Introduction to AM

1
Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a family of manufacturing technologies that
sequentially add units of standard input materials to enable the fabrication of discrete
physical products. This process is analogous to a printing process but is applied in
three dimensions, and results in the commonly applied terminology, 3D printing.
By this simple definition, AM technologies have existed for centuries, for example,
in the form of common brick materials used for the fabrication of complex buildings
structures. A commercially relevant definition of AM must also include a restriction
that the process be digitally driven; whereby AM is enabled by digital definitions of
the intended geometry and associated process parameters. This caveat enables the
diverse range of sophisticated design outcomes associated with modern AM technol-
ogies, including: inexpensive functional components, high-complexity customised 3D
structures, high-value structural systems, and inexpensive patient-specific surgical
guides (Fig. 1.1).

1.1 What benefits are enabled by additive manufacture?

AM fundamentally differs from competing manufacturing technologies. In this text,
these technologies are collectively referred to as Traditional Manufacturing (TM)
methods. In brief, these technologies include (Fig. 1.2): subtractive manufacturing
by the sequential removal of bulk input material; and, formative manufacture by the
use of some master-reference that physically imparts its geometry to an input material.
The fundamental advantages of additive manufacture can be defined in contrast to
the attributes of traditional manufacturing technologies. The nuanced detail of these
advantages is discussed in the following Chapters, but can be briefly summarised as:
• Reduced production costs: The common unit materials and digital design processes inherent
to AM enable economic advantages for manufacture, especially for low-volume production,
including the manufacture of mass-customised bespoke products (Chapter 7).
• Increased complexity: The sequential addition of materials that is inherent to AM enables an
outside-in approach to manufacture; this approach allows the fabrication of high-complexity
components that are challenging or even impossible to produce with traditional manufacture,
including topologically optimised structures (Chapter 6) and high efficiency cellular struc-
tures (Chapter 5).
• Custom materials: AM processes unit materials in a unique manner. This attribute enables
innovation in materials science, including novel polymer chemistries, the manufacture of
complex biological constructs and metallurgical properties not feasible with traditional
manufacture.
• Generative design: The digital nature of AM enables an automated approach to the design,
documentation and manufacture of complex engineered systems; this opportunity can

Design for Additive Manufacturing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816721-2.00001-4

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2 Design for Additive Manufacturing

(A) (B)

(C) (D)
Fig. 1.1 A range of commercial AM outcomes: (A). inexpensive functional components
(Chapter 8), (B). high-complexity customised 3D structures (Chapter 9), (C). high-value
structural systems (Chapter 12), and (D). inexpensive patient-specific surgical guides [1]
(Chapter 10).

potentially reduce design cost to the point where AM product can be mass-customised to the
specific requirements of a particular design scenario (Chapter 7).
• Reduced waste: By the efficient utilisation of unit input materials, additive manufacture al-
lows reduced waste and material costs for complex geometries; and paradoxically enables the
manufacture of high-complexity product with reduced unit-cost (Chapter 2).
• Distributed manufacture: Digital files can be shared globally to AM manufacturing centers
and fabricated as required. This opportunity enables reduced lead-time and design costs asso-
ciated with transport and the maintenance of legacy components (Chapter 3).
 Introduction to AM 3

Addittive Forma
ative Subtracctive
Schematic
Example

x No m
master reference x High materiaal quality x Lo
ow-unit costt at
x Com
mmon unit material
m x Reelatively low
w unit-cost at moderate vollumes
Advantages

x Low-cost at low
w-volume hiigh-volumes x Re
elatively higgh quality
x High
h-complexity achievable x High quality surface finish su
urface finish
h
x Uniq
que microsttructure x Roobust mateerial propertties x Noo master reference
x Masss-customisaation x Prrecedence o of commerccial required
ap
pplication x Ap
pplication pprecedence

x Surfaace finish x Reequires the fabrication

n of x Lo
ow buy-to-flly ratio
Challenges

x High
h-cost at higgh-volume master
m reference x Moderately loow
x Certification challenges forr x Lo
ow achievab ble complexxity acchievable co
omplexity
noveel method

Addittive Forma
ative Subtracctive

Fig. 1.2 Manufacturing classifications including schematic representation of core advantages and
technical challenges.

1.2 Design for Additive Manufacture

The inherent advantages of AM enable significant commercial opportunities, espe-
cially for applications that satisfy multiple techno-economic advantages concurrently;
for example, the low-volume production of high-complexity components. In fact, AM
presents such a profound opportunity for design innovation that it has been labelled as
a disruptive technology enabling a fourth industrial revolution [2]. However, the op-
portunities associated with AM are predicated on the availability of robust Design
for Additive Manufacture (DFAM) tools that enable engineers and product designers
to (Fig. 1.3):
• Reliably predict the technical response of AM systems
• Define the commercial opportunities of AM systems
• Automate the process of AM product design
These opportunities are elaborated briefly below with specific links to the relevant
Chapters and associated case studies.
4 Design for Additive Manufacturing

(A) (C) (E)

(B) (D) (F)

DFAM tools to
DFAM tools to predict DFAM tools for
idenfy commercial
AM system response autonomous design
opportunies
Fig. 1.3 DFAM tool classifications and associated examples developed in this work: methods
to characterize the response of (A). polymeric (Chapter 9) and (B). metallic (Chapter 5) AM
materials, (C,D). economic DFAM tools for cost prediction (Chapter 2), generative
DFAM tools to design high-value (E). medical and (F). aerospace products (Chapter 7).

