MFT Notes

Contents
1 Manufacturing Process 3
2 Unit-1
Theory of Metal cutting 4
3 Machine tools 31
4 Unit -2
Grinding, Lapping and Honing 55
5 Unit -3
Metal forming 65
6 Forging 71
7 Rolling 85
8 Extrusion 103
9 Unit-4
Sheet metal forming 114
10 High energy rate forming processes 129
11 Unit-5
Nontraditional machining processes 137
1
Manufacturing Technology notes
Manufacturing Technology notes is prepared with the help of

following books.
Reference books
1. Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools, Geoffrey Boothroyd
and Winston A. Knight, Third Edition, Taylor & Francis.
2. Elements of Workshop Technology, Vol: II Machine Tools, S K Hajra

Choudhury, A K Hajra Choudhury and Nirjhar Roy, Media Promotors
& Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
3. Mechanical Metallurgy, George E. Dieter, McGraw Hill Education (In-

dia) Private limited, Third edition.
4. ASM Hand book, Volume 14B, Metalworking: Sheet forming.
5. Manufacturing Science, Amitabha Ghosh and Ashok Kumar Mallik,

Pearson India, Second edition.
6. Advanced machining processes, Hassan Abdel-Gawad El-Hofy, Mc-

Graw Hill.
7. Nontraditional manufacturing processes, Gary F. Benedict, Taylor &

Francis.
Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 2 18th March 2020

Chapter 1
Manufacturing Process
Introduction
Manufacturing process can be defined as the procedure of converting raw
materials into semifinished / finished product.
Figure 1.1: Representation of Manufacturing Process.
Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process can be classified as
1. Casting
2. Metal forming ( Forging, Rolling, Drawing etc.)
3. Metal cutting ( Lathe, Milling, Drilling etc.)
4. Metal joining (Welding, Soldering, Brazing etc.)
5. Non traditional machining ( AWJ, UM etc. )
6. Modern machining ( Powder metallurgy, Micro machining etc.)
3
Chapter 2
Unit-1
Theory of Metal cutting
Metal cutting involves, cutting of raw materials to desired shape to transform

to finished product. Metal cutting process has a cutting tool and a machine
to drive the cutting mechanism.
Properties of cutting tool

The properties of cutting tool can be grouped as follows
1. Hot hardness
2. Wear resistance
3. Toughness
4. Physical and chemical stability
5. Cost and easiness in fabrication
Hot hardness
Hardness is measured at room temperature. But the term hot hardness
indicates that the hardness at elevated temperature. The hardness decreases
as temperature increases. In metal cutting, heat is generated during the
process. The tool material must be able to maintain its hardness, wear
4
resistance and strength at such a high elevated temperature, which ranges

nearly 6000 C to18000 C.
Wear resistance
The term wear means loss of material. During the metal cutting process,
the cutting edge is always in touch with the workpiece and gradually the
material will lose with time. Therefore the tool material must have high wear
resistance, to withstand excessive wear even though the relative hardness of
the tool-work materials changes.
Toughness
The term toughness actually implies a combination of strength and ductility.
The material must have sufficient toughness to withstand shocks and vibra-
tions and to prevent breakage. The tool material must be tough enough so
that it can work without fracture when impact forces occurs in interrupted
cutting operations (such as milling).
Physical and chemical stability

The tool should not change its shape during cutting process. The tool ma-
terial must have chemical stability or inertness with respect to the work
material, so that any undesirable reactions between tool material, and work
material are avoided.
Cost and easiness in fabrication

The cost and easiness of fabrication should have within reasonable limits.
Cutting tool materials

The different cutting tools are
1. Carbon steels
2. High speed steels (HSS)
3. Carbide steels

4. Ceramic tools
5. Poly crystalline diamond
6. Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
7. Single crystal diamond
Carbon steels
Carbon steels contain carbon in amounts ranging from 0.08 to 1.5 per cent.
A disadvantage of carbon tool steels are their comparatively low heat and
wear resistance. They lose their required hardness at temperatures from
2000 to 2500 C. Therefore, they may only be used in the manufacture of tools
operating at low cutting speeds (about 12m/min) and of hand operated tools.
But they are comparatively cheap, easy to forge, and simple to harden.
High-speed steels (HSS)

High-speed steels (HSS) is the general purpose tool materials for low and
medium cutting speeds owing to its superior hot hardness and resistance to
wear. High-speed steels operate at cutting speeds 2 to 3 times higher than for
carbon steels and retain their hardness up to about 9000 C. There are three
general types of high speed steels; high tungsten, high molybdenum, and high
cobalt. Tungsten HSS provides hot hardness and form stability, molybdenum
or vanadium maintains keenness of the cutting edge, while addition of cobalt
improves more wear resistance. The general types of HSS are : a. Tungsten
high-speed steels (T-series), b. Molybdenum high-speed-steels (M-series) and
c. Cobalt high-speed steels. 18-4-1 Tungsten high-speed steels (T-series).
This steel containing 18 percent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium and 1 per
cent vanadium, is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels.
In some steels of similar composition the percentage of vanadium is slightly
increased to obtain better results in heavy duty work. 6-6-4 Molybdenum
high-speed-steels (M-series). This steel containing 6 per cent molybdenum,
6 per cent tungsten, 4 per cent chromium and 2 per cent vanadium, have
excellent toughness. There are other molybdenum high speed steels having
various tungsten-molybdenum ratios, with or without cobalt. 4-4-10 Cobalt
high-speed steels. This steel containing 4 per cent molybdenum, 4 per cent
tungsten, 10 per cent cobalt and 2 per cent vanadium.

Cemented carbides
Cemented carbides are so named because they are composed principally of

carbon mixed with other elements. The basic ingredient of most cemented
carbides is tungsten carbide which is extremely hard. Pure tungsten powder
is mixed under high heat, at about 15000 C, with pure carbon (lamp black)
in the ratio of 94 per cent and 6 per cent by weight. The new compound,
tungsten carbide, is then mixed with cobalt until the mass is entirely ho-
mogeneous. This homogenous mass is pressed, at pressures from 1,000 to
4,200 kg/cm, into suitable blocks and then heated in hydrogen. Boron, ti-
tanium and tantalum are also used to form carbides: The amount of cobalt
used will regulate the toughness of the tool. A typical analysis of a carbide
suitable for steel machining is 82 percent tungsten carbide, 10 percent tita-
nium carbide and 8 percent of Cobalt. Carbide tools are made by brazing or
silver-soldering the formed inserts on the ends of commercial steel holders.
The most important properties of cemented carbides are their very high heat
and wear resistance. Cemented carbide tipped tools can machine metals even
when their cutting elements are heated to a temperature of 1, 0000 C. They
can withstand cutting speed more than 6 times higher than HSS and has
extremely high compressive strength. However, they are very brittle, has low
resistance to shock, and must be very rigidly supported to prevent cracking.
The two types of cemented carbides are the tungsten and titanium tung-
sten varieties. The tungsten type cemented carbides are less brittle than the
titanium-tungsten type; they contain 92 to 98 percent tungsten carbide and
from 2 to 8 percent cobalt. These cemented carbides are designed chiefly for
machining brittle metals such as cast iron, bronze, but they may also be used
for non-ferrous metals and alloys, steel, etc. The titanium-tungsten type are
more wear-resistant. They contain 66 to 85 percent tungsten carbide, 5 to
30 percent titanium carbide and 4 to 10 percent cobalt. These cemented
carbides are designed for machining tougher materials such as various steels.
Coated carbide tools : For coated carbide tools, a thin chemically stable,
shock resistance refractory coatings of TiC, Al2 O, and TiN are applied on the
tungsten carbide inserts, using chemical vapour deposition method (CVD).
In this coating first layer is of TiC, second layer is of Al2 O, and the top
thin layer is of Tin nitride. This process makes the insert two to three times
stronger for wear resistance.

Ceramics
The latest development in the metal-cutting tools uses aluminium oxide gen-
erally referred to as ceramics. Ceramics tools are made by composing alu-
minium oxide powder in a mould at about 280 kg/cm or more. The part is
then sintered at 22000 C. This is known as cold pressing. Hot pressed ceramics
are more expensive owing to higher mould costs. Ceramic tool materials are
made in the form of tips that are to be clamped on metal shanks. Other ma-
terials used to produce ceramic tools include silicon carbide, boron carbide,
titanium carbide and titanium boride.
These tools have very low heat conductivity and extremely high compres-
sive strength. But they are quite brittle and have a low bending strength.
For this reason, these materials cannot be used for tools operating in inter-
rupted cuts, with vibrations as well as for removing heavy chip. But they can
withstand temperatures up to 12000 C and can be used at cutting speeds 4
times that of cemented carbides, and up to about 40 times that of high-speed
cutting tools. They are chiefly used for single point tools in semi-finish and
finish turning of cast iron, plastics, and other work, but only when they are
not subject to impact loads. To give them increased strength often ceramic
tools are given 50 to 80 negative rake for carbon steel and zero rake for cast
iron and non-metallic materials to strengthen their cutting edge. Also the
cutting tools are supported by the tool holder. Heat conductivity of ceramics
being very low, the tools are generally used without a coolant.
Cubic boron nitride (CBN)

This material, consisting atoms of boron and nitrogen, is considered as the
hardest tool material available next to diamond. It is having high hardness,
high thermal conductivity and tensile strength. In certain application a thin
layer (0.5 mm) of CBN is applied on cemented carbide tools to obtain better
machining performance. It can also be made in terms of indexable inserts in
standard form and size.
Diamond
The diamonds used for cutting tools are industrial diamonds, which are nat-
urally occurring diamonds containing flaws. Alternatively, they can be also
artificial diamonds. The diamond is the hardest known material and can be
run at cutting speeds about 50 times greater than that for HSS tool, and

at temperatures up to 16500 C. In addition to its hardness the diamond is

incompressible, is of a large grain structure, readily conducts heat, and has
a low coefficient of friction. Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard ma-
terials such as glass, plastics, ceramics and other abrasive materials and for
producing fine finishes. Due to its high costs, it finds a limited use in general
purpose cutting.
2.1 compares the various cutting tool materials hardness with tempera-
ture.
Figure 2.1: Cutting tool materials.
Types cutting tools

The cutting tools are
1. Single point cutting tool ( Turning, facing etc.)
2. Multi point tool ( Milling, Grinding etc.)
Nomenclature of a cutting tool

Cutting tool nomenclature means systematic naming of various parts and
tool angles of the cutting tool. The surfaces on the point of the tool bear
a definite relationship to each other that are defined by angles. Principles

Figure 2.2: Single point cutting tools.
Figure 2.3: Multi point cutting tools.
underlying cutting tool angles are the same whether the tool is a single point
tool, a multipoint tool, or a grinding wheel. Since a single point tool is the
easiest to understand, it will be discussed in greater detail.
Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool

The basic angle needed on the single point cutting tool may be best under-
stood by removing the unwanted surface from an oblong tool bank of square
sections. However, the complete nomenclature of various parts of a single
point tool is shown in the diagram.
The important parts of a single point cutting tool are

Figure 2.4: Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool.
Shank
The shank is that portion of tool bit which is not ground to form cutting
edges and it is in rectangular cross section.
Face
The face of the cutting tool surface against which chip slides forward.
Flank
The flank of a cutting tool is that surface which face the workpiece.
Heel
The heel of a single point tool is the lower portion of a side cutting edge.

Nose
The nose of a tool is the conjunction of side and end cutting edges. Nose
radius increases the tool life and improves the surface finish.
Base
The base of the tool is the underside of the shank.
Angles
Rake
The rake is the slope of the top away from the cutting edge. The larger the
rake angle the cutting force and power reduce. A large angle is conducive
to a good surface finish. Each tool has a side and a back rake. Back Rake
indicates that the plane which forms the phase on top of a tool has been
ground back at an angle sloping from the nose. Side Rake indicates that the
plane that forms the phase or top of a tool has been ground back at an angle
sloping from the side cutting edge. Side rake is more important than back
rake for turning operations.
Side Clearance
The side clearance or side relief indicates that the plane that forms the flank
or side of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the
side cutting edge.
End Clearance
The end clearance or end relief indicates that the nose or end of a tool has
been ground back at an angle sloping down from the end cutting edge.
End Cutting Edge Angle
It indicates that the plane that forms the end of a tool has been ground back
at an angle sloping from the nose to the side of the shank.

Side Cutting Edge Angle

It indicates that the plane which forms the flank or side for a tool has been
ground back at an angle to the side of the shank. The lip or cutting angle is
the included angle when the tool has been ground wedged shaped.
Nomenclature of Milling Cutter-Multi point cutter

The nomenclature of milling cutter includes various elements and angle of
cutters.
Body
The part of the cutter to which the teeth are formed or attached at its
periphery.
Cutting Edge
Edge formed by the face and the circular land or the surface which is forming
the primary clearance.
Face
The surface adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as it is
cut from the work.
Gash
Gash or flute is the chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of
the next tooth.
Fillet
The curved surface which joins the face of one tooth to the back of the tooth
immediately ahead.
Land
The part of the back of the tooth which is adjacent to cutting edge.

Lip Angle
Included angle between the land and the face of tooth is called lip angle.
Primary Clearance
It is the angle between land surface (or a line passing through land) and a
tangent to the periphery at the cutting edge. For the most of the cutters the
clearance of 50 is provided.
Secondary Clearance (Relief ) Angle

To control the land width, a secondary clearance is ground on the tooth. It
is the angle between back of teeth and a line passing through land. It is
usually 30 greater than primary clearance angle.
Radial Rake Angle

The angle between face of the cutter and a radial line passing through the
tooth of cutting edge. It facilitates removal of chips. The radial rake angle
usually ranges from 100 to 200. Larger angles are adopted for milling soft
materials and smaller angles for harder material. Carbide tipped cutters are
provided with a negative rake angle which varies from 100 to 150.
Helix Angle
The angle between the tangent to helical cutting edge and the axis of cylin-
drical cutter (or line parallel to axis) is called helix angle. Standard helical
cutters have a helix angle of 200 to 300.
Axial Rake Angle

It is the angle between the face of the tooth and axis of the cutter.
Types of cutting
The are two different types of cutting namely,
1. Orthogonal cutting
2. Oblique cutting

Figure 2.5: Orthogonal and Oblique cutting.
Differences between Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
1 The cutting edge of the tool remains The cutting edge of the tool is inclined
normal to work piece to the work piece (acute angle).
2 The chip flow is normal to the cutting The direction of the chip flow is at an
edge of the tool. angle to the cutting edge.
3 This can be considered as two dimen- This cutting involves cutting, thrust
sional cutting, since cutting and thrust and radial forces. So it can be treated
forces are involved. as a three dimensional cutting
Tool wear
Tool wear is the gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operation.
Tools affected include tipped tools, tool bits, drill bits and milling cutters,
etc, that are used with machine tools. The fundamental nature of the mech-
anism of wear can be very different under different conditions. In metal
cutting, three main forms of wear are known to occur: adhesion, abrasion,
and diffusion wear. In adhesion wear, the wear is caused by the fracture of
welded asperity junctions between the two metals. In metal cutting, junc-
tions between the chip and tool materials are formed as part of the friction
mechanism; when these junctions are fractured, small fragments of tool ma-
terial can be torn out and carried away on the underside of the chip or on the
new workpiece surface. The conditions that exist in metal cutting are well
suited to adhesive wear as new material surfaces uncontaminated with oxide

films are continually produced, and this facilitates the formation of welded
asperity junctions. The form of wear known as abrasion wear occurs when
hard particles on the underside of the chip pass over the tool face and remove
tool material by mechanical action. These hard particles may be highly strain
hardened fragments of an unstable built up edge, fragments of the hard tool
material removed by adhesion wear, or hard constituents in the work mate-
rial, including oxide scales on the work surface. Solid-state diffusion occurs
when atoms in a metallic crystal lattice move from a region of high atomic
concentration to one of low concentration. This process is dependent on the
existing temperature, and the rate of diffusion increases exponentially with
increases in temperature. In metal cutting, where intimate contact between
the work and tool materials occurs and high temperatures exist, diffusion
can occur where atoms move from the tool material to the work material.
This process, which takes place within a very narrow reaction zone at the
interface between the two materials and causes a weakening of the surface
structure of the tool, is known as diffusion wear.
Forms of Wear
The progressive wear of a tool takes place mainly in two distinct ways.
1. Crater wear : Wear on the tool face characterized by the formation of a

crater and resulting from the action of the chip flowing along the face.
2. Flank wear : Wear on the flank where a wear land is formed from the
rubbing action of the newly generated workpiece surface.
Crater wear
The crater formed on the tool face conforms to the shape of the chip underside
and is restricted to the chip tool contact area (Figure 2.6). In addition, the
region adjacent to the cutting edge where sticking friction or a built up
edge occurs is subjected to relatively slight wear. It was seen that in metal
cutting, the highest temperatures occur some distance along the tool face; at
high cutting speeds these temperatures can easily reach the order of 10000 C
or more. Under these high-temperature conditions, high-speed steel tools
wear very rapidly because of thermal softening of the tool material. Although

