ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC.

General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND CONVERSION

Scientific Notation is a convenient and widely used method of expressing large and small numbers. Any quantity may be
expressed in the form of Nx10n, where N is any number between 1and 10 and n is the appropriate power of 10. Sample Problem 1.1
illustrates it.

Sample Problem 1.1

Express the following in scientific notation.
1. The speed of light is approximately 300 000 000 m/s
2. The mass of a strand of a hair is approximately 0.000 000 62 kg.
Solution
1. 300 000 000 m/s = 3x108 m/s
2. 0.000 000 62 kg = 6.2x10-7 kg.
Steps in Writing Scientific Notation
Step 1: Identify whether the number is large or small
Step 2: Move the decimal point.
a. If the number is greater than 10, move the decimal point to the left to create a new number ranging from 1 to 9.
b. If the number is less than, move the decimal point to the right to create a new number ranging from 1 to 9.
Step 3: Write the base 10 and the exponent n, which signifies the number of times the decimal point was moved.
Step 4: The exponent n is positive if the decimal point is moved to the left; it is negative if the decimal point is moved to the right.

Using the Factor-Label Method

1. Decide on the conversion ratio. In this case, if it is 1 km: 1000 m.
2. Multiply the known/given quantity to the conversion ratio.
 Write the desired unit on the numerator and the unit to be converted (original) on the denominator.
1000 m
55 km x
1 km
3. Multiply and cancel the units.
1000 m
55 km x =55000 m
1 km
4. Then, express in scientific notation.
5.5 x 104 m

UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR ANALYSIS

Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to the expected or true value of a physical quantity. On the other hand,
precision represents how close or consistent the independent measurements of the same quantity are to one another. The distinction
between accuracy and precision is demonstrated below.

Precision is how close the x marks are to each other, while accuracy is how close an x mark to the target. The bullseye
represents the expected result, and the x mark are the measurements.

Random vs Systematic Errors

Random error, as the name suggests, result from unpredictable or inevitable changes during data measurement. Examples of
causes of random errors are electronic noise form an electrical device, slight variation of temperature when the volume of a gas is
being measured, and uncontrollable presence of wind when determining the period of a simple pendulum. Random errors affect the
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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
precision of the measurements. These errors may be reduced by increasing the number of trials of a measurement and averaging out
the results.
Systematic errors, on the other hand, usually come from the measuring instrument or in the design of the experiment itself.
These errors limit the accuracy of one’s results.
1. Instrumental. For example, a poorly calibrated instrument such as a thermometer that reads 102 ° C when immersed in boiling water
and 2 ° C when immersed in ice water at atmospheric pressure. Such a thermometer would result in measured values that are
consistently too high.
2. Parallax error (Observational Error). For example, parallax in reading a meter scale.
3. Environmental. For example, an electrical power brown out that causes measured currents to be consistently too low.

Another way to estimate errors from multiple measurement of a physical quantity is to determine the variance of the set of
measurements. The variance measures the squared deviation of each number in the set from the mean. The variance of a set of
measurements is calculated step-by-step as follows.

1. Take the mean of the set of measurements, x=

∑x
N
Where: x (read as x bar) is the mean,
∑ x is the sum of all measurements, and
N is the number of data
2. Take the deviation of each measurement from another mean (x- x ).
3. Square each deviation, (x- x )2.
4. Get the sum of the squares of each deviation, ∑ ( x −x ) ² .

5. Divide the sumo the squares by the number of measurements in the set,
∑ (x−x ¿)² ¿
N
In symbols, variance ( σ ) is
2

2
σ =
∑ (x−x ¿)² ¿
N
A variance of zero means that all measurements are identical. A small variance indicates that the values are close to
one another, which means they are precise.
The square root of the variance is the standard deviation. It is a measure of how diverse or spread out are a set of
measurements from their average. A small standard deviation means that most of the measurements ae close to their
average. A large standard deviation means that the measurements is usually reported as very diverse. The measurement x of
a physical quantity in a set of measurements is usually reported as
x = x±σ

where x is the mean of the set of measurements and σ is the standard deviation of the measurement.

