Light 113

5.15 PHASE CHANGE AND PATH DIFFERENCE

When any wave advances in space, its phase changes continuously. At a fixed time, the points
at x1 and x2 on the wave differ in phase by an amount
d = f2 – f1
Taking help of equ. (5.21), we can write the above relation as
2π
d = (kx2 – wt) – (kx1 – wt) = k (x2 – x1) = (x2 – x1)
λ
2π
or d= L (5.58)
λ
where L = (x2 – x1) is the spatial separation of P
the points, i.e. the geometric path. It follows
from (5.58) that d = 2p if L = l, d = p if L
= l/2 and so on. The waveform repeats over
a distance of one λ. Therefore, the phase
difference 2π is equivalent to zero phase
difference. It implies that a displacement of Geometric path difference = S2P – S1P
wave by one complete wavelength leaves the optical path difference =  (S2P – S1P)
waveform unchanged.
(i) Path differences between two waves
Fig. 5.15
may arise if two waves propagate in a
medium along two different paths and overlap at some point P (Fig. 5.15). The result of
their superposition at P depends on their relative disposition with respect to each other.
The relationship between the waves is defined with the help of their phase difference
which may be expressed in terms of the path difference. The quantity L = (x2 – x1) in
(5.58) also represents the path difference when two waves are considered. The phase
difference can then be computed using (5.58) as
2π
d= µL
λ
2π
or d= ∆ (5.59)
λ
(ii) A path difference or phase
difference between two ways Air  change

may arise during the process of

reflection, also. A light wave Air
Glass

traveling in a rarer medium  change

undergoes a phase change of Glass
p rad when it gets reflected at
the boundary of denser medium
as illustrated in Fig. 5.16 (a). No  change
However, a light wave does not (a) (b)
suffer a change in phase when it
Fig. 5.16
gets reflected at denser – to – rarer
medium boundary. For example, let us consider a light wave incident on a glass block.
The wave reflected from the air-to-glass boundary experiences a phase change of p rad
relative to the incident wave because mg > ma, as illustrated in Fig. 5.16 (b). The wave
Lasers 701

C H A P T E R

24 Lasers

24.1 INTRODUCTION
Laser is one of the outstanding inventions of the 20th century. The word ‘LASER’ is the
acronym for Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Radiation. However, laser
is not a simple amplifier of light but is a generator of light. It is an artificial light source that
differs vastly from the traditional light sources. Laser is more akin to radio and microwave
transmitters and produces a highly directional coherent monochromatic polarized light beam.
Einstein gave the theoretical basis for the development of laser in 1916, when he predicted
the possibility of stimulated emission. In 1954, C.H.Townes and his co-workers put Einstein’s
prediction for practical realization. They developed a microwave amplifier based on stimulated
emission of radiation. It was called a maser. Shortly thereafter, in 1958, A.Schawlow and
C.H.Townes extended the principle of masers to light and T.H.Maiman built the first laser
device in 1960. In 1961, A.Javan and associates developed the first gas laser, the helium-neon
laser. Laser is a high technology device and is the most sought after tool in a wide variety
of fields such as metalworking, entertainment, communications, surgery, ophthalmology and
weapon guidance in wars.

24.2 INTERACTION OF LIGHT WITH MATTER AND THE THREE

QUANTUM PROCESSES
It is familiar to us that when light travels through a medium, it undergoes absorption and
scattering processes. Light absorption means the transfer of energy from light to atoms and
light scattering involves change in the direction of travel of waves. As a result of these two
processes, light intensity decreases with distance in the medium. Transfer of energy from
atom to light is not conceivable from classical point of view. However, it is found to be
possible when the interaction of light with medium is considered from the point of view of
quantum mechanics. The transfer of energy from atom to light results in light amplification.
A light amplifier can be further converted into a source of light having superior characteristics
compared to traditional light sources. A laser is a monochromatic coherent light source that
depends on quantum processes for its operation. It is therefore necessary to first understand
the quantum processes in order to understand the operation of a laser.
Let us consider a material medium, which is composed of identical atoms. Atoms are
characterized by many energy levels but for the sake of simplicity to understand, let us
702 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

assume that the atoms of the material medium under consideration be characterized by only
two energy levels, namely energy level E1 and energy level E2. E1 is the ground state while
E2 is the excited state. As the atoms of the material are identical, majority of them occupy the
energy level E1 and the others the energy level E2. The number of atoms per unit volume at
an energy level is called the population density. Let the populations at the two energy levels
E1 and E2 be N1 and N2 respectively. Under normal conditions higher the energy, lesser is
its population. Hence, N1 > N2. Now, let light radiation be incident on the material and we
assume that the radiation and the medium are in thermal equilibrium. The incident radiation
may be viewed as a stream of photons, and let the photon density be r(v). Let each photon
carry an energy E, where E = E2 – E1 = hn. When photons travel through the medium, they
are likely to cause three different processes. They are absorption, spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission.
24.2.1 Absorption E2 E2
Suppose an atom is in the lower energy
level E1. If a photon of energy (E2 – h = E2 – E1
E1) is incident on the atom, it imparts
Energy

h
its energy to the atom and disappears. Incident Photon
Then we say that the atom absorbed the
incident photon. As a result of absorption E1 E1
of adequate energy, the atom jumps to
Before After
the excited state E2 (Fig. 24.1). Such
a transition is called an absorption Fig. 24.1. Absorption Process
transition. In each absorption transition event, an atom in the medium is excited and one
photon is subtracted from the incident light beam. As the absorption process is induced by a
photon, it is also called as induced absorption. We may express the process as
A + hn = A*
where A is an atom in the lower state and A* is an excited atom.
The probability that an absorption transition occurs is proportional to the photon density
r(n).
P12 ∝ r(n)
or P12 = B12r(n) (24.1)
where B12 is the constant of proportionality. B12 is known as the Einstein coefficient for
induced absorption. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of
the energy states E1 and E2.
The number of absorption transitions occurring in the material at any instant will be equal
to the product of the number of atoms at the energy level E1 and the probability P12 for the
absorption transition. Thus, the number of atoms, Nab, excited during the time Dt is
Nab = B12N1r(n)Dt (24.2)
where N1 is the population of atoms at E1. When the atoms are more at the lower energy
level, then more atoms can jump into the excited state. Similarly, when more photons are
incident on the assembly of atoms, then more atoms can get excited to the higher energy
level. Induced absorption involves the excitation of the atom to the fixed higher level only. As
a result of this absorption, N1 decreases while N2 increases. But under normal conditions N2
cannot be greater than N1.
Lasers 703

As the number of atoms is greater in the lower energy state, the absorption process leads
to attenuation of radiation as light travels through the medium.
24.2.2 Spontaneous Emission
When an atom at lower energy level E2 E2
is excited to a higher energy level,