Figure 2.6: Crater and flank wear on a tool.
carbide-tool materials retain their hardness at these high temperatures, solid-

state diffusion can cause rapid wear. In experimental work the maximum
depth of the crater is usually a measure of the amount of crater wear and
can be determined by a surface-measuring instrument. Under very high-
speed cutting conditions, crater wear is often the factor that determines the
life of the cutting tool. The cratering becomes so severe that the tool edge
is weakened and eventually fractures. However, when tools are used under
economical conditions, the wear of the tool on its flank, known as flank wear,
is usually the controlling factor.
Flank wear
Wear on the flank of a cutting tool is caused by friction between the newly
machined workpiece surface and the contact area on the tool flank. Because
of the rigidity of the workpiece, the worn area, referred to as the flank wear
land, must be parallel to the resultant cutting direction. The width of the
wear land is usually taken as a measure of the amount of wear and can be
readily determined by means of a toolmaker’s microscope. Figure 2.7 shows
a typical graph of the progress of flank wear land width, VB, with time or
distance cut for a given cutting speed. The curve can be divided into three
regions:

Figure 2.7: Flank wear.
1. The region AB where the sharp cutting edge is quickly broken down
and a finite wear land is established.
2. The region BC where wear progresses at a uniform rate.
3. The region CD where wear occurs at a gradually increasing rate. Region

CD is thought to indicate the region where the wear of the cutting tool
has become sensitive to the increased tool temperature caused by the
presence of a wear land of such large proportions. Clearly in practice,
it is advisable to regrind or dispose of the tool before wear enters the
last region where rapid breakdown occurs.
Tool life criteria

A tool life criterion is defined as a predetermined threshold value of a tool-
wear measure or the occurrence of a phenomenon. In practical machining
operations the wear of the face and flank of the cutting tool is not uniform
along the cutting edge. Therefore, it is necessary to specify the locations and
degree of the wear when deciding on the amount of wear allowable before
regrinding or disposal of the tool. The amount of cratering varies along the
active cutting edge, and the crater depth and is measured at the deepest
point of the crater. It can be seen that flank wear is usually greatest at the
extremities of the active cutting edge. Contributions at the corner tend to be

more severe than those in the central part of the active cutting edge because
of the complicated flow of the chip material in that region.
Tool Life
Tool life is defined as the cutting time required to reach a tool-life criterion.
It can also be defined as the time spent by tool in the cutting action before
regrinding. The most significant factor affecting tool life is the cutting speed,
but other machining parameters have been found to have a secondary effect
on tool life. In studying the optimization of machining processes, it is nec-
essary therefore to know the relationship between tool life and cutting speed
for the conditions under examination. Early work on this subject was carried
out by Taylor, who produced an empirical equation that can be written as
follows:
V Tn = C
where,
V= cutting speed of tool (Cutting Speed unit in m/min)
T= tool life in minutes
n= exponent or index, which is depends on the tool work
= 0.1 to 0.2 for high speed Steel tool
= 0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tool
= 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tool and
C = Constant
This relationship between cutting speed and tool Life is known as Taylor’s
formula (Cutting Speed formula).

Factors affecting tool life

The parameters affecting the tool life are,
1. Tool materials
2. Tool geometry
3. Cutting speed
4. Feed and Depth of cut
5. Work piece materials
6. Cutting fluids
Tool materials
By using ideal tool material to remove the maximum volume of material at all
cutting speed. The physical and chemical property of cutting tool material
will be influence the life of tool. High speed steel cutting tool is more durable
of machining than carbon steel tool. But carbide tools have more life than
high speed tool.
Tool geometry
The tool at large rake angle will have the reduced cross section and hence
weaken of tool. Therefore, the tool reduce the sufficient amount of heat
absorbing. So, there must be correct rack angle to maintain a long tool life.
The tool optimum rake angle for maximum life of tool lie between -5 degree
to + 10 degree by machining of austenitic steel using carbide tool. If tool
relief angle is more, the friction will be less of tool on machining. But, more
relief angle reduces the life of tool because the strength will be decreased.
The optimum relief angle angle must be in between 12 degree to 15 degree.
Similarly, the side cutting edge angle is high to give long life of tool. The
side cutting edge angle for optimum level must between 25 degree and 30
degrees. Increase in nose radius improves the life of tool. Since, the stress
concentration is lesser under using greater nose radius. By using proper end
cutting edge angle improves the surface finish and rigidity for an equivalent
cutting speed. The optimum level of end cutting edge in between 4 degree
to 10 degree.

Cutting speed
Cutting speed is has a greater influence on tool life. When the cutting speed
increase, the cutting temperature of machining will be increased. So, the
crater wear and tool flank wear will be occur. With this cutting conditions,
the tool speed increase, the tool life will be decreased. If the tool permit
higher cutting speed for same life, tool having better cutting property and
more productive.
The following is the relationship between cutting speed and tool Life is
known as Taylor’s formula (Cutting Speed formula).
V Tn = C
where,
V= Cutting speed of tool (Cutting Speed unit in m/min)
T= tool life in minutes
n= exponent or index, which is depends on the tool work
= 0.1 to 0.2 for high speed Steel tool
= 0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tool
= 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tool and
C = Constant
Feed and Depth of cut

The cutting tool life is influenced by the amount of metal removed by per
minute. When using good cut feed, then the area of chip pass over the tool
face is greater than coarse feed of metal removal volume. It is able to balance
two opposing influence to obtained optimum feed rate.
The feed and depth of cutting effects the tool life. The formula is followed
by,
257
V = m/min
T 0.19 × f 0.36 × t0.08
where,
V= cutting speed of tool
T= tool life
f= feed in mm per minute

t= depth of cut in mm
The above relationship obtained, when low carbon steel material ma-
chined by use of cemented carbide steel tool. Finally, wherever the feed and
depth rate increases the life of tool will be increased.
Work piece materials

The tool life also depends upon microstructure of work material. Generally,
the tool life is more than as compared to work piece by means of machining
of soft material than hard metal like alloy steel and cast iron.
Cutting fluids
Heat is produced during the metal cutting process, it is carried out from the
tool and workpiece interface by means of cutting fluid. The fluid reduces the
friction at chip tool interface and increases the life of tool.
Heat generation in metal cutting
Figure 2.8: Heat generation during metal cutting.
When a material is deformed elastically, the energy required for the op-
eration is stored in the material as strain energy, and no heat is generated.

However, when a material is deformed plastically, most of the energy used is

converted into heat. In metal cutting the material is subjected to extremely
high strains, and the elastic deformation forms a very small proportion of the
total deformation; therefore, it may be assumed that all the energy is con-
verted into heat. Conversion of energy into heat occurs in the two principal
regions of plastic deformation (fig.2.8): the shear zone, or primary defor-
mation zone, AB and the secondary deformation zone BC. If, as in most
practical circumstances, the cutting tool is not perfectly sharp, a third heat
source BD, tertiary heat zone would be present due to friction between the
tool and the new workpiece surface. However, unless the tool is severely worn,
this heat source would be small and is neglected in the present analysis.
Temperature distribution in metal cutting
Figure 2.9: Temperature distribution on the chip and tool during metal
cutting.
Figure 2.9 shows an experimentally determined temperature distribution

in the workpiece and the chip during orthogonal metal cutting. This is a
typical temperature distribution for orthogonal chip formation. As a point

X in the material, which is moving toward the cutting tool, approaches and
passes through the primary deformation zone, it is heated until it leaves
the zone and is carried away within the chip. Point Y, however, passes
through both deformation zones, and it is heated until it has left the region
of secondary deformation. It is then cooled as the heat is conducted into the
body of the chip, and eventually the chip achieves a uniform temperature
throughout. Thus the maximum temperature occurs along the tool face some
distance from the cutting edge. Point Z, which remains in the workpiece, is
heated by the conduction of heat from the primary deformation zone. Some
heat is conducted from the secondary deformation zone into the body of the
tool. Thus, Because the chip material near the tool face is flowing rapidly, it
has a much greater capacity for the removal of heat than the tool.
Measurement of cutting temperature

The different methods of measuring the cutting temperature are,
1. Work tool thermocouple
2. Direct thermocouple measurements
3. Radiation methods
Work tool thermocouple

The widely used to study cutting temperatures is the work tool thermocou-
ple technique. In this technique the electromotive force (emf) generated at
the junction between the workpiece and tool is taken as a measure of the
temperatures in this region. A typical work-tool thermocouple arrangement
on a lathe is shown in Figure 2.10. It is important when using this tech-
nique to insulate the thermocouple circuit from the machine and to use the
same circuit when calibrating the thermocouple. It may be assumed that
the reading given by this method is an indication of the mean temperature
along the chip tool interface. This technique has been used extensively in
the past to investigate the effects of changes in cutting conditions on cut-
ting temperatures. However, the work tool thermocouple method is limited
because it gives no indication of the distribution of temperature along the
tool rake face. There are a number of sources of error in using the work-tool

Figure 2.10: Temperature measurement by Work tool thermocouple.
thermocouple. The tool and work materials are not ideal elements for a ther-
mocouple. Consequently, the emf tends to be low and the emf/temperature
calibration nonlinear.
Direct thermocouple
Direct thermocouple measurements can be made during cutting as shown
in figure 2.11. In this method, the rig was first run without cutting, and
the reading on the millivoltmeter resulting from the rubbing action of the
constantan wire on the workpiece was noted. This reading was subsequently
subtracted from the readings taken while cutting was in progress. With
this method, the temperatures at selected points around the end face of the
tubular workpiece were measured and then used to calculate the proportion
of the shear zone heat conducted into the workpiece. Direct measurement of
temperatures can be made by making a hole in the tool close to the cutting
edge and inserting a thermocouple to measure the temperature at a particular
position. This can then be repeated with holes in various positions to give
an estimate of the temperature distributions. Significant errors may occur
where the temperature gradients are steep, as the holes for the thermocouples
may cover a considerable range of temperature. In addition the presence of
the holes may distort the heat flow and temperature fields in the tool.

Figure 2.11: Temperature measurement by using Direct thermocouple.
Radiation methods
When the tool workpiece area can be observed directly, cameras and film
sensitive to infrared radiation can be used to determine temperature distri-
butions. In this technique the temperature distribution was photographed
simultaneously with the cutting operation using an infrared sensitive plate,
enabling the optical density of the plate to be calibrated against tempera-
ture. The workpiece was preheated because of the relatively low sensitivity
of the infrared photographic plates available at that time. Improvements in
infrared-sensitive films and development of thermal imaging video cameras
now make it possible to determine temperature distributions for workpieces
at room temperature. Modern miniature electronic photo detectors arranged
in a focal plane array system enable temperature distributions to be deter-
mined with resolutions as low as 5 µm.

Cutting fluids
Cutting fluids are fluids being used to aid the metal cutting process.
Purpose of cutting fluids

1. Reduce friction
2. Cool tool and work piece
3. Lubrication
4. Improve surface finish
5. Carry away the chips
Reduce friction
The friction at the work piece and tool interface is to be removed/ reduced.
The cutting fluids helps in removing this heat. This increases the tool life
and the surface finish of the work piece. Also helps in less power requirement
for the operation.
Cool tool and work piece

Cooling of the tool and work piece is required to prevent any metallurgical
damage. The cutting fluids reduces the heat at the cutting zone. This helps
in reducing the friction, less power requirement for the operation, increases
the tool life and also improve the surface finish of the work piece.
Lubrication
The lubricating property of the cutting fluids helps in less heat generation
at the tool and work piece cutting zone. This will cut the metal at lesser
temperature enhancing the tool life and surface finish of the work piece.
Improve surface finish

Lesser heat generation at the cutting zone helps to improve the surface finish
of the work piece.

Carry away the chips

The flow of cutting fluid will carry away the chips from the cutting zone.
Properties of cutting fluids

1. High heat absorption
2. High flash point
3. Good lubrication properties
4. Odorless
5. Harmless
6. Neutral
7. Transparency
8. Low Viscosity
9. Low price
10. Stability
Choice of cutting fluids

1. Type of operation
2. Rate of metal removal
3. Material of work piece and tool
4. Surface finish requirement
5. Cost of cutting fluids

Types of cutting fluids

1. Water
2. Soluble oils
3. Straight oils
4. Mixed oils
5. Chemical additive oils
6. Solid lubricants
Water
Water due its corrosiveness, is mixed with alkali or salts can be sometimes
used as coolant.
Soluble oils
Soluble oils are emulsions composed of water, soap and mineral oils. Soap
is an emulsifying agent, which break the oil into minute particles to dis-
perse them through the water. The water increases the cooling effect and oil
provides the lubricating properties.
Straight oils
The straight oils are either straight mineral oils or straight fatty oils. Straight
mineral oil is composed of petroleum oils, kerosene and mineral oils. Whereas,
straight fatty oils have animal vegetable or synthetic oil. They have both
cooling and lubricating properties and are used in light machining operations.
Mixed oils
Mixed oils is a combination of straight mineral and straight fatty oil, to take
the advantage of excellent cooling and lubricating properties.

Chemical additive oils

Chemical additive oils are mixture of either straight oil or mixed oil with
sulphur or chlorine. Sulphur or chlorine are used to increase the cooling and
lubricating properties. These are used in machining low carbon steels.
Solid lubricants
Solid lubricants such as waxes or bar soaps are sometimes used to provide
lubricating effect during metal cutting process.

Chapter 3
Machine tools
Lathe
Types of Lathe
1. Speed lathe
2. Engine lathe
3. Centre lathe
4. Bench lathe
5. Tool room lathe
6. Capstan and Turret lathe
7. Automatic lathe
8. Special purpose lathe
Specification of a Lathe
1. Height of the centres
2. The swing diameter over the bed
3. Length between the centres
31
Figure 3.1: Center Lathe.
4. Swing diameter over the carriage
5. Maximum bar diameter
6. Length of the bed
Capstan and Turret Lathes

The turret lathe has essentially the same parts as the engine lathe except the
turret and complex mechanism incorporated in it for making it suitable for
mass production work.
Construction of Capstan Lathe

The different parts of a Capstan lathe are
Lathe Bed
This bed is made by casting. All other parts of lathe machine are bolted
on it. Small beds are made by casting directly and if big bed is to be made

Figure 3.2: A Capstan Lathe.
Figure 3.3: A Capstan Lathe.
then two beds are made through casting and these two beds are joined using
bolts. This bed is made up of cast iron.

Headstock
Head Stock is present over the bed. It is a chamber with all the driving
mechanisms inside it. This driving mechanism can contain gears, pulleys or
motors.
Cross-slide tool post

It is present over the saddle. There are two tool post which can also move
cross i.e. in direction perpendicular to the direction of movement of saddle.
Hexagonal Turret
It is present over the ram. It has six faces which can hold six different types
of machining tools for various operations.
Saddle for auxiliary slide

This saddle can move left and right. It carries ram and hexagonal tool head
with it. It is used to take the ram and hexagonal tool head near the work
piece.
Feed rod
The carriage moves over this feed rod. This feed rod has threads.
Saddle for cross-slide

This saddle slides along the bed way and support the cross-slide, compound
rest and tool post.
Two legs support the complete structure of the lathe. Above the legs
bed is present. There is a feed rod present above the bed over which the
saddle of tool post and saddle of hexagonal tool head moves. On the left
side head stock is present which contains all the driving mechanisms inside
it. The head stock has a spindle at the end of which a chuck is attached
which rotates with the spindle. Apart from this, two saddle are present over
the feed rod. One saddle has two tool post and other saddle has a ram
over which the hexagonal tool head is present. The hexagonal tool head has
6 faces and 6 different machining tools can be attached to this hexagonal
tool head for different operations. Instead of tail stock, a hexagonal tool

head is used in capstan lathe. It is a lightweight machine. Feed is provided

to the tool by moving the ram. Because of no saddle displacement, the
movement of the turret tool head in the longitudinal direction of the bed
is small along the ram. This capstan lathe is used for working on shorter
workpieces because of limited ram movement. Its operation is fast because
of lighter in constructions.
Turret Lathe
A turret lathe is a semi-automatic lathe machine that is used for repetitive
production of lathe parts. It is advanced than the lathe machine as it has
a hexagonal turret. Hexagonal turret is an indexable tool holder which can
hold six tools at a time. With the help of hexagonal turret, multiple cutting
operations can be performed each with different cutting tool in rapid succes-
sion without the need to replace or install and uninstall the tool in the lathe
machine. In turret lathe, the tool can be switched automatically resulting in
faster and more efficient production processes. The turret lathe can change
to a different cutting tool in a few seconds but in a traditional lathe, it can
take minutes for a human worker to manually change the cutting tool. When
many operations are to be performed and the production has to be increased,
the turret lathe is used
Construction of Turret Lathe

The different parts of a Turret lathe are
Lathe Bed
This bed is made by casting. All other parts of lathe machine are bolted
on it. Small beds are made by casting directly and if big bed is to be made
then two beds are made through casting and these two beds are joined using
bolts. This bed is made up of cast iron.
Headstock
All the gearing mechanism or driving mechanism of this lathe machine is
present inside the headstock. It has gears, pulleys, or motor is present based
on the driving mechanism used in the lathe.

Figure 3.4: A Turret Lathe.
Figure 3.5: A Turret Lathe.
Tool Post
The tool post is used to hold the tool in the turret lathe machine. It is
particularly used to hold single point cutting tool. This tool post can move
horizontally in the left or right directions. It can also move across the bed
using the cross-slide. It can be moved using hand wheel or can be moved
automatically.

