e a t h Victoria
P a r k , Causeway Bay. Proceedings of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of
Surficial Deposits in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, pp 143-152. (Published a s
Geoloqical Society of Honq Kong, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d b y W.W.S. Yim,
1984).

Yim, W.W.S. (1983). A sedimentological s t u d y of t h e seafloor sediments

exposed d u r i n g excavation of t h e E a s t Dam Site. High Island. Sai Kung.
Proceedings of t h e Meetinq on t h e Geology of Surficial Deposits i n Hong
Kong, Hong Kong, p p 131-142. (Published a s Geological Society of Hong
Kong, Bulletin no. 1. e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim. 1984).

Yim, W.W.S. & Li, Q . Y . (1983). Sea level c h a n g e s a n d seafloor surficial

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d e p o s i t s o f f Chek Lap Kok. A b s t r a c t s of t h e Meeting on t h e Geology of
Surficial Deposits i n ~ ~ o nKong, q Hong Kong, pp. 48-59. (Published a s
Geological Society of Honq Konq, Bulletin no. 1, e d i t e d by W.W.S. Yim,
1984).

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TABLES
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L I S T OF TABLES

Table Page
No. No.
1 Guidance on Rock a n d Soil Description in 73
Different ~ o c a t i o n s
2 Classification of Rock Material S t r e n g t h
3 Colour Description Scheme

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4 Classification of Rock Material Decomposition
Grades
5 Classification of Solid Rocks a n d Superficial
Deposits in HOng Kong
6 Spacing of Planar S t r u c t u r e s
7 Discontinuity Spacing
8 Unevenness (Small- Scale Roughness) of
Discontinuities

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9 A p e r t u r e Size
10 Classification of Rock Mass Weathering Zones
11 P r o c e d u r e f o r Rapid Identification a n d
Description of Soils
12 Soil S t r e n g t h i n Terms of Compactness a n d
Consistency
13 Particle Form
14 Particle Angularity
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15 Use of Secondary Constituents f o r t h e Naming

of Composite Soils
16 Methods f o r Naming Soils Containing Very
Coarse Material
17 Plasticity Terms Based on Liquid Limit
18 Identification F e a t u r e s f o r Different Soil
Types
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19 Names a n d Descriptive L e t t e r s f o r Grading

a n d Plasticity Characteristics
Table Page

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No. No.
20 British Soil Classification System for
Engineering Purposes

21 Symbols for Rocks and Soils

22 Symbols for Borehole Records
23 Symbols for General Planar Structures

24 Symbols for Other Geological Structures and

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Boundaries

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Table 1 - Guidance on Rock and Soil Description i n D i f f e r e n t Locations

Location Field Ground Investigation Drilling Rig Laboratory

Rock and Soil : Natural or man-made exposure Rock : Core Rock : Pieces of core and irregular hand samples
Typical (e.g. t r i a l pit or cutting) Soil : Samples from split triple-tube core-1 Soil : Samples from split triple-tube core-barrels.
Sample barrels. driven samplers and core- extruded thicklthin-wal!ed samplers, S.PT
barrel cutting toes, SPT liners liners, hand-cut blocks. tr~mmedtest specimen!
lescriptive Material Mass Material Mass Material Mass
Scale
Strength Structure Strength (structure) Strength (Normally not

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Colour Discontinuities Colour Discontinuities Colour applicable 1
TexturelFabric (nature, orientation, Texture /Fabric (nature. spacing, TextureIFabric
spacing, persistence. roughness,
Weathered State roughness, aperture, Weathered State aperture. infilling. Weathering State
ltems for Alteration State infilling, seepage) Alteration State fracture indices) Alteration State
Rock Rock Name Mass Weathering Rock Name Mass Weathering Rock Name
Description
Additional lnformation Additional lnformation Additional Information Additional lnformation
k g . results of index tests (e.g. representability (e.g. results of (e.g. mineralogy, results
of mass s a m ~ l e ) index t e s t s ) of index tests)
Additional Geological lnformation
(e.g. geological formation. age)
Strength Structure Strength (Structure) Strength (structure)
Colour Discontinuities Colour (Discontinuities) Colour (Discontinuities)
Particle Shape / (items as in rock Particle Shape/ (items a s in rock Particle ShapelComposition (nature, orientation.
description list above descrlptlon list spacing, roughness,

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Composition Composition Soil Name
Weathered State above) aperture, infilling)
Items for Soil Name Soil Name (based on rapid or detailed
(based on rapid Additional Information (based on rapid Weathered State assessment of grading1 (weathered State)
Soil assessment of (e.g. presence of assessment of plasticity )
Description grading Iplasticity) voids, seepage not grading /plasticity) Additional lnformation
Additional Information related to Additional lnformation (e.g. degree of sample
k g . results of index tests) (e.g. degree of disturbance. mineral0 y.
sample disturbance, results of index tests?
Additional Geological Information
results of index tests)
(e.g. geological origm, type of deposit)

Notes : ( 1 ) Less comprehensive descriptions may also be possible with lower quality samples (e.g. flushings, jar or bulk samples).
( 2 ) Main descriptive items marked in square brackets may often not be applicable, depending on sample size.
( 3 ) For soils derived from insitu rock weathering: if the original rock texture/structure i s retained (i.e. saprolites), they should be described
in rock terms, supplemented by additional soil terms for compactnesslconsistency and grading; if the rock texturelstructure i s completely
lost (i.e, residual soils), they should be described in soil terms.

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( L ) Description of the orientation of discontinuities in drillcore may also be possible, depending on the ground investigation techniques used;
see Geoguide 2 (GCO, 1987a).
( 5 ) This table provides general guidance only. For further details on particular descriptive items, refer to the relevant text section.
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Table 2 - Classification of Rock Material Strength

Uniaxial Approximate Point Load

Descriptive Compressive Strength Index Values (ls(50))
Field Identification Tests
Term Strength for Granitic & Volcanic Rocks
( MPa 1 (MPa1
I
I Extremely
I I Easily crumbled by hand; indented deeply by thumbnail.

I
weak

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Very weak Generally not applicable Crumbled with difficulty by hand; scratched easily
by thumbnail; peeled easily by pocket knife.
I Weak May be broken by hand into pieces; scratched by thumbnail;
peeled by pocket knife; deep indentations up to 5mm made
with point of geological pick; hand-held specimen easily
I
broken by single light blow of geological hammer.
I

Moderately May be broken with difficulty i n two hands; scratched with

weak difficulty by thumbnail; difficult to peel but easily scratched
by pocket knife; shallow indentations easily made w i t h
point of geological pick; hand-held specimen usually
broken by single light blow of geological hammer.

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Moderately Scratched by pocket knife; shallow indentations made by
strong firm blow with point of geological pick; h a n d - h e l d
specimen usually broken by single f i r m blow of geological
hammer.
Strong Firm blows with point of geological pick cause only
superficial surface damage; hand-held specimen requires
more than one firm blow to break with geological hammer.
Very strong L - 8 I Many blows of geological hammer required to break specimen.

,
, Extremely
strong
>8 Specimen can only be chipped by blows of geological hammer.

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I
I
i Note : The very weak and extremely weak classes are applicable to soils derived from insitu weathering of r o c k s .
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Table 4 - Classification of Rock Material Decomposition Grades

G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r Granitic 8 Additional Typical Choracteristlcs for Speciflc Rock Types

Descriptive Grade
Volconic Rocks 8 Other R o c k s o f
Term ;ymbol
Equivalent Strength in the Fresh State
Granite Granodiorite Coarse Ash CryslallLith~c Tuf Fine Ash Vitric Tuff

Original rock texture complctcly destroyed Reddsh brawn Brown or rrddtsh brown Yellowish brown
Can be crumbled by hand and finger pressure mto Feldspars completely destroyed Quartz only remamng prlmory
constituent groins Quartz is only remolnmg prrmory mmerd
mlnerol; vsvolly dull. etched or plttec
and reduced in s i r e compared w i t h
fresh condltlon

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3rngmol rock texture preserved Yellow#Sh brown to reddish brown h l l o w # b h brown to reddish brown Brown to rcddlsh bmwn
Con be crumbled by hand and finger pressure m a Fe1d~p.r~ powdery to soft Plogiochse feldlpm5 powdwy to Soft Slake5 Slowly In water
conslltucnt 9'0l"S nand penetrometer Sheor strength mdc. very eoslly grooved by p#n Maf8c mmerols soft, dull. dark grew
Eosbly mdentcd by point of g ~ o l o g ~ ~pick
ol < 250 kPa O r t h ~ ~ I a sfeldspars
e gutty, leS5 eo511 10 brown, d#fficult to dlstlnguclh
Slakes whcn rmmerred I" water Zero rebound from N Schmidt h m m e r grooved
Completely discolaured compared wllh fresh rock Zero rebound from N Schmidt hommcl

:en be broken by hond ~ n t osmdlcr pmrccs Y e l l o w ~ ~brown

h 10 yellow8sh orangel Yctlor~sh brown to y t l l a v n ~ horongel Vellow~~b hrown Yellowish grey
%kes s dull ~ u n dwhen struck by geolog8sol hommrr brown brown Moflc mlneroll soft, dull. dark green Surface can be ssrotched by kntfc
Highly NOI eosbly indented by point of gcologicol p ~ k Feldspars powdery Plogioclose feldspars powdery 10 g i t t l
Decomwrrd Doe5 not slake when immersed in w l e r Hand pcnelrometcr shear strength lndcx N Schmidl rebound volue 15-30
3ompletely discoloured compared with fresh rock ,250 kPm
mSdrvr N Schmidt rebound d u e < 2 5

Connot uruolly be broken by hond; cosily broken by Yellwish brown Yellowish brown Vellowlsh grey White or hghl grey
geobgicol hommcr Feldspars grltty plaglochse feldspars party decomposed Moflc mmeralS generally not ~ h l n y , Surfme cannot be scratched by knl
Modemlcly Makes a dull or slight ringlng sound whcn Struck by Bmtlte not shiny to gritty small pieces soft. black 01 51omed dark brown
Decomposed geologlcol hammer N Schmtdl rebound value 2 5 - L 5 N Schmidt rcbwnd value 2 5 - 5 0
Completely slolned throughout

vat broken easily by geological hammer Feldspars hard to Slqhtly grltty Plogioclose feldSparS ~18ghllygr8Ity Light grey or greenish grey Grey, lhght grey or greentsh grey
Uokrs a ringing sound whcn struck by geolog~col Orthoclase feldspars often pink Cloudy appearance

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BiMW ond hornblende ~ l i g h l i y s t a i m Mofic mlnerols shiny, hord, black.
Slightly hammer B#ot#teslrghlly stornrd and dull oround and dull may be sightly stoiocd and dull
Decompascd 9 e ~ hmck C D ~ D U ~ Sgenerally retained but stained near edges N Schmidt rebound value L5-70 around edges
jomt Lurfoces N Sshmldt rebound value > 4 5

Overall rock colaur greylwhrte
Feldspors hmrd and shmy
Biotite Shiny. not stalncd
Fresh
Qvortr colourlcss or grey. g1055y
OverOll r o c k colour grey
Feldspars hard and shiny
Biotite and hornblende 5hmy, not 5 t a m
Quartz solourless or grey. glossy
N Sehmldt rebound volue >60
overall rock eatour ranges from l q h t Over~llrock colour block
greentsh grey IJSMI to grey IJSM, ~ l o s s yoppeormcc
JYTl
FeId5pors hard ond shiny
Mofls mmerals shiny. hard black
Qumtz colo~rle55or grey, glassy

General Notes I 1 Not 011 these generol chorocler#st#csore oppl~coble 131 Based on Moyc 119551. Henchet 6 I61 Bared on unpubhshed work by 191 Based on unpubhrhed work bl
to rock5 whose strength 8n the fresh state 15 Martm 11982) ond unpublished work the GCO the GCO
modemtely strong or less (see Table 21 ~ l t c r n o t ~ a by the GCO 171 JYT =Y,m Tln Tram Farmotton
~ I o s s v f ~ c ~ t b omoy
n s be more appropriate for such I L I A S S P S S ~ Cof~ ~m~l n e r o l ~oppl~~able JSMr Shlng Mun Formotion
moterloll (see S r c t m 2 3 L I t o med~umand cmrse grolned gronte 15ee HKGS mops ond memo8rsI
121 Use of geologrsal hammer oppl8coble momly to may be dofflcult or mporstble t o 181 M0f8c m~neralsreferred to are
materds mnfcned m o fjeld ezooaure asserr 8n f w - g r a m e d g r m l t e s biotlfe and hornblende

Note5 on Index Tests It01 S h k ~test' romplcr alreody close to raturotwn rn~rrture conlent a r e less likely to sloke.
1111 Feldspar altcrot8on i r r t : Hard= cannot be cut by knife or grooved by pin: Gritty: con be cut by knife or grooved by pin with prcz3urc; Powdery = easdy grooved by pro. can be crushed to silt

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frogmentr in fingers; Soll=eorily grooved by pin, con be moulded very easily to cloy m Imgcrr.
1121 N Schmldt hommer tert: rebound values ore for nomrnrr held pcrpendiculm to rock focc: take initial 'seating' blows to ensure good contact and record average value from a rnrncmum of flvc consecuflv<
irnpocts. qnaring unusually low readfngs
It31 HOM penefrometer test. press mstrumcnt hcod slowly and smoothly ,nto sample, take an overage of ten values and divide by two to gwe shear rtrength mdex: test may be improctlcol on very smoll samples
I 1 0 Test r e s ~ l t s8n general may be affected by sample moisture content and degree of mrsrofrosturmg
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 78

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Table 6 - S p a c i n g of P l a n a r S t r u c t u r e s

Descriptive Term Spacing

Very thick

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Thick

Medium

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Thin

Very thin

Thickly - Laminated (sedimentary 1

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Narrow ( metamorphic and igneous

Thinly- laminated 1 sedimentary 1

Very narrow (metamorphic and igneous 1

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 79

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Table 7 - Discontinuity Spacing

Descriptive Term Spacing

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Extremely widely -spaced

Very widely -spaced

Widely -spaced

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Medium-spaced

Closely -spaced

Very closely-spaced
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Extremely closely-spaced
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 80

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Table 8 - U n e v e n n e s s (Small-Scale R o u g h n e s s ) o f D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s

Class First Term Second Term Illustration

1 Rough Stepped

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2 Smooth Stepped

3 Slickensided Stepped

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4 Rough Undulating

5 Smooth Undulating

6 Slickensided Undulating
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7 Rough Planar

8 Smooth Planar

9 Slickensided Planar
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Notes : ( 1 ) Length of t h e illustrated profiles i s in t h e range 1 t o 10 metres.

( 2 ) Vertical a n d horizontal scales a r e e q u a l .
<
 81

Table 9 - Aperture Size

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Aperture Distance between Disconlinuity Walls

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z 0 - 2mm

- - - - - - Table of Contents

Zero
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 82

Table 10 - Classification of Rock Mass Weathering Zones

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Zone Zone
Zone Characteristics
Description Symbol

Residual soil derived from insitu weathering;

Residual
Soil
mass structure and material texture / fabric

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completely destroyed : 100 % soil

Less than 30 % rock

Soil retains original mass structure and
material texture / fabric ( i . e. saprolite)
0130 %
Rock Rock content does not affect shear behaviour of
mass, but relict discontinuities in soil may do so

Rock content may be significant for investigation

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and construction
Y
U
0 -
(r

u
a,
L 30 "loto 50 % rock
a,
r 30150%
C
O Rock Both rock content and relict discontinuities may
r" affect shear behaviour of mass
ZI
-
A

-
,0
C
L
O
a 50 % to 90 'lo rock
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50190%
Rock
Inter locked structure

Greater than 90 '10 rock

90 1100%
Rock Small amount of the material converted t o soil
along discontinuities

-- -
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Unweathered 100 % rock

Rock
May show sllght d~scolourationalong discont~nultles
 Table of Contents
Table 1 1 - Procedure f o r Rapid Identification a n d Description of Soils

h s i c Soil Type
Particle
Size Visual ldentif ication
Particle
Shape and
Structure and Weathering I
Colour
Imml Plasticity Ouantltotlve Scales

Partlcle Smk of Ycmdary

BOULDERS Only seen complete ~n pots or exposurer Shape Homo -
- 200 -+
..
with Coarse Soil5
By inspection of voids gmCOus

COBBLES Often daffisult to rcswrr from boreholes -

Form
and porticle pocking

Equidlmmsionl
Flat dtermt8ng layers of
Easily visible t o naked eye; w r t i c l r Elongotr w i n g typer or w i t h
F l a t and andr or lenses of

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be descr~bed clongote ther motermlr.

Well-graded: wide range ot grain sizes.

GRAVELS -
Angulor!ly
Angular
particles lies between narrow l t m i t s ; Subangular
or gap-graded: on intwmedimtr size Svbrrrunded
o f portisle is markedly under - Rounded
Fine
represented. I
Surfose Tcxtvri

m.,.r
I
Visible t o caked ere: .
, . rrrv l i t t l e or no
c o h c s m when dry: grading can be
described.
Smooth
ROU*
Glassy
:omse fraction may o l r o be

I C C O ~ ~ O ~constituent
Y where
Requires pick for

I Thinly-
laminated / < ' 1 Hue

I
-- 0.6 Hmeycornbed
Well-graded: wide rsnge of groin s i r e s Pltted For composite types dcacribed or:
SANDS Poorly-graded- not well grodcd. l M o y Striated : M y q ' f i n e s are plortic.cohcsive;
Mcd,um
be ~ n i t o l m : IIZC of most p o r l l s l e ~INCS
between norrow limits; or gap-grodcd.
-0 2 00 mtcrmcdmtc slzc of partlslr 1s

markedly under-rrprcsenlcd.1
Fine

- -- --

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Cmrre Only soarsc r l l t barely visible to naked rraks into polyhedral
rogmentr d o n g
-0.02 eye; e l h i b m l i t t l e pdslticity m d rmrkcd
dilotonsy: slightly granular or silky t o i'lsures
Gravel or
SILTS Mcd,um the touch. Oismtcgroter tn w d e r . Non - p l s s t a
umtitotive x a l e
or LOW I , spasmg of
-0 006 lumps dry quickly; possess cohesion but Closely-
can be pnvdcrcd easily betwee' fingers plostisity iscontinuities may Spaced
Flne used.
c
3 Moltled

I I /
ory l u m p ~can be broken but not
f rnger p t e r r u r r Streaked
pow&wd between fingers; lhey a k a
dlsmtcgrotc under mtn but more s l m l y Homo - eposit con3ists
than silt; smooth l o lhc touch; erhibttr 'ull explanmion of the use of Cannot be moulded by OLneour sscntblly of one type
plusticity but no dilatonsy; sticks to ieconchry eonstttuents m Stiff Cg,e;i- be M e n l e d D r r c m t # n u # t # eIrGeneral I
CLAYS select one
fingns ond drws slowly, shrmks :ompOste Soils IS g w r n ~n Inter- l t n m t i n g layers of
appveciably on drying, urually showing loblcs 15 and 16. stlotitied orling typer.
cracks. Intermediate and high plasticity 1t~rv.1 S m k for
CIOYS show the% prowrthes l o a 0, Intel- u c k n e r r of layerr
modcmte and hlgh degree, rcrpedlvely. laminated lay be used.
High q u a l i t l e d by

I I
plasticity Weathering a term for
ORGAN lC Cmtalns s u b ~ t o n t l domountr of organfs
I Fat clay I COmwcl Fibre5 already
CLAY, SlLT Varies vegetable matter Often has nolicroblc
compressed together

I
or SAND smell and chmgcr colour on modation. ...... .