Ph h
it cannot stay in the excited state for

on
ot
a relatively longer time. In a time

Energy

ed
of about 10–8s, the atom reverts to

itt
Em
the lower energy state by releasing
a photon of energy hn where hn = E1
E1
E2 – E1. The emission of photon
Before After
occurs on its own and without any
external impetus given to the excited Fig. 24.2. Spontaneous emission process
atom (Fig. 24.2). Emission of a photon by an atom without any external impetus is called
spontaneous emission. We may write the process as
A* → A + hn
The probability that a spontaneous transition occurs depends only on the properties of
energy states E2 and E1 and is independent of the photon density. It is equal to the lifetime of
level E2. Thus,
(P21)Spont. = A21 (24.3)
where A21 is a constant and known as the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission. A21
is a constant characteristic of the atom. 1/A21 is a measure of the lifetime of the upper state
against spontaneous transition to the lower state.
The number of spontaneous transitions, Nsp, taking place during the time Dt depends only
on the number of atoms N2 staying at the excited state E2. Thus,
Nsp = A21N2Dt (24.4)
It is the process of spontaneous emission that dominates in conventional light sources.
The process of spontaneous emission is essentially probabilistic, that is, the atom has
some probability for making the transition, and it is not amenable for control from outside.
The instant of the transition, direction of emission of photon, the phase of the photon, the
polarization state of the photon are all random quantities. There will not exist any correlation
among the parameters of the innumerable photons emitted spontaneously by the assembly
of atoms of the medium. Therefore, the light generated by the medium will be incoherent.
The light from the conventional sources originates in spontaneous emission process and is
incoherent. It contains a superposition of many waves of random phases. The net intensity
of such incoherent waves is proportional to the number of radiating atoms. The light is
radiated in the form of short duration wave trains emitted in all directions and the intensity
goes on decreasing as the wave trains travel away from the source. Each of them bears no
consistent phase relationship with each other nor do they share a common polarization plane.
As a consequence, there is no compounding of the individual waves. The light is also not
monochromatic because of various line broadening processes that take place in the medium.
704 A Textbook of Engineering Physics
E2 E2
24.2.3 Stimulated Emission
h
In 1916, Einstein showed the existence h
of equilibrium between matter and h
radiation required a new radiation process
called stimulated radiation. It requires
the presence of external radiation. If an
atom in the excited state interacts with E1 E1
a photon with energy hn = E2 – E1, the Before After
photon induces the excited atom to make a Fig. 24.3. Process of Stimulated Emission.
downward transition well before the atom
can make a spontaneous transition. The atom emits the excess energy in the form of a photon,
hn = E2 – E1, as it drops to the lower energy state. The passing photon is not affected while
the excited atom emits a photon (Fig. 24.3). The phenomenon of forced photon emission by
an excited atom due to the action of an external agency is called stimulated emission. It is
also known as induced emission. The process may be expressed as
A* + hn → A + 2hn
The probability that a stimulated transition occurs is given by
(P21)stimulated ∝ r(n)
or (P21)stimulated = B21r(n) (24.5)
where B21 is the constant of proportionality and is known as the Einstein coefficient for
stimulated emission. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of
the energy states E1 and E2.
The number of stimulated transitions occurring in the material at any instant will be equal
to the product of the number of atoms at the energy level E2 and the probability P21 for
the stimulated transition. Thus, the number of atoms, Nst, that undergo downward transition
during the time Dt is
Nst = B21N2r(n)Dt (24.6) h
h
A*
A*
Multiplication of Stimulated h
Photons h A*
A*
h
The photon induced in h A*
this process propagates in A*
the same direction as that h
A*
of stimulating photon. The 0 1 2 3 N
induced photon has features 2 2 2 2 2 Photons
identical to that of the Fig. 24.4. Multiplication of Stimulated photons into an avalanche
inducing photon. It has the
same frequency, phase and plane of polarization as that of the stimulating photon. The
outstanding feature of this process is the multiplication of photons. For one photon interacting
with an excited atom, there are two photons emerging. The two photons travelling in the same
direction interact with two more excited atoms and generate two more photons and produce
a total of four photons. These four photons in turn stimulate four excited atoms and generate
eight photons, and so on. The number of photons builds up in an avalanche like manner, as
shown in Fig. 24.4.
Lasers 705

All the light waves generated in the medium are due to one initial wave and all of the
waves are in phase. Thus, the waves are coherent and interfere constructively. The net intensity
of light will be proportional to the square of the number of atoms radiating light. Thus,
Itotal = N2 I
Since the number of atoms in the material medium is very large, coherent emission leads
to an enormously high intense light and we say that the incident light is amplified. Therefore,
the process of stimulated emission is the key to the operation of a laser.
24.2.4 Distinction between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission
Sl. No. Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. Spontaneous emission is a random and probabi- Not a random process.
listic process.
2. Not amenable for control from outside. Amenable for control from outside.
3. The photons are emitted haphazardly. The The stimulating photon imposes its character-
instant of emission, direction of emission, istics on the photon emitted.
phase, polarization state of photon are all
random quantities and cannot be controlled.
4. Photons are emitted uniformly in all directions The photons emitted in the process travel in the
from an assembly of atoms. As a result, the same direction as that of stimulating photon.
light is non-directional. The light produced by the process is essentially
directional.
5. Photons of slightly different frequencies The spread of photon frequencies is rela-
are generated. As a result, the light is not tively very narrow. As such the light is nearly
monochromatic. monochromatic.
6. Photons do not have any correlation in their The photons emitted by this process are all in
phases, which fluctuate randomly. Therefore, phase and therefore, the light is coherent.
the light produced by this process is incoherent.
7. In this process multiplication of photons does One stimulating photon causes emission of
not take place. Hence there is no amplification two more photons. These two produce four
of light due to the process. photons, which in turn generate eight photons
and so on. Thus, if there are N excited atoms,
2N photons will be produced. Light ampli-
fication occurs due to such multiplication of
photons.
8. The net intensity of the generated light is given As all the photons are in phase, they construc-
by tively interfere and produce an intensity
  IT = N I     IT = N2 I
where N is the number of atoms emitting
photons and I is the intensity of each photon.
9. The planes of polarization of the photons are The planes of polarization are identical for all
oriented randomly. Hence, light from the source photons. Consequently, light is polarized.
is unpolarized.

