Chapter 11 Blood

Chapter 11
Blood
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1

Blood has always fascinated humans, and throughout history they
have speculated about its function. Some socie ties consider blood
the “essence of life” because the uncontrolled loss of it can result
in death. Many cultures around the world, both ancient and
modern, believe blood has magical qualities. Blood has also been
thought to define our character and emotions. For example, people
of a noble bloodline are sometimes described as “blue bloods,”
whereas criminals are said to have “bad” blood. People commonly
say that anger causes their blood to “boil,” whereas fear makes it
“curdle.” The scientific study of blood reveals characteristics as
fascinating as any of these fantasies. Blood performs many
functions essential to life and can reveal much about our health.
The heart pumps blood through blood vessels that extend
throughout the body. Blood helps maintain homeostasis in several
ways:
Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory

system of humans that delivers necessary
substances such as nutrients and oxygen to
the cells, and transports metabolic waste
products away from those same cells.
2
Functions of Blood
1. Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products
• Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs and is carried to cells. Carbon
dioxide, produced by cells, is carried in the blood to the lungs, from
which it is expelled. The blood transports ingested nutrients, ions, and
water from the digestive tract to cells, and the blood transports the
waste products of the cells to the kidneys for elimination.
2. Transport of processed molecules.
• Many substances are produced in one part of the body and transported
in the blood to another part, where they are modified. For example, the
precursor to vitamin D is produced in the skin and transported by the
blood to the liver and then to the kidneys for processing into active
vitamin D. Then the blood transports active vitamin D to the small
3
intestine, where it promotes the uptake of calcium.
Functions of Blood
3. Transport of regulatory molecules.
• The blood carries many of the hormones and enzymes that regulate
body processes from one part of the body to another.
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.

• Buffers which help keep the blood’s pH within its normal limits of
7.35–7.45, are found in the blood. The osmotic composition of blood
is also critical for maintaining normal fluid and ion balance.
5. Maintenance of body temperature.

• Warm blood is transported from the interior of the body to the surface,
where heat is released from the blood. This is one of the mechanisms
that helps regulate body temperature.
4
Functions of Blood
3. Protection against foreign substances.
• Certain cells and chemicals in the blood constitute an important part of
the immune system, protecting against foreign substances, such as
microorganisms and toxins.
4. Clot formation.
• When blood vessels are damaged, blood clotting protects against
excessive blood loss. When tissues are damaged, the blood clot that
forms is also the first step in tissue repair and the restoration of normal
function
5
Characteristics of Blood
• Type of connective tissue
• Sticky
• Heavier than water
• O2 content determines color
• Temp. slightly higher than rest of body
• Total Volume: Males (5-6 L), females (4-5 L)
• Makes up 8% of total body weight
4
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © McGraw -Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Plasma
(percentage by weight) Albumins
58%
Proteins 7%
Globulins
38%
Percentage by
volume
Fibrinogen
Percentage by 4%
body weight Water
91%
Ions
Nutrients
Other solutes 2% Waste products

Plasma
55%
Gases
Buffy
Formed elements Regulatory
coat
(number per cubic mm) substances
Platelets
250–400 thousand White blood cells
Formed
elements White blood cells Neutrophils
45% 5–10 thousand 60%–70%
Lymphocytes
20%–25%
Monocytes
3%–8%
Red blood cells Eosinophils
4.2–6.2million 2%–4%
Basophils
0.5%–1%
(left): © liquidlibrary/PictureQuest RF
Composition of Blood
• Plasma:
- 55% of total blood
- pale, yellow liquid that surrounds cells
- 91% water, 7% proteins, and 2% other
• Formed Elements:
- 45% of total blood
- cells and cell fragments
- erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes
8
Plasma Proteins
• Albumin:
 58% of plasma proteins
 helps maintain water balance
 is the most common protein found in blood plasma. It helps to ensure
blood stays in arteries and veins, and helps carry hormones, vitamins,
and enzymes throughout the body.
 Albumin is made in the liver and quickly carried to the bloodstream.
• Globulins:
 helps immune system
 To fight infection, help blood clots, and transport nutrients to muscles.
In addition, it acts as plasma cells and regulates the circulatory system.
9
Plasma Proteins
• Fibrinogen:
 aids in clot formation
 Helps Blood Clotting
 Regulates the Breakdown of Blood Clots
 Is Involved in Immune Defense and Healing
10
Erythrocytes
• Red blood cells (RBC)
• Disk-shaped with thick
edges
• Nucleus is lost during
development
• Live for 120 days in males
and 110 in females
• Function:
transport O2 to tissues
11
Production of Erythrocytes
1. Decreased blood O2 levels cause kidneys to
increase production of erythropoietin.
2. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to

produce more erythrocytes.
3. Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in blood