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In warre soils : &scribe .pp,.pr~otc.
very c o m ~ c l s i b l eand Fibrous Ian1 rema,ns overall dissolourot~onof See
Predominantly plant remains; u l u ~ l l y Spongy open structure. :cognizable and
PEATS Varies dark brown or bhck in colwr. often with soil and dcgree of
:tam some rtrcnalh
Con be moulded m hand. ~ ~ . ~ ~ h ~ ~ ! decompositi& of grovel
di5llnnlve smell; low bulk density Plasl,s
and smears fingers and larger fragmcntr
 Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents Table of Contents
Table 12 - Soil Strength in Terms of Compactness and Consistency
 -

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Table 13 Particle Form

Descriptive Term lllustration

Equidimensional

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Flat

ELongate

@ & @
Flat and ELongate

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Table 1 4 - Particle Angularity

Descriptive Term Illustration

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Subangular

Subrounded
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Rounded
 86

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Table 1 5 - Use of Secondary Constituents for the Naming of Composite Soils

'ercentage 01
Terminology Term for
Secondary
Sequence Secondary Constituent
Constituent

With a little
Secondary +

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constituents With some
after principal
With much

Slightly ( s i l t y , clayey or
siltylclayey *I
- ( s i l t y , clayey or
siltylclayey *)
Secondary Very [silty, clayey or

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constituents before silty /clayey*]
principal (excluding
cobbles and AND I OR
boulders 1
Slightly [gravelly or sondy*
- (gravelly or sandy*

Very (gravelly or sandy *

Secondary Slightly (gravelly or sandy

constituents before
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or b o t h * )
principal (excludinc
cobbles a n d
boulders - (gravelly or sandy *
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Examples : Slightly siltylclayey, sandy GRAVEL

Slightly clayey, gravelly SAND
Very gravelly SAND
Sandy SILT
Slightly gravelly, slightly sandy SlLTlCLAY
 -

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T a b l e 16 M e t h o d s f o r N a m i n g Soils C o n t a i n i n g V e r y Coarse M a t e r i a l

Rapid Method for Naming Very Coarse Soils

-I
Estimated Boulder or
Principal Soil Type Term Cobble Content of
Very Coarse Fraction

BOULDERS > 50% is of boulder

size (> 200mml

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Very coarse soils
(BOULDERS & COBBLES] COBBLES > 50% is of cobble
i.e. >50% of material is size ( 6 0 - 200mm I
very coarse ( >60mm)
BOULDERS may be qualified a s 'cobbly' and
COBBLES a s ' bouldery '

Full Method for Naming Composite Soils Containing Very Coarse Material

1 Principal Soil Type I Term Composition

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BOULDERS (or COBBLES) BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with a < 5% finer material
little finer material

BOULDERS (or COBBLES1 BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with 5% -20% finer material
some finer material

BOULDERS (or COBBLES) BOULDERS (or COBBLES] with 20%- 50% finer material
much finer material

FlNER MATERIAL FlNER MATERIAL with many 50%-20% boulders

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boulders ( o r cobbles I ( o r cobbles I

FlNER MATERIAL FlNER MATERIAL with some 20% - 5% boulders

boulders ( o r cobbles ( o r cobbles)

FlNER MATERIAL FlNER MATERIAL with occasional < 5% boulders

boulders ( or cobbles) (or cobbles)

Note : When t h e f u l l method i s used, the name of the finer material should
be given i n parentheses w h e n it i s t h e minor constituent, a s shown
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below 1.

Examples : Sandy GRAVEL with occasional boulders

Cobbly BOULDERS w ~ t hsome fmer material (slightly gravelly sand )
BOULDERS with much flner mater~al [siltylclayey, very sandy gravel 1
 Table of Contents
Table 17 - Plasticity Terms Based on Liquid Limit

Range of Liquid Limit

Descriptive Term for Plasticity
('la 1

Low plasticity

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Intermediate plasticity

High plasticity

Very high plasticity

Extremely high plasticity

Note : Ctassification in terms of plasticity is based on Liquid limit, in

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accordance with BS 5930 I1981 ) .

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>h-

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T a b l e 18 - Identification Features for D i f f e r e n t Soil Types

I Feature I .. Soils
Soil T v ~ e
D e r i v e d from
Weathered Insitu Rock
Group Weatherin
Fill b"uv'um Residual
Co~~uvium
Saprolits
Soi I

a. Foreign, but present upslope

Rock Type of
Boulders and
Cobbles b. Totally foreign or man-made

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1 brick, etc. )

a. Joints and veins i n boulders

b. Joints and veins persistent

Relict through matrix
Structure
c. Remnants of disrupted veins

Id. Layering

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controlled by original joint
pattern
b. Jumbled arrangement of rock
fragments with some point
contact
Texture1 c. Gradational change in strengtt
and grc~dingfrom rock
Fabric
fraoments
- t o matrix
d. Sharp change in strength and
grading from rock fragments
t o matrix
e. Matrix mineralogyltexture
different f rom rock fragments

Stratigraphic a. Overlies boulder-free zone

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Profile or layer

a. Topsoil Layer
Basal
Features
b. Particle alignment

Springs (a. At contacts with other soils

a. Fan- or lobe-shaped b *
Geomorphology
b. Anomalous topography h
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Legend :

* Feature indicates soil type, but soil type does not always show a particular feature

Note : Table adapted f r o m Huntley & Randall 11981 1 .

 90

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Table 19 Names a n d D e s c r i p t i v e L e t t e r s f o r G r a d i n g a n d
Plasticity Characteristics

Soil
Compo- Terms Descriptive Name Letter
nents

Main terms GRAVEL

In
C
C
SAND

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0,
C
0
P

0
E Qualifying WelI- graded
@J
terms Poorly-graded
11
0
0 Uniform
Gap - graded
0

Main terms FINE SOIL, FINES

may be differentiated i n t o M or C

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SILT ( M - SOIL)
plots below A - l i n e o f plasticity chart
of Figure 8 (of restricted plastic range]
V)
C

al
C CLAY
C
0
plots above A - line ( f u l l y plastic 1
E
8 Qualifying Low plasticity
.- E terms Intermediate plasticity
U.
High plasticity
Very high plasticity
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Extremely high plasticity

Upper plasticity range *
incorporating groups I , H , V and E

.-
U
..-m
C
Main term PEAT

5
Pa
g
0 E Qualifying Organic
0 may be suffixed t o any group
U term
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Legend :

I
4 See Note 5 in Table 20
This term i s a useful guide when it is not possible or not required
* to designate the range of liquid Limit more closely, e. g. during the
rapid description of soils
 91

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Table 20 British Soil Classification System for Engineering Purposes

Soil Groups (11 Subgroups and Laboratory ldentif ication

GRAVEL ar S A N D may b e Fines
q u a l i f i e d I an additional Group Subgroup (% l e s s L i q u i d
s e c o n d a r y c o ~ Ltituent f o r coarse Symbol Symbol than Limit Name
f r a c t i o n w !re appropriate 121131 121 0 . 0 6 m m ) 1%)
I1 ble 151
Slightly s i l t y or
IGW Well-graded GRAVEL

I
G
clayey GRAVEL GW
P GPu GPg Poorly-gradedluniform /Gap-graded GRAVE
S i l t y GRAVEL G-M GWM GPF Well-groded1Poorly-graded s i l t y GRAVEL
G-F
clayey GRAVEL G-C GWC GPC Well-gradedIPoorly-graded clayey GRAVE1

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Very s i l t y GRAVEL Very s i l t y GRAVEL : subdivide as for GC
Very clayey GRAVEL GF GC GCL etc
G M IGML, Very clayey GRAVEL I clay of low,
intermediate.
high.
very high.
extremely high p l o s t i c ~ t yI

S l ~ g h t l ys i l t y or Well-graded SAND
clayev SAND Poorlv-araded /Uniform IGOD-araded SAND

Silty SAND Well-graded /Poorly-graded s i l t y SAND

Clayey SAND Well-graded /Poorly-qraded clayey SAND
Very s i l t y SAND Very s i l t y SAND : subdivide as for SC
Very clayey SAND Very clayey SAND I c l o y o f low.
intermediate.

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SC H high.
SC v very high,
SCE extremely high plasticity I
Gravelly SILT Gravelly SlLT : subdivide as for CG
Gravelly CLAY 14) Gravelly CLAY I of low.
intermediate.
high,
very h l g h .
extremely high p l a s t i c i t y I
Sandy SILT ( 4 1 Sandy SlLT : subdivide as for CG
Sandy CLAY l 4 1 Sandy CLAY : subdivide as for CG

SlLT I M - s o i l 1 M ML, etc SlLT : subdivide as for C

F
CLAY 151 I 6 1 171 C CL CLAY l o f low,
CI intermediate,
CH high.
Cv very h ~ g h .
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CE extremely high p l a s t i c i t y l
Descriptive Letter ' :ti ?d t o be a significant constituent
l r g a n i c Soils
any group or s u b - g r o u p symbol. Example MHO : Organic: SILT of high p l a s t i c i t y .

Peat Pt Peat soils consist predominantly of plant remains w h ~ c hmay b e f i b r o u s or amorphous.

L
Notes : (1 1 The name of the soil group should always be given when describing soils, supplemented. i f required, by
the group symbol. although for some applicottons 1e.g. diagrams1 i t moy be convenient to u s e the
group symbol alone.
(21 The group symbol or sub-group symbol should be placed i n brackets ~f Laboratory methods have n o t
been used for identification, e . g. (GC I .
(31 The designation FINE SOIL or FINES. F may be used i n place of SILT. M , or CLAY. C, when i t is not
possible or not required t o distingu~shbetween them
(41 Gravelly i f more than 50 % of coarse material i s o f gravel s i z e . Sandy i f more than 50 % o f
coarse m a t e r i a l i s o f sand s i z e .
151 SlLT iM-soil). M is material that plots below the A-line, and h a s a restricted plastic ronge in r e l a t ~ o n
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to i t s liquid limlt. and relatively low cohesion. Fine soils of this type include c l e a n s i l t - s i z e d
moteriak and rock flour, micaceous and diatomaceous soils, pumice, and volcanic soils, and s o i l s
conta~nlngh a l l o y s ~ t e .The a l t e r n a t ~ v eterm ' M - s o i l ' avoids confusion w i t h materials of predom~nantly
s i l t size, which form only a p a r t of the group.
Organic solls also usually plot below the A - l i n e on the p l a s t ~ c i t yc h a r t , when they are designated
ORGANIC SILT, MO.
161 CLAY. C i s material t h a t plots above the A-line, and i s fully plastic i n relation to its liquid limit.
I71 SlLT and CLAY may be q u a l ~ f i e das slightly sandy. or s l i g h t l y gravelly, or both, where appropriate
[Table 151.
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Table 21 - Symbols f o r Rocks a n d Soils

ROCKS
Igneous Rocks Pyroclastic Rocks
Granite T- Iovo o v a
vOvoV, Pyroc1astic breccia

I::::I Granodiorite,
Monzonite
Syenite.
I Coarse ash tuff,
Lapilli tuff

L l v "'..V..
Fine ash tuff

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Gabbro, Lamprophyre

.*
;i..+:~'-.*
jc'.'*'.'X
Dacite, Latite.
Andesite, Trachyte, Trachyandesite
E y
, . Basalt

Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks -
Conglomerate [MI regional

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A A A A
Sedimentary breccia Phyllite, Mylonite

...........
...........
I...........
..........(
........... Sandstone Schist

.................
Siltstone ............... Gneiss

.....
-::: ..........I
...... Quartzite

Shale Marble
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Metamorphic rocks -
Limestone contact le.p. H o m f e l s l

SOILS

Fill (made ground] clay

1-1 Boulders and cobbles Peat

1-1 Gravel
Note : Composite soil types to be
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signified by combined symbols,

. . . . SO,d e. g.
. .. ... . . .
,

silt 1 .....
. .I .I .I. I. Silty sand
 Table of Contents
Table 22 - Symbols for Borehole Records

- Fault

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Slip surface

-a-Q-- Shell band

Examples :

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Granite faulted against gneiss

Fault in sandstone

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I.................I
Slip surface in sandstone

Slip surface in shale

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 94

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Table 23 Symbols f o r General Planar S t r u c t u r e s

Horizontal stratum

Inclined stratum with dip in degrees (long axis is strike direction 1

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Vertical stratum (Long axis is strike direction )

Foliation or cleavage, horizontal

Foliation or cleavage. inclined, with dip in degrees ( Long axis is

strike direction)

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Foliation or cleavage, vertical [long axis is strike direction)

Joint, horizontal

Joint, inclined, with dip in degrees ( Long axis is strike direction )

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Joint, vertical (long axis is strike direction)

Flow fabric, horizontal

Flow fabric, inclined, with dip in degrees (Long axis is

strike direction )
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Flow fabric, vertical (long axis is strike direction)

 Table of Contents
Table 24 - Symbols for Other Geological Structures and Boundaries

Geological boundary, superficial deposit

I
Geological boundary, solid rock
broken lines
denote uncertainty

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Mineral vein

Axial trace of anticline

Axial trace of syncline

I
Fault, crossmark on downthrow side, with
dip in degrees and throw in metres

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broken lines
denote uncertainty
Fault, with horizontal component of
relative movement

Photogeological lineament

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FIGURES
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-
--
 99

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
No. No.

1 Example of a Discontinuity Data Sheet

2 Shape of Rock Blocks i n a Discontinuous Rock

Mass
3 Scales of Discontinuity Roughness

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4 Schematic Illustration of F r a c t u r e Logging
Terms

5 Mass Weathering Profiles a n d Zonal Weathering

Classification of a Mass Exposure

6 Quantitative Classification of Particle Form

7 Types of Bedding

8 Plasticity Chart f o r Classification of Fine

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Soils a n d t h e Finer P a r t of Composite Soils

9 Grading Chart f o r Soils with Grading Curves

of Selected Soil Types

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[BLANK PAGE]
 Table of Contents
GENERAL INFORMATION
1 1 1 Oate~IOperatOr~
Day Month Year
lecord
No. 1
?, site I N Y W n E R E
Discontinuity Data
Sheet No. Of F l
Location :
Chainage
n;r; or, N
; r; Dip
direction

1,7,8
Dip Persistence

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5,6 I 13;s
012,6 2,7 I 11;s
2,3,5 8,6 I I i9
1,7,6 6,6 1 I i7
2,4,6 8,4 I 14i3
1 , 4 , 9 5,5 I 12i4
O16,L LIL ,2,5;0
l 1 4 ( 4 g10 1 1 i 9

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2, 3 , 4 8,2 I 13i3
2,3,2 8,l I i 4
1,LI4 6,2 I 11i3 7 ,1;0 ;015 ,5,0 1 I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I I

2 , 6 , 3 8,O ,1 ,8;0 age estimate 5 litreslmin

I I

Type Dip direction, Dip Persistence Aperture Nature of Infilling Consistency of Infilling Unewness - -
Waviness W a t ~
0.Fault zone Expressed in Maximum I.Wide 1>200mml 0. Clean Soil strength Rock strength I Small-scale roughness1 [large-scale I.Dry
1.Fault degrees dimenwon of 2.Mod. wide (60-200mml 1. Surface staining 1 Very SOH 6. Extremely weak 1. Rough stepped roughness1 2. Damplwet
2. Joint trace length 3. Mod. narrow(20-60mm) 2. Deromposcd/disintegrated rock 2. Soft 7. Very weak 2. Smooth stepped Express 3. Seepage
3. Cleavage
4.Schislosily
m exposed
face expressed -
4.Narrow ( 6 - 2 0 m m l
5. Very narrow ( 2 6mml
3. Non-cohesive soil
L . Cohesive roil
3. Firm
4. Stiff
8. Weak
9. Moderately weak
3. Slickensided stepped
L Rough undulatmg
wavelength
& amplilude
present
(estimate
5. Shear plane in metres 6. E l l . narrow b 0 -2mml 5. Quartz 5. Very stiff 10. Modcrotcly strong 5.Smooth undulating in metres quantity
6. Fissure 7. Tight (zero1 6. Calcite or hard 11. Strong 6. Slickensided undulating separately
7. Tension crack 7. Manganese 12. Very strong 7. Rough planar in lilres/se

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8. Folialion 8. Kaolin 13. Extremely strong 8. Smooth planar or Iitreshn.
O. Bedding 9.Other -specify 9. Slickensided planar

Figure 1 - Example of a Discontinuity Data Sheet

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Tabular
Blocky

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Polyhedral
Columnar

Note : Numbers i n diagrams refer t o discontinuity s e t s .

Figure 2 - Shape o f Rock B l o c k s i n a Discontinuous Rock Mass

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<Small-scale uneveness

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Notes : ( 1 I Waviness can be described by estimation Imeasurement of

wavelength and amplitude.
( 2 ) Uneveness can be described using the terms given in Table 8 .

Figure 3 - Scales o f D i s c o n t i n u i t y Roughness

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Figure 4 - Schematic Illustration of Fracture Logging Terms
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Sti - .-- .-
- --. I:
-. .-

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Figure 5 - Mass Weathering Profiles and Zonal Weathering Classification of a Mass Exposure
 Table of Contents
Flat Equidimensional

Flat and Elongat

Elongate

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i6 1
z
Flatness Rotio = -
- Y
Legend : Particle diameters
x Longest diameter
Y Intermediate diameter
z Shortest diameter

Figure 6 - Quantitative Classification of Particle Form

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Regular Bedding Cross Bedding
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Graded Bedding Slump Bedding

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Lenticular Bedding Wavy Bedding

Figure 7 - Types o f Bedding

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&4
4 - line

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Liquid Limit (%I
Notes: (1 The letter 0 is added to the symbol of any material containing a significant proportion of organic matter e.g. MHO.
( 2 ) Plasticity measurements are made on material passing L25 p m BS sieve.

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Figure 8 - Plasticity Chart for Classification of Fine Soils and the Finer Part of Composite Soils
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Percentage Retained
Figure 9 - Grading Chart for Soils with Grading Curves of Selected Soil Types
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PLATES
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 111

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LIST OF PLATES

Plate Page
NO. NO.