24.2.5 Steady State

The three processes described above occur simultaneously (Fig. 24.5). Under steady state
condition the absorption and emission balance each other. Thus,
Nabsorption = Nspont.emission + Nstim.emission (24.7)
B12 N1 r(n) Dt = A21 N2 Dt + B21 N2 r(n) Dt
706 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

B12 N1 r(n) = A21 N2 + B21 N2 r(n) (24.8)

Excited State with Population Density N

If we consider a 2
E2
medium in thermal h
h

h
equilibrium, there would

Energy
Spontaneous Stimulated h
be more atoms in the lower Absorption emission emission
h
level than at higher level.
That is N1 >> N2. As the
probability for absorption E1
transition is equal to the Normal State with Population Density N1
probability for stimulated
Fig. 24.5. Absorption and Emission Processes in steady state
transition, a photon
traveling through the medium is more likely to get absorbed than to stimulate an excited
atom to emit a photon. Therefore, usually the process of absorption dominates the process
of stimulated emission. Similarly, an atom that is at the excited state is more likely to jump
to the lower level on its own than being stimulated by a photon. It is due to the fact that the
photon density in the incident beam is not sufficient to interact with the excited atoms; and the
photons instead interact with atoms at lower level because of the large population available at
that level. Owing to this, the spontaneous emission dominates the stimulated emission.

24.3 EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS AND THEIR RELATIONS

24.3.1 Einstein Coefficients
We summarize here the three Einstein coefficients, which are the proportionality constants
introduced in the above discussions.
(i) The probability that an absorption transition occurs is given by
P12 = B12r(n)
where B12 is the constant of proportionality known as the Einstein coefficient for induced
absorption. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the
energy states E1 and E2.
(ii) The probability that a spontaneous transition occurs is given by
(P21)Spontaneous = A21
where A21 is a constant known as the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission. A21 is a
constant characteristic of the atom and is known as the radiative rate measured in units of s–1.
1/A21 is the lifetime of the upper state against spontaneous decay to the lower state.
(iii) The probability that a stimulated transition occurs is given by
(P21)stimulated = B21r(n)
where B21 is the constant of proportionality known as the Einstein coefficient for stimulated
emission. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the energy
states E1 and E2.
We may note the following points here regarding the Einstein coefficients.
● The coefficients indicated by B are related to the induced transitions, i.e., transitions
induced by external photons. Thus, B12 represents the transition induced by a photon
from lower energy level E1 to the higher energy level E2, whereas B21denotes the
transition induced by a photon from higher energy level E2 to the lower energy
Lasers 707

level E1. It turns out that B12 and B21 are equal under the special condition that the
quantum states E1 and E2 are single energy levels (i.e., nondegenerate levels).
● The coefficient indicated by A is related to the spontaneous transition, i.e., transition
occurred on its own without the assistance of external agent. Since a spontaneous
transition cannot take place from lower energy state E1 to the higher energy state E2,
we do not have the coefficient A12. In other words, A12 = 0.
24.3.2 Relation between the Einstein Coefficients
The Einstein coefficients A21, B12 and B21 are interrelated. To find out the relation, we assume
that
(i) The atoms and the radiation are in thermal equilibrium.
(ii) The radiation is identical with black body radiation and consistent with Planck’s
radiation law for any value of T.
(iii) The population densities N1 and N2 at the lower and upper energy levels respectively
are constant in time and are distributed according to Boltzmann law in the energy
levels.
The above conditions require that the rate of change of atoms at the level E2 must equal
to zero. It means that the number of transitions from E2 to E1 must be equal to the number of
transitions from E1 to E2 (see Fig. 24.5).
Thus,

} }
The number of atoms absorbing The number of atoms emitting
photons per second per unit volume = photons per second per unit volume
The number of atoms absorbing
}
photons per second per unit volume = B12 r(n) N1
The number of atoms emitting
}
photons per second per unit volume = A21N2 + B21 r(n) N2
As the number of transitions from E1 to E2 must equal the number of transitions from E2
to E1, we have
B12 r(n) N1 = A21N2 + B21 r(n) N2 (24.9)
r(n) [B12 N1 – B21 N2] = A21N2
A21 N 2
\ r(n) = (24.10)
[ B12 N1 − B21 N 2 ]
By dividing both the numerator and denominator on the right hand side of the above
equation with B12N2, we obtain
A21 / B12
r(n) = (24.11)
 N1 B21 
 − 
 N 2 B12 
N2 − ( E − E )/ kT
But = e 2 1
N1
N2 N1
As E2 – E1 = hn, = e–hn/kT or   = ehn/kT
N1 N2
708 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

A21  1 
\ r(n) =  hν/ kT  (24.12)
B12  e − B21 / B12 
To maintain thermal equilibrium, the system must release energy in the form of electro-
magnetic radiation. It is required that the radiation be identical with black body radiation and
be consistent with Planck’s radiation law for any value of T. According to Planck’s law
 8πhν3µ3   1 
r(n) =  3
  hν / kT  (24.13)
 c  e − 1
where m is the refractive index of the medium and c is the velocity of light in free space.
Energy density r(n) given by equ.(24.12) will be consistent with Planck’s law (24.13),
only if
A21 8πhν3µ3
= (24.14)
B12 c3
B21
and =1 or B12 = B21 (24.15)
B12
The above equations (24.14) and (24.15) are known as the Einstein relations. It follows
that the coefficients are related through
c3
B12 = B21 = A21 (24.16)
8π h ν3µ3
(i) The relation (24.15) shows that the coefficients for both absorption and stimulated
emission are numerically equal. The equality implies that when an atom with two energy
levels is placed in the radiation field, the probability for an upward (absorption) transition is
equal to the probability for a downward (stimulated) transition.
(ii) The relation (24.14) shows that the ratio of coefficients of spontaneous versus
stimulated emission is proportional to the third power of frequency of the radiation. This is
why it is difficult to achieve laser action in higher frequency ranges such as X-rays.

24.4 LIGHT AMPLIFICATION

Light amplification requires that stimulated emission occur almost exclusively. In practice,
absorption and spontaneous emission always occur together with stimulated emission. The
laser operation is achieved when stimulated emission exceeds in a large way the other two
processes. Let us now look at the conditions under which the number of stimulated transitions
can be made larger than the other two transitions.
24.4.1 Condition for Stimulated Emission to Dominate Spontaneous
Emission
The ratio of equ.(24.6) to equ. (24.4) gives
Stimulated transitions B N ρ(ν) B
= 21 2 = 21 ρ(ν) (24.17)
Spontaneous transitions A21 N 2 A21
Equ.(24.17) indicates that stimulated transitions will dominate the spontaneous transitions
if the radiation density r(n) is very large. Thus, the presence of a large number of photons in
Lasers 709