O2 levels.
12
13
Fate of Old Erythrocytes and Hemoglobin
• Old rbc’s are removed from blood by
macrophages in spleen and liver
• Hemoglobin is broken down
• Globin is broken down into amino acids
• Hemoglobin’s iron is recycled
• Heme is converted to bilirubin
• Bilirubin is taken up by liver and released into
small intestine as part of bile
12
Leukocytes
• White blood cells (WBC)
• Lack hemoglobin
• Larger than erythrocytes
• Contain a nucleus
• Functions:
- fight infections
- remove dead cells and debris by phagocytosis
16
Types of Leukocytes
• Granulocytes
contain granules
1. Neutrophils:
 most common
 remain in blood for 10-12 hours then
move to tissues
 Description: Nucleus with two to four
lobes connected by thin filaments;
cytoplasmic granules stain a light pink
or reddish purple; 10–12 μm in diameter
 Function: Phagocytizes microorganisms
and other substances
 Dead neutrophils, cell debris, and fluid
can accumulate as pus at sites of
infections
17
Basophil
 Description: Nucleus with two

indistinct lobes; cytoplasmic
granules stain blue-purple; 10–12
μm in diameter
 Function: Releases histamine,

which promotes inflammation, and
produce heparin, which prevents
clot formation
Eosinophil
 Description: Nucleus often

bilobed; cytoplasmic granules
stain orange-red or bright red;
11–14 μm in diameter
 Function: Participates in
inflammatory response of
allergic reactions and asthma;
attacks certain worm parasites
19
• Agranulocytes
no granules
1. 1.Lymphocyte
 Description: Round nucleus;

cytoplasm forms a thin ring
around the nucleus; 6–14 μm in
diameter
 Function: Produces antibodies
and other chemicals responsible
for destroying microorganisms;
contributes to allergic reactions,
graft rejection, tumor control,
and regulation of immune
system 20
Monocyte
Description: Nucleus round,

kidney-shaped, or horseshoe-shaped;
contains more cytoplasm than does
lymphocyte; 12–20 μm in diameter
Function: Phagocytic cell in the

blood; leaves the blood and becomes
a macrophage, which phagocytizes
bacteria, dead cells, cell fragments,
and other debris within tissues
Blood Loss
• When blood vessels are damaged, blood
can leak into other tissues and disrupt
normal function.
• Blood that is lost must be replaced by

production of new blood or by a
transfusion.
22
Platelets
• What are they?

- blood clotting cells
- produced in red bone
marrow
23
Preventing Blood Loss
1. Vascular spasm:
temporary constriction of blood vessel
2. Platelet plugs:
can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
3. Blood clotting (coagulation)
24
Blood Clotting
• Blood can be transformed from a liquid to a gel
• Clot:
- network of thread-like proteins called fibrin
that trap blood cells and fluid
- depends on clotting factors
• Clotting factors:
- proteins in plasma
- only activated following injury
- made in liver
- require vitamin K 24
26
Steps in Clot Formation
1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting
factors to become activated due to exposed conn.
tissue or release of thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and
acts upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active
form fibrin
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)
26
Control of Clot Formation
• Clots need to be controlled so they don’t spread
throughout the body
• Anticoagulants:
- prevent clots from forming
- Ex. Heparin and antithrombin
• Injury causes enough clotting factors to be