1 Rock Textures 113

2 Microfractures 114

3 Decomposition Grades of Rock Material 115

Rock Material Examples 117

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4

5 Rock Planar Structures 119

6 Corestones 121

7 Complex Rock Mass Exposures 122

8 Rock Mass Examples 123

9 Contrasts between Unweathered Marine and 124

Weathered Alluvial Sediments

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10 Colluvium/Insitu Decomposed Rock Boundaries

11 Soil Examples

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-
-
-
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A : Equigranular B : lnequigranular C : Megacrystic

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I D : Aphanitic

I
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G : Cryptocrystalline

Natural smk

Note : Porphyritic texture represents a special case of rnegacrystic texture

(see Glossary l . I t is rarely possible to distinguish between the two
by observation alone; additional geological information on the
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composition of the large grainslcrystals relative to the matrix is

usuaiiy required.
I
I Plate 1 - Rock Textures
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I
mm
A : Microfractures Caused by General
Mechanical Weathering in Highly
Decomposed Gronite at Kwai Chung ,
ritories New Territories

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C : Curved Microfroctures Caused by D : Microfractures Caused by Tectonic

Mechanical Weathering ( Exfoliation 1 i n Activity in Slightly Decomposed
a Granite Corestone ot Lung Kwu Granite at Siu Lam. New Territories
Chou Island. New Territories
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Note : For further information. see Section 2. 3. 3 .

Plate 2 - Microfractures
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Descriptive Term Coarse-grained Medium-grained Fine-grained
& Granite Granite Granite
Grade Symbol

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Completely
Decomposed

Highly
Decomposed

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Moderately
Decomposed

Slightly
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Decomposed

Fresh
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Natural scale I
Plate 3 - Decomposition Grades o f Rock Material (Sheet 1 of 2) I
 I

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7
Descriptive Term
Coarse Ash Fine Ash
& Granodiori t e Tuff Tuff
Grade Symbol

Residual
Soil

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Completely
Decomposed

Highly
Decomposed

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Moderately
Decomposed

Slightly
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Decomposed

1 Fresh

I
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Natural scale

Plate 3 - Decomposition Grades o f Rock Material (Sheet 2 of 2)

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A : Igneous Rock from Lai King, New Territories

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B : Pyroclastic Rock from Chai Won. Hong Kong Island

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Note : For full descriptions, see Section 2 . 3 . 7 .

plate 4 - Rock Material Examples (Sheet 1 of 2)

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D : Sedimentary Rock from M a Liu Shui. New Territories

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Note : For full descriptions. see Section 2.3.7.

Plate 4 - Rock Material Examples (Sheet 2 of 2)

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at Sai Kung Hoi. New Territories

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C : Massive D : Flow -banded

(Lapilli tuff with impersistent joints (Rhyolite ot Clear Water Bay
at Ting Kou. New Territories) Peninsula. New Territories
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Plate 5 - Rock Planar Structures (Sheet 1 of 2)

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F : Foliated
( Schist from Tuen Mun. New
Territories as seen in drillcore)

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G : Cleaved
( Phyllite a t Tuen Mun, New
Territories, showing slightly
undulating cleavage )
H : Banded
(Schistose andesite at Tuen Mun.
New Territories, showing alternating
Layers of different grain size I
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mineralogy I

I Plate 5 - Rock Planar Structures (Sheet 2 of 2)

I
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A : Corestones in a Natural Coast01 Exposure of Quartz Syenite at
Tai Miu Wan, CLear Water Bay Peninsula, New Territories

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Plate 6 - Corestones
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,. Sranite Cutslope at Jat's Incline. East Kowloon. Showing a
Partially Weathered PW 30150 Rock Mass Zone with Large
Corestones Overlying a Partially Weathered PW 0130 Rock
Mass Zone

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B: wrs(ope In Coarse nsn ~ u r ar t MI. uav~s,nong KOng Islano.

Showing Voriotion in Degree of Rock Mass Weathering and
Spacing IOrientation of Major Discontinuities ( Vegetation and
chunam surfacing obscure the relatively more weathered zones I
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Plate 7 - Complex Rock Mass Exposures

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A : Pyroc ck Mass Exposed in an Excavation at Choi Wan,

Hong

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B : Igneous Rock Moss Sampled by Drilling at Tsim Sha Tsui.

Kowloon
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Note : For full descriptions, see Section 2 . 4 . 6 .

Plate 8 - Rock Mass Examples

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A : Uniform Grey or Greenish Grey Marine Muds Deposited in a
Reducing Environment I i. e. have not been exposed to sub-aerial
weathering l

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Plate 9 - Contrasts between Unweathered Marine and

Weathered Alluvial Sediments
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A : Boundary in Split Mazier Samples from Borehole a t Peak Rood,
near Magazine Gap, Hong Kong Island I Light brown.
structureless colluvium containing occusional cobbles of highly
decomposed ash t u f f overlying darker, variably coloured,

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completely decomposed ash t u f f with prominent black-stained
and kaolin (?I- inf illed relict joints 1

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B : Boundary in a Trial Pit at Ngou Chi Wan, East Kowloon

(Variably coloured I mottled 1, volcanic colluvium containing large
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decomposed boulders of ash tuff overlying uniform, light pinkish

grey, completely decomposed medium-grained granite 1

Plate 10 - C o l l u v i u m / I n s i t u Decomposed Rock B o u n d a r i e s

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A : Hand Sample of Residual Soil from Chai Wan, Hong Kong Islond

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3: Hand Sample of Completely Decomposed Granite from Ho Man 7

Kow loon
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Note : For full descriptions, see Section 3 . 9 .

Plate 11 - Soil Examples (Sheet 1 o f 4 )

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C: Hand Sample of Marine Mud from Junk Bay, New Territories

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Note : For full descriptions. see Section 3 . 9 .

Plate 11 - Soil Examples (Sheet 2 of 4 )

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.
Chau , Hang Kong Island -

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, ' ~ e l dExposure of Alluvlurn in Stream Bonk neor Tong Yon Son

Tsuen. New T e r r ~ t o r ~ e s
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Note : For full descriptions. see Section 3.9 .

I
Plate 1 1 - Soil Examples (Sheet 3 of 4 )
I
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G : Exposure of Layered Fill in o Trial Pit a t

Peak Rood, near Magazine Gap, Hong Kon!
Island
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Note : For full descriptions, see Section 3. 9 .

Plate 1 1 - Soil Examples (Sheet 4 of 4)

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BLANK PAGE]
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HONG KONG ROCKS AND SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS
NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF
APPENDIX A
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 133

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CONTENTS

Page
NO.

TITLE PAGE
CONTENTS
A.1 INTRODUCTION

A.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS

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A.2.1 Nature
A.2.2 Occurrence
A.2.3 Composition
A.2.4 Chemical T y p e s
A.2.5 Textures
A.2.6 Alteration
A.2.7 Named Varieties

A.3 PYROCLASTIC ROCKS

A.3.1 Nature
A.3.2 Composition
A.3.3 Types

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A.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
A.4.1 Nature
A.4.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
A.4.2.1 Types
A.4.2.2 Rudaceous Rocks
A.4.2.3 Arenaceous Rocks
A.4.2.4 Argillaceous Rocks
A.4.3 C h e m i c a l and B i o c h e m i c a l S e d i m e n t a r y R o c k s
A.4.3.1 Types
A.4.3.2 Limestone a n d Dolomite
A.4.3.3 Chert
A.4.3.4 Evaporities
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A.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

A.5.1 Nature
A.5.2 Contact Metamorphism
A.5.3 Dynamic Metamorphism
A.5.4 Regional Metamorphism

A.6 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS

A.6.1 Types
A.6.2 Mass Wasting Deposits
A.6.3 Fluvial Deposits
A.6.4 Marine Deposits
A.6.5 Organic Deposits
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A.7 S T R U C T U R A L GEOLOGY
A.7.1 General Aspects
A.7.2 Faults and Other Fractures
A.7.3 Folds
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NO.

A.8 WEATHERING
A.8.1 General A s p e c t s
A.8.2 Mechanical Weathering
A.8.3 Chemical W e a t h e r i n g
A.8.4 Weathering F e a t u r e s

A.9 REFERENCES

A.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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L I S T OF TABLES

L I S T OF FIGURES

L I S T OF P L A T E S

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A.l INTRODUCTION

~ o c k sand soils may b e described f o r engineering p u r p o s e s by t h e

methods given in Chapters 2 and 3 respectively. The p u r p o s e of t h i s Appendix
i s t o explain t h e n a t u r e a n d o c c u r r e n c e of Hong Kong r o c k s a n d superficial
deposits from t h e geological viewpoint.

Geological classifications of n a t u r a l e a r t h materials a r e b a s e d o n

characteristics s u c h a s lithology, chemistry, mode of formation a n d occurrence,
a n d age. On t h e geological maps of t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y , a
distinction i s made between t h e solid lithified r o c k s , which include t h e i r insitu
weathered mantles, a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t e d superficial deposits. To most
geologists, soil i s t h e n a t u r a l material which o c c u r s above t h e lower limit of

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biological activity, and i t i s not included on t h e geological maps; a n e n g i n e e r
t e n d s t o r e f e r t o t h i s material a s 'topsoil'. The differences between t h e
engineering a n d geological u s e s of t h e terms 'rock'. 'soil' a n d 'superficial
deposits' a r e discussed in Section 1.2.1.

Solid r o c k s a r e classified into t h e following f o u r broad t y p e s , based on

t h e i r mode of formation :

Igneous, which a r e crystalline o r glassy r o c k s t h a t a r e

formed by t h e solidification of molten material known a s
'magma'. They a r e e i t h e r i n t r u s i v e , solidifying beneath
t h e earth's surface, o r extrusive, erupting a t t h e surface
before cooling.

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Sedimentary, which a r e formed e i t h e r from fragmented
rock o r material particles t h a t h a v e been t r a n s p o r t e d by
g r a v i t y , water, wind o r ice, o r from chemical precipitates
from solutions o r secretions b y organisms. Sediments a r e
often well stratified o r have s t r u c t u r e s which indicate
t h e i r mode of deposition.

Pyroclastic, which a r e formed of fragments a n d particles

of magma a n d pre-existing r o c k s t h a t a r e e j e c t e d
explosively from a volcano a n d which s e t t l e a t t h e
s u r f a c e by sedimentation t h r o u g h a i r o r water. These
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r o c k s s h a r e some f e a t u r e s of both sedimentary r o c k s (i.e.
t h e y a r e fragmental a n d may b e stratified) a n d igneous
r o c k s (i.e. t h e y a r e e r u p t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e ) .

Metamorphic, which a r e d e r i v e d from pre-existing r o c k s

b y mineralogical, chemical a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s .
Metamorphism is caused b y t h e effects of changing
temperature. p r e s s u r e , s h e a r i n g s t r e s s and chemical
environment acting on solid rocks.

Superficial deposits commonly mantle a n d o b s c u r e t h e underlying, older

solid rocks. Most superficial deposits a r e sediments which, because t h e y a r e
geologically v e r y young, have not y e t been lithified t o form solid sedimentary
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rocks. Both solid r o c k s a n d superficial deposits can be modified b y

weathering.

The following sections give a brief account of each of t h e f o u r broad

rock t y p e s a n d of t h e superficial deposits, plus some g e n e r a l information o n
s t r u c t u r a l geology and weathering. More detailed information of specific
relevance to Hong Kong can b e obtained from Bennett (1984a. 1984b. 1 9 8 4 ~ )

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a n d from numerous o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s given b y Brand (1988). The most detailed
accounts of t h e distribution and n a t u r e of geological materials in Hong Kong
a r e given in t h e s e r i e s of maps and memoirs produced b y t h e Hong Kong
Geological S u r v e y . The geological classification of r o c k s a n d superficial
deposits used in t h e maps a n d memoirs i s given in Table A l . All t h e rock
t y p e s found in Hong Kong a r e illustrated in Plate Al.

Additional information on geological processes, a n d on t h e geological a n d

engineering classifications of r o c k s and soils, can b e found in t h e s o u r c e s
listed in Sections A.9 and A.lO. In particular, t h e importance of geological
processes in engineering has been well reviewed by Blyth & d e Freitas (1984)
a n d Leggett & Karrow (1983).

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A s with t h e remainder of t h i s Geoguide, t h e meanings of all t h e
specialised geological terms u s e d in t h e following sections a r e given in t h e
Glossary. Most of t h e e n t r i e s in t h e Glossary a r e based on t h e definitions
given by Bates & Jackson (1980).

A.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS

A.2.1 Nature

Igneous r o c k s a r e formed by t h e solidification of magma. They may b e

e x t r u s i v e o r i n t r u s i v e , a n d t h e s e two t y p e s a r e distinguished by t h e large-

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scale form of t h e rock mass a n d i t s relationship t o a d j a c e n t rocks. A s t h i s
form may not always b e readily a p p a r e n t , t h e rock names used a r e not
d e p e n d e n t on mode of o c c u r r e n c e (e.g. i t i s possible t o h a v e a basalt intrusion
o r a basalt extrusion). The normal methods of classifying igneous r o c k s a r e
based on t h e relative a b u n d a n c e of selected minerals and t h e chemical
composition. This i s often supplemented b y s t u d i e s of t h e t e x t u r e , a s s e e n in
t h e field a n d u n d e r a microscope.

A.2.2 Occurrence

I n t r u s i v e igneous r o c k s , which a r e v e r y common in Hong Kong, a r e

usually markedly crystalline. The grain size can v a r y from v e r y fine ( < 0.06
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mm) t o coarse ( > 6 mm), and may be pegmatitic ( > 20 mm). The i n t r u s i o n s of
g r a n i t e found in Hong Kong usually display a wide r a n g e of g r a i n sizes,
indicating a complex cooling history. In t h e simplest cases, t h e cooling of a n
intrusion r e s u l t s i n a finer-grained margin n e a r t h e contacts with o t h e r rocks.
Minor i n t r u s i o n s , which a r e usually v e r y fine-grained. may occur a s d y k e s ,
which a r e n e a r vertical, o r a s sills, which a r e roughly flat-lying. These small
i n t r u s i o n s c u t t h e o l d e r r o c k s in which t h e y a r e found.

Extrusive igneous r o c k s , more generally described a s 'lavas', have flowed

from a volcanic v e n t o r fissure. Lavas may occur a s a single flow o r a
succession of flows, a n d may b e i n t e r b e d d e d with sediments.
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A.2.3 Composition

The composition of igneous r o c k s , which i s t h e basis f o r t h e i r

classification, can b e described in terms of t h e minerals p r e s e n t o r t h e
chemical composition. Most igneous r o c k s a r e d e r i v e d from magma r i c h in
silica, s o nearly all t h e minerals a r e silicates. The commonest a r e q u a r t z a n d

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f e l d s p a r (felsic), which a r e l i g h t in colour, b u t distinctive d a r k minerals
(mafic), s u c h a s biotite, can a l t e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a rock when p r e s e n t in
small amounts. Thus, a simple division of t h e igneous r o c k s based on mineral
c o n t e n t c a n b e made in t e r m s of colour : leucocratic (light), mesocratic
(medium) a n d melanocratic ( d a r k ) .

The most widely-used classification of t h e crystalline igneous r o c k s

(Streckeisen, 1974) is based on t h e relative proportions of q u a r t z ( Q ) , alkali
f e l d s p a r ( A ) a n d plagioclase f e l d s p a r ( P ) , from which s u c h common names a s
granite, granodiorite a n d g a b b r o a r e defined. The proportions of t h e s e
minerals a r e obtained b y modal analysis, i.e. b y measuring t h e actual
percentage mineral composition, and t h e r e s u l t s a r e plotted on a QAP

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t r i a n g u l a r diagram ( F i g u r e A l ) . The v e r y fine o r glassy igneous r o c k s , whose
individual c r y s t a l s cannot b e distinguished, a r e classified on t h e basis of
chemical composition (Cox e t al, 1979). The rock t y p e s defined, s u c h a s
rhyolite, dacite a n d basalt, have t h e i r equivalents in t h e QAP classification
(Streckeisen, 1980). These equivalents a r e given in Figure Al, b u t , because
different methods of classification a r e used. t h e correspondence with t h e
chemical classification i s not exact.

A.2.4 Chemical Types

Igneous r o c k s can b e grouped t o g e t h e r in related families based o n t h e i r

chemical composition. If t h e composition is not known in detail, t h e following

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simple system of classification can b e u s e d f o r Hong Kong r o c k s :

(a) Basic r o c k s , which a r e melanocratic, with usually more

t h a n a b o u t 30% d a r k minerals, a n d 4 4 t o 54% silica (e.g.
gabbro).

(b) Intermediate r o c k s , which a r e usually mesocratic, with

l e s s t h a n 50% d a r k minerals. a n d 54 t o 62% silica (e.g.
a n d e s i t e a n d syenite).

(c) Acid r o c k s , which a r e often leucocratic. with l e s s t h a n

20% d a r k minerals a n d more t h a n 62% silica (e.g. g r a n i t e
a n d granodiorite).
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A.2.5 Textures

The t e x t u r e of an igneous rock i s concerned with t h e size, s h a p e and

disposition of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t minerals. I n t r u s i v e r o c k s a r e predominantly
crystalline, with grain boundaries interlocked, while e x t r u s i v e r o c k s , which
have cooled rapidly a t t h e s u r f a c e , a r e partly o r dominantly glassy.

The textural f e a t u r e of most importance in igneous rock classification i s

t h e dominant grain size of t h e groundmass. The v e r y fine-grained rocks,
(aphanitic), with a g r a i n size of less t h a n 0.06 mm. have c r y s t a l s t h a t cannot
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be distinguished with t h e naked eye. For l a r g e r grain sizes, t h e r e i s a

division i n t o fine-, medium-, a n d coarse-grained rock (Table A l ) . The v e r y
coarse-grained (pegmatitic) r o c k s have g r a i n s l a r g e r t h a n 20 mm.

Within t h e groundmass, t h e r e a r e often significantly l a r g e r c r y s t a l s ,

termed 'megacrysts'. There i s a wide v a r i e t y of megacrystic t e x t u r e s , each
indicating a different mode of o c c u r r e n c e of t h e megacryst, f o r example

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p o r p h y r i t i c and xenocrystic. Megacrysts may b e aligned parallel t o t h e flow
direction in a rock; t h i s i s commonly s e e n in t h e s y e n i t e s and monzonites, a n d
also in lavas and narrow d y k e s . Where t h e s e textural differences r e s u l t in a
visible layering o r banding, a n igneous rock is said t o have a 'flow-banded'
structure.

A.2.6 Alteration

A t a late s t a g e in t h e crystallization of a n igneous rock, t h e release of

accumulated hot liquids and g a s e s may a l t e r t h e rock extensively. A typical
example i s kaolinization of granite, in which t h e f e l d s p a r is a l t e r e d t o

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kaolinite. Alteration i s usually controlled b y existing discontinuities in t h e
rock mass, and t h e r e may b e a gradation from, f o r example, completeiy altered
g r a n i t e a d j a c e n t t o a discontinuity o u t w a r d s into f r e s h granite.

A.2.7 Named Varieties

The varieties of igneous r o c k s found in Hong Kong a r e listed below.

These notes a r e i n t e n d e d t o highlight t h e differences between varieties.