the active medium is required. However, it will lead to more absorption transitions. Hence,
large photon density alone will not guarantee more stimulated emissions.
24.4.2 Requirement of States of Larger Lifetimes
Equ.(24.17) further indicates that stimulated transitions will dominate the spontaneous
transitions if the value of the ratio B21/A21 is also large. To increase the probability of
stimulated emissions, the lifetime of atoms at the excited state should be larger. In other words,
it is necessary that the excited state has a longer lifetime (remember that 1/A21 represents the
lifetime of the excited state).
24.4.3 Condition for Stimulated Emission to Dominate Absorption
Transitions
The ratio of equ.(24.6) to equ. (24.2) yields
Stimulated transition B N ρ(ν) N
= 21 2 = 2 (24.18)
Absorption transition B12 N1ρ(ν) N1
We used here the fact that B12 = B21.
The above condition indicates that the stimulated transitions will overwhelm the
absorption process if N2 is greater than N1. It means that there should be more atoms present
in the higher energy level than in the lower energy level for stimulated emissions to dominate
over the spontaneous emissions.
A medium amplifies light only when the above three conditions are fulfilled. Therefore
to achieve high percentage of stimulated emissions, an artificial situation known as population
inversion is to be created in the medium.
24.5 MEETING THE THREE REQUIREMENTS
24.5.1 Population Inversion
When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by the
Boltzmann factor according to the following equation:
N2 −[ E − E ]/ kT
= e 2 1 (24.19)
N1
It means that the population N2 at the excited level E2 will be far smaller than the population
N1 at the level E1. For example, if we take typical values for E1 and E2, the population N1
would be 1030 times of N2. The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower energy
level and relatively E2 N2 E2 N2
lesser number of atoms
in the higher energy
level is called normal
E1 N1 E1 N1
state or equilibrium
state (Fig. 24.6 a). (a) Normal state, (b) Inverted state,
Thus, under thermal Thermal equilibrium condition Non-equilibrium condition
N1>>N2 N1<<N2
equilibrium condition,
N1 >> N2. Fig. 24.6
Population inversion is the condition of the material in which population of the upper
energy level N2 far exceeds the population of the lower energy level, N1 (Fig. 24.6 b). That is,
N2 >> N1 (24.20)
710 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

In this condition the population distribution between the levels E1 and E2 is inverted and
hence it is known as the inverted state. This is a non-equilibrium state and exists only for a
short time. Population inversion is obtained by employing pumping techniques, which transfer
large number of atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level.
Example 24.1. A 10 mW He-Ne laser has efficiency of 1%. Assume that all input energy is
utilized in pumping the atoms from the ground state to the excited state, which is 20 eV above
the ground state. Find how many atoms are promoted to the excited state in one second.
Solution. Efficiency of laser = 1% = 0.01
Power output 10 mw
Power input = = = 1 W.
Efficiency 0.01
Therefore, energy input in one second = 1 J.
1J 1J
Number of atoms excited in one second = = = 3.12 × 1017.
20 eV 20 × 1.602 × 10−19 J
Example 24.2. Find the ratio of populations of the two states in a He-Ne laser that produces
light of wavelength 6328Å at 27°C.
N − ( E − E )/ kT
Solution: The ratio of population is given by 2 = e 2 1
N1
12400
E2 – E1 = eV = 1.96eV
6328
N2  −1.96eV 
\ = exp  −5  = e–75.88 = 1.1 × 10–33
N1  (8.61 × 10 eV ) (300 K ) 
24.5.2 Metastable States
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally, excited atoms
have short lifetimes and release their energy in a matter of nanoseconds (10–9s) through
spontaneous emission. It means that atoms do not stay long enough at the excited state to be
stimulated. As a result, even though the pumping agent continuously raises the atoms to the
excited level, they undergo spontaneous transition and rapidly return to the lower energy level.
Population inversion cannot be established under such circumstances. In order to establish
the condition of population inversion, the excited atoms are required to ‘wait’ at the upper
energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at that level. Such an opportunity would
be provided by metastable states. Atoms excited to a metastable state remain excited for an
appreciable time, which is of the order of 10–6 to 10–3s. This is 103 to 106 times the lifetimes
of the ordinary excited energy levels. Therefore, the metastable state allows accumulation
of a large number of excited atoms at that level. The metastable state population can exceed
the population at a lower level and establish the condition of population inversion in the
lasing medium. It would be impossible to create the state of population inversion without
a metastable state. Metastable state can be readily obtained in a crystal system containing
impurity atoms. These levels lie in the forbidden band gap of the host crystal. Population
inversion readily takes place as the lifetimes of these levels are large, and secondly, there is
no competition in filling these levels, as they are localized levels. For example, phospho-
rescent materials are made up of atoms with metastable states.
There could be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable states do
not exist.
Lasers 711

24.5.3 Confining Radiation within the Medium

According to equ.(24.17) a high radiation density r(n) is required to be present in the active
medium so that stimulated emission dominates spontaneous emission. If laser medium is
enclosed in between a pair of optically plane parallel mirrors, photon density builds up to
a very high value through repeated reflections of photons which remain within the medium.
Such an arrangement is known as an optical resonant cavity or optical resonator.
24.6 COMPONENTS OF LASER
The essential components of a laser are (i) an active medium, (ii) a pumping agent and (iii) an
optical resonator (see Fig. 24.7). Optical Cavity

24.6.1 Active Medium 100% Reflecting Partially Reflecting

The active medium is the material in
which the laser action takes place. The
Active Medium
most important requirement for the laser Laser Beam

medium is that we should be able to

obtain population inversion in it. Atoms Mirror Mirror
Pump
are in general characterized by a large
number of energy levels. However, all
Fig. 24.7. Components of a Laser
types of atoms are not suitable for laser
operation. Even in a medium consisting of different species of atoms, only a small fraction
of atoms of a particular type have energy level system suitable for achieving population
inversion. Such atoms can produce more stimulated emission than spontaneous emission
and cause amplification of light. Those atoms, which cause laser action, are called active
centers. The rest of the medium acts as host and supports active centers. The medium hosting
the active centers is called the active medium. An active medium is a medium which when
excited reaches the state of population inversion and promotes stimulated emissions leading
to light amplification.
24.6.2 The Pump
For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, we have to raise continu-
ously the atoms in the lower energy level to the upper energy level. It requires energy to be
supplied to the system. Pumping is the process of supplying energy. The pump is an external
source that supplies energy needed to transfer the laser medium into the state of population
inversion.
There are a number of techniques for pumping a collection of atoms to an inverted
state. Optical pumping, electrical discharge and direct conversion are some of the methods
of pumping. In optical pumping, a light source such as a flash discharge tube is used. This
method is adopted in solid-state lasers. In electrical discharge method, the electric field causes
ionization of the medium and raises it to the excited state. In semiconductor diode lasers, a
direct conversion of electrical energy into light energy takes place.
24.6.3 Optical Resonator
Laser is a light source and it is analogous to an electronic oscillator. An electronic oscillator is
essentially an amplifier supplied with a positive feed back. A part of the output of the amplifier
is taken and fed back at its input. When the amplifier is switched on, electrical noise signal of
appropriate frequency present at the input will be amplified; the output is fed back to the input
and amplified again and so on. A stable output is quickly reached when the oscillator acts as a
source of a particular frequency.
712 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