Sample Problem 2.2

During an experiment in a physics laboratory class, a group of five students was asked to measure the period of a
simple pendulum. Their measurements were as follows: 2.3s, 2.4s, 2.2s, 2.5s and 2.1s. Determine the (a) mean, (b) variance,
(c) standard deviation, (d) measured period of the pendulum.
Solution:

a. x=
∑ x = 2.3 s+2.4 s+ 2.2 s+2.5 s+ 2.1 s =2.3 s
N 5
b. σ 2=
∑ (x−x ¿)² ¿
N

( 2.3 s−2.3 s )2 + ( 2.4 s−2.3 s )2+ ( 2.2 s−2.3 s )2+ ( 2.5 s−2.3 s ) ²+(2.1 s−2.3 s )²
¿
5
= 0.02 s²

c. σ =
√ ∑ (x−x ¿)² ¿
N

√
2 2 2
( 2.3 s−2.3 s ) + ( 2.4 s−2.3 s ) + ( 2.2 s−2.3 s ) + ( 2.5 s−2.3 s ) ²+(2.1 s−2.3 s) ²
¿
5

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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
= 0.14 s ≈ 0.1 s
d. The measured period of the pendulum is (2.3 ± 0.1) s.

VECTORS ADDITION

Quantities in physics may either be scalar or vector. Scalar quantities are those that can be describe completely by their
magnitudes and appropriate units. Examples of scalar quantities are mass, temperature, speed, and time. Quantities that are
completely described by their magnitudes, appropriate units, and directions are called vector quantities. Typical examples are force,
displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

Vector representation and Direction

A vector quantity should be represented by an arrow. The length and direction of the arrow represents the magnitude and
direction of the vector quantity, respectively. Figure 3.1 represents a vector with a magnitude of 3N directed east. Note that the length of
the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector.
The symbol for vector quantities is an italicized capital letter in boldface or with an arrow on top. For example, force may be
represented as F or ⃗ F.
F= 3 N, east

scale: 1N

There are several ways to specify the direction of a vector. However, to avoid confusion, one method shall be used throughout
this module. The direction of a vector is the acute angle it makes with the east-west line. The word north or south is written after the
measure of the angle followed by the phrase “of east” or “of west.” A direction of 60° south of west mans that staring from west, you go
south by 60°. Figure 3.2 shows the vector diagrams of A and B. the direction of vector A is 30° north of east. The direction of vector B is
60° south of west.
N

30° Fig. The direction of vectors

W E
A and B based on the east-
60° west line.

Vector Addition
A variety of mathematical operations may be performed on vectors. While scalar quantities obey the ordinary rules of
arithmetic in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, vector quantities are treated in a different way. Their directions must be
taken into consideration.
The sum of two or more vector quantities is called the resultant vector, or simply resultant. By definition, the resultant is the
single vector that, if substituted in place of all vectors to be added., would produce the same combined effect of these vectors. The
notation R is usually used to represent the resultant.
The two important properties of vector addition are commutative and associative properties. Vector addition is commutative,
that is, the order of adding vectors may be changed without affecting the resultant. In symbols,
A+B = B+A
Vectors addition is also associative, that is, the grouping of vectors to be added may also be changed without affecting the
resultant. In symbols,
(A+B)+C = A + (B+C)

Methods of Vector Addition

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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
These are two general methods by which vectors may be added-graphical and analytical. The graphical method is further
subdivided into (1) Parallelogram and (2) Polygon methods. The analytical method of adding vectors is divided into two: (1) using the
laws of sines and cosines and (2) the component method. In vector operations, the laws sines and cosines are generally used if there
are only two vectors added. The component method is more convenient to use than the laws of sines and cosines if there are more
than two vectors to be added.