(a) Granite, which i s t h e most widespread igneous rock t y p e ,

is a leucocratic, silica-rich (acid), crystalline rock
composed of q u a r t z , f e l d s p a r a n d d a r k biotite mica. The

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dominant f e l d s p a r is usually alkali. Granite forms major
a n d minor i n t r u s i o n s , including v e r y narrow dykes.
Aplite d y k e s a r e generally granitic in composition, a n d
a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a n e q u i g r a n u l a r fine-grained t e x t u r e .
Pegmatite i s also usually granitic in composition, b u t i s
characteristically v e r y coarse-grained.

(b) Granodiorite i s a mesocratic, silica-rich (acid), crystalline

rock composed of q u a r t z , f e l d s p a r and a b u n d a n t biotite
(which r e s u l t s in a d a r k e r colour t h a n g r a n i t e ) . The
dominant f e l d s p a r i s plagioclase. Granodiorite forms
major i n t r u s i o n s , typically s e e n a t Tai Po, a n d sometimes
forms dykes.
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(c) Q u a r t z s y e n i t e i s a leucocratic t o mesocratic crystalline

rock with intermediate silica content. in which t h e r e is
l e s s t h a n 20% q u a r t z . The rock i s mostly f e l d s p a r , with
alkali f e l d s p a r dominant. The rock o c c u r s a s i n t r u s i o n s ,
for example a t D'Aguilar Peak, a n d a s l a r g e d y k e s , f o r
example a t Wong Chuk Hang. Q u a r t z monzonite i s
related t o q u a r t z syenite, b u t plagioclase and alkali
f e l d s p a r a r e p r e s e n t in roughly equal amounts. Examples
can b e found a t Tai Wai, Sha Tin.

(d) Rhyolite i s t h e v e r y fine-grained equivalent of granite.

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The megacrysts of q u a r t z ( q u a r t z p h y r i c ) o r f e l d s p a r
( f e l s p a r p h y r i c ) give t h e different rhyolites t h e i r
character. Rhyolite i s found a s narrow d y k e s , f o r
example a t Kwai Shing a n d t h e Lower Shing Mun
Reservoir, a n d a s lava flows in t h e Clear Water Bay
Peninsula a n d t h e Sai Kung Country Park.
 Dacite is the mesocratic, very fine-grained equivalent of

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granodiorite. There a r e usually megacrysts of quartz and
feldspar, and biotite is often clearly seen. Dacite is
either associated with the rhyolite as narrow dykes. a s
on Tsing Yi, o r forms the margin to t h e granodiorite.
Rocks which cannot be distinguished a s either rhyolite o r
dacite a r e called 'rhyodacite', and can be seen on Mt.
Stenhouse. Lamma Island.

Q u a r t z trachyte is t h e mesocratic, very fine-grained

equivalent of quartz syenite. The rock is characterised
by alkali feldspar megacrysts. I t occurs as dykes, for
example a t Aberdeen, and on the margins of quartz

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syenite intrusions, as a t Cape D'Aguilar. Quartz latite,
t h e very fine-grained equivalent of quartz monzonite, is
a related rock.

Trachyandesite is intermediate, usually melanocratic and

is very fine-grained. Megacrysts of alkali feldspar a r e
common. I t is found a s lava flows in the Clear Water
Bay area.

Andesite is .intermediate, usually melanocratic o r

mesocratic, and is v e r y fine-grained. Megacrysts of
feldspar and mafic minerals a r e common. Andesite is
found as lava flows within t h e tuffs, as a t Ma Wo (Tai

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Po) and Tuen Mun, and a s dykes, as a t Tsing Lung Tau.

Gabbro and i t s very fine-grained equivalent, basalt, a r e

basic, melanocratic rocks composed of an intergrowth of
plagioclase feldspar and mafic minerals. These rocks a r e
commonly found as narrow dykes; for example, gabbro a t
Diamond Hill and basalt a t Siu Lam.

Lamprophyre is a basic, melanocratic rock characterised

by t h e abundance of mafic minerals, with feldspar only
present in t h e groundmass. I t is occasionally found a s
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A.3 PYROCLASTIC ROCKS

A.3.1 Nature

Pyroclastic rocks a r e formed by t h e lithification of material which has

been ejected explosively from a volcanic vent. Materials from non-explosive
volcanic eruptions a r e lavas, which a r e classified as igneous rocks (see Section
A.2.2). Pyroclastic rock material is composed of glass and pumice, broken
crystals and rock fragments. The rock fragments may be solidified magma
from the vent, or material which formed t h e sides of o r choked t h e vent. The
majority of the material in a pyroclastic rock is of igneous origin, b u t since
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t h e rock is composed of fragmental material and is sedimented. i t is classified

in a manner similar to t h a t used for sedimentary rocks.
A.3.2 Composition

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The normal method of classifying pyroclastic r o c k s is on t h e basis of
composition a n d size r a n g e of t h e individual components o r pyroclasts ( F i g u r e s
A2 and A3). Pyroclastic r o c k s may contain sedimentary material. Rocks with
roughly equal amounts of pyroclastic a n d primary sedimentary material a r e
'tuffites', a n d a r e usually given t h e sedimentary rock name with 'tuffaceous' a s
a prefix (e.g. tuffaceous sandstone).

The l a r g e s t pyroclasts a r e blocks a n d bombs, a n d , when lithified, become

'pyroclastic breccia' a n d 'agglomerate' respectively (Figure A3). Lapilli,
equivalent in sediment g r a i n size t o gravel, a r e lithified t o a 'lapilli tuff', less
commonly called 'lapillistone'. Ash, which is equivalent in grain size t o s a n d

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a n d mud, is lithified t o 'coarse a s h tuff' a n d 'fine a s h tuff' respectively. I t is
v e r y common t o find poorly-sorted r o c k s containing a mixture of different-
sized pyroclasts, a n d t h e s e a r e covered b y t h e names 'tuff-breccia', 'lapilli-ash
tuff' and 'ash-lapilli tuff'. When t h e composition is known in g r e a t e r detail. i t
is possible t o refine t h i s nomenclature t o give such rocks a s 'lapilli-coarse a s h
tuff' a n d 'coarse ash-fine a s h tuff'.

Pyroclastic rock names a r e qualified b y a term which reflects t h e

composition of t h e dominant variety of pyroclast. This is e i t h e r 'vitric'
( g l a s s ) , 'crystal' o r 'lithic', b u t in r o c k s older t h a n Tertiary (c. 60 million
y e a r s ) i t i s v e r y unlikely t h a t glass will s u r v i v e , as i t rapidly becomes s t a b l e
a n d microcrystalline. Therefore, in t h e pyroclastic rocks of Hong Kong, which
a r e J u r a s s i c in a g e (much older t h a n t h e Tertiary), t h e term 'vitric' is u s e d t o

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describe fragments t h a t a r e recognized from t h e i r s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e t o have
been glass when t h e rock was f i r s t deposited. An example of s u c h a rock is
eutaxite, a variety of v i t r i c t u f f , which is f o u n d , f o r example, on M t Kellett
a n d Razor Hill. The terms 'crystal' and 'lithic' r e f e r t o pyroclasts composed
of c r y s t a l s ( o r c r y s t a l fragments) a n d rock fragments respectively.

A.3.3 Types

Pyroclastic fragments a r e created b y t h e explosive expansion of g a s e s in

a magma, b y fragmentation of adjacent magmatic r o c k s from previous volcanic
e r u p t i o n s , o r by t h e b r e a k - u p of t h e basement r o c k s u n d e r t h e volcanic v e n t
o r fissure. On ejection from t h e v e n t o r f i s s u r e , t h e fragments become e i t h e r
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'fallout deposits' o r 'pyroclastic flow deposits', a s follows :

(a) Fallout deposits have many s t r u c t u r e s t h a t resemble those

of sedimentary rocks. They a r e generally well-sorted
when deposited in water, with well-defined, rapidly
alternating beds. Such deposits a r e found in Hong Kong.
b u t t h e y a r e r a r e , only being seen a t Lai Chi Chong,
Sham Chung a n d Clear Water Bay.

(b) Pyroclastic flow deposits a r e formed of hot, gaseous,

d e n s e masses of material t h a t move rapidly away from a
volcanic vent. The material is usually a highly
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concentrated mixture of g a s e s a n d solids. The r e s u l t a n t

deposit may be stratified, b u t in Hong Kong i t more
usually forms massive, poorly-sorted units of g r e a t
thickness. Most of t h e thick sequences of poorly-sorted
t u f f s in Hong Kong originated a s pyroclastic flow
deposits. However, t h e process of welding, in which
 t h e r e is viscous deformation of v i t r i c fragments, can

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r e s u l t in marked planar f a b r i c s , which is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of eutaxite. When water has de-stabilised a n existing
unlithified pyroclastic deposit. t h e resulting w a t e r -
t r a n s p o r t e d , poorly-sorted material i s known a s a
'laharic' deposit. Both pyroclastic flows a n d , to a l e s s e r
e x t e n t , l a h a r s a r e found in Hong Kong; t h e l a t t e r , f o r
example, a t Hong Lok Yuen.

A.4 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A.4.1 Nature

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Sediment i s produced b y t h e weathering a n d erosion of pre-existing
r o c k s , o r b y chemical o r biochemical precipitation. Sedimentary r o c k s
produced by t h e lithification of t h e t r a n s p o r t e d p r o d u c t s of weathering a r e
termed 'detrital' sedimentary rocks. Those produced b y chemical precipitation
o r biochemical action a r e 'chemical' a n d 'biochemical' sedimentary rocks; f o r
example, s a l t deposits and limestone. Generally, when a sediment h a s been
deposited b u t n o t lithified, it i s called a 'superficial deposit' (see Section A.6).

Sediments, a n d t h e r o c k s produced from them, a r e classified on t h e basis

of t h e size of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t particles, mineralogical composition a n d origin.
The system adopted b y t h e Hong Kong Geological S u r v e y i s based on t h e 2-6
g r a i n size divisions which a r e commonly u s e d f o r t h e engineering description

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of soils (Table A l ) .

A.4.2 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

A.4.2.1 Types

Detrital sedimentary r o c k s a r e divided on t h e basis of grain size into

'rudaceous' (gravelly), 'arenaceous' ( s a n d y ) a n d 'argillaceous' (clayey a n d silty).

A.4.2.2 Rudaceous Rocks Table of Contents

Lithified deposits of gravel, which may include cobbles a n d boulders, a r e

called 'conglomerate' when t h e particles a r e r o u n d e d , a n d 'sedimentary breccia'
when t h e y a r e a n g u l a r . The c o a r s e particles may all b e o n e t y p e of r o c k , o r
t h e y may b e derived from more t h a n one s o u r c e rock. The matrix, which i s
subordinate, i s e i t h e r s a n d o r silt and may be cemented. Conglomerates can b e
found a t Harbour Island a n d a t Brides Pool, and sedimentary breccias on Yim
Tin Tsai in Tolo Harbour. Sedimentary breccia i s so-called t o distinguish i t
from f a u l t breccia, pyroclastic breccia a n d o t h e r genetic t y p e s .

A.4.2.3 Arenaceous Rocks

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Lithified deposits of material in which s a n d i s t h e dominant g r a i n size

a r e sandstones. T h e r e i s commonly fine material (silt o r clay) between t h e
s a n d grains. a n d when t h e amount of t h i s f i n e r matrix i s less t h a n 15%, t h e
s a n d s t o n e i s called a n 'arenite'. When t h e matrix exceeds 15%. t h e rock i s a
'wacke'. The cement which binds t h e s a n d particles t o g e t h e r t o form a rock
i s e i t h e r silica, i r o n oxides, clay o r carbonates.
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Arenaceous rocks in Hong Kong can be split into the following four

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main types :

(a) Quartzose sandstone is nearly all quartz, cemented by

silica. I t is generally well-sorted, well-rounded and clay-
free, probably being composed of material t h a t has
travelled a long way from t h e source rock. Examples
can be seen on Bluff Head.

Feldspathic sandstone contains many feldspar grains,

indicating relatively rapid erosion and deposition close to
the source. Examples can be seen a t The Chinese
University and Tai Po Kau.

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Lithic sandstone is very variable, containing recognizable
fragments of other rocks. Although usually associated
with rivers, i t can be deposited in any environment.
Examples can be seen a t Sham Chung and on Yim Tin
Tsai.

Calcareous sandstone is a sandstone cemented by

calcareous material in which the clasts a r e not
themselves calcareous. An example is the beach rock
containing tuff clasts and calcareous cement found a t
Tau Chau. Repulse Bay.

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A.4.2.4 Argillaceous Rocks

Both siltstone and claystone can be recognized in Hong Kong, but,

because of t h e difficulty in distinguishing grain sizes of lithified material, i t is
usual to restrict the term 'siltstone' to rocks composed of the coarser silt
grains, and t o use 'mudstone' o r 'shale' for all finer mixes. Mudstones a r e
non-fissile, while shale is fissile; shale should not be confused with slate,
which has a metamorphic fissility (cleavage). Apart from fissility, t h e
important characteristics of t h e argillaceous rocks a r e colour, sedimentary
s t r u c t u r e s and non-clay material (e.g. sand grains, organic matter, fossils).
Good examples of siltstones a r e found on Ping Chau. Mudstones can be seen
a t Fei Ngo Shan. and graphite-bearing mudstones can be found on Mo To
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Chau.

A.4.3 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

A.4.3.1 Types

The dominant types of chemical and biochemical rocks a r e limestones

(calcium carbonate) and dolomites (calcium magnesium carbonate). There a r e
also siliceous rocks and evaporites in this group.
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A.4.3.2 Limestone and Dolomite

Although essentially chemical o r biochemical in origin, these rocks may

contain fragmented material, e.g. broken calcareous fossils. Non-carbonate
material, such a s sand grains and chert, may also be present in small amounts.
Limestone occurs in Hong Kong beneath t h e alluvium in the Yuen Long area.
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Most of t h e limestone has been metamorphosed t o marble. Dolomite is found
offshore from Ma Shi Chau a n d possibly in t h e Ma On Shan mine.

A.4.3.3 Chert
Chert is a n o r g a n i c o r inorganic precipitate of silica; t h e silica is mostly
cryptocrystalline q u a r t z , b u t may be amorphous i n p a r t (opal). Impurities in
c h e r t give i t different colours, and flint is synonymous with one of t h e d a r k e r
varieties. Chert is e i t h e r bedded o r nodular; nodular c h e r t i s common in
limestone, a n d bedded c h e r t can be found on Ping Chau. Chert lenses
associated with pyroclastic rocks a r e found o n t h e western s h o r e s of J u n k Bay.

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A.4.3.4 Evaporites

Evaporites include gypsum, a n h y d r i t e a n d halite. They a r e often asso-

ciated with mudstones and siltstones, forming in shallow basins which a r e
periodically flooded and dried out; t h i s association can be seen on Ping Chau,
although only evaporite mineral pseudomorphs can be seen.

A.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

A.5.1 Nature

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Metamorphism describes t h e process of production of new minerals.
s t r u c t u r e s a n d t e x t u r e s in pre-existing rocks, excluding t h e processes of
weathering. There a r e t h r e e t y p e s of metamorphism, based on t h e variables of
p r e s s u r e d u e t o d e p t h of burial, temperature, s t r a i n resulting from stress
applied d u r i n g deformation, a n d fluid p r e s s u r e :

(a) thermal o r contact metamorphism. characterised b y high

temperature, low p r e s s u r e a n d low s t r a i n ,

(b) dynamic metamorphism, characterised b y high s t r a i n and

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(c) regional metamorphism, characterised by high tempera-

t u r e a n d high p r e s s u r e .

These t h r e e t y p e s overlap considerably, b u t thermal a n d dynamic metamorphism

a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o localised a r e a s , respectively, along t h e e d g e s of l a r g e i n t r u -
sions a n d on narrow t h r u s t s and faults.

A.5.2 Contact Metamorphism

Both heat a n d hot fluids from a l a r g e intrusion of igneous rock affect a

narrow belt of c o u n t r y rock s u r r o u n d i n g t h e intrusion. Thermal metamorphism
t a k e s place within t h i s contact aureole, affecting different c o u n t r y r o c k s in
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different ways. Mudstones and impure carbonates show t h e g r e a t e s t

mineralogical c h a n g e s , e.g. t h e mudstones a t The Chinese University which
have been affected by t h e major g r a n i t e intrusion in t h e Sha Tin area. The
least affected a r e t h o s e possessing mineral assemblages which a r e stable a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s a s high a s those of t h e i n t r u d i n g granite, e.g. s a n d s t o n e s a n d
vitric t u f f s on Victoria Peak.
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In mudstones, t h e s e c h a n g e s s t a r t a s spotting of t h e rock, often caused
b y new mineral g r o w t h , while close t o t h e intrusion complete recrystallisation
gives a hornfels, a h a r d glassy rock with no fabric. Thermally metamorphosed
limestones become marbles, a s a t Yuen Long, a n d s k a r n s (calcium-bearing
silicate minerals), a s r e p o r t e d in t h e Ma On Shan mine. Sandstones become
quartzite, e.g. a t S a n d y Bay, b u t impurities in t h e sediment can give small
quantities of new minerals s u c h a s sillimanite, andalusite a n d muscovite, e.g.
behind Belcher's S t r e e t , Kennedy Town.

A.5.3 Dynamic Metamorphism

The high s h e a r s t r e s s in fault zones r e s u l t s in c r u s h i n g of t h e wall

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rocks. allowing mobile fluids t o develop high fluid p r e s s u r e s . Temperatures can
b e raised locally, b u t t h e r e i s no regional heating. The processes a n d rock
t y p e s associated with faulting can be s p l i t into t h r e e t y p e s :

Brittle faults, which give cataclasites s u c h a s fault

breccia a n d f a u l t gouge. These r o c k s a r e non-foliated,
a n d can b e s e e n in places s u c h a s Lai Chi Kok a n d
northwest Tai Lam Country Park.

Ductile faults, which give mylonites, i.e. finely crystalline

r o c k s containing s u r v i v o r megacrysts. These r o c k s a r e
generally foliated, a n d can b e s e e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e

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g r a n i t e of t h e Castle Peak area. When g r e e n (chlorite-
r i c h ) a n d s h i n y , t h e y a r e called 'phyllites'. e.g. in t h e
Lok Ma Chau Formation sediments of Mouse Island. Tuen
Mun.

Ductile flow, which gives metamorphic r o c k s c h a r a c t e r -

ised b y a penetrative foliation s u c h a s s c h i s t . Examples
of s c h i s t can b e s e e n within t h e metatuffs of t h e
n o r t h e r n New Territories.

Although t h r u s t s a n d f a u l t s a r e limited in width, often a l a r g e number of

them can b e found in belts s e v e r a l kilometres wide. Shear s t r e s s e s a n d fluid
p r e s s u r e s in t h e s e belts can lead t o t h e formation of s u c h minerals a s sericite
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(fine muscovite), p y r i t e a n d calcite. All t h e s e f e a t u r e s can b e found in t h e

n o r t h e r n New Territories.