In laser the active medium is the amplifier, which is converted into an oscillator through
the feed back mechanism established by an optical resonator. A pair of optically plane parallel
mirrors, enclosing laser medium in between them (Fig. 24.8), is known as an optical resonant
cavity. One of these mirrors is partially reflecting and the other is made fully reflecting.
In laser, the role of noise is played by chance photons emitted spontaneously. The photons
emitted along the optic axis of the resonant cavity travel through the medium and trigger
stimulated emissions. They
are reflected by the end
mirror and reverse their Semi-
100%
path. The photons are thus Reflecting Active Medium Transparent
fed back into the medium Mirror Mirror
and travel toward the
opposite end mirror causing
more stimulated emissions.
The photons are once more Fig. 24.8. Fabry-Perot Optical resonator
reflected at the mirror and travel toward the opposite mirror. Substantial light amplification
takes place because the light beam is reflected several times at the mirrors and gains strength
in each passage, Ultimately, when the amplification balances the losses in the cavity, the laser
beam emerges out from the front – end mirror. In the absence of resonator cavity, there would
be no amplification of light.
Role of the Optical Resonator
● The primary function of the optical resonator is to provide positive feed back of
photons into the medium so that stimulated emission is sustained and the laser acts
as a generator of light.
● The laser oscillation is initiated by photons spontaneously emitted by some of the
excited atoms. Each spontaneous photon can trigger many stimulated transitions
along the path of its travel. As the initial spontaneous photons are emitted in different
directions, the stimulated photons would travel in different directions. The optical
resonator selects the direction in which the light is to be amplified; the direction
being the optical axis of the pair of mirrors. Thus, optical cavity makes the laser
beam directional.
● In order to make the stimulated emission dominate spontaneous emission, a high
radiation density r(n) is required to be present in the active medium. The optical
cavity builds up the photon density to a very high value through repeated reflections
of photons and confines them within the medium.
● Optical cavity selects and amplifies only certain frequencies causing the laser output
to be highly monochromatic.
24.7 LASING ACTION
Fig. 24.8 shows the active medium enclosed in optical resonator and being excited by a
pumping agent. The resulting laser action, which is shown in Fig. 24.9, consists of the
following steps:
Step-1: Pumping
The atoms (active centers) in the medium are in the ground state initially, as shown in
Fig. 24.9 (a). By supplying energy from an external source, the atoms are excited from the
ground level to an excited state.
Lasers 713

Step-2: Population inversion

The lifetime of atoms at the excited state is extremely small, of the order of 10–8sec.
Therefore, the atoms drop spontaneously from the excited state to the metastable state. As
the lifetime of atoms at the metastable state is comparatively longer (10–3sec), the atoms go
on accumulating at the metastable state. As soon as the number of atoms at the metastable
state exceeds that of the ground state, the medium goes into the state of population inversion
(Fig. 24.9 b). Active Centres Host Material
Step-3: Spontaneous emissions
Semi-
Some of the excited atoms ReflectingMirror (a)
Non Excited State
transparent
at the metastable state may emit Mirror

photons spontaneously in various

directions (Fig. 24.9c). Each (b) Optical Pumping

spontaneous photon can trigger

many stimulated transitions along
the direction of its propagation. As (c) Stimulated Emission
the initial spontaneous photons are
moving in different directions, the Spontaneous Emission

photons stimulated by them also (d) Optical Feedback

travel in different directions. Many
of such photons leave the medium
without reinforcing their strength. (e) Light Amplification

The photons emitted in a direction

other than the axial direction
will pass through the sides of the (f) Light Oscillation

medium and are lost forever.

Step-4: Amplification Fig. 24.9. Light amplification and oscillations due to
the action of optical resonator
A majority of photons traveling
along the axis cause stimulated emission and are reflected back on reaching the end mirror.
They travel towards the opposite mirror and on their way stimulate more and more atoms and
build up the photon strength, as shown in Fig. 24.9 (d). The photons that strike the opposite
mirror are reflected once more into the medium, as shown in Fig. 24.9 (e). The photons
travel once more through the medium generating more photons and more amplification. The
photons are then reflected again at the mirror and travel through the medium. As the photons
are reflected back and forth between the mirrors, stimulated emission sharply increases and
the amplification of light takes place. The mirrors thus provide positive feed back of light into
the medium so that stimulated emission acts are sustained and the medium operates as an
oscillator.
Step-5: Oscillations
At each reflection at the front-end mirror, light is partially transmitted through it. The
transmitted component constitutes a loss of energy from the resonator. When the losses at the
mirrors and within the medium balance the gain, a steady and strong laser beam will emerge
from the front-end mirror, as shown in Fig. 24.9 (f).
24.8 PUMPING METHODS
In order to create the state of population inversion in an active medium, the atoms in the
material have to be pumped (excited) to particular energy levels. The most common methods
of pumping are optical pumping and electrical pumping.
714 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

(a) Optical pumping: Optical pumping uses photons to excite the atoms. A light source
such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the laser medium and the photons of
appropriate frequency excite the atoms to an upper energy level. From there, they drop to
a metastable level to create the state of population inversion. The pump photon must have
higher frequency than the emitted photon. This is because the atoms are to be excited to a
level above the metastable level from the ground level or a lower energy level.
The pumping level of the atom must be a broader level. It should span a range of
energies. If the level is narrow, one can use a pump photon of only one specific frequency.
Such a situation severely restricts the choice of sources and also a large portion of the source
power would go wasted. Fortunately, in a majority of cases the pump levels are wide bands.
Therefore, light sources like flash lamps emitting a broad range of frequencies can be used for
pumping. Optical pumping is suitable for any laser medium that is transparent to pump light.
Optical pumping is used in solid state lasers.
(b) Electrical pumping: Electrical pumping can be used only in case of laser materials
that can conduct electricity without destroying lasing activity. This method is limited to
gases. In case of a gas laser, a high voltage pulse initially ionizes the gas so that it conducts
electricity. An electric current flowing through the gas excites atoms to the excited level from
where they drop to the metastable level leading to population inversion.
24.8.1 Principal Pumping Schemes
Atoms in general are characterized by a large number of energy levels. Among them only
three or four levels will be pertinent to the pumping process. Therefore, only those levels
are depicted in the pumping scheme diagrams. Two important pumping schemes are widely
employed. They are known as three-level and four-level pumping schemes.
Two level scheme is not generally feasible for laser action. The main reason is that the
energy being used to pump the atoms into the upper laser state has an equal probability of
stimulating them back down. Therefore, it is not possible in general to pump more than half
of atoms into the excited state.
Pumping Level
1. Three-Level Pumping Scheme E3 E3
: The three level scheme first excites Rapid Upper
Lasing Level
decay
the atoms to an excited state higher in E2 E2
energy than the upper laser state. The Metastable
state
atoms then quickly decay down into the
upper laser state. It is important for the
pumped state to have a short lifetime E1 E1
for spontaneous emission compared to Ground State Lower Lasing Level
the upper laser state. The upper laser Fig. 24.10. A typical three level pumping scheme
state should have as long a lifetime (for (a) Pumping (b) Lasing action.
spontaneous emission) as possible, so
that the atoms stay there long enough to be stimulated.
A typical three-level pumping scheme is shown in Fig. 24.10. The state E1 is the ground
state; E3 is the pump state and E2 is upper lasing level, which is a metastable state. When the
medium is exposed to pump frequency radiation, a large number of atoms will be excited to
E3 level. However, they do not stay at that level but rapidly undergo downward transitions to
the metastable state E2 through non-radiative transitions. The atoms are trapped at this state as
spontaneous transition from the level E2 to the level E1 is forbidden. The pumping continues
Lasers 721

