WHITEPAPER

Best Practices for

Selecting Pressure
Imaging Systems
Learn about Intelligent Dynamic Sensing and how it surpasses legacy
interface pressure measurement systems and software, plus:

• Which factors can affect pressure sensor accuracy

• The differences between capacitive and resistive sensor technology
• How sensors are manufactured
• The importance of calibration and equilibration
Best Practices for Selecting Pressure Imaging Systems
by XSENSOR Technology Corporation

133 12 Ave SE, Calgary, AB T2G 0Z9

www.xsensor.com

Copyright © 2021 XSENSOR Technology Corporation

All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or portions thereof in
any form whatsoever. For information, address the publisher at:
marketing@xsensor.com
Intelligent Dynamic Sensing vs.
Interface Pressure Measurement
If you’re looking to capture quality static or dynamic pressure data in fields such as patient care,
manufacturing, and product design and safety testing, then you’ll find legacy interface pressure
measurement systems aren’t suitable for the job.

That’s because many legacy interface pressure measurement systems use outdated resistive
sensor technology instead of capacitive sensor technology, and software that lacks intelligence.
Not only are resistive sensors cumbersome to use (the equilibration and calibration time alone
presents a significant challenge), they are unreliable and inaccurate, which means your data will
be, too. Legacy software is incapable of taking advantage of the rich data available from modern
sensors in order to deliver improved outcomes.

Simply put, interface pressure measurement systems that use

resistive-based sensors and dated software are obsolete.

That’s why our products combine capacitive-based pressure sensors and our Intelligent
Dynamic Sensing platform with powerful AI-enabled software.

Intelligent Dynamic Sensing

Intelligent Dynamic Sensing (IDS) enables precise measurements and features highly detailed
visualizations and smart data with AI-powered analysis by combining integrated sensors with
intelligent software.

Intelligent Dynamic Sensing reveals the hidden data across industrial, consumer, clinical,
and human body performance applications. Because of hidden data, products are designed
and manufactured without being fully optimized to ensure the best results — but with IDS,
trustworthy data can inform your decisions on how to optimize the performance, comfort, and
safety of your products.

IDS Solutions

Continous Skin Human Product Design & Sleep

Monitoring Performance Safety Testing Improvement

IDS Platform

Capture Measure Visualize

Analyze Optimize Adapt

Intelligent Data Engine

 Hardware Sensors

Patient Support Biomechanics Tire Footprint

Body Pressure Human Interaction Impact

Mattress Manufacturing Process Custom

Integrated Sensors

Quality data starts with accurate, reliable sensors. Our capacitive sensors combine proprietary
materials, sensor design, and tightly controlled in-house manufacturing processes. From
continuously monitoring clinical surfaces and finding a mattress with the right support, to
precisely measuring tire tread designs and capturing airbag impact pressures — our sensors
offer industry-leading capabilities.

Intelligent Software

Powerful software can continually capture, measure, visualize, and adapt to the sensor
conditions in realtime. Cloud-powered workflows reveal, monitor, alert, and analyze data from
surfaces and dynamic motion in human performance and continuous skin monitoring scenarios.
Data can aggregate in the cloud, privately and securely. Combined with public and private data
sets, it can drive insight, identify anomalies, and predict outcomes.

Intelligent Dynamic Sensing solutions are in four key areas:

• Human Performance — reveals accurate gait and motion data to help biomechanics
professionals optimize human performance
• Continuous Skin Monitoring — provides actionable information to help clinicians improve
patient safety
• Sleep Improvement — Helps mattress manufacturers design, retailers sell, and consumers
experience the best beds with the highest level of comfort
• Product Design & Safety Testing — Ensures that engineers can verify that product designs
have the highest levels of performance and safety
The platform enables new models for better predictive diagnosis and prognosis, and with
distributed surface sensor edge nodes across the network, actionable insights can occur at the
point of sensing.

Read on to learn more about key technical differences between resistive and capacitive sensor
technology and how they can impact the safety and design of your products.
Why should you care about pressure imaging
sensor accuracy?
Because you are using pressure imaging to make evidence-based decisions, you need to
trust that the pressure measurements are accurate. Due to the unique design and advanced
materials, XSENSOR’s capacitive pressure sensors are the most accurate sensors available on
the market today. To ensure this accuracy, like every other type of equipment in a laboratory, the
sensors you use to measure interface pressure are devices that require calibration.