1.2.1 DFAM tools to predict AM system technical response

DFAM tools that predict a priori the effect of design decisions on AM outcomes
enable engineers and product designers to minimise the risks of failing to satisfy the
technical requirements inherent to a proposed AM technology. This de-risking process
enables greater certainty in commercial production, allowing engineers to confidently
specify AM product, as well as providing confidence for the manufacturing sector to
invest in AM hardware. DFAM tools of this type range from rules-of-thumb on AM
manufacturability limits to sophisticated experimental and numerical analysis of
AM process parameters (Chapter 4).

1.2.2 DFAM tools to identify commercial opportunities

The evolution of AM technology is driven by a pull from potential customers as well as
a push from the design and manufacturing sectors. DFAM tools are required that
clearly articulate the commercial opportunities for AM as a function of the geometric,
functional and economic requirements of a specific design scenario. These DFAM
tools provide a customer-facing tool to identify commercially optimal AM technolo-
gies. Alternately, economic DFAM tools provide a manufacturer-facing tool for AM
manufacturers to identify potential customers for their specific AM manufacturing
specialisation (Chapter 2).
Introduction to AM 5

1.2.3 DFAM tools for autonomous design

The complexity enabled by AM processes is not currently matched by the available
design tools. A generation of DFAM tools is emerging that enable the complexity of
AM processes to be utilised in the design of complex geometries and processes in a high-
ly automated manner. These tools combine manufacturability limits with automated
structural optimisation algorithms to algorithmically design AM systems that optimise
functional requirements while satisfying the associated manufacturability constraints.
These DFAM tools enable a classification of design known as generative design,
where the engineer specifies the constraints and objectives that govern the specific
product design but is not directly responsible for the specific design outcomes. Gener-
ative design algorithms allow the complexity enabled by AM to be systematically
applied to optimise the commercial and technical aspects of the product under consid-
eration in a cost-effective manner. Numerous implementations of generative design are
under development, including topology optimisation methods that accommodate AM
specific attributes. Furthermore, generative design provides an opportunity for the
automated self-documentation of design decisions, as is required for the certification
and quality control of high-value product (Chapter 7).

1.3 Evolution of AM and technology development

trajectories
Novel technologies demonstrate an S-curve relationship between implementation (or
efficiency) and development time; this curve asymptotes between two limits from
initial research to deep commercialisation (Fig. 1.4). A particular challenge associated
with this model of technology adoption occurs due to a potential mismatch between
research efforts and commercial needs. This mismatch results in a failure for the tech-
nology to adequately respond to the end-users technical and economic requirements,
leading to a reduced confidence in the underlying technology. This reduced confidence
results in a reduced research effort, and reduced levels of implementation. This sce-
nario introduces a real risk that the technology implementation will not exceed the
implementation threshold required for technology commercialization.
This text responds to this challenge by promoting DFAM tools that align research
with commercial activities, enabling research outcomes to be rapidly industrialised; as
well as identifying research opportunities and associated DFAM tools that must be
addressed to enable AM commercialisation. It is hoped that these efforts will promote
a balance between research and development that maximises commercial uptake.

1.4 The techno-economic motivation for Design for AM

(DFAM) tools
Research innovation motivates commercial opportunities, and commercial opportu-
nities motivate research innovation. If this research push and commercial pull is in
6 Design for Additive Manufacturing

Implementation

Aligned research
and commercial activities

Implementation threshold for

technology commercialization Mismatch between research
and commercial activities

Time
Fig. 1.4 Technology S-curve, indicating scenarios where research is aligned to commercial
activities, and scenarios where a mismatch exists between research and commercial activities.
The latter potentially leading to a failure to achieve the minimum implementation threshold
required for technology commercialization.

alignment, the underlying technology matures quickly and evolves to a high level of
implementation (Fig. 1.4). Commercialisation of AM technologies requires unambig-
uous guidance on the associated technical and economic constraints. In this text, eco-
nomic constraints are given equal priority with technical DFAM requirements. Chapter
2 formalises a series of DFAM tools that can be used to identify scenarios where AM
processes are economically optimal. This initial analysis is then refined to address
nuanced concepts that affect commercial outcomes in subtle but important ways.
Chapter 3 presents technical DFAM tools such that the fundamental technical require-
ments of AM application are met, as well as tools that enable the complexity of AM to
be harnessed without compromising overall design agility and associated costs.

References
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surgical guides using desktop stereolithographic printing and implant treatment planning
software: a clinical report. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry 2017;118(3):256e63.
[2] Berman B. 3-D printing: the new industrial revolution. Business Horizons 2012;55(2):
155e62.