24.11.2 Nd: YAG Laser

Nd: YAG laser is one of the most 100% Reflecting Mirror Partial reflecting Mirror
popular types of solid state laser. It is
M2
a four-level laser. Yttrium aluminium M1
garnet, Y3Al5O12, commonly called Laser rod

YAG is an optically isotropic crystal. Flash Tube

Some of theY3+ ions in the crystal are

replaced by neodymium ions, Nd3+. Elliptical cavity
Doping concentrations are typically Capacitor

of the order of 0.725% by weight.

The crystal atoms do not participate + –
in the lasing action but serve as a host Power Supply Resistor
lattice in which the active centres, Fig. 24.17. Schematic of a Nd:YAG Laser
namely Nd3+ ions reside.
Construction: Fig. 24.17 illustrates a typical design of Nd: YAG laser. The system
consists of an elliptically cylindrical reflector housing the laser rod along one of its focus line
and a flash lamp along the other focus line. The light leaving one focus of the ellipse will pass
through the other focus after reflection from the silvered surface of the reflector. Thus the entire
flash lamp radiation
Upper energy levels
gets focused on (populated by pumping)
the laser rod. The
YAG crystal rods
are typically of E5
10 cm in length Pump
and 12 mm in bands
diameter. The two
{
E4
Fast nonradiative decay

ends of the laser Upper laser level

(metastable)
rod are polished E3
and silvered and
constitute the 1.06 m
optical resonator. 0.73 m 0.8 m Laser transition

Working: A
simplified energy E2
Lower laser level
level diagram for
the neodymium E1
Ground state
ion in YAG crystal
is shown in Fig. Fig. 24.18. Energy levels and transitions in a Nd : YAG laser.
24.18. The energy
level structure of the free neodymium atom is preserved to a certain extent because of its
relatively low concentration. However, the energy levels are split and the structure is complex.
The Pumping Mechanism
● When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, the Nd3+ ions are excited to the upper
energy bands E4 and E5.
● The Nd3+ ions make a transition from these energy levels to level E3 by non-radiative
transition. E3 is a metastable state.
● The metastable level E3 is the upper laser level, while E2 forms the lower laser level.
Lasers 715

and after a short time there will be a large accumulation of atoms at the level E2. When
more than half of the ground state atoms accumulate at E2, the population inversion condition
is achieved between the two states E1 and E2. Now a chance photon can trigger stimulated
emission.
● In this scheme, the terminal state of the laser transition is simultaneously the ground
state. Therefore, population inversion is achieved only when more than half of the
ground state atoms are pumped to the upper state. Thus, the schme requires very
high pump power.
● The three level scheme produces light only in pulses. Once stimulated emission
commences, the metastable state is quickly emptied and the population of the ground
state increases rapidly. As a result, the population inversion ends. One has to wait till
the population inversion is re-established. Thus, the three-level lasers operates in
pulsed mode.
2. Four-Level Pumping Scheme
A typical four level pumping scheme is shown in Fig. 24.11.The state E1 is the ground
state, E4 the pumping level, E3 the metastable upper lasing level and E2 the lower lasing level.
E2, E3 and E4 are the excited Pumping Level
states. When light of pump E4 E
Upper Lasing
Rapid 4 Level
frequency np is incident on Decay E3
the lasing medium, the active E3
centers are readily excited from Metastable
State
the ground state to the pumping E2 E
Lower Lasing 2
level E4. The atoms stay at Level
the E4 level for only about E1 E1
Ground State
10–8s, and quickly drop down (a) (b)
to the metastable state E3. As
spontaneous transitions from Fig. 24.11. A typical four level pumping scheme (a) Pumping
(b) Lasing Action.
the level E3 to level E2 cannot
take place, the atoms get trapped in the state E3. The population at the state E3 grows rapidly.
The level E2 is well above the ground state such that (E2 – E1) > kT. Therefore, at normal
temperature atoms cannot jump to level E2 on the strength of thermal energy. As a result, the
level E2 is virtually empty. Therefore, population inversion is attained between the states E3
and E2. A chance photon of energy hn = (E3 – E2) emitted spontaneously can start a chain of
stimulated emissions, bringing the atoms to the lower laser level E2. From state E2, the atoms
subsequently under go non–radiative transitions to the ground state E1 and will be once again
available for excitation, making it possible for light to be emitted continuously.
● The lower laser transition level in this scheme is nearly vacant. Therefore, less pump
power is sufficient to achieve population inversion.
● Four level lasers operate in continuous wave (cw) mode.