To comply with your ISO 9001 certification, your quality management system requires that you
control the calibration of measurement equipment — including your pressure imaging sensors.

As part of the strict accreditation process, a laboratory’s quality management system is

thoroughly evaluated on a regular basis to ensure continued technical competence and
compliance with ISO/IEC 17025. As part of the accreditation process, you must prove
the following:
• Your entire calibration process and equipment is well-defined;
• The uncertainty of your calibration equipment is known and accounted for;
• All your lab personnel are trained and technically competent;
• The methods and practices you have in place produce precise and valid results;
• All your documentation is in place supporting practices and procedures.
To ensure that your equipment and practices are compliant with your ISO 9001 certification,
you should understand the different types of calibration procedures and how they can affect the
accuracy of your results. It is also necessary to understand how uncertainties in your pressure
measurement equipment are quantified and documented.

Interface Pressure Sensors from ISO/IEC 17025 accredited

facilities have traceable calibrations from controlled
processes performed by verified competent staff.
All processes are documented and regular 3rd party audits validate
process compliance to ensure consistent outcomes.

ISO/IEC 17025 standards ensure that the specified Calibration Measurement Capability (CMC)
of the facility is traceable with documented uncertainty and is verified by audit and regular
proficiency testing. Measurement accuracy of the sensors is verified and traceable in calibration
certificates to SI standards. Measurement accuracy can be proven by the demonstrated
proficiency of the calibration lab. If the interface pressure sensors used in your testing
procedures do not have a proven accuracy, then your entire process can be called into question.

This can affect ISO/IEC 17025 compliance and ISO 9001 compliance, particularly if your
company manufactures products that might endanger human life when defective.

Therefore, when considering what type of pressure measurement equipment to use in your
laboratory, it is important to understand how the accuracy statement of the sensors is validated.
At a glance: factors that influence ISO/IEC compliance
XSENSOR’s Capacitive Sensors
Accurate for long duration testing
Low repeatability error
Accurate when bent and/or deformed
Accurate for all pressure ranges
Calibration
Performed by manufacturer
Sensor ready for use “out of the box”
Uncertainty is easily quantifiable
Uncertainty is a known constant, regardless of
user, test rig, or geographic location
Calibration lab compliant to ISO/
IEC 17025 requirements
Supports ISO 9001 compliance
Resistive Sensors
High creep error in long duration tests
High repeatability error
Lose accuracy when bent or deformed
Limited accuracy at low pressures
Equilibration
Performed by customer test personnel
Equilibration must happen before each test
Uncertainty depends on operator skill
Uncertainty compounds across different test
rigs, laboratories,and operators
Calibration lab will not meet ISO/
IEC 17025 requirements
Endangers ISO 9001 compliance
The impact of sensor design on accuracy
and performance
Capacitive vs. Resistive Sensors
There are significant differences between capacitive and resistive sensor technology. Your
choice determines sensor performance, how it can be calibrated, and ultimately
ISO/IEC compliance.

About Resistive Sensors

Resistive sensors are commonly used for pressure sensor applications. These sensors are
produced by arranging two parallel arrays of electrically conductive material on a substrate in a
perpendicular orientation. To create the sensors, piezoresistive (pressure sensitive) ink material
is deposited on the conductive material. Compression force or other mechanical stress of the
materials will alter the electrical properties of the ink, increasing or decreasing the electrical
resistance in the pressure sensitive ink material. Due to the change in resistance, an output
voltage is produced that is proportional to the sensed pressure.

Columns

Electrodes

Rows
Pressure
Sensitive Ink

Figure 1: Basic resistive sensor construction and operation.

Conductive Array

Limitations of Resistive Sensors

These sensors are less accurate and have lower

precision when compared to capacitive sensors. Conductive particles close together - 30K Ohms
Pressure sensitive inks are sensitive to mechanical
stresses other than compression, due to bending
and deflection when used in applications that
require conformance to complex surfaces. They
are also more sensitive to temperature changes
and have a tendency to drift, particularly following
use on uneven surfaces.