Parallelogram Method
The steps in determining the resultant of two vectors using the parallelogram method are outlined below and are shown in
figure 3.3. Two vectors, A and B, are used for these analyses.
1. Using a suitable scale, draw the arrows representing the vectors from a common point (a).
2. Construct a parallelogram using the two vectors as sides (b).
3. Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram from the common point. This represents the resultant R (c).
4. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant, and from the scale used, to determine its magnitude.
5. Determine the direction of the resultant vector using a protractor.

A A A R

B B B
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.3
Sample Problem 3.1
Two forces A and B are acting on an object. A is 3.0 N directed north and B is 4.0 N, 30° north of east. Find the resultant force
acting on the object using the parallelogram method.

Solution:
Using the scale of 1 cm:1 N, the parallelogram using forces A and B as sides drawn as shown in the figure. Using a ruler, the
length if the arrow representing the magnitude of the resultant R is found 6 cm. Using a protractor, the angle θ that R makes with the
horizontal is approximately 55°. Therefore, R is 6N, 55° north of east.
N
R
A B
θ
W 30° E

S
Adding more than two vectors
1. After drawing the resultant of the first two vectors, construct a second parallelogram using this resultant and the third vector as
sides.
2. Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram from the common point. This is now the resultant.
3. The process is continued until all vectors have been added.
4. The magnitude of the final resultant is determined from the scale used. The direction is measured by a protractor.
Sample Problem 3.2
A particle is being acted upon by the following forces: F1= 4.0 N, east; F2= 6.0 N, northeast; and F3= 8.0 N, south. Find the
resultant using the parallelogram method. You may add the forces according to the following grouping (F1+F2)+F3.
Scale - 1cm:1N
N
R 1= F1+F2 Solution
F2 As shown in the figure, R 1= F1+F2 while
R 2= (F1+F2) + F3. The resultant vector in the
θ figure has nine scale units corresponding to 9N.
W F E using a protractor, the angle that the resultant
makes with the horizontal axis is 25°. Thus, the
R 2=1 θ(F1+F2) + resultant is 9 N, 25° south of east.
F3 F3

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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
Polygon Method
The polygon method is otherwise kwon as the tip-to-tail method. This method is more convenient than the parallelogram when
more than two vectors are to be added graphically. The following are the steps to be followed using the polygon method.
1. Represent each vector quantity by an arrow drawn to scale.
2. Starting from the origin, draw the first vector in the rectangular coordinate system, accounting properly its direction.
3. Connect the tail of the second vector to the head of the first vector. Connect the tail of the third vector to the head of the
second vector. You may continue drawing the vectors head to tail until you draw the last vector to be added.
4. The resultant will close the figure formed by connecting the vectors. This resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector to
the head of the last vector.
5. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant. Determine the magnitude of the resultant from the scale used.
6. Use a protractor to determine the direction of the resultant.
If there are only two vectors to be added, the polygon that will be formed is a triangle. In this case, the polygon method is otherwise
known as the triangle method.

Sample Problem
You are out for an early morning walk. You walk 5.0 m, south and 12.0 m, east. Then. You decided to walk farther and go 4.0
m, southwest and 6.0 m, west. (a) How far are you now from your starting point and in what direction? (b) Would you have arrived at
the same spot had you taken the steps in order: 12.0 m, east; 4.0 m, southwest; 5.0 m, south; and 6.0 m, west?

Solution
Let A = 5.0 m, south; B = 12.0 m, east; C= 4.0 m, southwest; and D= 6.0 m, west. In the figure below, (a) shows the polygon
formed by adding the displacements in the order of A+B+C+D. In (b), the displacements are added to B+C+A+D. Changing the order of
adding displacements does not affect resultant. This is consequence of commutativity of vectors when added together. From the scale
used (width of 1 square in a graphing paper ⊡ = 1 m), the resultant is approximately 8.0 m and its direction is approximately 68° south
of east.

y y
B
x x 68°
68°
A C
R= 8 m R= 8 m
B A
C
D D

(a) The resultant displacement (b) The resultant displacement R for

R for A+B+C+D B+C+A+D
Using the Laws of Sines and Cosines
The steps in vector addition using the laws of sines and cosines are the same as in the polygon method, except that instead of
determining the magnitude and the direction of the resultant vector by actual measurement, they are computed using these laws.
Sample problem below will illustrate this method.