Hexagonal Turret
A hexagonal turret is used to hold different tools for different operations of

the work piece. It is called a hexagonal turret because 6 tools can be held
simultaneously in it. It is directly mounted on the saddle in this lathe. This
hexagonal turret is also present in the capstan lathe but a ram is present
between the saddle and the hexagonal turret.
Turret Saddle
Saddle can move left and right over the guideways. There are two saddles
present in this turret lathe. One saddle is to carry the tool post and another
saddle is to carry the hexagonal turret.
Feed Rod
Feed Rod provides precise longitudinal movement to the carriage. The car-
riage moves over the feed rod and the guideways. It is named as feed rod
because it provides movement to the carriage.
Saddle for cross-slide
Cross Slide can move across the bed perpendicular to the direction of the
movement of saddle. This cross slide is present between the tool post and
saddle in the turret lathe.
Differences between Centre lathes and Capstan & Tur-

ret lathes
1. Semiautomatic
2. Possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place

of tailstock
3. Holds large number of cutting tools; upto four in indexable tool post
on the front slide, one in the rear slide and upto six in the turret (if
hexagonal) as indicated in the schematic diagrams.

4. More productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of

the tools in addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and
rapid speed change.
5. Enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement,

effort and attention of the operator for pre-setting of work?speed and
feed rate and length of travel of the cutting tools
6. Relatively costlier
7. Suitable and economically viable for batch production or small produc-

tion
Differences between Capstan and Turret lathe

1. Turret lathes are relatively more robust and heavy duty machines
2. Capstan lathes generally deal with short or long rod type blanks held
in collet, whereas turret lathes mostly work on chucking type jobs held
in the quick acting chucks
3. In capstan lathe, the turret travels with limited stroke length within a
saddle type guide block, called auxiliary bed, which is clamped on the
main bed whereas in turret lathe, the heavy turret being mounted on
the saddle which directly slides with larger stroke length on the main
bed
4. One additional guide rod or pilot bar is provided on the headstock of

the turret lathes to ensure rigid axial travel of the turret head
5. External screw threads are cut in capstan lathe, if required, using a self
opening die being mounted in one face of the turret, whereas in turret
lathes external threads are generally cut, if required, by a single point
or multipoint chasing tool.

Work holding devices on Capstan and Turret lathe

In a capstan or turret lathe there is no dead centre to support the work at
the other end. Work is therefore supported at the spindle end by the help of
chucks and fixtures.
The usual methods of holding work in capstan or turret lathe are:
1. Jaw chucks
(a) Self Centering chuck

(b) Independent chuck
(c) Combination chuck
(d) Air operated chuck
2. Collet chucks
(a) Push out type

(b) Draw in type
(c) Dead length type
Jaw Chucks
The jaw chucks are used in capstan lathes having two, three or four jaws
depending upon the shape of the work. The jaw chucks are used to support
odd sized jobs or jobs having large diameters which cannot be introduced
through the headstock spindle and gripped by collet chucks.
Self Centering Chuck

It is also known as universal or three jaw chuck. All the jaws may be made
to slide simultaneously by an equal amount within the slots provided on
the body by rotating any one of the three pinions which meshes with the
teeth cut on the underside of the scroll disc. The scroll disc having a spiral
groove cut on the top face meshes with the teeth on the jaws. When the
disc is made to rotate by any one of the pinions, all the three jaws move
backward or forward by equal amount. Suitable for gripping larger diameter
bars, circular castings, forgings, etc.

Figure 3.6: A Three Jaw chuck.
Figure 3.7: A Three Jaw chuck.
Four Jaw Independent Chuck

This chuck has four jaws which may be made to slide within the slots provided
in the body of the chuck It is used for gripping different sizes of workpiece
Each jaw may be moved independently by rotating the screw which meshes
with the teeth cut on the underside of the jaw. Each jaw can be operated
independently and is reversible.
Combination Chuck
It is used to hold a variety of work following the principle of self centering
and independent jaw chuck. It may be used both as a self centering and an
independent chuck to take advantage of both type The jaws may be operated

Figure 3.8: A Four Jaws chuck.
Figure 3.9: A Combination chuck.
individually by separate screws or simultaneously by scroll disc.
Air Operated Chuck

Heavy duty turret lathes and capstan lathes engaged in mass production of
work are equipped with air operated chuck for certain distinct advantages.
The chuck grips the work quickly and is capable of taking powerful grip with
least manual exertion. The chucks are operated by air at pressure of 5.5
kg/cm2 to 7 kg/cm2

Figure 3.10: Air Operated chuck.
Soft Jaws
To ensure the long life , chuck jaws are normally hardened. For gripping
certain classes of work the jaw chuck are made soft steel. Certain jobs which
have machined previously are required to be gripped on chuck jaws on the
machined surface for subsequent operations. The soft jaws prevent any dam-
age to the machined surfaces by the serration of the jaws. For gripping
a very irregular shaped work, soft jaws are used which grip the contoured
profile efficiently. Tapered components are also used suitably held by soft
jaws.
Collet Chuck
The collet chucks are used for gripping bars introduced through the headstock
spindle of capstan or turret lathe and is one of the most common method of
holding work. They are much more suitable than a self centering chuck in
mass production work due to its quickness in its action and accurate setting.
The chucks may be operated by hand or by power. Different sizes of spring
collets, square, hexagonal, round or any other shaped bore are fitted in the
chuck body for holding different sizes of bar having different sections. Collet
grips the work by spring action of its split jaws. The collets classified by the
method used to close the jaws on the work.

Figure 3.11: Collets.
Figure 3.12: Collet chuck.
Push Out Type

To grip the work, the tapered portion of spring collet is pushed into the mat-
ing taper of the chuck. There is a tendency of the bar to be pushed slightly
outward when the collet is pushed into the chuck body for gripping. If the
bar is held against a stop bar fitted on the the turret head, this slight outward
movement of the bar ensures accurate setting of the length of machining.
Draw In Type
To grip the work, the tapered portion of the spring collet is pushed into the
mating taper of the chuck which causes the split end of the collet to close
in and grip the bar. The machining length of the bar in this type of chuck

Figure 3.13: Push out type collet chuck.
cannot be accurately set as the collet while closing will draw the bar slightly
inward towards the spindle.
Figure 3.14: Draw In type collet chuck.

Figure 3.15: Dead length type collet chuck.
Dead Length Type
For accurate positioning of the bar, both the push out and draw in type collet
present some error due to the movement of the bar along with the collet while
gripping. The difficulty is removed by using a stationary collet on the bar.
A sliding sleeve closes upon the tapered collet which is prevented from any
end movement by the shoulder stop.
Tool holding devices on Capstan and Turret lathe

Wide variety of work performed in a capstan or turret lathe in mass produc-
tion necessitated designing of many different types of tool holders for holding
tools for typical operations. The tool holders may be mounted on turret faces
or on cross-slide tool post and may be used for holding tools for bar and chuck
work. Certain tool holders are used for holding tools for both bar and chuck
work while box tools are particularly adapted. In bar work. In capstan or
turret lathe practice the whole assembly of holder and its tool is designated
according to the type of the holder. Thus a slide tool holder with the tool
mounted in it is called a slide tool and a knee tool holder with the tool fitted
into it is called a knee tool. Special tool holders are also sometimes designed
for special purposes. The important and widely used tool holders are listed

Figure 3.16: A Turret - tool holding device.
below :
1. Straight cutter holder
2. Plain or adjustable angle cutter holder
3. Multiple cutter holder
4. Offset cutter holder
5. Combination tool holder or multiple turning head
6. Slide tool holder
7. Knee tool holder
8. Drill holder
9. Boring bar holder or extension holder or flanged tool holder
10. Reamer holder
11. Recessing tool holder
12. Form tool holder : (a) straight, (b) circular
13. Tap holder

14. Die holder
15. Balanced tool holder (box tool)
16. V-steady box tool holder
17. Roller steady box tool holder
18. Bar ending tool holder
19. Knurling tool holder
Straight cutter holder

This is a simple tool holder constructed to take standard section tool bits.
The shank of holder can be mounted directly into the hole of the turret face
or into a hole of a multiple turning head. In this type of holder, the tool is
held perpendicular to the shank axis. The tool is gripped the holder by three
set screws, Different operations like turning., facing, boring, counter boring,
chamfering. etc. can be performed by holding tools in the holder.
Figure 3.17: Straight cutter holder.
Adjustable or Plain angle cutter holder

The holder has an angular slot cut into the body into which the tool is fitted.
The front face of the holder is also bevelled. This type of setting of the tool
and construction of the holder body allows the tool to maintain a permanent
clearance with the work and permits turning or boring operations close to
the chuck jaws or upto a shoulder without any interference. In plain type
of holder, the setting of the cutting edge relative to the work is effected by

opening the set screws and then adjusting the tools by hand. In adjustable
type of holder, the accurate setting of the tool can be performed by rotating
a micrometer screw.
Figure 3.18: Adjustable angle cutter holder.
Multiple cutter holder

The multiple cutter holder can accommodate double tools in its body. This
feature enables turning of two different diameters simultaneously. Turning
and boring tools or turning and facing tools can also be set in the holder.
Offset cutter holder

In this type of holder, the holder body is made offset with the shank axis.
Larger diameter of work may be turned or bored by this type of holder.
Combination tool holder or multiple turning head

Multiple turning heads are used for holding straight, angular, multiple or
offset cutter holders, boring bars, etc. for various turning and boring op-
erations, so that it may be possible to undertake a number of operations
simultaneously. The tools are set at different positions on the work surface
by inserting the shank of tool holders in different holes of the multiple head
body, and they are secured to it by tightening separate set screws. A boring
bar is held at the central hole of the head which is aligned with, the axis of

Figure 3.19: Multiple cutter holder.
Figure 3.20: Offset cutter holder.
the supporting flange. The head is supported on the turret face by tightening
four bolts passing through the holes of the flange.
Overhead pilot bar
To ensure utmost rigidity to the multiple turning head which supports differ-
ent tools and holders, a pilot bar is clamped on the headstock casting which

Figure 3.21: Combination tool holder.
passes through the topmost hole of the turning head. As the tool approaches
the work and cutting action continues, the pilot bar lends additional sup-
port to the tool and prevents any vibration or deflection. This construction
permits machining with deeper cuts and heavier feeds.
Slide tool holder

The slide tool holder is one of the most important tool support for mass pro-
duction work in capstan or turret lathes for small or medium sized parts. The
holder is very much useful for rough and finish boring, recessing, grooving,
facing etc. The holder consists of a vertical base on which a slide is fitted.
The slide may be adjusted up or down accurately by rotating a hand wheel
provided with a micrometer dial. The rotation of the hand wheel causes
a screw to be rotated in a fixed but fitted on the base and imparts verti-
cal movement to the slide. Two holes are provided on the sliding unit for
holding tools. The lower hole when aligned with the lathe axis is used for
holding boring bars, drills, reamers, etc . The upper hole while accommo-
dates a turning tool holder. After necessary adjustments the slide is clamped
to the base by a clamping lever for turning it boring operations. For facing
or recessing operations the crosswise movement of the tool is obtained in the
vertical plane. The slide is equipped with two adjustable stops for facing or
similar operations in order to be able to duplicate the work piece. The older
base is clamped directly on the turret face by studs.

Figure 3.22: Slide tool holder.
Knee tool holder

The knee tool holders are useful for simultaneous turning and boring or
turning and drilling operations. The knee holder is bolted direct on the
turret face. The axis of the lower hole coincides with a lathe axis and is used
for holding boring bars, drills, etc.. The turning tool holder is fittest into
the hole of an adjustable block which slides in the knee tool holder body.
The adjustment of the turning tool holder may be effected either by hand or
rotating a calibrated micrometer screw. A guide bush is provided at the top
of the holder for running of the pilot bar.
Figure 3.23: Knee tool holder.

Drill holder
The twist drills having Morse taper shanks are usually held in a socket which
is parallel outside and tapered inside. This sockets introduced in the bracket
of a flange tool holder and clamped to it by set screws.
Boring bar holder

This holder is also called extension holder or flange tool holder. The holders
are intended for holding drills, reamers, boring bars, etc. The flanged end of
the holder is bolted direct to the face of the turret and is accurately centered
by means of a circular boss extending from the fanged end and fitting into
the turret face bore. The holder can also be used to extend the length of
shanked tools or bars by fitting into the bore of the holder and then adjusting
its length. This arrangement is particularly useful in machining longer work
in capstan lathes where the length of travel of the turret is short.
Reamer holder
The standard practice of holding reamers in capstan or turret lathe is in some
form of floating holder which permits some amount of end movement of the
reamer to align itself with the work.
Knurling tool holder

A knurling tool holder may be mounted on the turret face or on the toll
posts of the cross-slide. The holder with knurls mounted on the cross slide
can perform knurling operation on any diameter work. The position of knurls
can be adjusted in a vertical plane to accommodate different diameters of
work, while the relative angle between them can also be varied to produce
different patterns of knurled surface.
Recessing tool holder

It is provided with an adjustable slide for producing a recess inside as bore.
The tool holder is clamped directly on the face of the turret. Mounted on
the short slide, there is a cylindrical extension having a bore into which the
round shank of a recessing tool is fitted and clamped. The adjustable slide
with the tool may be moved perpendicular to the lathe axis by turning a

lever or a hand wheel. While recessing, the tool is fed into the bore to the
required distance being guided by the stop of the turret, and then the tool is
fed perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work by the adjustable slide
to produce a recess. The tool is guided to the required depth of the recess
by a stop mounted on the holder slide.
Form tool holder

Two sets of form tool holder have been designed for holding straight and
circular form cutters. The usual procedure of holding a form tool holder
is on the cross-slide. In the straight form tool holder, the tool is mounted
on a dovetail slide and the height of the cutting edge may be adjusted by
moving the tool within the slide. The height of the circular form tool may
be adjusted by rotating the circular cutter.
Tap holder
Taps are usually used for cutting internal threads. They are mounted on tap
holders clamped on the turret face. For holding taps of finer sizes, manually
gripped tap holders are used. The tap is prevented from rotation by the hand
pressure given to the knurled sleeve which grips the tap with the holder. The
pressure on the sleeve can be released when the tap gets stuck up or reaches
the end of the job. Taps maybe rotated in a clutch driven tap holders.
Slipping occurs when the tap gets stuck up. A combination tap or die holder
of self releasing type may also be used.
Die holder
Dies are used for cutting external threads. Dies may be fitted in: 1. solid or
non-releasing type of holders, 2. releasing type of holders, 3. collapsible or
self opening type of holders.
Solid or non- releasing type of die holders are used for finer threads in
capstan lathes. The cutting action is purely sensitive and depends upon the
skill of the operator.
Releasing type of die holders are used for releasing the dies after cutting
threads through the required length of cut. The dies are fitted within the
sleeve and clamped to it by set screws. The shank of the die head fitted on
the turret face prevents the sleeve from rotating by the help of dog clutch or
projecting pins fitting into the groove of the sleeve body as the dies feed into

the work. As the die progresses on the rotating work, the thread is produced.
At the end of cutting thread to the desired length, the turret stop prevents
any further movement of the shank, but the sleeve holding the dies continues
to screw forward due to the rotation of the work. This forward movement
of the sleeve relative to the shank clears the dog clutch from engagement
and the sleeve with the dies rotates along with the work without cutting any
further threads. To remove the dies, the rotation of the work is reversed and
the sleeve starts rotating in the same direction as the spindle. Immediately
a ball operated clutch engages with the shank body preventing the dies from
rotating, and the die head simply screws itself off the job. The ball clutch
reversal system works as follows: when the sleeve rotates freely with the work
at the end of the cut, the ball lies in the ball pocket of the shank body. When
the work is reversed the ball locks the shank body with sleeve arresting its
further rotation with the work. This type of die holder can also be used to
hold a tap by using a tap adapter.
The self opening type die holders is used for cutting exact length of the
thread, and where quick removal of die head is necessary to improve the
production. When desired length of the thread has been cut, the die or
chaser spring is opened. This allows clearing of the die from the threads and
permitting the die holder to be drawn out without stopping or reversing the
spindle rotation.

