Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 8 Final 1
Unit 8 Final 1
Unit 8 Final 1
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Anthropology is a field-science and field-work is an
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integral part of this discipline.
The researchers sometimes experience "culture
shock"
FIELD-WORK TRADITION IN ANTHROPOLOGY
• In 19th century, L. H. Morgan conducted the first
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anthropological field work in his study on Iroquois
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Indians.
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• Anthropological expeditions began in America with the
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work of Boas in Baffin Land and British Columbia
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where he studied the Kwakiutl Indians, the Eskimo, etc.
• Initiated in England by Haddon, who conducted
research in the Torres Straits region of the Pacific.
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to investigate sociological theories in.oarrgg
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primitive society PPddff44eexxaamm
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works among different tribal societies of India are
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D.N. Majumdar, N.K. Bose, PPddf4
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Ghurye,
Srinivas, S.C. Dube, L.P. Vidyarthi, B.N.
M.N.
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answering and experienced in the topic ing which the
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investigator wants information.
• Data collection
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Significance:
• Can get closer to the emic view of the natives
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• Field work has made anthropology an empirical subject
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• It helped in formulating theories like structural
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functionalism, Functionalism, Culture and personality
theory etc.
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• Important anthropological approaches,
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relativism and holism emerged out of fieldwork.
Cultural
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APPROACHES IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL
FIELD-WORK
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(ii) Dychronic Approach: This approach ss. o
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is
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materials.
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on the written documentsPPddfore
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study of sacred complexes of Hindu Tirthas (places of
pilgrimage), the textual approach becomes an
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essential part of the research work. When Vidyarthi
studied the Sacred Complex of Hindu, ss. o
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(1961), he first, read several 4
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myths and mahatms had been described and
exx
PPddfPuransaamm in which the
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and Jha), consulted many Purans and other
historical documents, besides the empirical field-
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work. The contextual approach is like a synchronic
approach which is based on empirical field-work.
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The contextual approach is applied
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collect first-hand data by applying the different
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field to
field methods.
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called the 'insider approach.' Many researchers
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believe this is the best approach when studying
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previously unstudied, or newly discovered, people
groups.
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Etic Approach
Opposite of the emic approach, the etic approach to
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studying human culture employs existing theories
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and perspectives that originated from outside the
culture being studied. In other words, it uses
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preconceived notions and theories about culture in
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general in order to study specific
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cultures.
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For this reason, it's often referred to as the 'outsider
approach.'
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applied by the researcher to collect data. However,
selection of the informant is very ss. o
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important. An
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PP man, who is aware of
informant should be a reasonable
all the happenings taking place around him.
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Rules of interview:
• Place of interview should be free from any kind of
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disturbance
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• Privacy must be maintained if the informant needs
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• Questions must be short, interesting and clear
• There should not be any language barrier between
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the interviewer and the informantexxaam
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• Threatening and tricky questions must be avoided
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• Investigator must show interest
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• Informants personality must be respectedss.and
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point must be respected PPddf4
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• Questions must be planned in the chronological order
• Questions must be planned topic wise
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Interview can be
• Structured or non-structured
• Individual interview or group interview
• Formal or informal interview
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• Short term or prolonged interview
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• Interview with schedule & Interview without
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schedule. 4 eexxaamm
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• Focused on a topic or general, etc.
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himself introduced to all the families. He collects the primary
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information. Schedule is essentially used for this purpose.
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• Techniques for the documentary interview: Interview
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performed mainly for the documentation of real facts.
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• Descriptive or narrative technique: eexxInformant
a is needed to
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narrate certain facts about a social phenomenon based on his
experience. E.g.: Used in the case of collecting information
on religion.
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sitting. E.g.: For understanding the opinions and attitudes
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of the subject. Whole personality of the subject is
disclosed in this technique. It is of two types
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b. Multiple interviews in depth: The informant
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interviewed not only for a fairly
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duration;
submit numerous interviews at different dates.
he has to
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historical account or biography written from personal knowledge)
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Panel interview: Almost similar to the memoir interview but
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here a person or a group of people are interviewed instead of a
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single person by a panel of investigators.
Conclusion: An interview is thus,PPddf4
an
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type
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of questionnaire
in which the interviewee gives the needed information in a face to
face relationship.
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marriage and descent. This method was First used by
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W. H. R. Rivers in his Torres PPddf4
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Straitxxaam
one of the standard procedures in performing
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expedition. It is
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method in anthropological enquiry. It is one of theU
standard procedures in performing ethnographic
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researches in social anthropology. L.H. Morgan was
another pioneering thinker who usedmthis ss. o
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approach,
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He used this method in his study
Indians.