Sample problem
Two forces A and B are acting on a particle as shown in the figure. A is 3.0 N directed north and B is 4.0 N, 30° north of east.
Find the resultant force using the laws of sines and cosines.
Solution
From the figure, the angle opposite R is 120°. Using the law of cosines,
2 2 2
R = A + B −2 ABcos 120 °
2 2
¿ ( 3.0 N ) + ( 4.0 N ) −2 ( 3.0 N ) ( 4.0 N ) cos 120 °
R=6 N
To determine the direction of R, use the law of sines and solve for ∠ AOR∨θ .
4.0 N 6.0 N
=
sinθ sin 120°
sinθ=0.5774
−1
θ=sin 0.5774
¿ 35 °

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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
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School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1

B θ
120°
Note that 35°is with respect to the north
R direction. The angle that R makes with the
θ east direction is equal to 90°-35° = 55°. Thus,
A
R= 6.0 N, 55° north of east.
O

Special cases
1. For two vectors acting in the same direction
The angle between vectors is zero. The magnitude of the resultant is equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the
vectors. The direction of the resultant is the same as the direction of the vectors.
2. For two vectors acting in opposite direction
The angle between the two vectors is 180°. The magnitude of the resultant is the difference between the magnitude
of the vectors. The direction of the resultant is the direction of the larger vector.
3. For two vectors that are perpendicular to each other
The magnitude of the resultant can be obtained by the Pythagorean Theorem. The direction of the resultant can be
found by using the trigonometric function of a right triangle.
Sample Problem
1. Modern aircraft have entertainment systems in front of each seat that sometimes show air velocity and tailwind or headwind.
Air velocity is the speed of the aircraft through air. Tailwind is the wind velocity in the direction of travel of the aircraft, while
headwind is the wind velocity opposite the direction of travel. Ground velocity is the sum vector of air velocity and tailwind or
headwind. Suppose that air velocity is 950 km/h, east and wind is blowing at 20 km/h. (a) what is the ground velocity if it is
tailwind? (b) what is the ground velocity if it is a headwind?
Solution:
950 km/h + 20 km/h = 970 km/h
a. Ground velocity = 950 km/h + 20 km/h = 970 km/h
b. Ground velocity = 950 km/h - 20 km/h = 930 km/h

2. To go to a nearby convenience store from her dormitory, a student walks 12.0 m, north and 5.0 m, east. What is the student’s
displacement from her dormitory?
Solution:
a. Using the Pythagorean Theorem

R=√ a2 +b ²
R=√ ( 12.0 m ) + ( 5.0 m )
2 2

= 13 m

b. Using the equation for tanθ

opposite side
tanθ=
adjacent side

5.0 m
tanθ=
12.0 m

θ=tan−1 |12.0 m|
5.0 m

5.0 m
Convenient
θ = 23° store

However, this angle is measured with Dormitory

respect to the north direction. The angle R
6
with respect to the east direction is 90-23 =
67. Therefore, the displacement of the
student is 13m, 67° north of east.
ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
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School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
12.0 m
θ

Resolution of Vectors
A single vector is usually divided into two vectors called components that are perpendicular to each other. The process of
splitting the vector into its components is called resolution (see figure below). The components are normally along the x and y-axes of
the rectangular coordinate system. The component along the x-axis is called the horizontal component, while the component along the
y-axis is called the vertical component. To present the horizontal and the vertical components of a vector V, V x and Vy will be used,
respectively. In general,
Vx = Vcosθ Vy = Vsinθ
x