Chapter 4
Unit -2
Grinding, Lapping and Honing
Grinding
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed on workpiece to have good
and smooth quality surfaces. Grinding removes very little amount of work-
piece material in the range of 0.25 to 0.5 mm only.
Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel essentially consists of large number of abrasive particles,
called grains, held a suitable agent called the bond. It is a multi point
cutting tool.
Bonds
Six principal types of bonds are used for grinding wheels namely vitrified,
silicate, shellac, resinoid, rubber and oxychloride.
Vitrified bonding process

Vitrified wheels are made by bonding clay to glass like consistency with
abrasive grains. The clay and abrasive grains are thoroughly mix together
55
with sufficient water to make the mixture uniform. The fluid mixture is then
poured into moulds and allowed to dry. When it has dried to a point where
it can be handled, the material is cut and trimmed to more perfect size and
shape. It is then heated or burnt for increasing the hardness. Vitrified bond
gives a wheel good strength as well as porosity to allow high stock removal
with cool cutting. A vitrified bonded wheel is denoted by letter V.
Silicate bonding process

Silicate bonding wheels are made by mixing abrasive grains with silicate of
soda or water glass. The mixture is packed into moulds allowed to dry.
The moulded shapes are then backed up in the furnace at a temperature of
2600 C for several days. The silicate bond releases the abrasive grains more
readily than the vitrified bond, the abrasives grains are not annealed as in
the vitrified process. A silicate bonded wheel is denoted by letter S.
Shellac bonding process

Shellac bonded wheels are also known as elastic bonded wheels. In this
process, the abrasives and shellac are mixed in heated containers and then
rolled or pressed in heated moulds. Later the shapes are baked for few hours
at a temperature of 1500 C. The elasticity of this bond is greater than in
other types and it has considerable strength. It is not intended for heavy
duty. A shellac bonded wheels are denoted by letter E.
Resinoid bonding process

Resinoid wheels are produced by mixing abrasives grains with synthetic resins
and other compounds. The mixture is placed in moulds and heated at about
2000 C. At this temperature, the resin sets and hold the abrasive grains and
form the shape of a wheel. Resinoid wheels can remove the stock very rapidly
and are useful for precision grinding cams and rolls requiring high finish. A
Resinoid bonded wheel is denoted by the letter B.
Rubber bonding process

Rubber bonded wheels are prepared by mixing abrasive grains with rubber
and sulphur. The mixture is rolled to sheets and later wheels are punched

out of the sheets on a punch press. Then the wheels are vulcanized. Rubber
bonded wheels are more resilient, less heat resistant and more dense than
resinoid bonded wheels. A rubber bonded wheels are denoted by the letter
R.
Oxychloride bonding process

This process consists of mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride of
magnesium. Oxychloride bonds are employed in making wheels and wheels
segments for use in disc grinding operations. The bond ensures a cool cutting
action. So grinding is best done dry. An oxychloride bonded wheels are
denoted by the letter O.
Abrasives
An abrasive is a hard substance embedded in a grinding wheel. This hard
substance cut the workpiece material during grinding process. The abrasive
may be of
1. Natural abrasive
2. Artificial abrasive
Natural
The natural abrasives include sandstone or solid quartz, emery, corundum,
and diamond.
Sandstone: Sandstone or solid quartz is one of the naturally available abra-
sives from which grinding wheels are made.
Emery: Emery is natural aluminium oxide. It contains about 60% alumina
and remaining consists of iron oxide oxide and other metals.
Corundum: Corundum is a natural aluminium oxide. It contains 75% to
95% aluminium oxide. Both emery and corundum have a greater hardness
and better abrasive action than quartz.
Diamonds: Diamonds of less than gem quality are crushed to produce abra-
sive grains for making grinding wheels to grind hard materials such as ce-
mented carbide.

Artificial abrasive
Artificial abrasives are manufactured abrasives, which include silicon carbide
and aluminium oxide. Silicon carbide (SiC) abrasive is manufactured from
56 parts of silicon sand, 34 parts of powdered coke, 2 parts of salt and 12
parts of saw dust in an electric furnace. The abrasive wheels are denoted
by letter S. There are two types of SiC abrasives. The green grit which
contains at least 97% SiC and the black grit which contains at least 95%
SiC. Silicon carbide follows the diamond in order of hardness, but it is not
as tough as aluminium oxide. It is used for grinding materials of low tensile
strength such as cemented carbides, stone and ceramic materials, grey cast
iron, brass, copper, aluminium, etc.
Aluminium oxide ( Al2 O3 ) grinding wheels are made by heating bauxite a
hydrated aluminium oxide clay containing silica, iron oxide, titanium oxide,
etc mixed with ground coke and iron in electric furnace. Aluminium oxide
is tough and not easily fractured, so it better for grinding materials of high
tensile strength such as, steels, high speed steels, iron and bronze. Aluminium
oxide wheels as denoted by letter A.
Mounting of grinding wheels

Mounting of grinding wheel is a process of fixing the grinding wheels on
the spindle of the grinding machine. Great care must be taken in mounting
the grinding wheels on the spindle because of the high cutting speeds of the
grinding wheels. The following are the procedure for mounting of grinding
wheels. Fig.4.1 shows diagram of a mounting of grinding wheel.
1. All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make

sure that they have not been damaged in transit, storage, etc. The
wheel must be first be subjected to the ringing test. Here the grinding
wheel is put on an arbor while it is subjected for slight hammer blows.
A clear ringing, vibrating sound must be heard, otherwise the wheel
may have cracks. This test is applicable to vitrified and silicate wheels.
Shellac and resinoid or rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
2. The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindle or locating
spigots. They should not be forced on.

Figure 4.1: Mounting of grinding wheel
3. The hole of the grinding wheels are mostly lined with lead. So the lead
liner bushes should not project beyond the side of the wheels.
4. There must be a flange on each side of the wheel. The mounting flanges
must be large enough to hold the wheel properly, at least the flange
diameter must be equal to the half of the grinding wheel diameter.
Both flanges should be of same diameter, other wise the wheel is under
a bending stress which is liable to cause fracture.
5. The sides of the wheel and the flanges which clamp them should be flat
and bear evenly all round.
6. All flanges must be relieved in the center so that the flanges contact the
wheel only with the annular clamping area. If they are not properly
relieved, the pressure of the flanges is concentrated on the sides of the
wheel near the hole, a condition which should be avoided.
7. Washers of compressible materials such as card board, leather, rubber,

etc. not over 1.5 mm thick should be fitted between the wheel and the
flanges. In this way any unevenness of the wheel surface is balanced
and a tight joint is obtained. The diameter of washers may be normally
equal to the diameter of the flanges.

8. The inner fixed flange should be keyed or otherwise fastened to the

spindle, where as the outer flange should have an easy sliding fit on the
spindle so that it can be adjust itself slightly to give a uniform bearing
on the wheel and the compressible washers.
9. The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue tightness
is unnecessary and undesirable as excessive clamping strain is liable to
damage the wheel.
10. The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the machine is
started for work.
After mounting the wheel, the grinding machine is started. The grinding
wheel should be allowed to idle for a period of about 10 to 15 minutes.
Grinding wheels must be dressed and true which are out of true before any
work can be started.
Dressing and truing of grinding wheels

After a grinding wheel has been mounted on the spindle and properly bal-
anced, two important tasks must be carried out before the wheel can be used:
truing and dressing of the wheel surface. Truing is the process of ensuring
that the radial and axial run out of the wheel surface is eliminated or mini-
mized. Dressing is the process of sharpening the wheel to expose active sharp
grits and shaping the wheel surface to the required shape for the particular
operation to be carried out. Redressing of the wheel will usually be required
during production as the wheel becomes dull or clogs. For most grinding
wheel applications, truing and dressing are carried out simultaneously, and
then whole processes is usually referred to as dressing. However, for metal-
lic bonding wheels, truing is done separately and is achieved by accurately
mounting the wheel so that any run out is minimized.
Dressing of grinding wheels

Dressing is the process of sharpening the wheel to expose active sharp grits
and shaping the wheel surface to the required shape for the particular op-
eration to be carried out. A number of different methods are available for
dressing of grinding wheels. The most common way to dress grinding wheels

is single point dressing, in which a diamond pointed dresser, consisting of a

diamond tip mounted onto a steel holder, is moved across the surface of the
wheel is rotating. This action removes grits from the surface of the wheel to
expose sharp active grains. The dressing tool is usually mounted at an angle
to the wheel surface as shown in the figure 4.2. The feed rate of the dressing
point across the wheel surface influences the subsequent cutting action of
the wheel; high feeds results in a coarsely dresses more suitable for rough
grinding and low feeds produce a finely dressed surface more appropriate for
finish grinding.
Figure 4.2: Dressing of grinding wheel with a single point tool.
Another common method used for wheel dressing is crush dressing. In

this method, a roller of hardened steel, tungsten carbide or other material
is pressed into the surface of the wheel while the wheel rotates slowly. The
dressing roller crushes grits from the surface and dresses the wheel. Crush
dressing is generally faster than single point dressing, but for form grinding
the shaped rollers required may be expensive to produce and the process is
then more suitable for large product.
Truing of grinding wheels

Truing is the process of ensuring that the radial and axial run out of the
wheel surface is eliminated or minimized. Truing is the process of changing
the shape of grinding wheel as it becomes worn from an original shape, owing

two the breaking away of the abrasive and bond. Truing and dressing are
done with the same tools, but for different purpose.
Lapping
Lapping is one of the abrasive processes used to produce finished (smoothly
accurate) surfaces. It gives a very high degree of accuracy and smoothness so
it is used in production of optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, measuring
gauges, surface plates and other measuring instruments. Lapping is regarded
as the oldest method of obtaining a fine finish. Material removal in lapping
usually ranges from 0.003 to 0.03 mm. Fig.4.3 shows diagram of a lapping
process. All the metal parts that are subjected to fatigue loading or those
surfaces that must be used to establish a seal with a mating part are often
lapped. The process of lapping uses a bonded abrasive tool and a fluid
suspension having very small sized abrasive particles vibrating between the
work piece and the lapping tool (laps). The fluid with abrasive particles is
referred as lapping compound. It appears as a chalky paste. Normally the
fluid used in lapping compound is oil or kerosene. The fluid should have
slightly lubricating properties to make the action of abrasive mild in nature.
Abrasives used in lapping compound are aluminium oxide and silicon carbide.
Cast iron, soft steel, copper, brass, hardened steel, etc. are mostly used lap
material. Lapping is performed either manually or by machine. Hand lapping
is done with abrasive powder as lapping medium, whereas machine lapping
is done either with abrasive powder or with bonded abrasive wheel.
Figure 4.3: Lapping process

Lapping Applications
Materials processed by lapping range from steel, cast iron to non-ferrous
metal like copper, brass and lead. Wooden parts, made of hard wood, can
also be finished using wood laps. Lapping removes material at a very slow
rate. So lapping is generally followed by accurate machining of work pieces.
Lapping is a costlier process so its applications are justified only when very
Lapping Tool Lapping Compound Lense Blank(Work Piece)high grade of
surface finishing is required.
Honing
Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries out a com-
bined rotary and reciprocating motion while the workpiece does not perform
any working motion. Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface,
such as automobile cylindrical walls. The honing head is not guided ex-
ternally but, instead, floats in the hole, being guided by the work surface.
Fig.4.4 shows the honing process and fig. 4.5 shows the picture of a honing
tool. The honing tool consists of a set of bonded abrasive sticks. The number
of sticks mounted on a tool depends on its circumferential area. Number of
sticks may be more than a dozen. The motion of a honing tool a combina-
tion of rotation and reciprocation (linear).The motion is managed in such a
way that a given point on the abrasive stick does not trace the same path
repeatedly. The honing speed may be kept up to 10 cms per sec. Lower
speeds are recommended for better surface finish. With conventional abra-
sive honing stick, several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish
on the work piece. However, with introduction of high performance diamond
and cBN grits it is now possible to perform the honing operation in just one
complete stroke. Advent of precisely engineered microcrystalline cBN grit
has enhanced the capability further. Honing stick with microcrystalline cBN
grit can maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent results over long
duration.
Manufacturing defects like slight eccentricity a way surface, light tapper,
less of circulating can also be corrected by honing process. The process of
honing is always supported by flow of coolants. It flashes away the small
chips and maintains a low and uniform temperature of tool and work.

Figure 4.4: Honing process
Figure 4.5: Honing tool
Honing Machines
Honing machines resembles with vertical drilling machines in their construc-
tion. Reciprocating motion of spindle is obtained by hydraulic means. The
rotary motion may be by hydraulic motor or by a gear train. Depending
upon the movement of spindle or hones a machine may be vertical honing
machine or horizontal honing machine. Generally vertical honing machines
are used. Horizontal honing machines are recommended for finishing internal
of long gun barrels.

Chapter 5
Unit -3
Metal forming
Metals are shaped to useful products such as sheets, pipes, rods, etc by two
ways namely,
1. Plastic deformation processes (Metal forming) : The volume and mass
of the metal are conserved and metal is displaced from one location to
other.
2. Metal removal ( Metal cutting) processes : Here metal is cut in order
to give the desired size and shape to the metal. Various metal cutting
machines (Lathe, milling machine, drilling machine, grinding machines
etc.,) are being
Plastic deformation processes/ Metal forming

processes
Classification
Metal forming processes can be classified as,
1. Bulk deformation processes, such as forging, extrusion, rolling, and
drawing.
2. Sheet metal forming processes, such as brake forming, deep drawing,
and stretch forming.
65
3. Hybrid forming processes such as drawing, ironing, bending and coin-

ing.
Metal forming processes can also be classified as,
1. Direct compression type processes

Eg: Rolling, Forging
2. Indirect compression processes

Eg: Drawing, Extrusion
3. Tension type processes

Eg: Stretch forming
4. Bending processes
5. Shearing processes
Metal forming
Metal forming is a plastic deformation process where in the metals are shaped
to desired shape and size by conserving the mass of the metal by the appli-
cation of a force( tensile, compression, etc).
Examples are forging, rolling, drawing, extrusion, etc.
Temperatures in metal working

Forming processes are carried out in hot working or cold working conditions.
Hot working
Hot working is defined as deformation under conditions of temperature and
strain rate such that recovery processes take place simultaneously with defor-
mation. In hot working, the strain hardening and distorted grain structure
are rapidly eliminated by formation of new strain free grains as result of re-
cystallization. Blow holes and porosity are eliminated by welding together
of these cavities and coarse columnar grains of the casting are broken down
and refined into smaller equiaxed recrystallised grains. These changes results

Figure 5.1: Plastic deformation processes
in an increase in ductility and toughness and decrease of hardness of metal.

Hot working occurs at a constant flow stress because the flow stress decreases

with increase in temperature. The energy required for deformation in hot

working are generally less compared to cold working. Hot working is usu-
ally carried out at temperatures above 0.6Tm and at high strain rates. The
lower temperature limit for hot working is the lowest temperature at which
the rate of recrystallisation is rapid enough to eliminate strain hardening in
the time when the metal is at temperature. The upper limit of temperature
is determined by the temperature at which either melting or excessive ox-
idation occurs. Usually maximum temperature of working is 2000 C below
the melting point of the metal. Fig. 5.2 shows the changes in ductility and
strength of material due to hot working.
However, there are certain disadvantages with hot working. Since high
temperatures of working are involved, surface reactions between the metal
and furnace atmosphere becomes a problem. Most of the hot working are
carried out in air, considerable amount of metal is lost in oxidation. Some
of the reactive metals like titanium are severely embrittled by oxygen and
therefore these metals are to be worked in inert atmosphere. Surface de-
carburisation is another serious problem with hot working. Expansion and
contraction and surface finish demands extra allowances for hot worked com-
ponents. Structure and properties of hot worked components are not uniform
over the cross section of metals as in metals which have been cold worked
and annealed. The deformation is always greater in the surface layers, so
metal will have fine grains. But the interior will be at higher temperatures
for longer duration during cooling than the surface layers of the metal. So
grain growth occurs in the interior of the metal of large work pieces which
cools slowly from working temperature.
Cold working
Cold working is carried out at temperature less than 0.3Tm of metals and
room temperature of metals. Cold working results in increase in strength or
hardness and decrease in ductility. If the cold working is excessive, the metal
will fracture before reaching the desired shape or size. Therefore cold working
is carried out in several steps with intermediate annealing process. Annealing
softens the cold worked metal and improves ductility. By suitably adjusting
the cold work and annealing cycle the parts can be produced with desired
degree of strain hardening. If required, stress relieving will be followed for
cold worked parts. Surface finish of cold worked products are better than
hot worked products. Fig. 5.3 shows the changes in ductility and strength

Figure 5.2: Hot working
of material due to cold working.
Figure 5.3: Cold working
Warm working
Warm working is carried out to take the advantages both hot and cold work-
ing. Warm working is a process of plastic deformation of metals at tempera-
tures below the recystallization temperature and above the room temperature

of the metals. Usually the process is carried out at temperatures in between

0.3Tm and 0.6Tm of the metal.

Chapter 6
Forging
Forging is working of metal to useful products or shapes by hammering.
Classification
Forging can be classified as
• Open die forging
• Closed die forging
Open die forging

It is working of metals between two flat dies or dies of simple shapes. It
is usually carried out for large objects or when the production quantity is
small. It will also used to produce pre forged parts for closed die forging.
Closed die forging

The work piece is deformed between two closed dies either to final shape
or pre final shape. It produces precision forgings with close dimensional
tolerances. Closed die forging uses carefully machined matching die blocks.
In closed die forgings the forging billet is usually first fullered and edged to
place the metal in the correct places for subsequent forgings. The pre shaped
billet is then placed in the cavity of the blocking die and rough forged to close
to the final shape. The greatest change in the shape of the metal usually
71
occurs at this step. It is then transferred to finishing die, where it is forged

to final shape and dimensions.
It is important to use enough metal in the forging billet so that die cavity
is completely filled. Therefore it is necessary to use enough amount of mate-
rial at correct places during fullering and edging operations. So it mandatory
to use slightly excess amount of metal. When dies close together in finishing
step, this excess amount metal squirts out of the cavity as a thin ribbon of
metal called as flash (Fig. 6.1). In order to prevent formation of very wide
flash, a ridge known as flash gutter, is provided. The final step in closed
die forging is removal of flash with a trimming die. The flash regulates the
escape of metal, and thus the thin flash increases the flow resistance of the
system so that the pressure builds upto high values to ensure that metal fills
all recesses of the die cavity. Fig.6.2 shows a typical curve for forging load vs.
stroke for closed die forging. The designing of the flash should ensure that
it adjusts to dimensions so that the extrusion of metal through the narrow
flash opening is more difficult than the filling of the most intricate detail in
the die. But this must not be done to excess so as to create very high forg-
ing loads with problems leading to die wear and breakage. Forging pressure
increases with decreasing flash thickness and increasing flash land width.
Figure 6.1: A view of closed die forging
Both open and closed forgings are carried out in hot or cold
conditions.