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PPdd of the Iroquois
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• Economy is system oriented, entire kin group involved in same
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occupation.
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• Chiefs’ position is an ascribed status which a person inherits by
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virtue of belonging to a particular kin group.
• They follow primitive beliefs like Totemism, ss. o
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ancestor worship,
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which are strongly associatedPP d
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with Genealogy.
Therefore, one can get holistic insights into the social structure of
a preindustrial society by studying their genealogy or kinship.
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sampling the researcher is free to apply sampling selecting
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the informants from different groups
Advantage: The sample will be free from bias.
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Disadvantage: Difficult to obtain.
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”Freak" results can be obtained dthat
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the population. In addition, these freak results may be
representative of
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2. Systematic Sample
With this method, items are chosen from the population
according to a fixed rule, e.g. every 10th house along a
street. This method should yield a more representative
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size is small).
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sample than the random sample (especially if the sample
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Advantage: It seeks to eliminate sources of bias like
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introduce bias. H
subconscious preference of researcher,
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3. Stratified Sampling
• The population is broken down into categories
• A random sample is taken of each category.
• The proportions of the sample sizes are the same as
the proportion of each category to the whole.
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Advantage:
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sampling.
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• Yields more accurate results than simple random
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• Can show different tendencies
(e.g. men and women)
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PPdd within each category
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4. Quota Sampling
• The population is broken down into different categories.
• However, the size of the sample of each category does
not reflect the population in that category.
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Advantage: This can be used where an unrepresentative
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sample is desirable (e.g. you might want to interview more
children than adults for a survey onacomputer ss. o
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where it would be too difficult
sample.
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PPdd to undertake a stratified
Disadvantage: Not a genuine random sample.
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5. Cluster Sampling
• Used when populations can be broken down into many different
categories, or clusters.
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• Rather than taking a sample from each cluster, a random
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selection of clusters is chosen to represent the whole.
• Within each cluster, a random sample is taken.
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random sample
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Advantages: Less expensive and time consuming than a fully
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Disadvantages: Not a genuine random sample
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Likely to yield a biased result (especially if only a few clusters
are sampled)
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6. Multi-stage Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling represents a more
complicated form of cluster sampling.
• Larger clusters are further subdivided into smaller,
more targeted groupings for the purposes of
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surveying.
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• Despite its name, multi-stage sampling can in fact
be easier to implement and can create ss. o
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more
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single sampling technique.
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representative sample of the Ppopulation
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than a
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• It aims at obtaining complete and detailed account
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of a social phenomenon or a social unit, which
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an event.
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may be a person, family, community, institution or
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• Case is a social unit with aPPddeviantxaamm
behaviour. The
unit can be a person, family, social institution or an
entire society.
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• Case history may be obtained by interview, Schedule,
questionnaire, participant observation etc.
IND
A B
• Information may be collected from various sources
like life histories, personal documents, letters,
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Biographies etc.
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• This method is extensively used in psychology,
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History:
Frederic Le Play first introduced the case-study method
into social science in 1829. Herbert Spencer was the first
to use this method in ethnographic studies.
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Types of case study:
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Arend Lijphart, and Harry Eckstein identified five
types of case study research designs a(depending
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research objectives), Alexander
Bennett added a sixth category.
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PPddGeorge and Andrew
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ØHypothesis-generating (or heuristic) case studies: The goal is to
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inductively identify new variables, hypotheses, causal mechanisms
and causal paths.
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ØTheory testing case studies: The goal is to assess the validity and
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scope of existing theories. x aa m
ØPlausibility probes: The goal is to f4
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PPddassess the plausibility of new
theories.
ØBuilding block studies: The goal is to identify common patterns
across cases.
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Advantages:
• It provides in-depth analysis of a social unit.
• It helps to collect details regarding diverse habits,
traits and qualities of a social unit
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Disadvantages:
B IN
IM A
• Faulty selection of a case
• Difficult to draw generalizations. mss.o.orrgg
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• Time consuming and costly. PPddf4
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• Investigators bias might distort the quality of the case
study.
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Steps include:
• Selection of a case
• Determining the phenomena under study
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• Formulate a hypothesis
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• Collection of data using appropriate methods
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• Analyzing the data. ss. o
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• Arriving at conclusions.
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• The researcher can conduct observation in the field by
Ø Establishing good rapport
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Ø paying attention to every minute detail of life and
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situations in life,
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Ø recording what you see exactly
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asmmu see
interpreting or attributing any of your meaning to it),
it (without
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observation, where the members and the phenomena to
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be observed are clearly defined. & Non structured
B
observation where the observation is open ended.