A.5.4 Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism i s achieved by ductile flow u n d e r high

t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e in broad belts of folded o r s h e a r e d rocks. A broad
belt of metamorphic r o c k s , which includes s c h i s t s , metatuffs and phyllites,
o c c u r s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of Guangdong Province a n d e x t e n d s i n t o t h e
n o r t h e r n New Territories.
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A.6 SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS

A.6.1 Types

Superficial deposits a r e t h o s e sediments t h a t have not been lithified t o

form rocks. The classification of superficial deposits a n d sedimentary r o c k s i s
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essentially t h e same. The most important t y p e s of superficial deposits i n Hong
Kong a r e mass wasting deposits o r colluvium ( s e e below), fluvial deposits, a n d
marine deposits. Some small quantities of o r g a n i c deposits a r e also found.

A.6.2 Mass Wasting Deposits

In Hong Kong, mass wasting deposits (commonly called 'colluvium') a r e

predominantly d e b r i s flow deposits a n d comprise heterogeneous mixtures of
sediment a n d rock. They a r e formed b y t h e rapid downslope movement of
s a t u r a t e d masses of material, predominantly by flow (i.e. t h e moving mass does
not contain d i s c r e t e s h e a r o r slide s u r f a c e s a n d has t h e general a p p e a r a n c e of
a body t h a t has behaved a s a fluid). Other t y p e s of slope movement (e.g. rock

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slides. d e b r i s slides) and slow soil c r e e p also c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e formation of
mass wasting deposits. These deposits usually collect i n valleys a n d a t t h e
bases of slopes, f o r example in t h e Mid-levels area. The deposits f r e q u e n t l y
g r a d e into r i v e r deposits (alluvium) o r marine deposits a t t h e foot of a slope.

Some o t h e r , l e s s common. t y p e s of mass wasting deposit a r e boulder

fields a n d s c r e e s . Boulder fields a r e accumulations of boulders on a slope,
which r e s u l t from l a r g e pieces of rock being weathered a n d eroded from
outcrops higher upslope, o r by t h e eluviation of fines from a weathered mantle
o r from s h e e t s of boulder-rich d e b r i s flow deposits. Boulder fields commonly
g r a d e downslope i n t o boulder streams along valleys and depressions. Examples
can be seen a t Cape D'Aguilar a n d Lin Fa Shan. 'Talus' o r 'scree' i s coarse

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material which h a s weathered and fallen from a rock face a n d accumulated on
o r a t t h e base of a slope; good examples can be seen below Lion Rock.

A.6.3 Fluvial Deposits

These deposits a r e collectively known a s 'alluvium'. In Hong Kong two

a g e s of fluvial deposition a r e recognized; Holocene alluvium, found next t o
existing r i v e r s a n d stream c o u r s e s , a n d older alluvium, found in higher t e r r a c e s
a n d offshore beneath t h e Holocene marine deposits. Both a r e composed of
similar materials, dominantly silt, b u t with significant amounts of s a n d , g r a v e l
a n d clay. The older alluvium is evidence of a more extensive floodplain.
Examples can be seen a r o u n d Yuen Long a n d Shek Kong. A widespread
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development of t h i s older alluvium o c c u r s offshore, beneath marine deposits.

which indicates a much lower sea-level a t t h e time of i t s deposition. Small
patches of alluvium can also be found on high g r o u n d , where a n a t u r a l
constriction in an upland valley has r e s u l t e d in t h e valley being infilled b y
locally reworked colluvial debris.

A.6.4 Marine Deposits

Marine superficial deposits in Hong Kong have accumulated on older

alluvial deposits a n d t h e pre-Holocene eroded rock surface. The commonest
material is a light o r d a r k g r e y , o r greenish g r e y , mud. Deposits of s a n d a r e
also found on t h e floors of contemporary deep-water channels a n d in o t h e r
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a r e a s of s t r o n g c u r r e n t s . Older s a n d deposits can also b e found buried

beneath mud. Close t o t h e p r e s e n t coastline, t h e most distinctive marine
deposits a r e sand beaches, which a r e accumulations of fluvially-derived s a n d
washed onto t h e s h o r e b y waves and c u r r e n t s . Storm beaches a n d raised
beaches a r e two o t h e r beach t y p e s , b u t t h e s e a r e much less common. The
former a r e t h e r e s u l t of unusually high waves (e.g. d u e t o typhoons) a n d t h e
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l a t t e r a r e remnants of older beaches associated with periods of h i g h e r s e a -
level. Estuarine f a n s a n d deltas of s a n d a n d silt a r e o t h e r t y p e s of distinctive
marine deposit. Examples of beach deposits, e s t u a r i n e f a n s a n d a delta can b e
found a t Lung Kwu Tan. Tai Po a n d Nim Wan respectively.

A.6.5 Organic Deposits

The main t y p e of o r g a n i c deposit in Hong Kong is peat. which is a d a r k

accumulation of organic material t h a t has not fully decayed because of i t s v e r y
high moisture content. Peat is derived from organic d e b r i s which has
accumulated in poorly-drained level sites. There i s usually some sediment
within t h e peat, a n d t h e depositional environment is often similar t o t h a t of

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r i v e r deposits. Peat can b e found i n t e r b e d d e d with sediments south-west of
Yuen Long.

A.7 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

A.7.1 General Aspects

Geological s t r u c t u r e s in rocks a n d superficial deposits can be divided

into faults a n d o t h e r f r a c t u r e s , a n d folds. Associated with folds a r e minor
s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s foliations, lineations a n d mineral fabrics.

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A.7.2 Faults a n d Other F r a c t u r e s

Rock f r a c t u r e s (discontinuities) a r e t h e commonest of geological

s t r u c t u r e s , and can be defined as s u r f a c e s in a rock mass across which t h e
cohesion of t h e rock material is lost. The two most important t y p e s of
f r a c t u r e a r e faults a n d joints. Where t h e r e has been visible movement along
t h e s u r f a c e , t h e f r a c t u r e i s a 'fault', otherwise i t is a 'joint'. This distinction
i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y , since nearly all f r a c t u r e s involve some movement.
however slight.

A t o r near t h e s u r f a c e , faults can be classified into t h r e e t y p e s ,

depending on t h e orientations of t h e principal stresses :
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(a) normal f a u l t s , with t h e maximum compressive stress

vertical,

(b) low-angle r e v e r s e f a u l t s o r t h r u s t s , with t h e maximum

compressive s t r e s s horizontal, a n d t h e minimum vertical.
and

(c) strike-slip o r wrench faults, with t h e maximum a n d

minimum compressive s t r e s s e s both horizontal.

Faults a r e often found a r r a n g e d i n sets (i.e. in g r o u p s with similar

orientation). Major faults may have associated minor faults. Fault planes v a r y
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from single s h e a r planes, which may be polished a n d smoothed, t o fault zones

i n which t h e associated r o c k s a r e broken t o fault breccia o r fault gouge, o r
converted t o a mylonite ( s e e Section A.5.3).

Another f e a t u r e associated with faulting is 'slickensiding'. Slickensides

a r e polished a n d finely s t r i a t e d s u r f a c e s t h a t r e s u l t from friction along a fault
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plane. Although slickensides a r e used a s movement direction indicators, t h e y
a r e not reliable. A t b e s t t h e y only indicate t h e direction of movement d u r i n g
t h e i r formation, which may not b e t h e main movement phase.

Joints commonly develop in regularly-spaced s e t s , which may be

geometrically related t o tectonic stress a n d t h e form of t h e rock body.
However. i t is virtually impossible t o establish t h e relative a g e s of joints of
different orientations, which makes systematic analysis difficult. The following
t h r e e main t y p e s of jointing can be recognized :

(a) Tectonic joints, which a r e r e g u l a r s e t s produced b y

regional compression o r extension. Their orientation can
give an indication of t h e s t r e s s field. They a r e related

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in origin t o faults o r folds, a n d t h e r e i s often a
symmetrical arrangement of t h e s e t h r e e features. In
Hong Kong, such joints a r e well displayed in t h e
g r a n i t e s , particularly a t Castle Peak.

(b) Cooling joints, which r e s u l t from t h e contraction of a n

igneous, pyroclastic o r o t h e r heated rock body. These
joints may form polygonal columns which have t h e i r axes
perpendicular t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e hot rock mass, b u t
t h e y may also be parallel t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e body. A
well-known example i s t h e marked columnar jointing in
t h e trachyandesites a n d welded t u f f s in t h e High Island
a r e a of t h e Sai Kung peninsula.

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(c) Unloading o r sheeting joints, which r e s u l t from expansion
of t h e rock mass a s t h e confining p r e s s u r e is reduced.
usually b y erosion. These joints a r e usually parallel o r
near-parallel t o t h e erosional surface, a n d a r e well
displayed on Po Toi Island, at Cape D'Aguilar a n d a t Siu
Lam.

The s u r f a c e s of joints c a n v a r y widely in t e x t u r e a n d may have been

altered, weathered, o r coated with minerals. Individual joints a r e usually
reasonably s t r a i g h t , b u t may be c u r v e d o r show s h a r p c h a n g e s in direction.
Joints close t o t h e s u r f a c e may be opened b y weathering a n d infilled by
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superficial deposits o r t h e p r o d u c t s of insitu weathering.

A.7.3 Folds

A fold is a c u r v e o r bend in t h e rock s t r u c t u r e , a n d i t s recognition

r e q u i r e s t h e presence of a planar f e a t u r e s u c h a s rock stratification. foliation
o r cleavage. Although a relatively homogeneous rock mass, s u c h a s a g r a n i t e
intrusion, may be folded, if t h e r e a r e no planar m a r k e r s within t h e rock mass
t h e fold cannot be seen. Fold s t r u c t u r e s may be complex when t h e r o c k s have
been affected b y more t h a n one period of folding.

Folds a r e classified b y a t t i t u d e into t h r e e main t y p e s :

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(a) synclines, which a r e folds t h a t close downwards, with t h e

b e d s younging towards t h e centre.

(b) anticlines, which a r e folds t h a t close upwards, with t h e

b e d s younging away from t h e c e n t r e , and
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(c) n e u t r a l folds, which a r e folds t h a t close sideways.

The geometry of folds can be described f u r t h e r b y t h e angle of dip of

t h e axial plane from vertical t o horizontal (using t h e terms ' u p r i g h t ' ,
'inclined'. 'overfolded' a n d 'recumbent'), a n d b y t h e angle between t h e
opposing fold limbs from O0 t o over 120•‹ (using t h e terms 'gentle'. 'open'.
'close', 'tight' and 'isoclinal'). These terms a r e defined in t h e Glossary.

Major folds may b e many kilometres a c r o s s , a s i s t h e Tolo Channel

Anticline, o r h u n d r e d s of metres across, a s a r e t h o s e found on Victoria Peak.
Minor folds. visible in small exposures, often mirror t h e form of t h e major
folds a n d a r e t h e n called 'parasitic' folds. Good examples of t h e s e folds can
b e seen on Ma Shi Chau.

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A.8 WEATHERING

A.8.1 General Aspects

Weathering is t h e process responsible f o r t h e breakdown a n d alteration

of materials near t h e e a r t h ' s surface. I n igneous, pycroclastic a n d
metamorphic rocks. i t i s t h e response of r o c k s t o lower t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d
s t r e s s e s t h a n t h o s e t h a t prevailed at t h e time t h e y were formed. In most
sedimentary rocks, whose c o n s t i t u e n t minerals have previously been weathered
t o some extent, i t i s chiefly t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e cementing a g e n t in t h e rock
t o atmospheric conditions (i.e. t h e presence of oxygen a n d weak acids). I n

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superficial deposits, t h e weathering of individual minerals may still be
continuing a t t h e p r e s e n t . The weathering process can be divided into t h e two
main categories :

(a) mechanical weathering ( o r disintegration), which is

caused b y s t r e s s e s , from both within t h e rock a n d as
applied externally, t h a t d i s r u p t t h e rock fabric, a n d

(b) chemical weathering ( o r decomposition), which involves

chemical reactions t h a t transform minerals t o more s t a b l e
forms in t h e new environment. Table of Contents

The susceptibility of different rock t y p e s t o disintegration a n d

decomposition may differ markedly. Where two o r more rock t y p e s a r e p r e s e n t
t o g e t h e r , e.g. where t h e r e is a n igneous intrusion i n t o a n o t h e r rock, relatively
more weathered rock may o c c u r beneath o r a d j a c e n t t o less weathered rock.
and s u c h a sequence may be repeated.

Weathering profiles may be of considerable a g e on a geological time

scale. Consequently, t h e y do not necessarily reflect t h e r e s p o n s e of t h e r o c k s
t o t h e p r e s e n t climate. Also, t h e y may have been partly removed b y
s u b s e q u e n t erosion. Rock exposed in a r e c e n t excavation may be affected b y
s u b s e q u e n t mechanical o r chemical weathering effects, o r both. u n d e r
prevailing climatic conditions.
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A.8.2 Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering is b r o u g h t a b o u t chiefly b y c h a n g e s of stress a n d

t e m p e r a t u r e a t o r n e a r t h e exposed rock s u r f a c e . The important physical
processes involved a r e expansion of water on freezing in rock pores o r c r a c k s ,
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reduction in confining stress b y erosion of overlying material, a n d differential
expansion of t h e rock o r rock minerals when s t r o n g l y heated by insolation.
The expansion of certain minerals in joints is also caused by chemical
reactions s u c h a s hydration a n d oxidation, s o t h a t i n some r e s p e c t s mechanical
a n d chemical weathering a r e not easily s e p a r a t e d a n d produce similar effects.
A common form of mechanical weathering is exfoliation, which is t h e scaling
o r peeling-off of flakes a n d c u r v e d shells of rock blocks. a s can be seen a t To
Kwa Wan. The biological components of mechanical weathering include
breakdown of r o c k s b y plant roots a n d animals.

A.8.3 Chemical Weathering

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Chemical weathering is b r o u g h t a b o u t mainly b y t h e action of s u b s t a n c e s
dissolved in rainwater a n d circulating groundwater. The intensify of chemical
weathering is controlled by t h e r a t e s of decomposition of individual minerals
a n d t h e removal of decomposed minerals from t h e rock. Silicate minerals, t h e
most important rock-forming group, a r e broken down b y hydrogen ion
introduction, oxidation of f e r r o u s to f e r r i c ions, a n d hydration. Clay minerals
a r e t h e chief residual p r o d u c t s of f e l d s p a r decomposition. while clay, chlorite
a n d limonite a r e produced from t h e decomposition of mafic minerals s u c h a s
biotite. These p r o d u c t s a r e commonly removed by eluviation a n d erosion.
which allows t h e process of chemical weathering t o progress. The biological
components of chemical weathering include c h a n g e s in soil pH a n d t h e
formation of complex organic-mineral s u b s t a n c e s .

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In limestone o r marble, solution is t h e dominant a s p e c t of chemical
weathering. Distinctive landforms a r e produced, notably ' k a r s t ' topography.
This is characterised by sinkholes, caves and u n d e r g r o u n d drainage, a n d has
been found buried beneath superficial deposits a t Yuen Long.

A.8.4 Weathering Features

The following examples of weathering f e a t u r e s a r e found in Hong Kong :

Weathered mantle, which is t h e e n t i r e d e p t h of t h e

weathering profile, excluding a n y t r a n s p o r t e d material at
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t h e top.

Weathering f r o n t , which is a n essentially planar s u r f a c e

a t t h e downward limit of active weathering within t h e
rock mass. A s h a r p well-defined weathering f r o n t i s a
relatively r a r e feature, b u t good examples can be seen on
Tai Tam Reservoir Road.

Colour banding, and t h e more s t r u c t u r e d spheroidal

weathering, which a r e
a n d depletion of iron
s e e n in sediments on
Cove.
caused by alternating enrichment
oxides. Colour banding can be
t h e west side of Three Fathoms
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Joint hardening. caused b y t h e migration a n d deposition

of ferromagnesian minerals, which makes t h e joints s t a n d
o u t on erosional surfaces. Examples can be seen a t Ma
Shi Chau a n d on t h e e a s t side of Deep Bay.
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Weathering pits, caused by t h e preferential weathering of
different lithologies, e.g. mudstone lapilli in t u f f , o r of
different c r y s t a l s in homogeneous r o c k s such a s granite.
Examples c a n b e seen in t h e t u f f s north of Tsuen Wan
a n d i n g r a n i t e on Hammer Hill.

Mineral boxwork, which is similar t o joint hardening, b u t

in t h i s case t h e h a r d s u b s t a n c e is a n unaltered iron
mineral deposit. This can be seen in t h e granodiorite of
Cape D'Aguilar.

Tors a n d corestones, which a r e piles of jointed r o c k s

( t o r s ) , f o r example a s a t To Kwa Wan. o r single blocks

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(corestones). However, t h e t e r m 'corestone' should be
applied only t o blocks within t h e weathered mantle which
a r e not in contact with solid rock.

Solution grooves and basins, which a r e normally

associated with soluble r o c k s s u c h as limestone, b u t may
also develop on siliceous rocks. Examples can b e seen in
g r a n i t e on Hammer Hill a n d in tuff in t h e Tai Po Kau
Nature Reserve.

Karst topography, described u n d e r chemical weathering in

Section A.8.3.

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A.9 REFERENCES

Bates, R.L. & Jackson, J.A. (Editors) (1980). Glossary of Geology. American
Geological I n s t i t u t e , Falls Church, Virginia, 749 p.

Bennett, J.D. (1984a). Review of S u ~ e r f i c i a lD ~ D O S ~a~n dS Weathering in Hong

Kong. GCO Publication No. 4/84, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong
Kong, 51 p.

Bennett. J.D. (1984b). Review of Hong Kong S t r a t i g r a ~ h y . G C O Publication

No. 5/84, Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 86 p.
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Bennett, J.D. ( 1 9 8 4 ~ ) . Review of Tectonic History, S t r u c t u r e a n d Metamor-

phism of Honq Kong. G C O Publication No. 6/84. Geotechnical Control
Office, Hong Kong, 63 p.

Blyth, F.G.H. & d e Freitas, M.H. (1984). A Geology f o r Ennineers. (Seventh

edition). Edward Arnold, London. 325 p.

Brand, E.W. (1988). B i b l i o g r a ~ h yon t h e Geolony a n d Geotechnical Ennineering

of Hons Konq t o December 1987. G C O Publication No. 1/88,
Geotechnical Control Office. Hong Kong. 150 p .

Cox, K.C., Bell. J.D. & P a n k h u r s t , R.J. (1979). The I n t e r ~ r e t a t i o nof Igneous
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Rocks. George Allen & Unwin. London. 450 p.

Fisher. R.V. & Schmincke, H.U. (1984). Pyroclastic Rocks. S p r i n g e r Verlag.
Berlin, 472 p.
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Leggett, R.F. & Karrow, P.F. (1983). Handbook of Geology in Civil
Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, 50 c h a p t e r s .

Streckeisen, A. (1974). Classification a n d nomenclature of plutonic r o c k s :

IUGS Subcommission on t h e Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Geologische
Rundschau, vol. 63, pp 773-786.

Streckeisen, A. (1980). Classification a n d nomenclature of volcanic rocks.

lamprophyres, carbonatites a n d melilitic r o c k s : IUGS Subcommission on
t h e Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Geologische Rundschau, vol. 69.
pp 194-207.