Figure 6.2: Forging load vs. stroke curve for closed die forging
Forging Operations
1. Edging
2. Fullering
3. Drawing
4. Swaging
5. Piercing
6. Punching
Fig 6.3 shows various forging operations.
Edging/Upsetting
The operation produces an increased thickness/ diameter at the edges of
the workpiece. The operation is carried out on heated workpiece within the
dies. By applying force at the portion of the dies, the required changes in
cross section can be brought on the workpiece. Upsetting is also the process
of enlarging the diameter or cross section at end of the workpiece without
usage of dies.

Fullering
Fullering is a process carried out to increase the cross section at particular

portions and to reduce the cross section at the other portions. As a result
of this operations, the metal flows outwards giving rise to changes is cross
section by the application of pressure. Forging of connecting rod is a fine
example of this process.
Drawing
Drawing is a process of increasing the length of the workpiece at the expense

of reduction in cross section. The process is carried out both in hot and
cold conditions. Severe hammer blows are given on to the workpiece at the
portion of enlargement of the length. As a result, the length of workpiece
increases and cross section decreases.
Swaging
Swaging operations are performed with the help of the dies. The operation
produces parts with change in cross section at the expense of its length.
It is usually adopted for finishing process such as production of round or
hexagonal shaped parts.
Piercing
Piercing produces parts of hollow structures such as pipes. The operation

is performed by forcing a required punch into a hot metal within a closed
die. The punch is usually in the shape required within the workpiece. Die is
made to the shape required on the exterior of the workpiece. The process is
carried out in hot conditions.
Punching
Punching operations is performed on plates and sheets of metals. The op-

eration produces holes of required dimensions in the plates or sheets. The
operation is carried out in a die punch combination, having the given size of
hole on the punch dimensions.

Edging Fullering
Drawing Swaging
Piercing Punching
Figure 6.3: Forging operations.

Forging equipments
Forging equipments can be classified into two categories namely,
1. Forging hammers
• Board hammers
• Power hammers
2. Forging presses
• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses
Velocity range
Forging machine Velocity range( m/s)
Gravity drop hammer 3.6 to 4.8
Power drop hammer 3.0 to 9.0
Mechanical press 0.06 to 1.5
Hydraulic press 0.06 to 0.30
HERF 6.0 to 24.0
Forging hammers : Force applied by falling weight or ram.

Energy restricted machines since the deformation results from
dissipating the kinetic energy of the ram.
Mechanical press : Stroke restricted machines since length of the

press stroke and the available load at various positions of the
stroke represents their capability.
Hydraulic press : Load restricted machines since their capability for

forging operations is limited by maximum load capacity.
Board hammers
In board hammer the upper die and ram are raised by friction rolls gripping
the board. When the board is released, the ram falls under the influence
of gravity to produce the blow energy. The board is immediately raised

again for next blow. Hammers strikes between 60 to 150 blows per minute
depending on size and capacity. Forging is carried out by repeated hammer
blows. The energy supplied by the blow is equal to potential energy due to
weight of the ram and the height of its fall. Hammers are energy restricted
machine, in which the deformation proceeds until the total kinetic energy is
dissipated by plastic deformation of the workpiece.
The forging load produced by gravity hammer is given by equation
1 mV 2
W =
2 g
where W is the forging load(N), m is the weight of the ram(N), V is the

velocity of fall of the ram(m/s) and a is the acceleration of gravity(m/s2 )
Figure 6.4: Board hammer
Power hammers
Power hammers are greatly used for high forging loads, in which the ram is
accelerated on down stroke by steam or air pressure in addition to gravity.
In power hammer the energy of the blow can be controlled. Power hammers

are preferred over board hammers in closed die forging. This equipment can
produce forging weighing from few kilograms to several tons. Also these
hammers have shortest contact time under pressure ranging from 1 to 10
m/s. Several disadvantages of power hammers include ground shock, noise
and vibrations. Some of these problems are minimised by use of counterblow
hammers. Counterblow hammers uses two opposed rams which strike the
workpiece at the same time, so that all of the energy is absorbed by the
workpiece and minimum energy is lost to foundation and environment in
form of vibration.
The total energy supplied by the blow in power hammer is given by
equation,
1 mV 2
W = + pAH = (m + pA)H
2 g
where W is the forging load(N), m is the weight of the ram(N), V is the
velocity of fall of the ram(m/s), a is the acceleration of gravity(m/s2 ), p is
the air pressure acting in downstroke, A is the area of ram cylinder and H is
the height of the ram drop.
Figure 6.5: Power hammer

Mechanical presses
Forging presses are of either mechanical or hydraulic presses. Presses are
rated on the basis of the force developed at the end of the stroke. Next
to hammers, mechanical presses are mostly used equipment for closed die
forging. Mechanical presses utilize an eccentric crank as shown in Fig. 6.6
to translate rotary motion to reciprocating linear motion of the press. The
ram stroke is shorter than the hammer or hydraulic press, so that mechan-
ical presses are best suited for low profile forgings. The maximum load is
attainted when the ram is near to the bottom dead centre position. Mechan-
ical presses with load rating from 300 to 12000 tons are available. The blow
of the press is like a squeeze than like the impact of a hammer. Because of
this , dies can be less massive and die life is longer than with a hammer.
The total energy supplied during the stroke of a press is given by
2
1 2 2 1 π
W = I(ω0 − ωf ) = I (n20 − n2f )
2 2 30
where I=moment of inertia of the flywheel
ω= angular velocity, rad/s
n0 initial speed of the flywheel, rpm
nf speed of the flywheel after deformation, rpm
Hydraulic presses
Hydraulic presses are load restricted machines in which hydraulic pressure
moves a piston in cylinder (Fig. 6.7). An important feature of hydraulic
presses is the full press load is available at any point during the full stroke of
the ram. This feature makes the hydraulic press ideally suitable for extrusion
type forging operations. The ram velocity can be controlled and even varied
during the stroke. Hydraulic presses are slow speed squeeze action machines
which results in close tolerance forgings. Hydraulic presses are available from
500 to 18000 tons.

Figure 6.6: Mechanical press (Crank press)
Figure 6.7: Hydraulic press

Forging die design parameters

The design of a die for a forging process is a critical job, since the end product
depends on this die. So design of die is to be carried out carefully. Some of
the important parameters that effect the die design are
1. Flash
2. Parting line
3. Draft angles
4. Fillet or corner radii
5. Web thickness
6. Finish allowance
Flash
Flash is an extra material that comes out as upper and lower dies closes. An
amount of excess material will be provided to the raw material in a forging
process. This raw material fills up the entire die cavity when the upper die
contacts with lower die. The excess material that has been left out will be
collected in cavity known as flash gutter. This excess material comes out in
form of a small strip known as flash. Usually flash thickness varies from 2 to
4 mm depending on the shape and size of the forging.
Parting line
Since most of the forging dies are made in two halves( upper and lower die),
a suitable parting line has to be planned. Selection of a suitable parting line
helps in easy withdrawal of the forged part from the dies. Parting line is a
plane where two halves of the dies meet.
Draft angles
All perpendicular surfaces of the product to the parting line are very difficult
to remove the forged part from the die cavity. These surfaces gets damaged
during the part removal from the dies cavity. So in order to avoid this

damage, a suitable taper is to be provided to these surfaces. This taper is

known as draft. These surface will be made at angle by providing suitable
draft angles and then the part is machine to get straight surface. This taper
is 20 to 80 for external and 50 to 100 for internal surfaces will be provided.
Fillet and Corner angles

Production of a forged part with sharp corners and less radii fillet is a risky
job. All these corners and less radii fillet are to be given larger radii for easy
removal of forged part from the dies.
Web thickness
Webs are thin sections found on the forged parts. These thin sections may be
distorted during cooling of the forged part in the dies. So in order to avoid
this, thin sections are given slightly higher thickness during forging and later
can be machined to get suitable thickness.
Finish allowance.
Any forging cannot be manufactured to exact dimensions. This is due to
formation of scales, decarburisation on the forging during cooling. Taking all
these considerations, an extra amount of material known as finish allowance
is provided on the forgings. This extra material may also compensate for
shrinkage allowance. This extra material is machined to get exact dimensions.
Forging defects
The various forging defects are as listed below
1. Deformation defects
2. Surface cracking
3. Cracking at flash (flash cracking)
4. Cold shut
5. Loose scale

6. Internal cracks due to secondary tensile stresses
Fig.6.8 shows some of the forging defects.
Figure 6.8: Forging defects
Deformation defects
When light and rapid hammer blows are used, deformation during forging
is limited to surface layers. The dendritic ingot structure of the interior of
forging will not be broken. To correct this defects, large forging cross section
are usually made on forging press.
Surface cracking
Surface cracking can occur as a result of excessive working on the surface at
low temperature or as a result of hot shortness. A high sulphur concentration
in the furnace atmosphere can produce hot shortness in steel and nickel.

Cracking at the flash/ flash cracking

Cracking at the flash penetrates into the body of forging when the flash is
trimmed off. This type of cracking can occur when the flash is too thin
compared to thickness of the forging. This can be avoided by increasing the
flash thickness or relocating flash to less critical region of the forging.
Cold shuts
Cold shut is a discontinuity produced when two surfaces of metal fold against
each other without welding completely. This can happen when metal flows
past part of the die cavity that has already been filled or that is only partly
filled. Sharp corners, too small die radius, excessive chilling are the reasons
for cold shuts.
Loose scale
Loose scale or lubricant residue accumulates in deep recesses of the die, forms
scale pockets and causes underfill.
Internal cracks due to secondary tensile stresses

Secondary tensile stresses can develop during forging and internal cracking
can thus be produced. Internal cracks can develop during upsetting of a
cylinder or round. Proper die design minimize this type of defect.
Applications of forgings
Forging can be used to fabricate components like connecting rods, crankshafts,
IC engine parts, gear blanks, spanners, chisels, clamps, bolts etc.

Chapter 7
Rolling
Rolling is a process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between

rolls. In deforming metal between rolls, the workpiece is subjected to high
compressive stresses from the squeezing action of the rolls. In addition to
squeezing action the metal is also subjected to surface shear stresses due to
the effect of friction between the rolls and the metal.
Rolling can be carried out in both hot and cold working conditions. The
initial breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets are generally done by hot
rolling. This is followed by further hot rolled into plates, sheets, rods, bars,
pipes etc. Cold rolling products such as sheets, strips, foils, etc, had good
surface finish and mechanical strength.
Classification of rolling
Rolling process can be classified into hot and cold rolling based on the tem-
perature by which rolling is carried out.
Hot rolling
Hot rolling is a process of rolling the metals above its recystallization tem-
perature. The first hot working operation for most of the steel products is
done on the primary roughing mill (also called as blooming and slabbing
mills). These mills usually are two high reversing mills. They are designed
for operation of break down of cast ingot into blooms or slabs for subsequent
operation for finishing into bars, sheets, plate, etc. The initial break down
85
passes often involve only small reductions. Heavy scale is removed initially
by rolling the ingot while lying on edge, the thickness is reduced by rolling
after the ingot has been turned 900 so as to be lying flat. Further these are
used to make sheets or plates etc.
Figure 7.1: Micro structure in hot rolled product
In hot rolling, the metal is heated above the crystallization temperatures

( above 0.6Tm ) and forced between two rollers. Rollers apply necessary pres-
sure as a result, section thickness of metal is reduced and is accompanied with
grain refinement. The micro-structural changes that takes place is as shown
in the fig.7.1. The original coarse grain structure of the metal is broken up
and elongated by rolling action under compressive forces. Since the tempera-
ture is above the recystallization point, the fragments of crystals act as nuclei
and form new small grains, as the metal comes out of the rolls. The crystals
continue to grow further if the temperature is high enough and if no further
deformation is carried out. The grains become more finer with increasing
number of passes. Fine grained structure will give improved toughness and
strength. A satisfactory grain size with equiaxed grains can be obtained by
maintaining the temperature very close to recrystallization temperature.

Cold rolling
Cold rolling is the process of rolling the metals below the recystallization
temperature (below 0.3Tm ) and above the room temperature. Since cold
rolling deforms the crystals and induces residual stresses, the cold worked
metals looses its ductility and gains hardness and brittleness. Cold rolling
is used to produce sheets, plates strips etc with superior surface finish and
dimensional tolerances. The hot rolled products are further reduced by cold
rolling to finish products to achieve close dimensional tolerances and better
surface finish. In cold rolling, the crystals get distorted elongated under the
compressive forces and get work hardened with introduction of large amount
of residual stresses. Fig.7.2 shows micro-structural changes in cold rolled
products. Depending on the amount of the cold work, the grains at the sur-
face or the complete section get distorted. Since cold worked metals looses its
ductility and gains hardness and brittleness. This makes the metal unsuitable
for further rolling, and if worked it will fracture under the application fur-
ther loads. The required ductility for further rolling is restored by annealing
process, which leads to recystallization and relieves residual stresses. Cold
rolling is carried out in several steps with intermediate annealing process.
Figure 7.2: Micro structure in cold rolled product

Advantages and limitations of hot and cold rolling

Advantages
Hot rolling
1. Homogeneity is maintained in rolled products.
2. Welding of blow holes and cracks takes place.
3. No work hardening due to recystallization.
4. Optimum improvement in mechanical properties.
5. Absence of reheating to restore ductility.
6. Process is faster compared to cold rolling.
Cold rolling
1. Better strength and surface finish.
2. No oxidation and scale formation.
3. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
4. Since cold rolling is carried after hot rolling, blow holes and cracks are
absent.
Limitations
Hot rolling
1. Surface oxidation and decarburisation takes place.
2. Process is expensive and needs expertise due high temperature is in-
volved.
Cold rolling
1. Work hardening and internal stresses are induced during cold working.
2. Annealing is essential for further reductions.
3. Loss of ductility and chances of inter granular cracks.

Terminology of rolling shapes

Ingot :It is the initial product obtained by casting of the molten metal.
Bloom :A bloom is the product of the first break down of the ingot.
It has square or slightly rectangular section, ranging in size from
150 mm X 150 mm to 250 mm X 300 mm. A bloom is used to make structural
shapes like I beams, channels.
Billet : Reduction of bloom by hot rolling results in billet.
The size of a billet ranges from 50 mm X 50 mm to 125 mm X 125 mm.
It is rolled to make rounds, wires, bars.
Plate : A plate is a finished or semifinished product with a minimum thickness
of 6. 35 mm. Its width will be equal to the width of the roll and the length equal
to maximum thickness which can be handled or shipped.
Sheet : A sheet is a thin partner of plate with a maximum thickness of 6.35 mm.
Strip : A strip is a narrow sheet and has a maximum width of 600 mm with
maximum thickness of 6.35 mm. Since it is normally handled in coil form, its length
can be considerable and is limited only by the manufacturing and handling facilities.
Foil : It is a thin strip with a maximum width of 300 mm and maximum
thickness of 1.5 mm. It is in available in coil form.
Bar : It is a long, straight symmetrical piece of uniform cross section.
It may be round, square or of another configuration. A circular bar is called as rod.
Wire : A wire is a thin variety of bar available in coil form and
not normally so identified over 9.5 mm cross section.
Rolling mill and its classification

A rolling mill consists basically of rolls, bearings, a housing for containing
these parts and a drive for applying power to the rolls and controlling their
speeds. The forces involved in rolling can easily reach many MN. Therefore,
very rigid construction is needed, and very large motors are required to pro-
vide the necessary power. A set of rolls in their massive housing is called a
stand. Rolling mills are classified as,
1. Two high rolling mill
2. Three high rolling mill
3. Four high rolling mill

4. Multi roll rolling mill
5. Universal rolling mill
6. Tandem rolling mill
7. Planetary rolling mill
Two high rolling mill

As the name implies, it has two rolls with a constant direction of rotation
about horizontal axis. For successive reductions, the stock is returned to the
entrance of the rolls by hand or mechanical means. The upper roll may be
raised or lowered to change the distance between the rolls. This method of
successive reductions slow down the process. The faster method is to pass the
stock through a series of rolls for successive reduction. The rolls are brought
closer together after each pass and the bar or plate reciprocates several times
between the rolls for final thickness to be obtained. Fig.7.3 shows typical
diagram of two high rolling mill.
Three high rolling mill

This consists of three rolls of equal size one above the other. In this, the
upper and lower rolls are power driven, while the middle roll rotates by
friction. In three high rolling mill back and forth operations can be performed
simultaneously. The product from the first pass, usually at the lower end, is
fed at the upper rolls for the second pass. The rolled part from each pass is
turned back and then fed to the next pass. Thus in this mill there is no need
for roll reversal. Fig.7.3 shows typical diagram of two high rolling mill.
Four high rolling mill

For a given width of the plate or a sheet and reduction per pass, the bending
of rolls will be less as their diameter is increased. However, increasing the
roll diameter will increase the arc of contact between the roll and the plate
or sheet. This will result in an increase in roll separating force. In plate or
sheet rolling the diameter of the work rolls should be as small as possible
for power and mean specific pressure requirements. Four high rolling mills
with smaller working rolls are designed based on this principle. This mill

consists of two small diameter working rolls and two large diameter backing
roll, placed one above the other as shown in the fig.7.3. This mill consumes
less power in rolling because of lesser friction of contact area.
Figure 7.3: Typical sketch showing different rolling mills.
Multi roll rolling mill / Cluster rolling mills

In four high rolling mill, the diameter of backup rolls cannot be greater than 2
or 3 times that of the work rolls. As the diameter of the work rolls is decreased

more and more to accommodate processes with exceedingly high rolling loads,
the size of the backup rolls must also decrease. A point is reached when the
backup rolls themselves begin to bend and must be supported, hence the
ultimate design is cluster mill. A cluster mill is used for rolling of thin sheets
or foil to close tolerances. The working rolls are very small (around 10 mm),
which inturn are backed by two rolls of bigger size as shown in the fig.7.4.
Tandem mill
Fig.7.4 shows a typical arrangement of tandem mill. In tandem mill, a series
of rolling mills are used for production of strips. In this mill each set of rolls
is called a stand and a group of stands is called a train. In rolling, since the
thickness is reducing at each stand, the strip velocity will be different at each
stand. The speed increases at each stand starting from the first stand. Thus
the speed of each set of rolls is set such that each stand receives the strip
at a speed equal to the delivery speed of its preceding stand. The strip is
fed from the uncoiler drum and received at the wind up drum. These drums
provide necessary back and front tension to the strip.
Universal rolling mill

Fig.7.5 shows a typical universal rolling mill. In this rolling mill, the metal
is reduced by both horizontal and vertical rolls. The vertical rolls, roll the
edges of the bar even and smooth. Vertical mills are mounted either on one
side or on both sides of the horizontal roll stand. The horizontal roll may
either two, three or four high arrangement. These mills are used for rolling
wide strips, sheets, plates and slabs.
Planetary rolling mill

This mill consists of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by large number
of small planetary rolls as shown in the fig.7.5. The main feature of this mill is
that it reduces hot slab to coiled strip in a single pass. Each pair of planetary
rolls gives an almost constant reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular
path between the slab and the backing roll. The total reduction is the sum
of a series of such small reductions following each other in rapid succession.
The feed rolls push the slab through a guide into planetary rolls. On its exit
side, a two or four high planishing mill is installed to improve the surface
finish and is followed by a coiler.