Conductive particles further apart - 50K Ohms

Figure 2: Drawbacks of resistive sensors.

In order to compensate for these limitations, sensing arrays using pressure sensitive ink
technology require frequent equilibration to correct the sensor output.

Resistive sensors tend to be unstable at lower pressures, so are better suited to high
pressure ranges.

About Capacitive Sensors

XSENSOR’s pressure sensors are composed of a matrix of capacitive sensing elements.

The capacitive elements are composed of two arrays of parallel conductive strips that are
perpendicular in orientation. The arrays are separated by a thin compressible elastomer
dielectric (Figure 3). Pressure applied to the surface of the sensing element compresses the
dielectric which results in a change in the voltage across the capacitive element.

The analog voltage is converted to a digital “raw” value and is correlated to pressure via our
calibration process and is then displayed in the XSENSOR software. XSENSOR has engineered
dielectrics which are highly sensitive and have predictable compression characteristics.

Advantages of Capacitive Sensors

The result is that the sensors can detect even slight variations in pressure distribution and with
high accuracy. The sensors are calibrated to a measurement range appropriate to the end use.

Capacitive sensors are ideally suited for pressure interface applications and particularly to those
that require conformity to a surface that has significant displacements.

Processes are in place to ensure that calibrations consistently meet accuracy specifications by
complying with ISO/IEC 17025.

Columns

Electrodes

Rows
Dielectric

Dielectric Figure 3: Basic capacitive sensor construction and operation.

How different calibration procedures influence data
quality
Quantifying Uncertainty: Calibration vs. Equilibration
Although it is common to use the term “calibration” to refer to any procedure that normalizes
a sensor’s output, in pressure sensing applications there are two distinct procedures used:
calibration and equilibration. Both of these affect the overall accuracy of your data, and the type
of procedure used depends entirely on the sensor you buy.

What is Equilibration?

Equilibration is the process that involves applying a uniform pressure across the sensor
to normalize all the sensing elements to a known pressure. The equilibration process can
compensate for variation in the performance of individual sensing elements by applying a factor
to individual sensing elements. Equilibration versus calibration is typically used for resistive
sensors due to their non-linear performance.

What sensors can be equilibrated?

Resistive sensors must be equilibrated before each test session to measure accurately, as the
electrical properties of the pressure-sensitive ink can change following each use.

Problems with equilibration

First and foremost, equilibration procedures are extremely time-consuming to perform. This can
easily double the amount of time test engineers must spend during testing, adding hidden costs
to using resistive sensors.

Because equilibration is performed by users, the potential for systematic and user error is
introduced. This is difficult to quantify, particularly when tests are being performed on multiple
test rigs, by different users, in different laboratories. Unless performed within the constraints of
well-defined protocols, equilibration procedures make it easy for the integrity of your data to be
called into question.
What is Calibration?

Calibration is the process in which the raw sensor output is compared to a known reference
pressure with a known uncertainty at several different pressures. The raw sensor output is
then correlated to the known applied reference pressures. The applied reference pressures are
traceable through XSENSOR’s ISO 17025 accreditation back to SI standards.

Each individual sensing element in the sensor has its own calibration to accommodate for
slight variances in manufacturing tolerances. XSENSOR uses two different types of calibration
methods depending on the sensor type and application. Because the sensitivity of capacitive
sensors is predictable, they have enhanced accuracy over the calibrated range.

Which sensors can be calibrated?

Due to their design and high reliability, capacitive sensors are often calibrated by the
manufacturer. The advanced dielectrics and calibration methods developed by XSENSOR ensure
that the sensor measurements are accurate and repeatable with ongoing use. They can be
expected to retain their calibration over time, unless they are damaged or otherwise broken
during use.

Raw Output Calibrated Output

50000 1600

1400
45000
Measured Pressure [kPa]

1200
Raw Output [a.u.]

40000
1000

35000 800

600
30000
400
25000
200

20000 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Applied Pressure [kPa] Applied Pressure [kPa]

Figures 4 and 5: How a raw voltage output is correlated with known applied pressures to produce a sensor reading.
Consequences of sensor choice on test procedures
Repeat Testing
LX100 Repeatability N=1700
Repeatability is the variation 800
that arises when the same

Number of occurances
700
measurement is performed 600
500
repeatedly during a short
400
time period under the same
300
conditions with the same 200
operator. A higher repeatability 100
will result in more precise and 0
reliable measurements.