A
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people kept in an artificial setting and observing their
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behavior and reactions to certain situations.
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many factors. H
Merit: This ensures that the researcher
PPdd 4
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activities, but collects the data by observing from a distance, this
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is called non-participant method.
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E.g., Philippe Burgois in New York City x aamin
m the slums of the
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busiest city. Sometimes when it is not possible to operate it in a
completely nonparticipant mode, it becomes quasi participant.
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Advantages:
• Objectivity and neutrality can be maintained because
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of the detachment with the activities of the group.
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• This removes the effect of the researcher on the
B
Disadvantages:
I A
behaviour of the members of the society.
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• Getting closer to the emic Pview
be difficult.
4
f4eexxaamm
Pdd of the members may
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Limitations:
• Researcher is not from the cultural vacuum; He is not free from
the influence of his own culture on the observations he is
making.
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• It is a time taking process.
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• Researcher will be in a cultural shock for the first few days.
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• All phenomena are not subject to observation.
• Collecting historical data is not possible.mss.o . orrgg
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From this method came the mostPP ddf4
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commoneexxaa m
form of
anthropological research called Participatory active research
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in international development. The approachoraims
xxaammss. . o g
r g to
ddff44ee of rural people in
incorporate the knowledge andPPopinions
the planning and management of development projects
and programmes.
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PRA is the most effective form of RRA.
Steps in PRA technique:
IND
B
• Introducing PRA approach to the locals.
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• Surveying and sampling.
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• Understanding group dynamics, e.g. through rrole
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r g reversals,
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feedback sessions. PPddff44eexxaamm
• Discussions, semi-structured interviews with focus groups.
• Making sure that people are not excluded from participation.
• Designing revenue management plan and implementing.
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Since the early 21st century, some practitioners have replaced PRA
with the standardized model of participatory action
research (PAR).
Participatory action research (PAR):
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IN
• PAR is more of an approach than a method of inquiry.
B
• Participatory action research is a form of action research in which
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professional social researchers operate as full collaborators with
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members of organizations in studying e xand
x a transforming those
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organizations. It is an ongoing organizational learning process, a
research approach that emphasizes co-learning, participation
and organizational transformation. (Greenwood et al, 1993).
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Context-specific – it is generally targeted around the needs of a
particular group.
B IN
Emphasis on collaboration – researchers and participants working
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together to examine a problematic situation or action to change it
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for the better. x aa m
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PPdd of research, action and
A cyclical process – an iterative cycle
reflection. (Kindon et al, 2006)
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greater awareness of their situation in order to take action,
Success is some personal or collective change.
Demerits:
B IN
IM A
Involving the most primitive people or the people living in
ss. o
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remote places may be ignored or not
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P ddf xaamm
f44eexpossible.
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Experiential ethnography is doing ethnographic research by the
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experiencing the culture being studied. Thus experiential
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ethnographers follow the method of participant observation
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which may, sometimes take the form of participant action
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research. (Elaborate on participant observation and PAR)
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• questionnaire are used for the collection of personal
I PPddf4
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references, social attitudes, beliefs,4eexxaammss
opinions,
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behaviour
patterns, group practices and habits and such other
information.
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industrialization, urbanisation, etc., and it is filled up
by the informant personally by him /herself.
B IN
IM A
• Questionnaires are beneficial as supplementary and
extending devices in observations, in s . o
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interviews,
s and
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in evaluating personal PPbehaviour and social
situations.
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useful devices for isolating one element at a times
D
N
and thus intensifying observation of it.
B I
IM A ss. o
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H P
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Ø Open ended questions
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Ø Closed ended questions( respondent
4 eexxaa is asked to select a
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response from the options provided)
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B IN
• It provides an opportunity to establish a rapport
with the group.
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• Researches have a chancePto
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e x aa
explain
x mm
of certain unclear items and the purpose clearly.
the meaning
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• Types of schedules :
ØObservation schedules: schedules used during
PAR
ØDocument Schedules: To make auto biographies
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or official records
B IN
IM A
ØRating schedules: Used to measure attitudes.
ØEvaluation studies: To get information ss. o
. orrgg about
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some institutions or agencies.
Interview schedules
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Development in the science and technology led to different
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types of audio and video recording of the folk songs, dances
B I
and other details of folklore and life-styles of the people under
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study. The scientific development has given rise to this method,
which is now known as Visual anthropology, ss. o
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which
o g in recent
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PPdd ethnography.
years even paved path to experimental
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lady anthropologist of the world, Ruth Benedict was
asked by the American authorities to study the Japanese
B IN
from a distance. Thus, she studied the Japanese settled in
I A
U.S.A. through the contents published in the newspaper
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H eexxaamm
and arranged those contents in a 4meaningful way.