Distribution of roll pressure along the arc of contact

The distribution of roll pressure along the arc of contact is shown in the fig.
The pressure rises to maximum at the neutral point and then falls off. The
neutral point is not a line or a point on the roll surface, but an area. The
area under the curve is proportional to the rolling load.Therefore, the shape
of the pressure distribution is important because the location of resultant
rolling load with respect to the roll centres determines the torque and power

required to produce the reduction. The shaded area in the figure represents
the force required to overcome frictional forces between the roll and the
sheet, while the area under the line AB represents the force required to
deform the metal in plane homogenous compression. A similarity should be
noted between the pressure distribution in rolling as shown in fig.7.6 and the
pressure distribution for compression between the plates as shown in fig.7.7
Fig.7.7 shows the axial compressive stress plotted over the diameter of
the disk, The pressure distribution is symmetrical about the centreline and

rises to a sharp peak at the centre of the disk. This characteristic rise in
deformation pressure with distance is often called a friction hill.
Figure 7.6: Pressure variation with arc of contact.
Figure 7.7: Typical sketch showing friction hill.
Geometric relationship in rolling

Consider a metal sheet with a thickness h0 enters the rolls at the entrance
plane XX with a velocity V0 . It passes through the roll gap and leaves the exit
plane YY with a reduced thickness hf . The metal contacts each of the two
rolls along the XY which is known as the arc of contact. The arc corresponds

to the central angle α, called the angle of contact or bite. The process of
metal rolling is made possible by friction that occurs between the contact
surfaces of the rolls and the part being rolled.
Figure 7.8: Force acting in rolling.
Since equal volumes of metal must pass a given point per unit time, we
can write,
bh0 V0 = bhV = bhf Vf
where b=width of the sheet,
V=Sheet velocity at any thickness h intermediate between h0 and hf .
Consider the width of the metal remains undistorted. In order that a

vertical element(width) in the sheet remain undistorted, requires that the
exit velocity Vf must be greater than the entrance velocity V0 . Therefore,
the velocity of the sheet must steadily increase from entrance to exit. At only
one point along the surface of contact between the roll and the sheet, the
surface velocity of the roll Vr is equal to the velocity of the sheet. This point

is called neutral point or no slip point N. At any point along the surface of
contact such as point A in the fig.7.8, two forces act on the metal. These
are radial force Pr and a tangential friction force F . Between the entrance
and the neutral point the sheet is moving slower than the roll surface, and
the frictional force acts in the direction shown in the fig.7.8, so as to draw
the metal into the rolls. On the exit side of the neutral point the sheet
moves faster than the roll surface. The direction of the frictional force is
then reversed so that its acts to oppose the delivery of the sheet from the
rolls.
The vertical component of Pr is known as the rolling load P. The rolling
load is the force with which the rolls press against the metal. Because this
is also equal to the force exerted by the metal in trying to force the rolls
apart, known as separating force. The specific roll pressure p is the rolling
load divided by contact area. The contact area between the metal and the
rolls is equal to the product of the width of the sheet b and the projected
length of the arc of contact Lp .
" # 21
(h0 − hf )2
Lp = R(h0 − hf ) −
4
" # 21
Lp ≈ R(h0 − hf )
√
Lp ≈ ∆hR
where R is the radius of roll.

Therefore, the specific roll pressure is given by,
P
p=
bLp
where p = roll pressure, P=Rolling load and bLp = contact area.
The angle α between the entrance plane and the centerline of the rolls is
called the angle of contact or angle of bite. For the workpiece to enter into the
throat of the roll, the horizontal component of friction force (F cosα) which

acts towards the roll gap, must be equal to or greater than the horizontal
component of the normal force (Pr sinα) which acts away from the roll gap.
The limiting condition for unaided entry of a slab into the rolls is
F cosα = Pr sinα
F sinα
= = tanα
Pr cosα
but F = µPr
so µ = tanα
The workpiece cannot be drawn into rolls if the tangent of the contact
angle exceeds the coefficient of friction(µ). If µ = 0, rolling cannot occurs,
but as µ increases progressively larger slabs will be drawn into the roll throat.
For the same friction conditions, a larger diameter roll will permit a thicker
slab to enter the rolls than with a small diameter roll. This is because angle
subtended from the center of the roll to entrance plane will be same in both
the cases but the length of contact will be different.
Process variables in rolling

The main process variables which control the rolling process are
1. The roll diameter
2. The deformation resistance of the metal
3. The friction between the rolls and the metal
4. The presence of front and back tension
The roll diameter

Increasing the diameter of the rolls results in a large increase in the rolling
loads for a given reduction and frictional condition. For a given reduction of
sheet thickness,
√ the contact area will be greater for large diameter rolls.
Since Lp α D, (where Lp is the length of arc of contact, D is the diameter
of the rolls) therefore for a given rolling pressure, the total rolling load will
increase with increasing the roll diameter. The rolling load increases with roll
1
diameter at a rate greater than D 2 because of the requirement to overcome
the greater frictional forces acting over the large area of contact.

The deformation resistance of the metal

The deformation resistance is influenced by metallurgy, temperature and
strain rate. This is influenced by C, Mn and other alloying elements increase
the strength of steel. Hence rolling may be difficult.
As the temperature increase, strength of steel decreases. Hence, steel or
any metal can be easily rolled at higher temperatures. The mean flow stress
can be determined from compression test. For cold rolling, the flow stress
does not depend on the strain rate or roll speed. However, in hot rolling
changing the strain rate can produce significant changes in the flow stress of
the metal.
The friction between the rolls and the metal

Since slip is taking place between the rolls and the workpiece, the frictional
forces comes into action. For higher coefficient of friction, the frictional
forces are high and the force tending to separate the rolls are high. If the
coefficient of friction is reduced, the force tending to separate the rolls will
also be reduced. Therefore, if the workpiece and the roll surfaces are smooth,
then the friction between them is reduced and leads to reduction in separating
force. Finally this results in smaller power consumption.
The presence of front and back tension

The presence of tension in the plane of sheet can materially reduce the rolling
load. Back tension may be produced by controlling the speed of the uncolier
relative to the roll speed. Front tension may be created by controlling the
speed of the coiler. The addition of both front and back tension reduces the
area under the friction hill although there will be little shift of the neutral
point. If only back tension is applied the neutral point moves towards the roll
exit. If a very high back tension is applied, the neutral point will eventually
reach the roll exit. When this happens, the rolls moves faster than the metal
and they slide over the surface. If only front tension is used, the neutral
point will move towards the roll entrance. Fig.7.9 shows the effect of back
and front tension on roll pressure.

Figure 7.9: Effect of back and front tension on roll pressure.
Defects in rolled products

The defects in rolled products can be listed as follows,
1. Bow
2. Buckle or Wavy edge
3. Cracking
4. Fissures
5. Stringers
6. Flakes
7. Blisters
8. Lamination
Bow
If the roll gap is not parallel, one edge of the sheet will decrease more in
thickness than the other. This edge of the sheet elongates more than the
other edge. This is known as bow.

Buckle or Wavy edge

A difference in elongation of one part in between different locations on the
sheet can give rise to waviness in a thin gage sheet. Fig.7.10 shows the wavy
edge so the sheet.
Cracking
When the workpiece passes through the rolls, the width experience some
tendency to expand laterally in traverse direction of the workpiece. Thickness
decreases at the center of the sheet and than the edge of the sheet. There is
a continuity between the center and edge of the sheet, the edge of the sheet
is strained in tension compared to the center of the sheet. This leads to edge
cracking (fig.7.10).
Figure 7.10: Buckle and cracking defects in rolled products.
Fissures
Fissures are developed due to incomplete welding of pipes and blow holes.
Stringers
Longitudinal marks knowns as stringers are non metallic inclusions found
during melting and solidification.
Flakes
Cooling cracks or flakes produced due to residual stresses.

Lamination
Lamination is opening up of sheets into two parts. This is due to presence
of blow holes.
Blister
Blisters are formed due to presence of hydrogen in metals.

Chapter 8
Extrusion
Introduction
Extrusion is a process of deforming a metal by application of compressive
forces to pass through the die to produce required shape of the compo-
nent/product. In this process a known quantity of metal is is placed in
a closed chamber called container. One end of the container is occupied by
die assembly. The other end is occupied by a moving ram. In other method,
the ram carries die assembly and slide inside the one end closed container.
Here the ram applies the necessary compressive forces on the metal present
in the container making it to pass through the die opening.The ram slides
along the walls of the container containing the metal. The ram is connected
to a hydraulic or pneumatic press. This process is carried out either in hot
or cold working conditions. The process is used to production of rods, tubes
of both ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Classification of extrusion process

Extrusion process is classified into two types namely,
1. Direct extrusion
2. Indirect extrusion
Apart from these two types of extrusion, there are other types of extrusion
also, Some of these are,
103
1. Extrusion forging
2. Impact extrusion
3. Hydrostatic extrusion
Direct extrusion
Fig.8.1 shows a typical direct extrusion process. A metal billet is placed in
a container. One end of the container is occupied by the die assembly. The
ram slides within the container through the other end of the container. A
hot or cold billet is placed in the container within the space between the
die and the ram. The ram inturn is attached to a hydraulic or a pneumatic
press which provides movement to the ram. As the ram moves, it applies
necessary compressive force on the billet. As a result the billet flows through
the die cavity. The metal which comes out of the die cavity is called extruded
product. Here the extruded product comes in the same direction of the
applied compressive force by the ram.
Figure 8.1: Direct extrusion process.
In direct extrusion, the billet moves along the surface of the container.
As a result high frictional forces are developed and higher forces are required

to overcome these frictional forces. Higher capacity pneumatic or hydraulic

presses are used.
Indirect extrusion
Fig.8.2 shows a typical indirect extrusion process. A hollow ram carries the
die, while the other end is closed with a closure plate. For indirect extrusion,
the ram containing the die is kept stationary and the container with the billet
is caused to move. Because of this, there is no relative motion between the
wall of the container and the billet in indirect extrusion. The frictional forces
are low and the power required for extrusion is less than direct extrusion.
Figure 8.2: Indirect extrusion process.
Extrusion forging
This method is combination of extrusion and forging process. In this method,
the metal is extruded through the die while being forged. This process is
widely used for fabrication of poppet valves of an IC engines.
Fig.8.3 illustrates an extrusion forging operation. The component is pro-
duced in a single operation from a heated steel slug in a hydraulic press.
Initially the punch applies pressure on the heated steel slug and causes forg-
ing action. In the mean time, it is partly extruded through the die due to

Figure 8.3: Extrusion forging process.
pressure force from the punch. The operation is simple and carried out at
higher temperature.
Impact extrusion
This is a cold extrusion process, similar to backward extrusion but carried
out at higher speeds. It is employed for production of light metal parts
shaving cream tubes, grease tubes medical ointment tubes, container etc,.
This process is carried out in heavy duty mechanical press. The arrangement
of punch and die for impact extrusion operation is shown in fig.8.4. The gap
between the die cavity and the pinch is such that it forms the shape of the
product. In operation, a cold metal slug of suitable size is placed in the
die cavity and the punch is driven rapidly into the die cavity, forcing the
metal upwards through the gap between the punch and die and forms a
tube shaped product. Then the punch is withdrawn from the cavity and the
extruded product is removed by using a stripping mechanism.

Figure 8.4: Impact extrusion process.
Hydrostatic extrusion
Fig.8.5 shows a typical hydrostatic extrusion process. A high pressure liquid
medium is used for the transmission of the force to the billet/blank. The
liquid completely envelops the blank and enters die canal. Due to hydro-
static pressure, the ductility of the metal is increased. Even brittle metals
like tungsten, cast iron and stainless steel. can be extruded. This also per-
mits the extrusion of very long billets or even wires, accompanied by large
reduction. There is no container friction and the pressurised fluid also acts as
lubricant and because of this, the extruded product has a good surface finish
and dimensional accuracy. However, the absence of container friction com-
bined with reduced die friction can increase the tendency to internal crack
formation. The pressure transmitting fluids used are Glycerin, Ethyl glycol,
Castor oil etc.
Extrusion variables
The variables that influence the force required to cause extrusion are,

Figure 8.5: Hydrostatic extrusion process.
1. Type of extrusion
2. Extrusion ratio
3. Working temperature
4. Speed of deformation
5. Frictional conditions at the die and the container
Type of extrusion
In the above fig.8.6 the extrusion pressure is plotted against ram travel for
both direct and indirect extrusion. The rapid rise in pressure during the
initial ram travel is due to the initial compression of the billet to fill the
extrusion container. For direct extrusion the metal begins to flow through
the die at the maximum value of pressure. As the billet extrudes through the
die, the pressure required to maintain the flow progressively decreases with
decreasing length of the biller in the container. For indirect extrusion there
no relative motion between the billet and the container wall. Therefore,
the extrusion pressure is approximately constant with increasing the ram
travel and represents the stress required to deform the metal through the

die. Finally at the end of the stroke the pressure builds up rapidly and it is
usual to stop the ram travel so as to leave a small discard in the container.
This discard often contains defects which are unwanted in the product.
Figure 8.6: Variation of extrusion pressure with ram travel.
Extrusion ratio
The extrusion ratio is the ratio of the initial cross sectional area of the billet
to final cross sectional area of the extruded product. That is
A0
R=
Af
where R= extrusion ratio, A0 = initial cross sectional area of the billet, Af =

final area of cross section of the extruded product.
This ratio reach about 40:1 for hot extrusion for steel and 400:1 for alu-
minium.
Working temperature
Most of the metals are extruded hot so as to take the advantage of decrease
in flow stress or deformation resistance with increasing temperature. Since
hot working introduces the problems of oxidation of the billet. The softening
of the die and tools, as well as making it more difficult to provide adequate

lubrication, it is advantageous to use the minimum temperature which will

provide the metal with suitable plasticity.
In extrusion of steel, the billets are heated in the range 1100 to 12000 C.
The extrusion pressure are generally in the range of 800 to 1200 MPa. The
combination of high stress and the temperature demands for a better lubri-
cation. The billet shears within itself near the container wall to create its
own internal conical die surface.
Speed of deformation
Increasing the speed of ram produces an increase in the extrusion pressure.
A tenfold increase in the speed results in about a 50% increase in pressure.
Greater cooling of the billet occurs at low extrusion speeds. The pressure
required for direct extrusion will actually increase with increasing ram travel
because of the increased flow stress as the billet cools. The higher the tem-
perature of the billet, the greater the effect of low extrusion speed on the
cooling of the billet. Therefore, high extrusion speeds are required with high
strength alloy that need high extrusion temperatures. The temperature rise
due to deformation of the metal is greater at high extrusion speeds.
Frictional conditions at the die and container

In hot extrusion, the billet is in contact with the die and container wall, as a
result friction is more. The billet moves along the container wall due to ram
pressure. As the friction increases between the container and billet, more
ram speed is necessary. But high temperature of the billet causes lesser ram
pressure due to higher metal flow rate. Cold conditions of the billet expects
higher ram pressure force. Incase of indirect extrusion, since the movement
of billet with container wall is restricted, moderate amount of ram pressure
is required.
Metal flow and the deformation

The metal flow and the deformation in extrusion depends on various factors
like extrusion pressure, die design, container characteristics and the lubrica-
tion conditions. Fig.8.7 shows the various deformation patterns in extrusion.
Fig.8.7a. indicates the grid pattern in billet before extrusion. Fig.8.7b. shows

a nearly homogenous deformation, which is a feature of well lubricated billet

hence low friction, as in indirect and hydrostatic extrusion. Deformation is
uniform till the die entrance. This is the most desirable type of deformation,
which leads to lower extrusion pressure, die wear and minimum defects.
Figure 8.7: Metal flow and deformation in extrusion.
Fig.8.7c. represents the deformation with increased container wall friction

(with insufficient lubrication). The grid patterns are severely distorted in
the corners of the die indicate the formation of a dead zone, where the metal
undergoes least deformation. The friction at the container billet interface
results in concentrated flow at the centre. This is a common feature of direct
extrusion and extrusion with insufficient lubrication such a flow pattern may
also exist when the billet surface is chilled by the cold walls of the container.