A given vector can be resolved

V into its horizontal and vertical
Vy
components
θ
O y
Vx

Provided that θ is measured with respect to the x-axis. The signs of the horizontal and vertical components of the given vector must
also be taken into consideration, depending in the quadrant where the vector lies. See the figure below

y
Quadrant II Quadrant I
-x, -y +x, +y Different quadrants of
x the Cartesian Coordinate
system
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
-x, +y +x, -y
Sample Problem
Juan walks 5.0 m, north of west. Find the (a) horizontal and (b) vertical component of his displacement.
y
Solution
a. Horizontal component,

d x =(−5 m )( cos 37 ° )
d
¿−4 m dy
b. Vertical component,
37°
d y = ( 5 m) ( sin 37 ° ) x
dx O
¿3m

Component Method
The component method is generally used when more than two vectors are to be added. The steps involved in adding vectors
using the component method are as follows:
1. Resolve the given vectors into its horizontal and vertical components.
2. Get the algebraic sum of all the horizontal components, ∑ V x . Get also the vertical algebraic sum of all the vertical
components, ∑ V y . These sums represent the horizontal and vertical component of the resultant, respectively.

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 ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
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School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1
∑ V x =V x1 +V x 2+V x 3+ …+V xn
∑ V y =V y 1 +V y 2+ V y 3+ …+V yn
3. Since the vertical and horizontal components are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude of the resultant may be
calculated using the Pythagorean Theorem.
R= √(∑ V ) +(∑ V )
x
2
y
2

From the signs of the sum of the horizontal and the vertical components, determine the quadrant where the resultant is. This
will indicate the direction of the resultant.
4. Solve the angle ∅ that the resultant makes with the horizontal.

∅ =arctan
| |∑Vy
∑Vx
or ∅ =tan
−1
| |
∑Vy
∑Vx

Note:
|∑∑ |Vy
Vx
means the absolute value of the sum of the vectors along the y-axis divided by the sum of the vectors along

the x-axis.
Sample Problem
Ana runs 4.00 m, 40° north of east; 2.00 m, east; 5.20 m, 30° south of west; and 6.50 m, south before stopping for water
break. Find her resultant displacement from where she started.
Solution
Tabulate the horizontal and vertical components of each vector.

Vectors Horizontal Component Vertical Component

A=4.00 m , 40 ° north of east A x =+4.00 m ( cos 40° ) A y =+4.00 m ( sin 40 ° )
= + 3.06 m = + 2.57 m
B=2.00 m , east B=+2.00 m B y =0
C=5.20 m ,30.0 ° south of west C x =−5.20 m ( cos 30 ° ) C x =−5.20 m ( sin 30 ° )
¿−4.50 m ¿−2.60 m
D=6.50 m, south D x =0 D y =−6.50 m
∑ d x =+0.56 m ∑ d y =−6.53 m

Solving for the magnitude d R of the resultant,

d R= √ (∑ d ) +(∑ d ) ²
x
2
y

¿ √ ( 0.56 m ) + (−6.53 m ) ²
2

= 6.6 m

Solving for the direction ∅ of the resultant,

∅ =tan−1
| |∑ dy
∑ dx

¿ tan−1 |−6.53
0.56 m |
m

= 85°
Since ∑ d x is positive and ∑ d yis negative, the resultant must be in the fourth quadrant. Hence, the direction must be 85° south of
east. Therefore, d R is 6.6 m, 85° south of east.

Graph y
0.56 m
O x
θ
6.53 m

dR
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ST. JOSEPH’S INSTITUTE, INC. General Physics 1
Candon City, Ilocos Sur GRADE 12
School Year 2021 – 2022 HANDOUT # 1

REFERENCES

BOOKS:
 Baltazar, M. C. and Tolentino, S. A. (2017). Exploring Life Through Science General Physics 1. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
 Tabujara Jr, G. D. (2017). General Physics Book 1. Manila, Philippines. JFS Publishing Services.