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P ddff4
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method. This method is, thus, helpful in studying the
D
N
patterns of behaviour of the people from a distance
B I
and where there is no possibility of conducting the
I A
field-work and collecting the first hand-information.
M ss. o
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H P
P ddf4
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the connections between them and past social events, these
IN
accounts may not be established facts but, social constructions
B
A
requiring further investigation and re-interpretation."
HIM
The method was first used when interviewing indigenous peoples
of the Americas and specifically Native
PPddf4
f4eexxaammss
American. o
. orrggleaders who
were asked by an interviewer to describe their lives with an insight
as to what it was like to be that particular person.
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Europe and America by W.I Thomas and Florian Znaniecki.
Key elements:
IND
Researcher who listens, thinks and asks probing questions.
A
Informant: Person who reveal the information B
HIM
Tools / methods used: Interviews, Informationrgfrom
xxaammss. o
. o
ee papers, news
PPddff44legal
data, letters, diaries, school records,
clippings etc.
r g historical
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through the interplay between interviewer and interviewee.
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Realist (Inductive): Begins with a hypothesis and through a
B
number of interviews trying to produce the facts that can be
I A
incorporated into the hypothesis.
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H
Neopositivist: Emphasis is on validating x aampre-existing
m theory
PPddf4
f4ee x
against reality by asking the questions that guide it.
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Advantages:
• Open ended, less directive.
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• Can approach social and economic life of informant.
D
N
• Gives detailed description of acts, events relationships,
circumstances in particular life.
B I
Disadvantages:
IM
• Time consuming. A ss. o
. orrgg
H PPdd
• Difficult to make generalisations. f4
f4eexxaamm
• Depends on researchers’ personal skills and perceptions of the
interviewee.
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U
recorded interviews between a narrator with personal experience
D
IN
of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer,
with the goal of adding to the historical record.
B
IM A
Because it is a primary source, an oral history is not intended to
present a final, verified, or "objective" narrativess. o
. orr
ofgg events, or a
H
comprehensive history. PPddf4
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DU
together with other primary sources as well as secondary
IN
sources to gain understanding and insight into history.
Methodology:
B
IM A
Oral historians ask open ended questions and try to interview a
ss. o
. orrgg
H a mm
wide range of people in order to receive e xxdifferent
a perspectives
PPddf4
f
and then find common points of agreement.
4 e
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Advantages:
• Reveals facts that do not enter public or written records,
especially stories of tragedy. E.g., Personal experiences of the
U
survivors of Nazi genocide, World wars, Nuclear bombings
D
etc.
B IN
• It is the only way to collect data regarding past events and
IM A
traditions of primitive, preliterate societies.
• Helps in preserving indigenous knowledge ss. o
. orr
andgg culture.
H d
d f4
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PP from the viewpoints of the
• Helps in recoding historical events
people from all socioeconomic groups.
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Disadvantages:
U
The information collected is subjective and needs
D
information.
B IN
verification and comparison with other sources of
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
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DU
TECHNIQUES: Technique means a systematic
B IN
A
procedure, formula, or a routine by which a task is
HIM
accomplished. (Or) Instruments used .to
xxaammsso
. orgather
r
PPddff44ee Photographic
information (Video, Tape recording,
gg the
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METHOD:
Method is defined as a habitual, logical, or
prescribed practice or systematic process of
DU
N
achieving certain end results with accuracy and
B
efficiency, usually in a preordained sequence ofI
I A
steps. However, when the method is systematic and
M ss. o
. orrgg
H
based upon logic, it is sometimes
P
P 4
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referred
scientific method which comes even closer to
technique.
to as a
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U
subject to modification with new knowledge, it is objective.
D
method.
B IN
Eg: interview method or observation method or G.T.
IM A ss. o
. orrgg
H P
P ddf4
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HIM
• In research methodology we study the various steps that are
generally adopted by the researcher
along with the logic behind them.
PPddf4
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inammss. o
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his research program
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DU
conduct research in to a subject or a topic, While the
B IN
research methodology explains what research methods
I A
to be used and the logical order of the application of
M
those research methods. ss. o
. orrgg
H
• Research methods aims at findingf4
f4eexxaamm
PPdd solutions to the
research problems while research methodology aims at
employment of correct procedures to find out the
solution.
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U
research data collected through different tools of data collection. It
D
the following steps.