24.9 THRESHOLD CONDITION FOR LASING

As the light bounces back and forth in the optical resonator, it undergoes amplification
as well as it suffers various losses. The losses occur mainly due to transmission at the output
mirror and due to the scattering and diffraction of light within the active medium. For the
proper build up of oscillations, it is essential that the amplification between two consecutive
reflections of light from rear end mirror can balance the losses. We can determine the threshold
722 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Population Inversion
● The upper laser level E3 will be rapidly populated, as the excited Nd3+ ions quickly
make downward transitions from the upper energy bands.
● The lower laser level E2 is far above the ground level and hence it cannot be
populated by Nd3+ ions through thermal transitions from the ground level.
● Therefore, the population inversion is readily achieved between the E3 level and E2
level.
Lasing
● A chance photon is produced when an Nd3+ ion makes a spontaneous transition from
E3 level to E2 level.
● This spontaneous photon stimulates another excited atom to make a downward
transition.
● This stimulated photon and the initial photon trigger many excited atoms to emit
photons.
● Photons thus generated travel back and forth between the two end mirrors and gain
in strength very rapidly.
● On attaining sufficient energy, the laser beam emerges out through the partially
reflecting mirror.
● The laser emission occurs in infrared (IR) region at a wavelength of about 10,600Å
(1.06 mm).
● The Nd3+ ions return to the ground state E1 from the lower lasing level E2, on their
own through non-radiative transitions.
Salient Features
● Uses four-level pumping scheme
● The active centers are Nd3+ ions
● Light from a xenon or krypton flash lamp is the pumping agent
● Low efficiency (1%) and moderate power output (watts)
● Operates in CW/pulsed mode
24.11.3 Helium-Neon Laser
Gas lasers are the most widely used lasers. They range from the low power helium-neon
laser used in college laboratories to very high power carbon dioxide laser used in industrial
applications.These lasers operate with rarefied gases as the active media and are excited by
an electric discharge. In gases, the energy levels of atoms involved in the lasing process
are narrow and as such require sources with sharp wavelength to excite atoms. Finding an
appropriate optical source for pumping poses a problem. Therefore optical pumping is not
used in gas lasers. The most common method of exciting gas laser medium is by passing an
electric discharge through the gas. Electrons present in the discharge transfer energy to atoms
in the laser gas by collisions. – + Helium-neon
The first gas laser was He-Ne mixture
laser, which was invented in 1961 Cathode Anode
6328Å
by Ali Javan, William R. Bennett,
Mirror
Jr. and Donald R. Herriott. Glass
Construction: window
The schematic of a He-Ne laser Fig. 24.19
is shown in Fig. 24.19. Helium –
Lasers 725

Construction: The Water in Water out

schematic of typical CO2
laser is shown in Fig. Brewster window
24.21. It is basically a
discharge tube having Laser
beam
a bore of cross section
of about 1.5 mm2 and a
length of about 260 mm. Gas in Gas out
The discharge tube is
filled with a mixture of Fig. 24.21. Schematic of a carbon dioxide laser
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases in 1:4:5 proportions respectively. Other additives
such as water vapour are also added. The active centres are CO2 molecules lasing on the
transitions between the vibrational levels of the electronic ground state.
Energy levels of CO2 molecule
Fig. 24.22 shows the vibrational modes and rotations of CO2 molecule.
● The electron energy
levels of an isolated O C O
atom are discrete and O
Stretch mode
narrow. However,
in case of molecules
C
the energy spectrum
is complicated due
Bending mode
to many additional O
features.
● Each electron energy
level is associated with Assymetric mode Rotational mode
nearly equally spaced (a) (b)
vibrational levels and Fig. 24.22. Vibrational modes of a CO2 molecule
each vibrational level
in turn has a number of rotational levels.
● CO2 molecule is a linear molecule consisting of a central carbon atom with two
oxygen atoms attached one on either side.
● It undergoes three independent vibrational oscillations known as the vibrational
modes (Fig.24.22). These vibrational degrees of freedom are quantized. At any
one time, a CO2 molecule can vibrate in a linear combination of three fundamental
modes.
● The energy states of the molecule are represented by three quantum numbers (m n q).
● These numbers represent the amount of energy associated with each mode. For
example, the number (020) indicates that the molecule in this energy state is in the
pure bending mode with two units of energy.
● Each vibrational state is associated with rotational states corresponding to the rotation
of CO2 molecule about its centre of mass. The separations between vibrational –
rotational states are much smaller on the energy scale compared to the separations
between electron energy levels.
The nitrogen molecule N2 is also characterized by similar vibrational levels.
726 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

Working: Fig. 24.23 shows the lowest vibrational levels of the ground electron energy state
of CO2 molecule and an N2 molecule. The excited state of an N2 molecule is metastable and it
is identical in energy to (001) vibrational level of CO2 molecule, indicated as E5 in Fig. 24.23.
The Pumping Mechanism
● When current passes through the mixture of gases, the N2 molecules get excited to
the metastable state.
● The excited N2 molecules cannot spontaneously lose their energy and consequently,
the number of N2 molecules at the metastable level builds up.
● The N2 molecules undergo inelastic collisions with ground state CO2 molecules and
excite them to E5 level. Some of the CO2 molecules are also excited to the upper
level E5 through collisions with electrons.
Population Inversion
Energy transfer
0.3 through collisions (001)
E5
10.6 m

9.6 m
0.2 (100)
Energy (eV)

E4

(020)
E3
0.1
E2 (010)

0 E1
Nitrogen Carbon dioxide

Fig. 24.23. Energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules and transitions between the levels

● The E5 level is the upper lasing level while the (020) and (100) states marked as E3
and E4 levels act as the lower lasing levels.
● As the population of CO2 molecules builds up at E5 levels population inversion is
achieved between E5 level and the levels at E4 and E3.
Lasing
● Random photons are emitted spontaneously by a few of the atoms at the energy level
E5.
● The spontaneous photons traveling through the gas mixture prompt stimulated
emission of photons.
● The photons bounce back and forth between the end mirrors, causing more and more
stimulated emission during each passage. The strength of the stimulated photons
traveling along the axis of the optical cavity (discharge tube) builds up rapidly while
the photons traveling at angles to the axis are lost.
● The laser transition between E5 → E4 levels produces far IR radiation at the
wavelength 10.6 mm (1,06,000Å).
● The lasing transition between E5 → E3 levels produces far IR radiation at 9.6 mm
(96,000Å) wavelength.
Lasers 727

● E3 and E4 levels are also metastable states and the CO2 molecules at these levels
fall to the lower level E2 through inelastic collisions with normal (unexcited) CO2
molecules.
● This process leads to accumulation of population at E2 level. As the gaseous mixture
heats up, the E2 level, which is close to the ground state, tends to be populated
through thermal excitations. Thus, the de-excitation of CO2 molecules at the lower
lasing level poses a problem and inhibits the laser action.
● The helium atoms de-excite CO2 molecules through inelastic collisions and decrease
the population density of CO2 at E2 level. It also aids cooling the gaseous mixture
through heat conduction.
● The CO2 molecules are once again available for excitation to higher state and
participate in lasing action.
● CO2 molecules are excited to the upper lasing level continuously through collisions.
As the population inversion can be maintained in the face of continuous laser
emission, the laser operates in continuous wave mode.
Salient Features
● Uses four-level pumping scheme
● The active centers are CO2 molecules
● Electrical discharge is the pumping agent
● High efficiency (40%) and high power output (several kilowatts)
● Operates in CW mode
24.11.5 Semiconductor Diode Laser
A semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device, which emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. R. N. Hall and his coworkers made the first semicon-
ductor laser in 1962. It is made from Gallium arsenide (GaAs) which operated at low
temperatures and emitted light in the near IR region. Now, p-n junction lasers are made to
emit light almost anywhere in the spectrum from UV to IR.
Diode lasers are remarkably small in size (0.1mm long). They have high efficiency of the
order of 40%. Modulating the biasing current easily modulates the laser output. They operate
at low powers. In spite of their small size and low power requirement, they produce power
outputs equivalent to that of He-Ne lasers. The chief advantage of a diode laser is that it is
portable. Because of the rapid advances in semiconductor technology, diode lasers are mass
produced for use in optical fibre communications, in CD players, CD-ROM drives, optical
reading, high speed laser printing etc wide variety of applications.
Semiconductor Materials
● Among the semiconductors, there are two different groups. They are direct band gap
semiconductors and indirect band gap semiconductors.
● Direct band gap semiconductor is the one in which a conduction band electron can
recombine directly with a hole in the valence band.
● The recombination process leads to emission of light.
● Most of the compound semiconductors belong to this group.
● Direct recombination of conduction band electron with a hole in the valence band
is not possible in indirect band gap semiconductors. Silicon and germanium belong
to this group. The recombination of an electron and a hole produces heat in these
materials.
728 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

