BIRDS

prepared by:
Karylle Atienza
Kristine Morada
Jabez Herrera
Beth Fernando
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates
constituting the class Aves, characterised by

feathers,
toothless beaked jaws,
the laying of hard-shelled eggs,
a high metabolic rate,
a four-chambered heart,
and a strong yet lightweight skeleton
 Taxonomy of the Avian Reptiles
Class Aves -their adaptation for flight includes:
fore appendages modified as feathered wings
endothermic
high metabolic rate
flexible neck
fused posterior vertebrae
bones lightened by numerous air spaces
their skull is lightened by a reduction in bone and the
presence of a horny bill that lacks teeth
 1. Superorder Paleognathae
Struthioniformes
Large, Flightless birds, wings with
numerous fluffy plumes
Ostrich: the largest and heaviest
living bird.
Kingdom: | Animalia
Phylum: | Chordata
Class: | Aves
Order: | Struthioniformes
Family: | Struthiondae
Genus: | Struthio
2. Superorder Neognathae
Galloansers
A. Order Ansireformes (waterfowl) - south
american sceamers, ducks geese, and swans

B. Order Galliformes (landfowl) - short beak,

concave wings, strong feet and claws
 Neoaves
A. Order Podicipediformes - short
wings; soft and dense plumage; feet
webbed with flattened nails

B. Order Phoenicopteriformes - Oval-shaped

bodies with pink or crimson-red feathers; black
flight feathers; exceptionally long legs and necks;
large bill curve downward in the middle, pper bill
is smaller than the lower bill
C. Order Columbiformes - dense
feathers loosely set in skin; well
developed crop.

D. Order Cuculiformes -
Reversible fourth toe; soft,
tender skin.
 F. Order Gruiformes - order
characteristics variable and not
diagnostic

E. Order Caprimulgiformes- Owl like

head and plumage, but weak bill and
feet; beak with wide gape;
insectivorous.
 G. Order Charadriiformes -
order characteristics variable

H. Order Gaviiformes - strong,

straight bill; diving adaptations
include legs far back on body,
bladelike tarsus, webbed feet, and
heavy bones
 J. Order Procellariiformes -
Tubular nostrils, large nasall
glands; long and narrow
wings

I. Order Pelecaniformes - Four

toes joined in common web;
nostrils rudimentary or absent;
large gular sac.
 K. Order Sphenisciformes -
Heavy bodied; flightless,
flipperlike wings; well insulated
with fat

L. Order Accipitriformes -
Diurnal birds prey. Strong,
hooked beak; large wings;
raptorial feet.
The Ancient Birds
1. Archaeopteryx
2. Sinornis
3. Eoalulavis
Archaeopteryx
is known as the earliest and
most primitive bird.
is said to be considered a link
between birds and reptiles, the
first bird which changed from a
land dweller to a bird.
It was seen in the late Jurassic
Period i.e. around 150–148
million years ago.
SYMMETRY
The feathers of Archaeopteryx were asymmetrical

LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
Archaeopteryx had various types of tissues, including bone tissues that
were important for supporting its skeletal structure.
It had organs such as the brain, heart, lungs, and reproductive organs. The
structure of these organs would have been intermediate between those of
reptiles and birds.
Archaeopteryx had different systems in its body, including the skeletal
system, muscular system, nervous system, and respiratory system.
These systems would have played a role in its ability to move, obtain food,
and reproduce.
 REPRODUCTION
Archaeopteryx, like modern birds, is believed to have reproduced by
laying eggs. The specific details of its reproductive process,
including internal fertilization and incubation, are inferred from
anatomical features and comparisons with living organisms. Fossil
evidence, including well-preserved feathers and some indications of
eggs, supports the hypothesis that Archaeopteryx exhibited bird-like
reproductive strategies.
These features highlight the mosaic nature of
Archaeopteryx, with a mix of dinosaurian and
avian traits. The fossil record of Archaeopteryx
provides crucial insights into the evolutionary
transition from dinosaurs to birds.
 Sinornis
sparrow-sized fossil bird of the
Jurassic period to the
Cretaceous period
having a keeled breastbone
and vestigial tail; found in
China
considered possibly the second
most primitive of all birds.
 SYMMETRY
As with many extinct birds, details about Sinornis's
anatomy are derived from fossil evidence, and
specific information about its symmetry may not be
readily available, but birds, both extinct and
modern, typically exhibit bilateral symmetry.
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
like all living organisms, they were composed of cells.
Cells in Sinornis organized into different types of tissues. These
tissues would have included bone tissues for structural support,
muscle tissues for movement, and other specialized tissues for
different physiological functions.
had organs such as the brain, heart, lungs, and reproductive
organs.
had systems like the skeletal system, muscular system, nervous
system, and digestive system.
 Eoalulavis
is a monotypic genus of
enantiornithean bird that lived
during the Barremian, in the Lower
Cretaceous around 125 million years
ago
was the first Mesozoic bird known to
have had an alula,‭‬more commonly
known as a bastard wing.
The alula has a crucial role in
controlling the airflow over the
wing during flight. It can be
extended or retracted to help
manage lift and prevent stalling,
especially during slow flight or
when landing. The term "alula" is
also used to describe a small
group of feathers or feather-like
structures found on other flying
animals, such as bats.
The Initial Uses of Feathers and
Other Origins of Flight
The evolution of flight in birds is a classic example
of adaptation to changing environments and the
exploitation of new ecological niches. While
feathers initially evolved for purposes other than
flight, their aerodynamic properties, combined with
other adaptations, eventually led to the diverse
array of flying birds seen today. The fossil record,
comparative anatomy, and molecular studies
contribute to our understanding of the gradual
evolution of flight in avian ancestors.
External Structure and
Locomotion
Feathers:
Flight Feathers: Specialized feathers on the wings and tail provide lift and control
during flight.
Contour Feathers: Cover the body and contribute to aerodynamics, insulation, and
coloration.
Skeleton:
Lightweight Bones: Birds have a highly modified skeleton with hollow bones,
reducing overall weight for efficient flight.
Fused Bones: Some bones, such as those in the hand, are fused to support the
structure of the wing.
Musculature:
Powerful Flight Muscles: Well-developed breast muscles (pectoralis and
supracoracoideus) provide the power for the downstroke and upstroke during
flight.
Keel: A prominent ridge on the breastbone (sternum) provides an anchor for flight
muscles.
Beak and Head:
Beak Diversity: Beaks are adapted to a bird's feeding habits (e.g., beaks for
probing, tearing, or crushing).
Eyes: Positioned on the sides of the head, providing a wide field of view.
Respiratory System:
Air Sacs: Birds have a unique respiratory system with air sacs that allow for a
continuous flow of air through the lungs, facilitating efficient gas exchange during
both inhalation and exhalation.
Tail:
Tail Feathers: Provide stability and control during flight. Tail shape varies among
species based on their flying habits.
Legs and Feet:
Perching Feet: Most birds have specialized feet adapted for various behaviors,
such as perching, swimming, or grasping prey.
Digit Arrangement: Birds typically have three forward-pointing toes and one
backward-pointing toe (anisodactyl), which aids in perching.
Flight Adaptations:
Wing Shape: Varies depending on the bird's flying habits (e.g., soaring,
hovering, or rapid maneuvering).
Elliptical Wings: Found in birds that require quick takeoffs and
maneuverability.
High Aspect Ratio Wings: Found in birds that cover long distances in flight.