Production of seamless pipe and tubing by ex-

trusion
Pipe and tubing may be seamless or welded, depending on the method of
manufacture. Extrusion is the method for production of seamless pipe and
tubing. Welded tubing is formed from strip and welded by hot forming,
fusion or electric welding.
The Mannesmann mill and reeling mill are used in production of seamless
pipe and tubing.
The Mannesmann mill

The Mannesmann mill is extensively used process for rotary piercing of steel
and copper billets. This process employs two barrel shaped driven rolls which
are set at an angle to each other. Fig.8.8 shows a Mannesmann mill for
production of seamless tubes. An axial thrust is developed as well as rotation
to the billet. Because of the low arc of contact, the tensile stresses develop
along the axis of billet. This assists in opening of the center of billet as it flows
around the piercing point to create the tube cavity. The Mannesmann mill
does not produce sufficiently large wall reduction and elongation to produce
finished hot worked tubes.
Reeling mill
Will be updated later
Defects in extrusion
Stringers: After about two thirds of the billet is extruded, the outer surface
of the billet moves towards the center and extrudes through the die near the
axis of the rod. Since the surface of the billet often contains an oxidized skin,
this type of flows results in internal oxide stringers.
Surface cracking: Surface cracking known as fir tree cracking are produced
by longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the extrusion passes through the
die. In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular and is
associated with hot shortness. Too high ram speed for extrusion temperature
is the cause of this type of defect.

Figure 8.8: Mannesmann mill.
Center burst or chevron cracking: This defect occurs at low extrusion ratios.
This defect is related to the influence of frictional conditions on the zone of
deformation.

Chapter 9
Unit-4
Sheet metal forming
Introduction
Sheet metal forming is a process of plastically deforming a sheet blank be-
tween the tools(dies) to obtain the desired final configuration (shape and
dimensions). Thus a simple geometry is transformed into a complex one,
whereby the tools store the desired geometry and impart pressure on the
deforming material through the tool-metal interface. Sheet metal forming
usually produce little or no scrap and generate the final part geometry in a
very short time, usually in one or a few stroke of a press. As a result, sheet
metal offers potential savings in both energy and material. In addition, for
a given geometry, parts produced by sheet metal forming exhibit better me-
chanical and metallurgical properties and reliability than those manufactured
by casting or machining.
Sheet metal forming operations

Shearing operations
Shearing
The process of shearing is the cutting action along a straight line to separate
metal by two moving blades. In shearing, a narrow strip of metal is plastically
114
deformed to the point where it fractures at the surfaces in contact with the
blades. The fracture then propagates inward to provide complete separation.
This process is used for production of blanks. Fig.9.1a shows a shearing
process.
a. Shearing b. Blanking
Figure 9.1: Shearing and blanking process.
Blanking
Blanking involves shearing a piece out of the stock (strip of sheet metal) to
a predetermined contour. It results in excessive waste of metal compared
to cutoff and parting. However, the blank shape makes the use of blanking
a necessity in most cases. It is performed in a die operated by press. The
cutoff shapes may be round, square, rectangle or any other shapes. Fig.9.1b
shows a blanking process.
Piercing
Penetration of material using a sharp pointed punch, leaving a jagged hole
similar to a bullet hole. Fig.9.2a shows a piercing process.

a. Piercing b. Punching
Figure 9.2: Piercing and punching process.
Punching
A general term describing the process of die cutting a hole in material such
as sheet metal, plate, or some structural shape. A punch is the male part of
a die set and usually the upper member. Fig.9.2b shows a punching process.
Nibbling
In some applications, an irregular contour is cut out by punching a series
of overlapping holes along the contour. This process is called nibbling. A
variety of unusual shapes can be cut at 300 to 900 strokes per minute by
a press equipped with either a round or a rectangular. Fig.9.3a shows a
nibbling process.
Lancing
Lancing is a process of cutting into a workpiece without producing a detached
slug. Usually combined with forming operations. Fig.9.3b shows a lancing
process.

a. Nibbling b. Lancing
Figure 9.3: Nibbling and lancing process.
Notching
Notching is a process of cutting various shapes from the corner or edge of a
strip, sheet, or part. Fig.9.4 shows a notching process.
Figure 9.4: Notching process.
Non-shearing operations
Bending
It is a process of bending a sheet metal to definite shapes (U or V) using
punch and die. Bending is a forming operation in which the metal is deformed
or bent along a straight axis. Fig.9.5 shows a bending process.

Figure 9.5: Bending process.
Stretching
Stretching is a metal forming process in which the surface area of a blank is
increased by tension. Don’t confuse stretching with drawing, During drawing,
the metal is flowing in the die and the blank is changing shape. During
stretching, there is no inward movement of the blank edge. In stretching,
the sheet is firmly clamped along its circumference while a male die (punch)
deforms it. The shape is developed entirely at the expense of sheet thickness.
Therefore, necking and, finally, fracture of the sheet must eventually occur.
Fig.9.6 shows a stretch forming operation.
Figure 9.6: Stretching process.

Spinning
Spinning is an incremental forming process in which a circular blank is ro-
tated and held between a male die (spinning block) and the tail stock in
a machine tool resembling a lathe. The blank is pressed with a hand- or
power-actuated tool so that it gradually conforms to the shape of the die.
Localized pressures on the tool are high, and there is intensive sliding; thus,
lubrication of the outer blank surface is essential. Fig.9.7 shows a spinning
operation.
Figure 9.7: Spinning process.
Embossing
Embossing can be defined as a process in which the metal is stretched into a
shallow depression. Embossing often is used to create letterings, logos, small
depressions, strengthening features, textured surfaces etc,. Fig.9.8 shows an
embossing operation.

Figure 9.8: Embossing process.
Coining
Coining is a cold forming process in which the work metal is compressed
between two dies to fill the depression of both dies in relief or to reduce the
strip thickness. The most familiar coining operation is the minting of coins.
However, one of the most common uses of coining is in reducing the thickness
or width of localized regions of electrical and electronic connectors.
Drawing
Drawing is a process in which the surface area of a blank is displaced by
tension into an alternate shape via controlled metal flow. Metal flow can be
defined as metal feeding into cavity. Drawing is one of the most complicated
yet effective means of shaping sheet metal. In drawing, a punch pulls the
metal into the forming cavity. For this reason, drawing can be considered a
method that forms the metal in tension. Items such as oil filter pans, deep
formed auto parts, kitchen sinks, cookware, motorcycle fuel tanks are made
using this process. Fig.9.9 shows a drawing operation.
Stretch forming
Stretch forming is the process of forming by the applications of tensile forces
in such a way as to stretch the material over a tool or a form block. Stretch
forming is more extensively used in the aircraft industry to produce parts
of large radius of curvature. Spring back is eliminated in stretch forming

Figure 9.9: Drawing process.
because of the stress gradient is relatively uniform. Since tensile forces are
applied to produce large deformations, only materials with good ductility are
stretch formed.
Figure 9.10: Stretch forming operation.

Stretch forming equipment basically consists of a hydraulically driven ram

which carries the punch or form block and two jaws for gripping the ends
of the sheets. No female die is used in stretch forming. In using a stretch
forming machine, the sheet metal is first bent or draped around the form
block with relatively light tensile pull, the grips are applied, and stretching
load is increased until the blank is strained plastically to final shape. Fig.9.10
shows a stretch forming operation.
A common feature of a sheet forming process is the existence of strain
gradients. A strain gradient arises whenever the deformation is not uniform.
The important role in strain hardening in modifying strain gradients can be
shown by a simple example. Consider a section of a sheet metal loaded in
tension. The force is constant but the cross sectional area increases with
radial distance from some point, so that σr = constant. Therefore,
dσ σ
=−
dr r
and
dσ d dσ σ
= =−
d dr dr r
so strain gradient is expressed by
d σ
=−
dr (dσ/d)r
If the strain hardening can be expressed by power law σ = Kn
dσ σ
= nKn−1 = n
d
so,
d σ 1 (/r)
=− σ = −
dr r n( ) n
This equation shows that the strain gradient is reduced by greater strain
hardening (larger n). Since the most highly strained region will have hard-
ened the most, the load is passed on to the neighbouring elements. This
forces them to strain more and in so doing the strain gradient is reduced.
As a result, deeper, more complex parts or overall greater reductions can be
made with material with greater strain hardening capacity.

Deep drawing
Deep drawing is the metal working process used for shaping flat sheets into
cup shaped articles such as bathtubs, shell cases and automobile parts. This
is done by placing a blank of appropriate size over a shaped die and pressing
the metal into the die with a punch. Generally a clamping or hold down
pressure is required to press the blank against the die to prevent wrinkling.
This is best done by a blank holder or hold down ring in a double action
press. Fig.9.11 shows a deep drawing process.
Figure 9.11: Deep drawing process.
In the deep drawing of a cup the metal is subjected to three different types
of deformations. Fig.9.12 shows the deformation in a pie shaped segment of
the circular blank during deep drawing. The metal at the centre of the blank
under the head of the punch is wrapped around the profile of the punch, and
in so doing it is thinned down. The metal in this region is subjected to biaxial
tensile stress due to the action of the punch. Metal in the outer portion of
the blank is drawn radially inward towards the throat of the die. As it drawn
in, the outer circumference must continuously decrease from that of original
blank πD0 to that of the finished cup πDp . This means that it is subjected
to a compressive strain in the circumferential direction and a tensile strain

Figure 9.12: Stresses and deformation in a section from a deep drawn cup.
in the radial direction. As a result of these two principal strains there is a

continual increase in the thickness as the metal moves inward. However as the
metal passes over the die radius, it is first bent and then straightened while at
the same time being subjected to a tensile stress. This plastic bending under
tension results in circumferential shrinking. Between the inner stretched zone
and the outer shrunk zone there is a narrow ring of metal which is not been
bent over either the punch or the die. The metal in this region is subjected
only to simple tensile loading throughout the drawing operation.
Defects in sheet metal forming

The some of the defects found in sheet metal forming are discussed below.
Fig.9.13 shows various defects in sheet metal forming.
1. Flange wrinkling:
Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series of ridges that form radially in
the undrawn flange of the workpiece due to compressive buckling.

a. Flange wrinkling b. Wall wrinkling
c. Tearing d. Earing
e. Surface scratches
Figure 9.13: Defects in sheet metal forming.

2. Wall wrinkling:
If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges appear
in the vertical wall. This is wall wrinkling.
3. Tearing:
Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near the base of the
drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause thinning and failure of the
metal at this location. This type of failure can also occur as the metal is
pulled over a sharp die corner.
4. Earing:
Earing is the formation of irregularities in the upper edge of a deep drawn
cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet metal drawing. If the material is
perfectly isotropic, earing doesn’t form.
5. Surface scratches:
Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part if the punch and die are not
smooth or if lubrication is not sufficient enough.
6. Splits:
Splits occur when strains cause the material to thin beyond the material’s
safe limits. Although sheet metal has work-hardening characteristics that
increase the material’s formability as strains increase, there is a finite limit
at which splitting will occur. The beginning of a split may be observed as a
localized yield (or necking) before a full split is opened up.
7. Springback:
A springback defect may occur when an unexpected shape change takes place
after forming or stamping is completed. The final part dimensional shape
does not match the desired nominal shape and falls outside of required tol-
erances. Springback defects are caused by the elastic region of the given
material’s stress-strain curve, whereby the material is strained but then re-
laxes according its elastic characteristics.

Punching force calculations

The punch has to withstand the MN of load coming on it by means mechan-
ical or hydraulic presses. Without fracturing the entire load on the punch is
to be transferred to the metal work piece for deforming it.
The allowable compressive load on the punch is
π 2
Fc = d σc
4
where σc is the allowable compressive stress on the punch and d is the

diameter of hole being punched.
The load required for shearing a hole in the metal sheet is
Fs = πdtτs
where τs is the allowable shear strength of the metal sheet, t is the thickness
of the metal sheet and π d is the perimeter of the hole to be sheared.
For shearing the hole,
Fc > Fs
Problems
1. It is required to punch a hole of 10 mm diameter in MS plate of 10 mm
thick. Determine whether it can be made. Shear resistance of MS is 600
MPa and the compression strength of the punch is 2000 MPa. If it is not
possible, what should be done to produce the hole?
Force required to punch the hole
Fs = πdtτs
= 3.14 × 10 × 10 × 600
= 188kN

The force that the punch can withstand without failure

π 2
Fc = d σc
4
3.14
= × 102 × 2000
4
= 157kN
Since Fc < Fs hole cannot be punched with given conditions.
2. It is required to punch a round blank of 250 mm from a 2.5 mm thick

sheet with zero shear angle on the punch. What is the required cutting force?
What is the average pressure required, if the fraction of penetration is 0.3?
Calculate the energy required to punch the blank? Take τs = 80MPa
Force required to punch a round blank
Fs = πdtτs
= 3.14 × 250 × 2.5 × 80
= 157kN
Average force is
Fs
Fav = 1
fp
157
= 1
0.3
= 47.1kN
Energy required is
= Fav × t
= 47.1 × 2.5
= 117.75kJ

Chapter 10
High energy rate forming

processes
High energy rate forming (HERF) processes are much higher order energy
rate flow processes used to deform the materials. As the kinetic energy of a
moving body is proportional to the square of its velocity, a large amount of
energy can be supplied by relatively smaller body moving at a high speed.
The common HERF processes used are
1. Explosive forming
2. Electrohydraulic forming
3. Electromagentic forming
Advantages
1. The parts are made at a rapid rate, so production rates are higher,.
2. Dimensions and tolerances are easily maintained since the parts are
confined to dies only.
3. Possible to deform form most metals including difficult to form metals.
4. One step process, thus eliminating intermediate forming steps.
5. The processes are suitable for both large and small scale production.
129
Limitations
1. Highly skilled labours are required.
2. Not suitable to highly brittle materials.
3. Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled

carefully.
4. Governmental regulations/ procedures / safety norms must be followed.
5. Dies are to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks.
6. Controlling the process is difficult.
Applications
1. In ship building to deform large and thick plates of steels, stainless
steel, aluminium, etc,.
2. Bending of thick tubes and pipes.
3. Elliptical domes used in space applications.
4. Cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals.
Explosive forming
Explosive forming process is carried out by confined (contact) or unconfined
(stand-off) process. In confined explosive forming process the pressure pulse
or shock wave produced is in direct contact with the work piece (usually
tubular) and hence the energy is directly applied on the work without any
water medium. In unconfined explosive forming process, a definite quantity
of explosive is placed suitably in water medium at a definite stand off distance
from the workpiece.
In explosive forming, a shock wave in the fluid medium (normally water)
is generated by detonating an explosive charge. Fig.10.1 and Fig.10.2 shows
a typical explosive forming set up for both confined and explosive forming.
This shock wave deforms the work piece and collapses it into the die. For a

Figure 10.1: Confined explosive forming.
small part the entire shock wave front is utilized in a confined space, whereas
for a large object, only a part of the wave front is utilized. The unconfined
operation is less efficient. However, there is a greater hazard of die failure
in the confined operation due to the inevitable lack of control in explosive
forming.
The explosives used for the process includes trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
dynamite for higher energy and gun powder for low energy. With high explo-
sives placed directly over the workpiece, pressure up to 35 kN/mm2 can be
generated. With low explosives, pressures are limited to 350 N/mm2 . The
distance between the explosive charge and the free surface of water in un-
confined forming should be at least twice the stand-off distance. Otherwise
much energy is lost, lowering down the efficiency of the operation.
Advantages
1. Shock waves are efficiently transmitted through water and energy is

transmitted effectively on the workpiece.

Figure 10.2: Unconfined explosive forming.
2. Less noise.
3. Large and thick parts can be easily formed.
Limitations
1. Optimum stand-off distance is essential for effective and successful
forming operation.
2. Vacuum is essential and hence it adds to the cost.
3. Dies must be larger and thicker to withstand shocks.
4. Not suitable for small and thin works.
5. Explosives must be carefully handled.

Applications
In deforming large and thick plates of steels, stainless steel, aluminium, etc,.
Electrohydraulic forming
Electric discharge in the form of sparks, instead of explosives can be used
to generate a shock wave in a fluid. An operation using this principle of
generating a shock wave is called electrohydraulic forming. A sudden elec-
trical discharge in the form of sparks is produced between electrodes and
this discharge produces a shock wave in the water medium. This shock wave
deforms the work piece and collapses it into the die. The characteristics of
this process are similar to those of explosive forming. Fig.10.3 shows the
electrohydraulic forming process. The major difference, however, is that a
chemical explosive is replaced by a capacitor bank, which stores the electri-
cal energy. The capacitor is charged through a charging circuit. When the
switch is closed, a spark is produced between electrodes and a shock wave
or pressure pulse is created. The energy released is much lesser than that
released in explosive forming.
Advantages
1. Better control of the pressure pulse as source of energy is electrical.
2. Safer in handling than the explosive materials.
3. More suitable if the work size is small to medium.
4. Deforming of thin plates is possible with smaller amounts of energy.
Limitations
1. Suitable only for smaller workpieces.
2. Need for vacuum makes the equipment more complicated.
3. Proper stand-off distance is necessary for effective process.