● Direct band gap semiconductors are formed by group III-V elements and group
IV-VI elements.
● Lasers are made using direct band gap semiconductors. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
diode is an example of semiconductor diode laser.
Principle
● The energy band structure of a semiconductor consists of a valence band and a
conduction band separated by an energy gap, Eg.
● The conduction band contains electrons and the valence band contains holes and
electrons.
● When an electron from the conduction band jumps into a hole in the valence band,
the excess energy, Eg is given out in the form of a photon.
● Thus, the electron-hole recombination is the basic mechanism responsible for
emission of light.
● The wavelength of the light is given by the relation l = hc/Eg .
● Semiconductors having a suitable value of Eg emit light in the optical region.
Types of semiconductor diode lasers
Broadly there are two types of semiconductor diode lasers. They are known as
homojunction semiconductor lasers and heterojunction semiconductor lasers.
Homojunction Semiconductor Laser
A simple diode laser which makes use of the same semiconductor material on both sides
of the junction is known as a homojunction diode laser.
Example: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) laser.
Heterojunction Semiconductor Laser
A diode laser which makes use of different semiconductor materials on the two sides of
the junction is known as a heterojunction diode laser. These are further classified as single
heterojunction diode lasers and double heterojunction diode lasers.
Example: A junction laser having GaAs on one side and GaAlAs on the other side.
24.11.5.1 Homojunction semiconductor laser
Construction: Fig. 24.24 shows the schematic of a homojunction diode laser. Starting
with a heavily doped n-type GaAs material, a p-region is formed on its top by diffusing zinc
atoms into it. A heavily zinc doped layer constitutes the heavily doped p-region. The diode
is extremely small in size. Typical diode chips are 500 mm long and about 100 mm wide and
thick. The top and bottom Current flow
Metal
faces are metallized and contact
Roughened
metal contacts are provided surface Active region
to pass current through the
diode. The front and rear Laser output
faces are polished parallel to p type
each other and perpendicular n type
to the plane of the junction.
Metal
The polished faces constitute contact
the Fabry-Perot resonator. In
practice there is no necessity Optically flat and
paralled faces
to polish the faces. A pair
[cleaved (110) planes)
of parallel planes cleaved Fig. 24.24. Schematic of homojunction diode laser
Lasers 729

at the two ends of the pn p type

junction provides the required
reflection to form the cavity. Eg
The two remaining sides of Holes n type
the diode are roughened to Er
eliminate lasing action in
that direction. The entire
structure is packaged in small
case which looks like the
Fig. 24.25. Energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n
metal case used for discrete junction without bias
transistors.
Working: The energy band diagram of a heavily doped p-n junction is shown in Fig.
24.25.
● Heavily doped p- and n- regions are used in making a laser diode.
● Because of very high doping on n-side, the donor levels are broadened and extend
into the conduction band. The Fermi level also is pushed into the conduction band.
● Electrons occupy the E
c
portion of the conduction Eg EFn
band lying below the Ev Ec
Fermi level. EFP VF

● Similarly, on the heavily Ev

doped p-side the Fermi (a) Ev
level lies within the Ec EFn
valence band and holes h
Ec
occupy the portion of the E v
VF
EFP Ev
valence band that lies
above the Fermi level. d
● At thermal equilibrium, (b)
the Fermi level is Fig. 24.26. Laser diode under forward bias
uniform across the
junction.
The Pumping Mechanism
● When the junction is forward-biased, electrons and holes are injected into the
junction region in high concentrations (Fig. 24.26a).
● In other words, charge carriers are pumped by the dc voltage source.
● When the diode current reaches a threshold value (see Fig. 24.26b), the carrier
concentrations in the junction region will rise to a very high value.
Population Inversion
● As a result, the region (region ‘d’ in Fig. 24.26b) contains a large concentration of
electrons within the conduction band and simultaneously a large number of holes
within the valence band.
● Holes represent absence of electrons.
● Thus, the upper energy levels in the narrow region are having a high electron
population while the lower energy levels in the same region are vacant.
730 A Textbook of Engineering Physics

● Therefore, the condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow junction

region. This narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called an inversion
region or active region.
Lasing
● Chance recombination acts of electron and hole pairs lead to emission of spontaneous
photons.
● The spontaneous photons propagating in the junction plane stimulate the conduction
electrons to jump into the vacant states of valence band.
● This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.
● GaAs laser emits light at a wavelength of 9000 Å in IR region.
Drawbacks of homojunction lasers:
1. In homojunction lasers, the active region is not well defined due to the diffusion
length of the carriers.
2. The semiconductor has nearly uniform refractive index throughout. Therefore, light
can diffuse from active layer into the surrounding medium. As a result the cavity
losses increase.
3. High threshold currents are required and the laser cannot be operated continuously at
room temperature.
24.11.5.2 Heterojunction laser
Heterojunction lasers are multilayer-structures designed such that the carriers are confined in
a narrow region and population is built up at lower current levels. We study here the structure
and working of a double Metal contact
heterojunction (DH) laser.
Construction: p-GaAlAs
In a double heterojunction
GaAs
laser, a GaAs layer is (active
sandwiched between two layer)
layers of GaAlAs (Fig. 24.27). n-GaAlAs
The material GaAlAs has a n-GaAs
wider energy gap and a lower
refractive index than GaAs. Laserbeam
Metal contact

The top and bottom faces

are metallized and metal
Fig. 24.27
contacts are provided to pass
current through the diode. The front and rear faces are polished parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane of the junction. The polished faces constitute the Fabry-Perot
resonator.
Working:
● The basic principle of working of heterojunction diode is similar to that of a
homojunction diode.
● p-type narrow band gap GaAs layer at the centre constitutes the active layer in which
the lasing occurs.
● This layer is flanked by an n-type wide band gap GaAlAs layer on one side and by a
p-type wide band gap GaAlAs layer on the other side (Fig. 24.28 a).