B IN
is the task which determines the validity of the research. It involves
IM A
• Classification or establishment of the categories for data
• Application of categories to raw data through ss. o
. orrgg
coding
H
• The tabulation of data
• Statistical analysis of the data
PPddf4
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U
like where, when and what and depends on hard data procedure
IND
like surveys, Polls, census etc. E.g. What percentage of people
agree with a given statement, How many people in a country
A
speak the native language etc.
B
HIM
• Qualitative analysis: Qualitative analysis inquires
questions like How and why. It d
PPisdff4
an
4 e
e xxaammss
in-depth. o
. orrgg into the
analysis of why
people do what they do in the aspects of culture. It often crosses
disciplinary boundaries; this procedure usually requires a smaller
sample group.
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phenomena can be Multi variate or univariate. The relation
IN
between variables and the phenomena can be correlational or
casusal.
B
IM A
• Inferential analysis: Concerned with various tests of
ss. o
. orrgg
arrived at. H
significance for testing the hypothesis
P
P d
d f4
f4eexxaa
tomm
validate the conclusions
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U
• Taxonomic Analysis: Taxon is set of domains organized on a
D
B IN
single semantic relationship. Taxonomic Analysis is a search
for the way in which cultural domains are organized in to
taxons.
IM A
• Componential analysis: It is a systematic ss. o
. orrg
searchg for the
H
attributes or features of cultural
from others and give them meaning.
f4
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PPddsymbols that distinguish them
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DU
as Men are superior to Women. Analysis of the implied
IN
theme in the society is the purpose of analysis.
B
I A
Interpretation: Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
M ss. o
. orrgg
H
inferences from the collected data after
xaamm analysis.
in-depth
P
P d
d f4
f4ee x
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U
Emory, interpretation helps us in finding relationships within
IND
collected data and linking the results of one study with the
B
other and arriving at hypotheses or theories for future use.
IM A
• Researcher can understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings and therefore can
ss. o
. orrgg link his
H
findings with those of otherPPstudies
abstract principle.
a mm
ddff44eexxahaving the same
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It is the core of the research for the simple reason that the
usefulness and utility of the research findings depends on it. The
U
task of interpretation is not an easy job, wrong interpretation
leads to inaccurate conclusions.
IND
A B
Presentation: Presentation of the research data collected,
HIM
analysed and subsequently interpreted. It is the last
research. Interpretations are reflected
P
P a m
m s
s. o
. orrgg
xa final report.
ddff44ineexthe
step in the
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Types of reports:
DU
Technical reports ( Emphasises technical details) and
IN
Popular reports (Emphasises readability and attractiveness).
B
IM A
A good report is readable, free from technical or grammatical
ss. o
. orrgg
H
errors, and shows originality.
P
P ddff4 4eexxaamm
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B
and early 20th century like classical evolutionism, diffusionism,
IM A
Functionalism, Structural functionalism , Cultural materialism,
ss. o
. orrgg
H
followed positivist (or) Scientific approach
PPddf4
f4eexxaamm
with the
of accuracy in conclusions, making sweeping generalisations.
assumption
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DU
claim accuracy but emphasise only on subjective interpretations.
IN
They believe that scientific methods are not appropriate in the
B
A
study of social phenomena. This shift in the trend / approach is
HIM
quite evident from the statement of Clifford Geertz, that “man is
PPddf4
f4eex
an animal suspended in webs of significancexaammss. o
.
heorrgg
himself has
culture is those webs and it’s analysis should therefore not be an
spun.
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B I
(c)Tools of data collection: observation, interview, schedules,
IM A
questionnaire, Case study, genealogy, life-history, oral history,
secondary sources of information, participatory ss. o
. rrgg
methods.
o
H PPddf4
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(d) Analysis, interpretation and presentationxaammof data.
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phenomenon? Explain with a suitable example. ( 2018, 20M )
IN
3. Define ethnography and present a brief history of
ethnographic studies. (2018, 20M )
B
IM A
4. Elucidate the basic characteristics of Anthropological
ss. o
. orrgg
H m
fieldwork methods.(2017,15M) xxaa m
5. Questionnaire ( 2017,10M ) PPdd
f4
f4ee
6. Describe the evolution of Fieldwork tradition in
Anthropology. (2016,15M)
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7. Explain the difference between emic and etic, and how does the
difference derive from the study of language? (2015,10m)
8. Genealogical method (2014,10m)
9. Field work tradition in Anthropology (2014,2011,10M)
DU
IN
10. Discuss the relevance of case study method of data collection
(2013,20m)
B
IM A
11. What are the tools of data collection? Discuss the advantages
and limitations of participant observationaas s
as. o
. orrgg
technique of data
H
collection(2012,20m) PPddf4
f4eexx amm
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