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A.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blatt, H., Middleton, G.V. & Murray, R.C. (1980). Origin of Sedimentary Rocks.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New J e r s e y , 782 p.

F r y , N. (1984). The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks. Open University

P r e s s , Milton Keynes. U K , 110 p.

Gillen, C. (1982). Metamorphic Geoloqy : An Introduction t o Metamorphic a n d

Tectonic Processes. George Allen & Unwin, London, 144 p.

Holmes, A. (1965). Principles of Physical Geoloqv. Nelson, London, 1288 p.

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Jennings. J.N. (1985). Karst Geomorphology. Basil Blackwell, Oxford. 293 p.

Mackenzie, W.S., Donaldson. C.H. & Guildford, C. (1982). Atlas of Igneous

Rocks a n d t h e i r Textures. Longman, Harlow, U K , 148 p.

Middlemost, E.A.K. (1985). Magmas a n d Magmatic Rocks : An Introduction t o

Igneous Petrology. Longman, London. 266 p.

Nockolds, S.R.. Knox. R.W.OIB. & Chinner, G.A. (1978). Petrology f o r S t u d e n t s ,

Cambridge University P r e s s , Cambridge, 435 p.

Oilier. C.D. (1975). Weathering. Longman Group, London, 304 p

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Park. R . G . (1983). Foundations of S t r u c t u r a l Geology. Blackie. Glasgow,

135 p.

Pettijohn, F.J. (1975). Sedimentary Rocks. Harper & Row, New York, 628 p.

Price. N . J . (1966). Fault a n d Joint Development in Brittle a n d Semi-Brittle

Rock. Pergamon P r e s s . Oxford. 176 p.
Ramsay, J.G. (1967). Folding a n d F r a c t u r i n g of Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 568 p.

Thorpe. R.S. & Brown, G.C. (1985). The Field Description of Igneous Rocks.
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The Open University P r e s s , Milton Keynes. UK, 154 p.

Tucker, M.E. (1982). The Field Description of Sedimentary Rocks. The Open
University P r e s s , Milton Keynes, U K . 112 p.
Twidale, C . R . (1982). Granite Landforms. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co,

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Amsterdam, 372 p.

Wise, D . U . . Dunn. D.E.. Engelder, J.T., Geiser, P.A., Hatcher, R.D., Kish, S.A.,
Odom, A.L. & Schomel. S. (1984). Fault-related r o c k s : s u g g e s t i o n s f o r
terminology. Geoloqy. vol. 12, p p 391-394.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
No. No.

A1 Classification of Solid Rocks and Superficial 155

Deposits in Hong Kong

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Table A1 - Classification of Solid Rocks and Superficial Deposits in Hong Kong

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
No. No.

A1
A 1 Classification of Hong Kong Igneous Rocks
A
A22 Pyroclastic Rock Composition

AA3
3 P yroclastic Rock Names

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Legend :
Q Silica minerals
A Alkali feldspar
P Plagioclase feldspar
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I Notes : ( 1 Plutonic in capitals; volcanic in lower case

1 2 ) Classification after Streckeisen ( 197L. 1980).

Figure A 1 - Classification of Hong Kong Igneous Rocks

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Pumice, glass

VlTRlC TUFF

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CRYSTAL TUFF LITHIC TUFF

Crystals,
crystal Rock
fragments trogmcnts

Figure A 2 - Pyroclastic Rock Composition

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Blocks ond bombs
Over 60mm

A
PYROCLASTIC

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TUFF- BRECCIA
TUFF- AGGLOMERATE

ASH- LAPlLLl

Lopilli
-
2 60mm
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75 50 25 [Coarse ash 0.06-2mn