Specialized Adaptations:
Webbed Feet: Found in waterfowl and other aquatic birds for efficient
swimming.
Strong Bills: Adapted for various feeding strategies (e.g., seed-cracking,
insect-catching, or fish-spearing).
 Nutrition and the Digestive System Circulation
Birds have specialized nutritional needs and a unique digestive system adapted
to their diverse diets and high metabolic rates. Their nutrition includes
macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) and micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals). The digestive system involves a beak for food
manipulation, salivary glands, a crop for temporary storage, a glandular
stomach (proventriculus) for chemical digestion, a gizzard for mechanical
digestion, and a small and large intestine for nutrient absorption. Birds lack
teeth, and their digestive system is adapted to the efficient extraction of
nutrients from various foods. They excrete uric acid to conserve water. Overall,
these adaptations are essential for meeting the energy demands of flight and
sustaining bird health.
 Gas Exchange
Highly efficient respiratory system with continuous airflow
through air sacs.
Crosscurrent exchange in the lungs optimizes oxygen uptake
and carbon dioxide removal.
Multiple air sacs ensure a constant supply of oxygen to
respiratory surfaces.
 Temperature Regulation
Feathers provide insulation, and birds can adjust them for warmth or
cooling.
Heterothermy allows variations in body temperature based on activity and
environment.
Efficient cardiovascular system adjusts blood flow to conserve or dissipate
heat.
Thermoregulatory behaviors, such as sunbathing, panting, and seeking
shade.
Reduced insulation during flight to prevent overheating.
Specialized cooling mechanisms like gular flutter in pigeons.
Uric acid excretion conserves water during temperature regulation.
 Nervous System
Brain: Relatively large, with well-developed forebrain, midbrain, and
hindbrain.
Vision: Excellent visual processing with large optic lobes.
Hearing: Well-developed auditory system for processing complex sounds.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, crucial for flight and motor skills.
Brainstem: Regulates basic physiological functions and serves as a
pathway for sensory and motor information.
Pallium: Equivalent to the mammalian cortex, involved in higher cognitive
functions.
Nerve Cord and Ganglia: Extends from the brain, with ganglia controlling
specific functions in different body regions.
Cranial Nerves: Well-developed, connecting the brain to sensory
organs and controlling head and neck movements.
Peripheral Nervous System: Includes nerves connecting the
spinal cord to muscles, organs, and sensory receptors throughout
the body.
Behavioral Adaptations: Supports complex behaviors, problem-
solving, tool use, and social interactions.
Learning and Memory: Remarkable learning abilities and memory
formation, with a well-developed hippocampus.
 Sensory Systems
Vision: Excellent and often includes color vision with sensitivity to
ultraviolet light.
Hearing: Well-developed, with some species capable of detecting a
broad range of frequencies.
Olfaction: Present, with varying degrees of development across species,
influencing behaviors like foraging and mate selection.
Taste: Present, with taste receptors located in the upper palate and
back of the tongue.
Touch: Birds have touch receptors, particularly in the beak and feet,
crucial for various tasks.
Magnetoreception: Some birds can sense the Earth's magnetic
field, aiding in navigation during migration.
Pressure and Vibration Detection: Specialized receptors in skin
and feathers help detect changes in air pressure and vibrations.
Photoreception: Besides vision, birds have photoreceptive cells in
the brain for regulating circadian rhythms.
Electric Field Sensing: Water-dwelling birds can detect electric
fields, assisting in prey detection underwater.
Vestibular System: Located in the inner ear, helps maintain
balance and coordinate movements, especially during flight.
 Excretion and Osmoregulation
Birds excrete waste primarily in the form of uric acid to conserve water.
The kidneys filter blood, forming uric acid, which is transported to the
cloaca through ureters. The cloaca serves as a common chamber for
the expulsion of both urine and feces, aiding in water conservation.
This efficient excretion process, combined with selective reabsorption
in the kidneys, helps birds maintain osmoregulatory balance, crucial for
adapting to diverse environmental conditions.
Reproduction and Development
Birds reproduce sexually where males and females
go through a period of courtship and then
copulation. The transfer of sperm to the ova
happens through the cloaca, which is present in
both males and females. In general, birds are
monogamous, and both parents take care of their
offspring together.
 Courtship in Birds
The courtship period in birds can last much longer
than actual copulation. Birds try to charm their
partner in many ways and signals, visual and auditory.
In the courtship period, the male bird tries to
showcase his strength and health to female birds to
convince them that they are the best mate.
The courtship period can have many stages, which begin with
claiming territory to wooing a prospective mate. Some of the
signals and acts performed by birds to woo a partner are:
Intricate songs and calls.
Vibration of feathers
Drummings displays
Air sacks and spectacular flights.
Extravagant crests.
Dances
Aerobic flights.
Moving wings and tails.
Offering nests or nests sites and food.
 Migration and Navigation
Migration in birds involves seasonal movements for breeding,
avoiding harsh conditions, or accessing food. Navigation is
achieved through celestial cues, landmarks, inherited
knowledge, and a magnetic compass. Birds showcase
remarkable precision in reaching destinations, utilizing a
combination of environmental cues to embark on impressive
journeys.