90.5
92.5
94.5
96.5
98.5
100.5
102.5
104.5
106.5
108.5
110.5
112.5
114.5
116.5
118.5
120.5
122.5
124.5
126.5
128.5
130.5
Due to their design, resistive Sensor Pressure [mmHg]
sensors are less accurate, as
shown by the above test data
Figure 6: Capacitive sensors are much more precise and reliable than resistive sensors.
– for an applied pressure of
110mmHg, resistive sensors
have both a greater margin of
error and a higher measurement
variance. This makes them
Capacitive Sensor Creep
poorly-suited for applications 10%

that involve repeat testing. 8%

% Full Scale Creep

Extended Trials 6%

4%
Creep, sometimes referred
to as drift, is the effect where 2%
the sensor output will tend
0%
to increase over time when a
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
constant pressure is applied. The
Time Elapsed [min]
larger the applied pressure, the
more the sensor will creep. Due
to their design, resistive sensors Figure 7: Capacitive sensor creep over a 60-minute trial.
have higher creep error than
capacitive sensors. This makes
them poorly-suited for long
duration testing.
About XSENSOR Sensors
We engineer, design and manufacture our own sensors, and have developed many innovations
in capacitive sensor technology. As a result, we have substantially minimized the effects of
creep and compression set for all our sensors. Our sensors are proven to retain measurement
accuracy across repeated measurement cycles and through long-duration measurements. With
periodic recalibration, their reliability, accuracy and performance remain very high throughout
their lifetime.

We are the only ISO/IEC 17025 accredited pressure imaging

sensor manufacturer.

Unlike other sensors on the market, our sensors maintain their calibration owing to the
capacitive technology and the proprietary materials used to make them.

Our ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation means that we have demonstrated competency in producing
accurate test and calibration data from our sensors. Your ISO registration requires your
suppliers provide verified calibrated test equipment and recalibration processes to maintain
your compliance.
Checklist for purchasing pressure imaging equipment
The following are some criteria you should use to evaluate your current pressure imaging
equipment, as well as any future purchases. If you answer “No” to any of these criteria, your ISO
9001 compliance may be at risk as a result of your pressure imaging system.

CRITERIA YES NO

Do the sensors use capacitive technology?

Are the sensors manufactured and calibrated in an ISO/IEC 17025

accredited facility?

Does each sensor come with an ISO/IED 17025 accredited calibration

certificate?

If you plan to be using the sensor for repetitive testing or extended periods of
time, is the sensor designed to minimize hysteresis, creep and drift?

If your test procedures involve surfaces with contours, can your sensors
conform to the surface while maintaining their accuracy?

Are you using the same test equipment in multiple facilities? Do you require
your supplier to use the same test equipment? Consistent data will be critical.

Over a range of applied pressures during testing, does the sensor comply with
the accuracy specification?

Is equilibration required to set-up the sensors prior to taking measurements?

How long will the set-up take?
About XSENSOR
For 25 years, XSENSOR has set the standard for accurate sensors and image quality in software
— to capture, visualize, and analyze pressure data.

We started out by developing sensors used to measure pressure on cushions designed to keep
wheelchair users safe. Today, we continue to innovate and partner with our customers from
around the world to explore what is possible with Intelligent Dynamic Sensing.

XSENSOR delivers accurate pressure data that can be trusted in decision making — whether you
want to:

• Continuously monitor clinical surfaces

• Prevent tissue damage
• Help athletes improve their performance
• Find a mattress with the right comfort and support
• Precisely measure tire tread designs, or
• Capture airbag pressures using ultra-fast sensors
Our customers rely on us for accurate, reliable sensors, superior software tools and outstanding
product support. As leaders in Intelligent Dynamic Sensing, XSENSOR enables product
designers, clinicians, sports industry professionals, and consumers to achieve the highest levels
of comfort, safety, and performance.
For more information on XSENSOR products, visit xsensor.com
or email us at sales@xsensor.com

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