Fine ash under 0.06mm
~~~~~

Note : Figure adapted from Fisher and Schmincke l 1 9 8 L ) .

Figure A 3 - Pyroclastic Rock Names

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NO.
LIST OF PLATES
161

Rock Types
Hong Kong
Plate
NO.

A1
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A : Fine- grained Granite -
8 : Medium grained Granite C: Coorse - grained Granite

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E: Pegmatite F: Granodiorite
[intruding gmnodiorite 1

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-
G: Rhyolite H: Rhyodacite
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Natural scale

Plate A1 - Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 1 of 4 ) .

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K: Quartz Syenite

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N: Trachyandesite 0 : Andesite

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P : Gabbro Q : Basalt R: Lamprophyre

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Natural scale

Plate A 1 - Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 2 of 4)

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T : Co Ash Tuff U: Lapilli Tuff

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V : Pyroclastic Breccia W : Mudstone X : Sandstone
(~112)

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Y : Conglomerate Z : Sedimentary Breccia A A : Chert

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Natural scale I
I Plate A1 - Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 3 of 4 )
I
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AB: Limestone AC: Dolomite AD: Evaporite

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AE: M y l o n i t e AF: Phyllite AG: Schist
I
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A1 : Quartzite AJ: F a u l t arec

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Plate A 1 - Hong Kong Rock Types (Sheet 4 of 4)

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GLOSSARY
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Acid. Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing more t h a n 62% silica a n d
usually less t h a n 20% d a r k minerals. ( C o n t r a s t with 'intermediate' a n d
'basic').

Agglomerate. Pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of r o u n d e d bombs of

material g r e a t e r t h a n 60 mm a v e r a g e dimension. ( C o n t r a s t with ' p y r o -
clastic breccia').

Alkali feldspar. Group of f e l d s p a r s composed of mixtures, o r mixed c r y s t a l s , of

potassium f e l d s p a r (KAlSi,O,) a n d sodium f e l d s p a r (NaA1Si30,). (See
'feldspar').

Alluvium. Detrital material of a n y grain size t r a n s p o r t e d and deposited d u r i n g

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comparatively r e c e n t geological time by a r i v e r o r stream.

Amorphous. Term for a mineral o r o t h e r s u b s t a n c e t h a t lacks crystalline

s t r u c t u r e a n d has no c h a r a c t e r i s t i c external form. S t r u c t u r a l t e r m f o r
an organic soil with no recognizable plant remains.

Andalusite. Brown, yellow, g r e e n , r e d o r g r e y silicate mineral which o c c u r s i n

thick, nearly s q u a r e prisms in schists. gneisses and hornfelses.

Andesite. Dark-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous rock. Often

o c c u r s in t h e form of lava flows. Commonly contains m e g a c r y s t s of
plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals.

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Angular. Shape t e r m f o r a rock particle with s h a r p e d g e s a n d c o r n e r s .

Anhydrite. White o r light-coloured mineral consisting of calcium s u l p h a t e

(CaS04). Essentially a slightly h a r d e r a n d less soluble form of gypsum.

Anticline. Fold in t h e form of a n a r c h whose c o r e contains t h e s t r a t i -

graphically o l d e r rocks.

Aphanitic. Textural term for a rock in which t h e individual c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e

n o t visible t o t h e naked eye.

Aplite. Light-coloured, e q u i g r a n u l a r , fine-grained igneous rock of granitic

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composition. Very uniform and smooth-textured appearance. Commonly

o c c u r s in t h e form of narrow dykes.

Arenaceous. Term f o r a sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly

of sand-sized g r a i n s .

Arenite. Arenaceous sedimentary rock containing l e s s t h a n 15% silt a n d clay

material. ( C o n t r a s t with 'wacke').

Argillaceous. Term f o r a sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly

of silt- a n d / o r clay-size particles.
Ash. Pyroclastic rock material of s a n d - , silt- a n d clay-size (i.e. < 2 mm),
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subdivided i n t o coarse a s h for s a n d - s i z e a n d fine a s h f o r silt- a n d clay-

size. Descriptive term f o r tuff composed wholly o r predominantly of
t h e s e g r a i n sizes.

Aureole. Zone s u r r o u n d i n g a n igneous i n t r u s i o n in which t h e c o u n t r y rock

shows t h e e f f e c t s of thermal o r contact metamorphism.
Axial plane. Plane t h a t connects t h e points of maximum c u r v a t u r e of t h e

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bedding planes o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l rock s u r f a c e s in a fold.

Banded. S t r u c t u r a l term for a rock with alternating l a y e r s of material of

differing colour o r t e x t u r e , possibly of differing mineral composition
also.

Basal. Pertaining to. situated a t , o r forming t h e base of a geological

s t r u c t u r e . 'Basal layer' r e f e r s t o t h e lowest l a y e r in a layered rock o r
soil.

Basalt. Dark coloured, v e r y fine-grained igneous rock composed mainly of

plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals. Often o c c u r s in t h e form of

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lava flows. The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of gabbro.

Basic. Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing 44 t o 54% silica a n d

usually more t h a n 30% d a r k minerals. (Contrast with 'acid' and 'inter-
mediate').

Bedded. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed,

a r r a n g e d o r deposited in l a y e r s o r beds > 20 mm thick.
Biotite. Black, d a r k brown o r dark g r e e n mineral of t h e mica group. Forms
distinctive s h i n y thin prisms o r flakes. Very common in crystalline
igneous a n d metamorphic rocks.

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Block. Rock fragment derived from t h e s i d e s of a volcanic vent. Commonly
a n g u l a r o r s u b a n g u l a r . Restricted t o pyroclasts > 60 mm diameter. Also
a more general term f o r individual pieces of rock bounded by
discontinuities in a rock mass.

Blocky. Shape term f o r a rock mass with t h r e e approximately orthogonal a n d

equally-spaced joint s e t s , s u c h t h a t individual rock blocks t e n d t o be
roughly equidimensional.

Bomb. Partly molten material from a volcanic v e n t which solidifies i n flight o r

s h o r t l y a f t e r landing. Restricted t o pyroclasts > 60 mm diameter.

Boulders. Rock fragments g r e a t e r t h a n 200 mm in size.

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Breccia. Coarse-grained rock composed of a n g u l a r broken rock fragments held

t o g e t h e r b y a mineral cement o r in a fine-grained matrix. (Contrast
with 'conglomerate'). May be of sedimentary o r pyroclastic origin, o r
may be formed b y c r u s h i n g of a n y t y p e of rock in a fault zone.

Cataclastic. Term f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e of a rock which has been broken u p

severely b y s t r o n g dynamic metamorphism o r faulting. Common f e a t u r e s
a r e bent, broken o r g r o u n d - u p minerals. 'Cataclasite' is t h e name f o r
a n y rock showing cataclastic s t r u c t u r e .

Calcareous. Term applied t o a rock containing an appreciable amount of

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calcium carbonate, e.g. calcareous sandstone.

Calcite. White, light g r e y . yellow o r blue, common carbonate mineral : t h e

carbonate of calcium (CaCO,). Glassy appearance. Effervesces in
hydrochloric acid. The principal c o n s t i t u e n t of chalk a n d most
limestones.
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Carbonate. Term applied t o a mineral compound c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a n ionic
s t r u c t u r e of C0,-2. Calcite a n d dolomite a r e examples of c a r b o n a t e
minerals. Also applied t o a rock consisting chiefly of c a r b o n a t e
minerals. Limestone and dolomite a r e examples of carbonate rocks. (See
also 'calcareous').

Cemented. Term f o r a sedimentary rock whose g r a i n s a r e bound t o g e t h e r in a

c o h e r e n t mass by mineral cements. Most cements a r e chemically p r e -
cipitated. The most common cements a r e iron oxides. silica ( q u a r t z .
opal, chalcedony), carbonates (calcite, dolomite) and clay minerals.

Chalcedony. Silica mineral which i s t h e cryptocrystalline v a r i e t y of q u a r t z .

Has a wide r a n g e of colours. Several varieties used a s semi-precious

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s t o n e s (e.g. j a s p e r , carnelian. agate. onyx).

Chert. Hard, d e n s e , dull t o slightly s h i n y , cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock

consisting of o r g a n i c o r inorganic precipitates of silica. Occurs
commonly a s small i r r e g u l a r lumps in limestones a n d dolomites, b u t may
also form extensive bedded deposits.

Chlorite. Group of platy micaceous minerals, usually g r e e n in colour a n d

containing much f e r r o u s iron. Often associated with a n d resembling
biotite; c r y s t a l s cleave into small t h i n flakes. Widely d i s t r i b u t e d i n low-
g r a d e metamorphic rocks, o r found a s alteration p r o d u c t s of
ferromagnesian minerals in a n y rock t y p e .

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Chroma. Brilliance o r i n t e n s i t y of a colour.

Clastic. Term f o r a rock composed of b r o k e n fragments t h a t a r e derived from

pre-existing r o c k s o r minerals a n d t h a t have been t r a n s p o r t e d from t h e i r
places of origin.

Clay. Soil particles smaller t h a n 0.002 mm in size.

Claystone. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of clay -size particles.

Texture a n d composition similar t o shale, b u t lacks fine lamination o r
fissility. (See also 'mudstone'). Table of Contents
Cleavage. P r o p e r t y o r t e n d e n c y of a rock t o s p l i t easily along aligned, usually
closely-spaced f r a c t u r e s produced b y metamorphism o r deformation.
Cleavage planes a r e secondary f e a t u r e s a n d may differ in spacing and
orientation from primary rock s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s bedding. Also used t o
describe t h e b r e a k i n g of a mineral along i t s c r y s t a l planes.

Close fold. Fold with a n inter-limb angle between 30•‹ and 70•‹.

Cobbles. Rock f r a g m e n t s 60 t o 200 mm in size.

Cohesion. P r o p e r t y of a soil which exists b y v i r t u e of n a t u r a l attraction

between some fine soil particles, and which enables t h e soil t o form a
c o h e r e n t mass, a n d t o remain a s s u c h without t h e application of external
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forces.

Cohesive. Term for a soil which possesses cohesion. ( C o n t r a s t with

'granular').
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Colluvium. Deposits formed b y t h e downslope movement of e a r t h materials
essentially u n d e r t h e action of gravity. Typical colluvial deposits in
Hong Kong a r e s t r u c t u r e l e s s , mixed accumulations of soil and rock
fragments originally deposited on a n d a t t h e base of n a t u r a l slopes.

Columnar. Shape term f o r a rock mass with typically five t o s e v e n joint s e t s

of similar dip t h a t combine t o form parallel columns of rock. (See also
'columnar jointing').

Columnar jointing. Parallel prismatic rock columns, polygonal (often six-sided)

in cross-section, caused b y contraction d u r i n g cooling. Common in basic
lavas b u t also found in o t h e r igneous a n d pyroclastic rocks.

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Conglomerate. Coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of r o u n d e d t o
s u b a n g u l a r fragments l a r g e r t h a n 2 mm a v e r a g e dimension s e t in a sand
o r finer-grained matrix which i s often cemented. ( C o n t r a s t with
'sedimentary breccia').

Consistency. Degree of resistance of a fine-grained soil t o flow o r t o

deformation in general.

Cooling joint. Joint formed b y t h e cooling of a n igneous, pyroclastic o r o t h e r

heated rock body.

Country rock. Rock i n t r u d e d b y a n d s u r r o u n d i n g a n igneous intrusion.

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Cross bedding. S t r u c t u r e formed b y a s e r i e s of bedding planes inclined a t a n
angle t o t h e main planes of stratification in a sedimentary deposit.
Planes a r e usually c u r v e d a n d t r u n c a t e d in cross-section b y overlapping
sets.

Cryptocrystalline. Textural term f o r a rock consisting of c r y s t a l s t h a t a r e too

small t o be recognized a n d distinguished separately u n d e r a n o r d i n a r y
microscope.

Crystal. Homogeneous solid chemical element o r compound having a r e g u l a r

atomic s t r u c t u r e expressed by symmetrically-arranged external plane
faces. Term f o r a pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of pyroclasts
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in t h e form of c r y s t a l s o r c r y s t a l fragments.

Crystallinity. Degree t o which c r y s t a l s are developed in a r o c k , especially in

igneous rocks.

Dacite. Medium-coloured. v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. The v e r y

fine-grained equivalent of granodiorite. Often contains megacrysts of
q u a r t z and feldspar.

Dappled. T e r m f o r non-uniform colour distribution of a rock or soil w h e r e t h e

secondary colour constituent forms irregularly-shaped blotches o r marks
of widely differing size.
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Decomposition grade. Class assigned to rock material on t h e basis of i t s d e g r e e

of decomposition (chemical weathering), in terms of physical
characteristics s u c h a s s t r e n g t h , discolouration. slakeability, presence o r
absence of original rock t e x t u r e , a n d decomposition state of individual
minerals.
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Detrital. Term f o r a rock o r sediment formed of fragmental material which i s
d e r i v e d from older r o c k s a n d moved from its place of origin b y
weathering a n d erosion.

Dolerite. Dark-coloured, medium-grained, basic igneous rock with t h e same

composition a s basalt a n d g a b b r o , b u t with a t e x t u r e of intergrown
plagioclase a n d pyroxene.

Dolomite. Generally white, sometimes slightly yellow. brown, pink o r g r e y

c a r b o n a t e mineral : t h e c a r b o n a t e of calcium a n d magnesium
(CaMg(CO,),). Forms c u r v e d , saddle-like c r y s t a l s . Also, t h e term f o r a
c a r b o n a t e sedimentary rock of which more t h a n 50% consists of t h e
mineral dolomite. ( C o n t r a s t with 'calcite' a n d 'limestone').

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Dyke. Sheet- o r table-like body of i n t r u s i v e igneous rock which c u t s across
t h e bedding o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l planes of t h e c o u n t r y rock.

Elongate. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e l o n g e s t diameter i s much

g r e a t e r t h a n t h e intermediate o r s h o r t e s t diameter. Expressed
quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' > 0.66 and 'elongation ratio' < 0.66.

Elongation ratio. Ratio of t h e intermediate t o longest diameters of a particle.

Eluviation. Downward movement of soluble o r s u s p e n d e d material in a soil o r

superficial deposit b y g r o u n d w a t e r percolation.

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Equidimensional. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e t h r e e diameters
a r e of approximately equal l e n g t h . Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness
ratio' > 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' > 0.66.

Equigranular. Textural term f o r a rock c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y c r y s t a l s o r g r a i n s of

t h e same size o r approximately t h e same size.

Eutaxitic. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r some pyroclastic r o c k s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a

s t r e a k e d o r banded appearance, d u e t o pumice clasts o r o t h e r material
being s t r e t c h e d o u t whilst still in a hot viscous s t a t e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y
p r e s e r v e d by welding. Table of Contents

Evaporite. Sedimentary rock consisting of minerals r e s u l t i n g from t h e

evaporation of saline water.

Exfoliation. Process b y which t h i n , curvilinear scales o r shells of rock a r e

successively spalled o r s t r i p p e d away from t h e b a r e s u r f a c e of a rock
mass o r boulder u n d e r t h e action of mechanical a n d / o r chemical
weathering a n d release of confining p r e s s u r e by erosion. Often r e s u l t s
in a r o u n d e d rock mass. Commonly s e e n in g r a n i t e corestones.

Extrusive. Term f o r a n igneous rock t h a t has been e r u p t e d onto t h e e a r t h ' s

s u r f a c e (e.9. r o c k s formed from lava flows). Also applies t o all
pyroclastic rocks. ( C o n t r a s t with 'intrusive').
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Fan. Gently-sloping mass of d e t r i t a l material deposited a t locations of a b r u p t

d e c r e a s e in slope gradient. Forms a part-cone s h a p e in c r o s s - section
a n d is f a n - s h a p e d in plan. Of alluvial o r colluvial origin.
Feldspar. Group of a b u n d a n t alumino-silicate rock-forming minerals of general

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composition MAl(A1,Si),Os where M is commonly potassium, sodium o r
calcium. Crystals a r e usually white o r nearly white ( b u t f r e q u e n t l y
coloured by impurities), t r a n s l u c e n t , and possess good cleavage in two
directions i n t e r s e c t i n g a t o r near 90". They o c c u r commonly in many
rock t y p e s a n d decompose readily t o clay.

Feldsparphyric. Textural term f o r a rock containing l a r g e megacrysts of

feldspar. e.g. f e l d s p a r p h y r i c rhyolite.

Feldspathic. General term f o r a n y rock o r o t h e r mineral a g g r e g a t e containing

feldspar.

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Felsic. General term f o r light-coloured minerals (e.g. q u a r t z , feldspars.
muscovite), o r a n igneous rock composed chiefly of t h e s e minerals.
(Contrast with 'mafic').

Ferromagnesian. Term f o r a n y rock-forming minerals containing iron o r

magnesium.

Fibrous. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r organic soils like peat which contain recognizable

f i b r e s , i.e. plant remains composed generally of elongated stems a n d
roots. (Contrast with 'amorphous').

Fissility. P r o p e r t y possessed by some rocks, s u c h a s shale, of splitting easily

i n t o thin l a y e r s along closely-spaced, approximately planar, parallel

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surfaces. I t s presence distinguishes shale from mudstone.

Fissure. Open crack o r f r a c t u r e in a rock o r soil mass. Also used t o describe

a volcanic v e n t in t h e form of a crack.

Flat. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e s h o r t e s t diameter is much

smaller t h a n t h e intermediate o r longest diameter. Expressed quanti-
tatively a s 'flatness ratio' < 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' > 0.66.

Flat and elongate. Shape term f o r a rock particle in which t h e longest.

intermediate a n d s h o r t e s t diameters a r e all of significantly different size.
Expressed quantitatively a s 'flatness ratio' < 0.66 a n d 'elongation ratio' <
0.66. (Contrast with 'equidimensional').
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Flatness ratio. Ratio of t h e s h o r t e s t t o intermediate diameters of a particle.

Flint. Dark g r e y o r black variety of c h e r t .

Flow-banded. S t r u c t u r a l term for a rock formed by alternating l a y e r s of

different colour, composition a n d / o r t e x t u r e a s a r e s u l t of t h e flow of
molten rock. Most common in igneous r o c k s , b u t sometimes visible in
pyroclastic flow deposits.

Foliated. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r t h e layered, planar arrangement of t h e consti-

t u e n t g r a i n s of a rock formed b y flattening of minerals d u e t o
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metamorphism.

Friable. Term f o r a soil t h a t crumbles v e r y easily in t h e hand.

Gabbro. Dark-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, basic i n t r u s i v e igneous rock

composed principally of plagioclase f e l d s p a r a n d mafic minerals.
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Gentle fold. Fold with an inter-limb angle between 120•‹ a n d 180•‹.

Glassy. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t looks and

feels like glass o r q u a r t z . Surface i s typically s h i n y , s t r a i g h t o r
smoothly c u r v e d a n d lacks d i s t i n c t c r y s t a l shapes.

Gneiss. Coarse-grained foliated rock formed b y regional metamorphism, in

which b a n d s of g r a n u l a r minerals a l t e r n a t e with b a n d s of flattened.
elongated minerals showing p r e f e r r e d orientation parallel t o t h e banding.

Gouge. Fine-grained (silt- a n d clay-size) material formed of rock g r o u n d down

b y s e v e r e e a r t h movement. Commonly found in fault zones a n d known
a s 'fault gouge'. Also known a s 'rock flour'. Does not behave a s a

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silt/clay if t h e original r o c k s a r e not argillaceous.

Graded bedding. S t r u c t u r e e v i d e n t in a bedded sedimentary deposit in which

each l a y e r shows a g r a d u a l a n d p r o g r e s s i v e change in particle size.
usually from relatively coarse a t t h e base of t h e bed t o relatively fine
a t t h e top (e.g. fine s a n d g r a d i n g t o clay, cobbles g r a d i n g to coarse
sand).

Grading. Particle size distribution, defined a s t h e p e r c e n t a g e s of t h e various

g r a i n sizes p r e s e n t in a soil a s determined by sieving a n d sedimentation
(BSI. 1975).

Granite. Light coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, acid igneous rock composed

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principally of alkali f e l d s p a r , q u a r t z a n d biotite, with some plagioclase
feldspar. Commonly forms both major i n t r u s i v e bodies a n d minor i n t r u -
sions s u c h a s d y k e s .

Granodiorite. Medium-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, acid igneous rock

composed principally of plagioclase f e l d s p a r , q u a r t z a n d a b u n d a n t biotite.
with some alkali f e l d s p a r a n d hornblende. Typically contains more mafic
minerals t h a n granite.

Granular. Engineering term f o r a cohesionless soil, i.e. one which c a n n o t form

a c o h e r e n t mass. (Contrast with 'cohesive'). Geological term f o r t h e
t e x t u r e of a rock t h a t consists of mineral g r a i n s of approximately equal
size.
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Graphite. Grey t o black, opaque, s h i n y , six-sided mineral. A naturally-

o c c u r r i n g crystalline form of carbon. Common a s c r y s t a l s o r t h i n flakes
in veins a n d in many metamorphic rocks.

Gravel. Soil particles 2 t o 60 mm in size.

Groundmass. Relatively fine-grained glassy o r crystalline material between t h e

megacrysts in a megacrystic igneous rock. Also known a s t h e 'rock
matrix'.

Gypsum. White o r colourless soft mineral composed of h y d r o u s calcium

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s u l p h a t e (CaS0,.2HZO). The commonest s u l p h a t e mineral. Often forms

extensive beds of evaporite i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with limestone, shale and clay.

Halite. Evaporite mineral composed of sodium chloride (NaC1). Also known a s

'rock salt' o r 'common salt'.
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Halloysite. Clay mineral made u p of v e r y small hollow t u b e s , a s shown by t h e
electron microscope.

Holocene. Most r e c e n t p a r t of geological time, from t h e e n d of t h e

Pleistocene (approximately 8 000 t o 10 000 y e a r s ago) t o t h e p r e s e n t .

Honeycombed. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a v e r y uneven s u r f a c e

t e x t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by visible pores o r cavities. Commonly caused by
preferential weathering and erosion of different minerals.

Hornblende. Black, d a r k g r e e n o r greenish black, ferromagnesian silicate

mineral. Crystals may b e g r a n u l a r , f i b r o u s o r columnar. Primary
constituent of many acid and intermediate igneous r o c k s , and a common

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metamorphic mineral in gneiss and schist.

Hornfels. Glassy, generally v e r y fine-grained, rock produced by contact

metamorphism. Shows no cleavage, schistosity o r alignment of minerals.

Hue. Basic colour o r a mixture of basic colours.

Hydration. Chemical reaction t h a t r e s u l t s in t h e t r a n s f e r of water from t h e

fluid phase into t h e s t r u c t u r e of a mineral.

Hydrothermal activity. Circulation of hot fluids a n d g a s e s , usually associated

with movement of magma. Fluids often contain various minerals in
solution which precipitate in rock joints a n d f i s s u r e s .

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Igneous. General term f o r a n y rock formed b y t h e solidification of magma.

Inclined fold. Fold whose axial plane i s inclined from t h e vertical. One fold
limb i s commonly s t e e p e r t h a n t h e o t h e r , b u t t h e s t e e p e r limb i s not
overfolded.

Inequigranular. Textural term for a rock c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a mixture of

c r y s t a l s o r g r a i n s of significantly different sizes.

Insitu. Originally two Latin words (in s i t u ) meaning 'in place' o r 'in i t s
original position'. Compressed h e r e t o a single word f o r convenient
English usage. Distinguishes r o c k s a n d soils found in t h e i r original
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position of formation, a s opposed t o t r a n s p o r t e d materials.

I n t e r b e d d e d . S t r u c t u r a l term for beds in a sedimentary deposit with mean

spacing > 20 mm lying between, o r alternating with, o t h e r b e d s of
different c h a r a c t e r (e.g. s a n d with i n t e r b e d d e d clay).

Interlaminated. S t r u c t u r a l term similar t o 'interbedded', except applied t o v e r y

thin beds with mean spacing < 20 mm.

Intermediate. Chemical term f o r an igneous rock containing 54 t o 62% silica

a n d usually l e s s t h a n 50% d a r k minerals. (Contrast with 'acid' a n d
'basic').
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Interstratified. General s t r u c t u r a l term f o r sedimentary deposits consisting of

alternating l a y e r s of different c h a r a c t e r . Covers both 'interbedded' a n d
'interlaminated'.
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I n t r u s i v e . Term f o r an igneous rock t h a t has been forced into pre-existing
rocks and solidified from magma u n d e r g r o u n d . ( C o n t r a s t with
'extrusive').

Isoclinal fold. Fold whose limbs a r e parallel (i.e. t h e inter-limb a n g l e is O D ) .

Isotropic. Term f o r rock and soil with t h e same physical p r o p e r t i e s in all

directions.

Jurassic. Period of geological time between approximately 190 a n d 135 million

y e a r s ago.

Kaolin. Group of clay minerals derived mainly by alteration of alkali f e l d s p a r s

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and micas. Appearance i s t h a t of a s o f t , white o r nearly white
nonplastic clay. Commonly o c c u r s a s a t h i n coating o r filling in joints
in igneous r o c k s , b u t extreme alteration may c o n v e r t whole rock mass t o
kaolin.

Kaolinized. Alteration term f o r a rock containing minerals, especially f e l d s p a r s

a n d micas, replaced b y , o r a l t e r e d t o , kaolin a s a r e s u l t of h y d r o t h e r m a l
activity.

Karst topography. Topography c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y sinkholes, c a v e s , solution

f e a t u r e s a n d l a r g e u n d e r g r o u n d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s . Common in limestones,
r a r e in o t h e r rocks.

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Lahar. Mudflow in volcanic material. Caused b y water s a t u r a t i o n (e.g. by
intense rainfall) of unlithified lava o r pyroclastic deposits on t h e flanks
of a volcano.

Laminated. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit

formed, a r r a n g e d o r deposited in v e r y t h i n l a y e r s < 20 mm thick.

Lamprophyre. Dark-coloured, v e r y fine- t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , basic rock c h a r a c -

terised by high p e r c e n t a g e s of rnafic minerals which often form
megacrysts in a f i n e r matrix of similar minerals plus a l t e r e d f e l d s p a r s .