activated that anticoagulants can’t work in that
particular area of the body
29
Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
• Clot retraction:
- condensing of clot
- serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
- helps enhance healing
• Fibrinolysis:
- process of dissolving clot
- plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down
clot (fibrin)
30
31
Blood Reactions
• Injury or surgery can lead to a blood transfusion
• Transfusion reactions/Aggulination:
clumping of blood cells (bad)
• Antigens:
molecules on surface of erythrocytes
• Antibodies:
proteins in plasma
• Blood groups:
named according to antigen (ABO) 32
ABO Blood Groups
Type A B AB O
Antigen A B A&B None
Antibodies Anti-B Anti-A None Anti-A&B
Common 2nd 3rd 4th 1st
33
34
35
• O are universal donors because they have no
antigens
• Type A can receive A and O blood
• Type B can receive B and O blood
• Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood
• Type O can only receive O blood
36
Rh Blood Group
• Rh positive means you have Rh antigens
• 95-85% of the population is Rh+
• Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed

to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from mother to fetus
37
Example of Rh Reaction
• If mother is Rh- and fetus is Rh+ the mother can
be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks
through placenta and mixes with mother’s blood.
• First time this occurs mother’s blood produces

antibodies against antigens.
• Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.
38
Hemolytic Disease of Newborn
• What is it?
- occurs when mother produces anti-Rh
antibodies that cross placenta and agglutination
and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs
- can be fatal to fetus
- prevented if mother is treated with RhoGAM
which contains antibodies against Rh antigens
38
Figure 11.13

Diagnostic Blood Tests
• Complete blood count:
provides information such as RBC count,
hemoglobin, hematocrit, and WBC count
• Hematocrit:
% of total blood volume composed of RBC
• Hemoglobin:
- determines amount of hemoglobin
- indicate anemia
41
42
• Prothrombin time:
time it takes for blood to begin clotting (9-12 sec.)
• White blood cell count:
total number of wbc
• White blood cell differential count:
- Determines the % of each 5 kinds of leukocytes
- neutrophils: 60-70%
- lymphocytes: 20-25%
- monocytes: 3-8%
- eosinophils: 2-4%
- basophils: 0.5-1%
43
Type of white
Function
blood cell
helps stop microorganisms in infections by eating them and
neutrophil
destroying them with enzymes (bacterial)
uses antibodies to stop bacteria or viruses from entering the
body (B-cell lymphocyte)kills off the body’s cells if they’ve
Lymphocyte
been compromised by a virus or cancer cells (T-cell
lymphocyte) (viral)
becomes a macrophage in the body’s tissues, eating
monocyte microorganisms and getting rid of dead cells while increasing
immune system strength (parasitic or viral)
helps control inflammation, especially active during parasite
infections and allergic reactions, stops substances or other
eosinophil
foreign materials from harming the body (parasitic or allergic
rxn)
produces enzymes during asthma attacks and allergic
basophil
reactions (auto immune dse or blood disorders)
C. Clotting
 Platelet count and prothrombin time measurement determine the blood’s ability
to clot.
n Platelet Count
 Normal Value: 250,000–400,000 / uL
 Thrombocytopenia- is a condition in which the platelets (also

called thrombocytes) are low in number, which can result in
bleeding problems.
n Prothrombin time measurement calculates how long it takes for

the blood to start clotting.
 Normal Value- 9 to 12 seconds.
E. Blood Chemistry - is a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to

measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and
tissues in the body.

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Chapter 11

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1

Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory

2. Transport of processed molecules.

4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.

5. Maintenance of body temperature.

Other solutes 2% Waste products

2. Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to

3. Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in blood

 Description: Nucleus with two

 Function: Releases histamine,

 Description: Nucleus often

 Description: Round nucleus;

Description: Nucleus round,

Function: Phagocytic cell in the

• Blood that is lost must be replaced by

• What are they?

3. Blood clotting (coagulation)

• Injury causes enough clotting factors to be

• Type A can receive A and O blood

• Type B can receive B and O blood

• Type AB can receive A, B, AB blood

• Type O can only receive O blood

• Rh positive means you have Rh antigens

• 95-85% of the population is Rh+

• Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is exposed

• First time this occurs mother’s blood produces

• Any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 Normal Value: 250,000–400,000 / uL

 Thrombocytopenia- is a condition in which the platelets (also

n Prothrombin time measurement calculates how long it takes for

 Normal Value- 9 to 12 seconds.

E. Blood Chemistry - is a procedure in which a blood sample is checked to

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