Lapilli. Pyroclastic rock material of g r a v e l s i z e (i.e. 2 t o 60 mm). Descriptive

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term for tuff composed wholly o r predominantly of t h i s g r a i n size.

Laterite. Residual soil, usually r e d d i s h in colour, r i c h in s e c o n d a r y oxides of

iron a n d / o r aluminium. A p r o d u c t of i n t e n s i v e insitu rock weathering
t h r o u g h leaching of more soluble elements. Common in tropical a r e a s
with s t r o n g seasonal rainfall.

Lava. General term f o r molten e x t r u s i v e magma e r u p t i n g non-explosively from

a volcanic v e n t o r f i s s u r e . Also, t h e t e r m f o r t h e rock solidified from
t h i s magma.

Leaching. Separation and removal of t h e soluble c o n s t i t u e n t s in a rock by t h e

natural action of percolating g r o u n d w a t e r .
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Lenticular bedding. Beds in a sedimentary rock o r superficial deposit formed

by discontinuous lens-shaped bodies of o n e material s u r r o u n d e d by
a n o t h e r t y p e of material, e.g. s a n d l e n s e s in a clay deposit. Lenses a r e
usually double convex in c r o s s - s e c t i o n .
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Leucocratic. Light-coloured a s applied to igneous rocks. Most fine- to
c o a r s e - g r a i n e d acid r o c k s a r e leucrocratic. (Contrast with 'mesocratic'
and 'melanocratic').

Limb. One flank o r side of a fold. A simple fold has two limbs

Limestone. Sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly of calcium

carbonate, mainly in t h e form of t h e mineral calcite.

Limonite. Usually dark brown o r yellowish brown (may b e yellow, r e d o r

nearly black), amorphous h y d r a t e d iron oxide material ( f e r r i c oxide). A
v e r y common weathering (oxidation) p r o d u c t of all iron-bearing minerals.

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Lineation. General term f o r a n y rock s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e d in lines. Also, t h e
term for t h e appearance of s t r e t c h e d - o u t , flattened minerals in
metamorphic r o c k s .

Liquid limit ( L L ) . Moisture content a t which a soil passes from t h e plastic to

t h e liquid s t a t e , a s determined by t h e liquid limit t e s t ( B S I . 1975).

Lithic. Relating t o o r made of existing rock fragments. Term f o r a tuff

composed predominantly of f r a g m e n t s of previously-formed rocks.

Lithified. Term f o r a rock which has been c o n v e r t e d into a c o h e r e n t solid

mass from a newly-deposited loose sediment by s u c h processes a s

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cementation, compaction, and crystallization. Lithification may occur
c o n c u r r e n t with, soon a f t e r o r long a f t e r deposition.

Lobate. Term for a long, r o u n d e d , tongue-like shape. Often applicable t o t h e

s h a p e of colluvial deposits.

Macrostructure. S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of a soil mass which can be identified by

t h e naked e y e . (Contrast with ' m i c r o s t r u c t u r e ' ) .

Mafic. General term f o r dark-coloured, ferromagnesian minerals, o r an igneous

rock composed chiefly of t h e s e minerals. ( C o n t r a s t with 'felsic').

Magma. Molten rock material formed within t h e e a r t h . Solidifies a t o r near

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t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t t o produce e x t r u s i v e a n d i n t r u s i v e igneous rocks.

Extrusive magma becomes 'lava'.

Marble. Generally l i g h t coloured (often s t a i n e d by impurities), fine- t o c o a r s e -

grained crystalline metamorphic rock consisting mainly of recrystallized
calcite a n d / o r dolomite. Metamorphosed limestone.

Massive. S t r u c t u r a l term f o r an igneous o r metamorphic rock with homo-

geneous t e x t u r e o v e r l a r g e a r e a s , i.e. with no layering, foliation o r o t h e r
planar s t r u c t u r e s . May also b e applied t o sedimentary r o c k s with no
evidence of stratification (i.e. no bedding o r lamination).

Matrix. Finer-grained material enclosing, o r filling t h e s p a c e s between, t h e

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l a r g e r g r a i n s o r particles in a mixed sedimentary rock o r superficial

deposit. Synonymous with groundmass in a n igneous rock.

Megacryst. Any c r y s t a l o r grain in a n igneous o r metamorphic rock t h a t is

significantly l a r g e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g groundmass o r matrix. A
general, non-genetic term.
M e g a c r y s t i c . General t e x t u r a l t e r m f o r a r o c k c o n t a i n i n g m e g a c r y s t s . (See

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also 'porphyritic' and 'xenocrystic').

Melanocratic. D a r k - c o l o u r e d , a s a p p l i e d t o i g n e o u s r o c k s . All b a s i c r o c k s a r e
melanocratic. ( C o n t r a s t with 'leucocratic' a n d ' m e s o c r a t i c ' ) .

Mesocratic. Medium-coloured (i.e. composed of r o u g h l y e q u a l a m o u n t s of l i g h t

a n d d a r k c o n s t i t u e n t s ) , a s a p p l i e d t o i g n e o u s r o c k s . Most i n t e r m e d i a t e
r o c k s a r e mesocratic. ( C o n t r a s t with 'leucocratic' a n d 'melanocratic').

Meta-. P r e f i x u s e d with a n i g n e o u s , p y r o c l a s t i c o r s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k name t o

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r o c k h a s b e e n partially m e t a m o r p h o s e d , e . g . m e t a t u f f .

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Metamorphic. General t e r m f o r a n y r o c k formed b y mineralogical, chemical,
a n d s t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t m e n t of p r e - e x i s t i n g r o c k s d u e t o c h a n g e d p h y s i c a l
a n d chemical c o n d i t i o n s ( e x c l u d i n g n e a r - s u r f a c e w e a t h e r i n g a n d
cementation effects).

Microcrystalline. Textu'ral t e r m f o r a c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k with c r y s t a l s t h a t a r e

t o o small t o b e s e e n b y t h e n a k e d e y e , b u t which c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
s e p a r a t e l y u n d e r a n o r d i n a r y microscope.

M i c r o f r a c t u r e s . General t e r m f o r all small-scale d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s in t h e r o c k

f a b r i c . I n c l u d e s c r a c k s , f i s s u r e s a n d p l a n e s of s e p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h o r
between individual grains.

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M i c r o s t r u c t u r e . S t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e of a soil m a s s which c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d
completely b y t h e n a k e d e y e ; t h e u s e of a microscope i s r e q u i r e d f o r full
assessment. (Contrast with 'macrostructure').

Mineral. Naturally o c c u r r i n g i n o r g a n i c e l e m e n t o r compound with a n o r d e r l y

i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c chemical composition a n d p h y s i c a l
properties.

Mineral boxwork. Weathering f e a t u r e r e s u l t i n g from h a r d mineral d e p o s i t s

f o r m e d in r o c k j o i n t s s t a n d i n g o u t prominently o n a w e a t h e r e d s u r f a c e .

Mineralised. Alteration t e r m f o r a r o c k c o n t a i n i n g new m i n e r a l s formed e i t h e r

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b y c o n v e r s i o n of e x i s t i n g m i n e r a l s , o r b y filling of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s with
new s u b s t a n c e s .

Mottled. Term f o r n o n - u n i f o r m c o l o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n of a r o c k o r soil w h e r e t h e

s e c o n d a r y c o l o u r c o n s t i t u e n t f o r m s b l o t c h e s o r m a r k s of approximately
e q u a l size.

Mudstone. S e d i m e n t a r y r o c k composed p r e d o m i n a n t l y of s i l t - a n d / o r c l a y -
s i z e p a r t i c l e s . A more g e n e r a l t e r m t h a n ' s i l t s t o n e ' o r ' c l a y s t o n e ' .

Muscovite. Colourless, yellow o r l i g h t b r o w n mineral of t h e mica g r o u p .

Forms d i s t i n c t i v e s h i n y t h i n p r i s m s o r f l a k e s . Very common i n g n e i s s e s
a n d s c h i s t s , a n d some a c i d i g n e o u s r o c k s .
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Mylonite. V e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d c r y s t a l l i n e metamorphic r o c k with s t r e a k e d o r

b a n d e d t e x t u r e p r o d u c e d b y s h e a r i n g a n d f r a c t u r i n g of o r i g i n a l g r a i n s
d u r i n g i n t e n s e dynamic metamorphism.
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Neutral fold. Fold with i t s axial plane more o r less horizontal. Neither an
anticline nor a syncline.

Nodule. A small, i r r e g u l a r , r o u n d e d lump of a mineral o r rock, usually con-

t r a s t i n g in composition with t h e material in which i t i s embedded e.g.
nodular c h e r t in limestone.

Normal fault. Dipping fault in which t h e overlying face o r wall a p p e a r s t o

have moved downward relative to t h e underlying face. The angle of t h e
f a u l t is usually 4 5 O to 90•‹.

Opal. Amorphous silica mineral. Softer, less d e n s e , less t r a n s p a r e n t and lacks

crystalline s t r u c t u r e compared with q u a r t z . Occurs in nearly all colours.

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T r a n s p a r e n t coloured varieties used a s gemstones:

Open fold. Fold with an inter-limb angle between 70•‹ and 120•‹

Overfolded. Term f o r a fold, o r t h e limb of a fold, t h a t has tilted beyond t h e

perpendicular.

Oxidation. Chemical weathering process involving t h e reaction between r o c k s

a n d atmospheric oxygen, t h e oxygen usually being dissolved in water.
The main p r o d u c t s a r e oxides and hydroxides. Iron i s t h e mineral most
obviously affected; iron oxidation p r o d u c t s a r e characteristically brown.
r e d and yellow in colour. (Contrast with 'reduction').

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Parasitic fold. Small fold on t h e limb of a l a r g e r fold.

Pegmatite. Light coloured, v e r y coarse-grained igneous r o c k , generally of

granitic composition. Commonly o c c u r s a s i r r e g u l a r d y k e s o r veins.
especially a r o u n d t h e e d g e s of l a r g e i n t r u s i o n s .

P hyllite. Fine-grained metamorphic rock with well-developed slightly

undulating cleavage. Commonly g r e e n , g r e y o r r e d d i s h , brown in colour.
Chlorite and sericite c r y s t a l s often form a distinctive s h i n y , smooth
s u r f a c e on cleavage faces.

Pitted. Shape term for a rock particle with a n uneven s u r f a c e t e x t u r e

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c h a r a c t e r i s e d by numerous small depressions. Commonly caused b y

preferential weathering and erosion of different minerals.

Plagioclase feldspar. Group of sodium-calcium f e l d s p a r s of general composition

(Na,Ca)Al(Si,Al)Si,O.. (See 'feldspar').

Plasticity. P r o p e r t y which enables a soil o r o t h e r material to be deformed

continuously and permanently without r u p t u r e .

Plastic limit (PL). Moisture c o n t e n t a t which a soil becomes too d r y to b e in

a plastic condition, a s determined by t h e plastic limit t e s t (BSI, 1975).

Pleistocene. Geological time period between approximately 2 million a n d 8 000

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t o 10 000 y e a r s ago. i.e. immediately prior t o t h e Holocene.

Plutonic. Pertaining to, o r t h e general term f o r , a n y rock formed a t

considerable d e p t h below t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e by crystallization of magma
a n d / o r by chemical alteration.
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Polyhedral. Shape term for a rock mass with no consistent joint s e t s , s u c h
t h a t individual rock blocks usually v a r y widely in s h a p e and size.

Porphyritic. Textural term f o r an igneous rock containing l a r g e c r y s t a l s

( p h e n o c r y s t s ) t h a t a r e compatible in composition and mode of formation
with t h e groundmass o r matrix in which t h e y occur. (Contrast with
'xenocrystic').

Pseudomorph. Mineral which o c c u r s in t h e c r y s t a l form of a n o t h e r mineral a s

a r e s u l t of alteration, o r solution and replacement, within t h e same
crystal shape.

Pumice. Light-coloured glassy rock formed from acid lava. Contains a b u n d a n t

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voids o r cavities, which means i t is often sufficiently buoyant to float
on water.

Pyrite. Light brown o r d a r k yellow i r o n s u l p h i d e mineral (FeS,). Often forms

c u b e - s h a p e d , s t r i a t e d c r y s t a l s with a b r i g h t metallic surface. Common in
veins and fault-zone rocks. Often mistaken f o r gold.

Pyroclast. Individual rock fragment o r particle ejected explosively from a

volcanic v e n t . Classified by size into f i n e a s h , coarse a s h , lapilli. blocks
and bombs.

Pyroclastic. General term f o r any rock composed of material ejected explo-

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sively from a volcanic v e n t .

Pyroxene. Groups of mafic silicate minerals. Commonly a p p e a r a s dark g r e e n

o r black prismatic c r y s t a l s displaying cleavage in two directions parallel
to t h e c r y s t a l faces a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g a t approximately 90•‹.

Quartz. Colourless (often coloured b y impurities), glassy, hard mineral

composed of crystalline silica (SiO,). Commonly a p p e a r s either a s six-
sided t r a n s p a r e n t c r y s t a l s o r a s a d e n s e crystalline mass lacking
distinctive s h a p e . Very common in all t y p e s of r o c k s and mineral veins.

Quartzite. A non-foliated metamorphic rock consisting mainly of quartz.

Formed by recrystallization of s a n d s t o n e d u e to contact or regional
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metamorphism.

Q u a r t z latite. Medium-coloured, v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d , intermediate igneous rock.

The v e r y fine-grained equivalent of q u a r t z monzonite.

Q u a r t z monzonite. Medium-coloured, fine- t o coarse-grained, intermediate

igneous rock containing roughly equal amounts of plagioclase and alkali
feldspar.

Q u a r t z p h y r i c . Textural term for a rock containing l a r g e megacrysts of quartz.

e . g . q u a r t z p h y r i c rhyolite.

Q u a r t z syenite. Medium-coloured, fine- to coarse-grained, intermediate igneous

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rock. Feldspar component is predominantly alkali feldspar.

Q u a r t z t r a c h y t e . Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous

rock. The v e r y fine-grained e q u i v a l e n t of q u a r t z syenite.
Q u a t e r n a r y . Geological time period from approximately two million y e a r s ago

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up to t h e p r e s e n t . Split into two p a r t s : t h e Pleistocene and t h e
Holocene.

Recrystallization. Formation of new crystalline mineral g r a i n s in a rock d u e t o

metamorphism o r processes involving percolating groundwater. New
c r y s t a l s may have t h e same o r a d i f f e r e n t composition from t h e original
crystals.

Recumbent fold. Overturned fold whose axial plane is horizontal o r nearly

horizontal.

Reduction. Chemical process whereby oxygen is removed in r o c k s and t h e

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leached p a r t s of soils. Related t o t h e continuous p r e s e n c e of water.
which makes oxygen scarce, e.g. b y r e d u c i n g f e r r i c iron (Fe,O,) to
f e r r o u s iron (FeO). Characteristic colours of reduced soils a r e g r e e n s
and g r e y s . Often associated with s t r o n g bacterial activity in t h e soil.
( C o n t r a s t with 'oxidation').

Regular bedding. Alternating l a y e r s of materials of different g r a i n size in a

bedded sedimentary deposit. Grain size within each l a y e r i s essentially
uniform.

Residual soil. Soil derived from insitu rock weathering in which all t r a c e of
t h e original rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e has been destroyed.
( C o n t r a s t with 'saprolite'; r e p r e s e n t s a more advanced s t a g e of

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weathering t h a n saprolite).

Reverse fault. Dipping fault i n which t h e overlying face o r wall a p p e a r s to

have moved upward relative t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g face. Fault plane usually
dips a t a low angle.

Rhyodacite. Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. I n t e r -

mediate in composition between rhyolite a n d dacite. Contains less alkali
f e l d s p a r t h a n rhyolite a n d less plagioclase f e l d s p a r t h a n dacite. Often
contains m e g a c r y s t s of q u a r t z a n d feldspar.

Rhyolite. Medium-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, acid igneous rock. The v e r y

fine-grained equivalent of granite. Often contains m e g a c r y s t s of q u a r t z
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and feldspar.

Rind. Discoloured, relatively t h i n , often loose a n d flaky o u t e r layer on t h e

s u r f a c e of a boulder o r rock block caused b y weathering.

Rough. Shape t e r m for a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t feels

uneven, c o r r u g a t e d o r lumpy, i.e. t h a t lacks smoothness.

Rounded. Shape t e r m for a rock particle with markedly r o u n d e d e d g e s and

corners.

Rudaceous. Term f o r a n y sedimentary rock composed wholly o r predominantly

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of g r a v e l a n d larger-sized g r a i n s .

Sand. Soil particles 0.06 to 2 mm in size.

Sandstone. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of s a n d - s i z e particles.

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Saprolite. Soil d e r i v e d from insitu rock weathering which r e t a i n s evidence of
t h e original rock t e x t u r e , f a b r i c a n d s t r u c t u r e . ( C o n t r a s t with 'residual
soil').

Schist. Medium- t o coarse-grained, foliated, crystalline metamorphic rock.

Splits readily into flakes o r slabs d u e t o parallel a r r a n g e m e n t of most of
t h e c o n s t i t u e n t minerals. Coarser and more undulating foliation
compared with 'phyllite'; f i n e r a n d often not banded compared with
'gneiss'.

Schistocity. Foliation in s c h i s t o r o t h e r coarse-grained crystalline metamorphic

r o c k s d u e t o t h e parallel, p l a n a r a r r a n g e m e n t of platy a n d prismatic
mineral g r a i n s (e.g. mica).

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Sedimentary. General term f o r a n y rock formed b y t h e deposition of sediment,
i.e. solid, fragmented material t r a n s p o r t e d by g r a v i t y , wind, water o r ice,
o r material accumulated by chemical precipitation o r secretion by
organisms.

Sericite. White, fine-grained mineral of t h e mica group. Similar composition

to muscovite. Common in fault gouge and o t h e r r o c k s associated with
dynamic metamorphism.

Shale. Mudstone with a finely-laminated depositional s t r u c t u r e t h a t gives t h e

rock fissility, o r t h e t e n d e n c y t o break i n t o t h i n l a y e r s parallel t o t h e

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lamination planes.

Shear plane. S u r f a c e along which differential movement has t a k e n place

parallel t o t h e surface.

Shear zone. Belt of rock of significant t h i c k n e s s t h a t has been c r u s h e d a n d

contorted b y s h e a r movement.

Sheeting joint. Joint formed by p r e s s u r e release d u e to removal of overlying

rock by weathering a n d erosion. Also called an 'unloading joint'.

Silica. Silicon dioxide (SiO,). Occurs naturally a s c r y s t a l s (e.g. q u a r t z ) , in

c r y p t o c r y s t a l l i n e form (e.g. chalcedony) a n d in amorphous form (e.g.
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opal). Combined in silicates a s an essential c o n s t i t u e n t of many

minerals.

Silicate. Compound material consisting of one silicon and f o u r oxygen atoms

a r r a n g e d in t r i a n g u l a r pyramids, e i t h e r isolated o r joined t h r o u g h one o r
more of t h e oxygen atoms t o form chains, s h e e t s o r three-dimensional
s t r u c t u r e s with metallic elements s u c h a s aluminium. Silicate minerals
a r e t h e most common rock-forming compounds a n d make up
approximately 95% of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t .

Siliceous. Term f o r a rock containing a b u n d a n t silica.

Sill. Table-like body of i n t r u s i v e igneous rock t h a t conforms t o t h e bedding

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o r o t h e r planar s t r u c t u r e s of t h e c o u n t r y rock in which i t i s i n t r u d e d .

Sillimanite. Brown, g r e y , light g r e e n o r white silicate mineral. Forms long

needle-like c r y s t a l s . Often found in high t e m p e r a t u r e , contact-
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks.
Silt. Soil particles 0.002 t o 0.06 mm in size.

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Siltstone. Sedimentary rock composed predominantly of silt-size particles.
(See also 'mudstone').

S k a r n . Thermally metamorp hosed impure limestone characterised by p r e s e n c e

of silicate minerals containing calcium.

Slaking. Breaking-up o r disintegration of a rock o r soil when s a t u r a t e d with

o r immersed in water.

Slate. Fine-grained metamorphic rock with a v e r y well-developed parallel

cleavage. Splits i n t o v e r y thin plates o r flakes. Most slates a r e

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metamorphosed shales.

Slickenside. Smooth s t r i a t e d s u r f a c e caused b y friction d u r i n g relative

movement of rock along t h e s u r f a c e (e.g. along a f a u l t plane).
Striations a r e normally low linear grooves a n d ridges parallel t o t h e
direction of movement. Surface often a p p e a r s shiny o r polished.

Slump bedding. Beds in a sedimentary deposit which have been d i s t u r b e d o r

deformed by slumping of t h e newly-deposited sediment u n d e r w a t e r ,
usually on a sloping s u r f a c e .

Smooth. Shape t e r m f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e t h a t feels

e v e n , with no lumps o r c o r r u g a t i o n s , i.e. lacks r o u g h n e s s . Results from,

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f o r example, being water-worn o r t h e clean f r a c t u r e of v e r y fine-grained
rock.

Solution. Chemical weathering process in which minerals a r e dissolved b y

percolating o r s t a t i c groundwater, e.g. removal of calcium c a r b o n a t e in
limestone o r chalk b y carbonic acid (weakly acid rainwater).

Sorted. Term for a loose sediment o r sedimentary rock composed of particles

of essentially uniform size. 'Well-sorted' r e f e r s t o v e r y uniform s o r t i n g .
( C o n t r a s t with 'poorly-sorted'). Note ' s o r t e d ' in geological u s e is t h e
opposite of ' g r a d e d ' in engineering use.

Spotted. Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil where t h e

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s e c o n d a r y colour c o n s t i t u e n t forms small r o u n d e d spots.

Stratified. General s t r u c t u r a l term f o r a sedimentary rock o r superficial

deposit formed, a r r a n g e d o r deposited in l a y e r s o r beds of a n y t h i c k n e s s .
(See also 'bedded' a n d 'laminated').

S t r e a k e d . Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil where

t h e secondary colour constituent forms elongated, discontinuous, some-
times b r a n c h i n g , lines.

Striated. Shape term f o r a rock particle with a s u r f a c e t e x t u r e c h a r a c -

t e r i s e d by a s e r i e s of fine, parallel grooved lines. Caused, for example.
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by slickensiding in a fault zone.

S t r i k e . Direction in which a horizontal line can b e drawn on a s t r u c t u r a l rock

surface.
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Strike-slip fault. Fault on which t h e movement i s parallel to t h e s t r i k e of t h e
fault.

Striped. Term for non-uniform colour distribution of a rock o r soil w h e r e t h e

secondary colour c o n s t i t u e n t forms elongated, continuous, nonbranching
lines.

S t r u c t u r a l domain. Portion of a rock mass characterised by a relatively

uniform a r r a n g e m e n t of discontinuities.

Subangular. Shape term f o r a rock particle with slightly s h a r p (slightly

angular) edges and corners.

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S u b r o u n d e d . Shape term f o r a rock particle with slightly rounded e d g e s a n d
corners.

Syncline. Fold in t h e s h a p e of a basin whose core contains t h e s t r a t i -

graphically y o u n g e r rocks.

Tabular. Shape term f o r a rock mass with a single, dominant, flat-lying joint
s e t , s u c h t h a t t h e mass consists of a s e r i e s of table-like s h e e t s of rock.

Tectonic activity. Movements of t h e o u t e r p a r t of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t . Some

associated geological f e a t u r e s a r e e a r t h q u a k e s , major faults a n d folds,
tectonic joints and c e r t a i n rock t y p e s s u c h a s mylonite.

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Tectonic joint. Joint formed by tectonic activity. The orientation of tectonic
joints is usually controlled by t h e directions of t h e principal regional
stresses.

Tertiary. Geological time period between approximately 60 a n d 2 million y e a r s

ago.

Throw. Amount of vertical displacement on a fault.

Thrust. Low-angle r e v e r s e f a u l t with a dip of l e s s t h a n 45O.

Tight fold. Fold with an inter-limb angle between O0 and 30•‹.

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Trachyandesite. Usually dark-coloured, v e r y fine-grained, intermediate igneous

rock. Commonly contains megacrysts of alkali feldspar.

Tuff. General rock name for all lithified pyroclastic r o c k s composed of rock
fragments of g r a v e l o r finer size ( < 60 mm). Subdivided according to
dominant grain sizes into lapilli, c o a r s e - a s h and fine-ash t y p e s .

Tuffaceous. Term for a sedimentary rock containing u p to 50% tuff material.

Tuffite. Mixed sedimentary/pyroclastic rock containing roughly equal amounts

of sedimentary material and tuff material.
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Unloading joint. (See 'sheeting joint').

U p r i g h t fold. Fold whose axial plane i s vertical o r near-vertical.

Value. Relative l i g h t n e s s of a colour. Grey has a neutral value, white t h e

highest value and black t h e lowest.
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Vein. Mineral filling a fault, joint o r o t h e r f r a c t u r e in a rock; t h e vein is formed
l a t e r t h a n t h e host rock. Commonly has a table- o r sheet-like form.
Often associated with alteration of t h e host rock. Most veins a r e of
igneous origin.

Vent. Opening a t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e t h r o u g h which volcanic materials a r e

extruded.

Vesicle. Cavity of variable s h a p e in a lava, formed by t h e e n t r a p m e n t of a g a s

b u b b l e d u r i n g t h e solidification of t h e lava.

Vitric. Term f o r a pyroclastic rock composed predominantly of volcanic glass

fragments.

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Volcanic. General t e r m for a n y e x t r u s i v e igneous o r pyroclastic rock.

Wacke. Arenaceous sedimentary rock containing more than 15% silt a n d clay.
A ' d i r t y ' s a n d s t o n e . ( C o n t r a s t with 'arenite').

Wavy bedding. Beds in a sedimentary deposit with markedly undulating

bedding s u r f a c e s , i.e, t h e bed s u r f a c e s a r e not s t r a i g h t a s in r e g u l a r o r
g r a d e d bedding.

Weathering pit. Small shallow depression o r basin in an otherwise f l a t o r evenly

sloping rock surface, caused b y preferential weathering of specific rock

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f r a g m e n t s o r c r y s t a l s in r o c k s composed of mixtures of different
fragments o r c r y s t a l s .

Weathering r i n d . (See 'rind').

Weathering zone. Portion of a rock mass delineated on t h e b a s i s of i t s d e g r e e

of weathering in terms of, f o r example, relative proportions of rock a n d
soil.

Welded t u f f . Vitric tuff (i.e. with a high proportion of glass f r a g m e n t s ) t h a t

has been compacted by t h e s q u e e z i n g t o g e t h e r of i t s g l a s s f r a g m e n t s
u n d e r t h e combined action of h e a t retained by i t s particles, weight of
overlying material and hot g a s e s within t h e rock.
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Wrench fault. (See 'strike-slip fault').

Xenocrystic. Textural term f o r a n igneous rock containing l a r g e c r y s t a l s

( x e n o c r y s t s ) t h a t a r e f o r e i g n in origin compared with t h e groundmass o r
matrix in which t h e y occur. ( C o n t r a s t with 'porphyritic').

Young. Used a s a v e r b meaning t o face o r t o p r e s e n t t h e y o u n g e r a s p e c t of

one rock formation toward a n o t h e r , e.g. if formation B i s geologically
y o u n g e r t h a n formation A. A can b e said to "young" t o w a r d s B.
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