Figure 10.3: Electrohydraulic forming process.
Applications
Applications includes deforming metal sheets and plates for smaller radar
dish, cone and other shapes in thinner and small size workpieces.
Electromagentic forming
Fig.10.4 shows electromagnetic forming setup. The electrical energy is first
stored in a capacitor bank. This energy is then discharged through a coil by
closing the switch. The coil produces a magnetic field. Since the metallic
workpiece is in this magnetic field, a current is induced in the job which sets
up its own magnetic field. The directions of these fields are such that the
rigidly held coil repels the workpiece into the die, thus assuming die shape.
Advantages

Figure 10.4: Electromagnetic forming process.
1. Suitable for small tubes.
2. Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily done.
3. The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
4. Wide range of applications.
Limitations
1. Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.
2. Not suitable for large work pieces.
3. Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
4. Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.

Applications
1. Crimping of coils, tubes, wires
2. Bending of tubes into complex shapes
3. Bulging of thin tubes.

Chapter 11
Unit-5
Nontraditional machining
processes
Introduction
In modern machining practice, harder, stronger, and tougher materials that
are more difficult to cut are frequently used. More attention is, therefore,
directed toward machining processes where the mechanical properties of the
workpiece material are not imposing any limits on the material removal pro-
cess. The high cost of machining ceramics and composites and the damage
generated during machining are major obstacles to these materials. In addi-
tion to the advanced materials, more complex shapes, low-rigidity structures,
and micromachined components with tight tolerances and fine surface quality
are often needed. Traditional, also termed conventional, machining requires
the presence of a tool that is harder than the workpiece to be machined. This
tool should be penetrated in the workpiece to a certain depth. Moreover, a
relative motion between the tool and workpiece is responsible for forming
or generating the required shape. Traditional machining methods are often
ineffective in machining these parts. This is because traditional machining
is most often based on the removal of material using tools that are harder
than the workpiece. The absence of any of these elements in any machin-
ing process such as the absence of tool-workpiece contact or relative motion,
makes the process a nontraditional one. In this regard, the nonconventional
137
machining techniques came into practice as a possible alternative concern-

ing machinability, shape complexity, surface integrity, and miniaturization
requirements. These methods play a considerable role in the aircraft, auto-
mobile, tool, die, and mold making industries. Non-traditional machining
processes are also known as Modern machining processes.
Classification of nontraditional machining pro-

cesses
The nontraditional machining methods are classified according to the number
of machining actions causing the removal of material from the workpiece.
• Mechanical
1. Ultrasonic machining (USM)

2. Water jet machining (WJM)
3. Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM)
4. Ice jet machining (IJM)
• Thermal
1. Electrodischarge machining (EDM)

2. Electron beam machining (EBM)
3. Laser beam machining (LBM)
4. Ion beam machining (IBM)
5. Plasma beam machining (PBM)
• Chemical and electrochemical
1. Chemical milling (CHM)

2. Photochemical milling (PCM)
3. Electrochemical machining (ECM)

Ultrasonic machining (USM)

Principle
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is the removal of hard and brittle materials us-
ing an axially oscillating tool at ultrasonic frequencies [18-20 kilohertz (kHz)].
During that oscillation, the abrasive slurry of B4 C or SiC is continuously fed
into the machining zone between a soft tool (brass or steel) and the work-
piece. The abrasive particles are, therefore, hammered into the workpiece
surface and cause chipping of fine particles from it. The oscillating tool,
at amplitudes ranging from 10 to 40 µm, imposes a static pressure on the
abrasive grains and feeds down as the material is removed to form the re-
quired tool shape. Balamuth first discovered USM in 1945 during ultrasonic
grinding of abrasive powders.
Fig.11.1 shows a schematic diagram of USM process. The USM process
begins with the conversion of low frequency electrical energy to a high fre-
quency electrical signal, which is than fed to a transducer. The transducer is
a device that converts the high frequency electrical signal to high frequency
linear mechanical motion. The mechanical motion is transmitted to the tool
via a mechanical coupler known as the toolholder. The tool vibrates with a
tool excursion of only a few hundredths of a millimeter in a direction parallel
to the axis of the tool feed. The tool is shaped conversely to the desired hole
or cavity and positioned near but not touching, the surface of the workpiece.
The gap between the vibrating tool and workpiece is flooded with an abrasive
slurry comprising water and small abrasive particles. Material removal oc-
curs when the abrasives particles between the tool and workpiece, are struck
by downstroke of the vibrating tool. The impact from the tool propels the
abrasive particles across the cutting gap causing them to strike the workpiece
with a force. As workpiece is removed, servomotor driven mechanism contin-
uously advances the tool into the newly formed hole to maintain a constant
gap between the tool and workpiece.
Equipment
Fig.11.1 shows the various components of USM. The machining system is
composed mainly power supply, transducer, toolholder (tool cone), tool and
abrasives.

Figure 11.1: Schematic diagram of ultrasonic machining.
Power supply
The power supply used for USM is more accurately characterized as a high
power sine wave generator. It converts a low frequency electrical power to
high frequency electrical power (20 kHz). This electrical signal is then sup-
plied to the transducer for conversion into mechanical motion.
Transducer
The transducer in USM converts electrical energy to mechanical motion.

The two types of transducers are used in USM namely piezoelectric and
magnetostrictive.
Piezoelectric transducers are used in USM, generate mechanical motion
through the piezoelectric effect by which certain materials such as quartz or

lead zirconate titanate will generate a small electric current when compressed.
Magnetostrictive transducers are usually constructed from a laminated stack
of nickel alloy sheets which change length.
Toolholder (tool cone)
Toolholder attaches and hold the tool to transducer. Additionally, the tool-
holder also transmits the sonic energy to the tool. Toolholders are attached
to the transducer by means of a large, loose fitting screw which has intention-
ally oversize threads in the female portion and under size threads in the male
portion. The materials often used to construct the toolholder are Monel,
titanium, and stainless steel.
Tools
During USM, tools are fed toward, and held against, the workpiece by means
of a static pressure that has to overcome the cutting resistance at the interface
of the tool and workpiece. For this purpose, tool tips must have high wear
resistance and fatigue strength. Copper, brass, silver, chromium nickel steel
and chromium silver steel are used as tool materials.
Abrasive slurry
Abrasive slurry is usually composed of 50 percent (by volume) fine abra-

sive grains (100-800 grit number) of boron carbide (B4 C), aluminum oxide
(Al2 O3 ), or silicon carbide (SiC) in 50 percent water. The abrasive slurry is
circulated between the oscillating tool and workpiece.
Applications
1.Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass,
ceramics, carbides etc.
2.Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface im-
pressions.
3. Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies.

Electrical discharge Machining or Electro dis-

charge machining
Principle
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a thermal process that uses spark
discharges to erode electrically conductive materials. A shaped electrode
defines the area in which spark erosion will occur, thus determining the shape
of the resulting cavity or hole in the workpiece.
Fig.11.2 show an EDM process. The electrically conductive workpiece
is positioned in the EDM machine and connected to one of a pulsed power
supply. An electrically conductive electrode, shaped to match the dimen-
sions of the desired cavity or hole, is connected to the remaining pole of
the power supply. In practice, the shaped tool is connected to the negative
polarity and the workpiece is connected to the positive. The electrode and
workpiece are then positioned in such way that a small gap is maintained
between the two. To provide a controlled amount of electrical resistance in
the gap, an insulating (dielectric) fluid is flooded between the electrode and
workpiece. When a pulse of DC electricity is delivered to the electrode and
the workpiece, an intense electrical field is created at the point where surface
irregularities provide the narrowest gap. As a result of this field, naturally
occurring microscopic contaminants suspended in the dielectric fluid begin to
migrate and concentrate at the strongest point in this field. Simultaneously,
negatively charged particles are emitted from the workpiece. Together these
contaminants and particles result in the formation of a high conductivity
bridge across the gap.
As the voltage between the electrode and workpiece increases at the begin-
ning of the pulse, the temperature of the material making up the conductive
bridge increases. A small portion of the dielectric fluid and charged particles
in the conductive bridge vaporizes and ionizes resulting in the formation of a
spark channel between the surfaces. The extremely high temperature of the
spark melts and vaporizes a small amount of material from the surfaces of
both the electrode and the workpiece at the points of spark contact. When
the electrical pulse is terminated, the spark and heating action are stopped
instantly.

Equipment
Fig.11.2 show the main components of the EDM system. These compo-
nents include power supply, dielectric fluids, electrodes (tool), tool feed servo-
controlled unit, which maintains a constant machining gap that ensures the
occurrence of active discharges between the two electrodes.
Power supply
The power supply is an important part of any EDM system. It transforms
the AC from the main utility electrical supply into pulsed DC required to
produce the spark discharges at the machining gap.
Dielectric fluids
The main functions of the dielectric fluid are to
1. Flush the eroded particles from the machining gap.
2. Provide insulation between the electrode and the workpiece.
3. Cool the section that was heated by the discharging effect.
The main requirements of the EDM dielectric fluids are adequate viscos-
ity, high flash point, good oxidation stability, minimum odor, low cost, and
good electrical discharge efficiency.
For most EDM operations kerosene is used with certain additives that
prevent gas bubbles and de-odoring. Silicon fluids and a mixture of these
fluids with petroleum oils have given excellent results. Other dielectric fluids
with a varying degree of success include aqueous solutions of ethylene glycol,
water in emulsions, and distilled water. Flushing of the dielectric plays a
major role in the maintenance of stable machining and the achievement of
close tolerance and high surface quality. Inadequate flushing can result in
arcing, decreased electrode life, and increased production time.
EDM electrodes (Tool)

Metals with a high melting point and good electrical conductivity are usually
chosen as tool materials for EDM. Copper and brass has good EDM wear
and better conductivity. It is generally used for better finishes in the range
of 0.5 µm Ra. Brass ensures stable sparking conditions and is normally
used for specialized applications such as drilling of small holes where the
high electrode wear is acceptable. Graphite is the most common electrode

Figure 11.2: Schematic diagram of electrical discharge machining.
material since it has fair wear characteristics and is easily machinable and
small flush holes can be drilled into graphite electrodes. Copper tungsten and
silver tungsten are used for making deep slots under poor flushing conditions
especially in tungsten carbides. It offers high machining rates as well as low
electrode wear. Copper graphite is good for cross-sectional electrodes. It has

better electrical conductivity than graphite while the corner wear is higher.
Tool feed servo-controlled unit

The servo system is commanded by signals from the gap voltage sensor sys-
tem in the power supply and controls the infeed of the electrode or work-
piece to precisely match the rate of material removal. The tool feed servo-
controlled unit, which maintains a constant machining gap that ensures the
occurrence of active discharges between the two electrodes.
Applications
EDM has become an indispensable process in the modern manufacturing in-
dustry. It produces complex shapes to a high degree of accuracy in difficult-
to-machine materials such as heat-resistant alloys, superalloys, and carbides.
Micromachining of holes, slots, and dies; procedures for surface deposition;
modification; texturing; milling; and mechanical pulsing are typical applica-
tions.

Electrochemical Machining
Principle
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a modern machining process that relies
on the removal of workpiece atoms by electrochemical dissolution in accor-
dance with the principles of Faraday (1833). Gusseff introduced the first
patent on ECM in 1929, and the first significant development occurred in
the 1950s, when the process was used for machining high-strength and heat-
resistant alloys.
In ECM process, a high current, low voltage DC power supply is con-
nected between an electrically conductive tool and workpiece. As shown in
Fig. 11.3, the shaped tool is connected to the negative polarity and the work-
piece is connected to the positive. A conductive electrolyte flows through a
small gap that is maintained between the tool and the workpiece, thus pro-
viding the necessary path for electrolysis. Because the direction of electron
flow is from the workpiece to the tool, material is removed from the work-
piece in a reverse image of the tool. During this time, the electrolyte flows
through the gap at a high velocity removing the deplated workpiece material
before it has a chance to plate onto the tool. When the parameters are prop-
erly selected, the tool experiences no plating buildup or wear. ECM is most
often applied when shaped cavities are machined into alloys that are difficult
to shape by conventional methods. these cavities are quickly produced by
ECM by simply feeding the tool into the workpiece until the required depth
is reached.
ECM equipment
Fig. 11.3 shows the main components of the ECM machine are power supply,
electrolyte and tool.
Power supply
The DC power supply for ECM has the following features
1. Voltage of 2 to 30 volts (V) (pulsed or continuous).
2. Current ranges from 50 to 10,000 amperes (A), which allow current

densities of 5 to 500 A/cm2 .

Figure 11.3: Schematic diagram of electrochemical machining.
3. Continuous adjustment of the gap voltage.
4. Control of the machining current in case of emergency.
5. Short circuit protection in a matter of 0.001 s.
6. High power factor, high efficiency, small size and weight, and low cost.
Electrolytes
The main functions of the electrolytes in ECM are to
1. Create conditions for anodic dissolution of workpiece material.

2. Conduct the machining current.

3. Remove the debris of the electrochemical reactions from the gap.
4. Carry away the heat generated by the machining process.
5. Maintain a constant temperature in the machining region.
The most common electrolytes used are sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium
nitrate (Na N O3 ), sodium hydroxide and, potassium chloride.
Tools
The design of a suitable tool for a desired workpiece shape, and dimension
forms a major problem. The workpiece shape is expected to be greater than
the tool size by an oversize. The material used for ECM tools should be
electrically conductive and easily machinable to the required geometry. The
various materials used for this purpose include copper, brass, stainless steel,
titanium, and copper tungsten. Tool insulation controls the side electrolyzing
current and hence the amount of oversize. Teflon, urethane, phenol, epoxy,
and powder coatings are commonly used for tool insulation
Applications
ECM has been used in a wide variety of industrial applications ranging from
cavity sinking to deburring. The ability to machine high-strength alloys and
hardened steel has led to many cost-saving applications.
Laser beam machining

Principle
Laser beam machining (LBM) is a thermal material removal process that uti-
lizes a high-energy, coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the
surface of metallic and non-metallic workpieces. Laser is the abbreviation of
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. A highly collimated,
monochromatic, and coherent light beam is generated and focused to a small
spot.
Lasers are classified as solid state and gas laser.
Solid state lasers are commonly of the following type

1. Ruby which is a chromium-alumina alloy having a wavelength of 0.7

µm.
2. Nd-glass, Neodymium glass lasers, having a wavelength of 1.64 µm.
3. Nd-YAG, Neodymium-doped Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet laser having

a wavelength of 1.06 µm.
These solid-state lasers are generally used in material processing.
The generally used gas lasers are
1. Helium-Neon
2. Argon
3. CO2 , etc.
Figure 11.4: Schematic diagram of laser beam machining.

The fig.11.4 below shows a schematic view of the laser beam machining
process. A small amount of chromium oxide is added to dope the ruby crystal.
A flash of high intensity light, generally Xenon filled flash lamp is used to
pump the laser. To fire the Xenon lamp a large capacitor is required to be
discharged through it and 250 to 1000 watts of electric power is needed to do
this. The intense radiation discharged from the lamp excites the fluorescent
impurity atoms (chromium atoms) and these atoms reach a higher energy
level. After passing through a series of energy levels when the atoms fall
back from the coated rod ends and make more atoms excited and stimulated
and return to ground level. A stimulated avalanche of light is obtained which
is transmitted through the coated part (80% reflective). This light which is
highly coherent in time and space has a very narrow frequency band, is
highly in phase and quite parallel. If this light is focused in association with
ordinary lenses on the desired spot of the workpiece, high energy density is
gained which helps to melt and vaporize the metal.
Advantages and limitations

Advantages
1. Tool wear and breakage are not encountered.
2. Holes can be located accurately by using an optical laser system for

alignment.
3. Very small holes with a large aspect ratio can be produced.
4. A wide variety of hard and difficult-to-machine materials can be tack-

led.
5. Machining is extremely rapid and the setup times are economical.
6. Holes can be drilled at difficult entrance angles.
7. Because of its flexibility, the process can be automated easily such as

the on the fly operation for thin gauge material, which requires one
shot to produce a hole.
8. The operating cost is low.

Limitations
1. High equipment cost.
2. Tapers are normally encountered in the direct drilling of holes.
3. A blind hole of precise depth is difficult to achieve with a laser.
Applications
Laser can be used in wide range of manufacturing applications,
1. Material removal - drilling, cutting and tre-panning
2. Welding
3. Cladding
4. Alloying
Drilling micro-sized holes using laser in difficult to machine materials is

the most dominant application in industry. In laser drilling the laser beam
is focused over the desired spot size. For thin sheets pulse laser can be used.
For thicker ones continuous laser may be used.

Abrasive water jet machining

Principle
Harder materials such as glass, ceramics, concrete, and tough composites can
be cut by adding abrasives to the water jet during abrasive water jet (AWJ)
machining. The addition of abrasives to the water jet enhanced the material
removal rate and produced cutting speeds between 51 and 460 mm/min.
AWJM accelerate a large volume of a water (70 percent) and abrasive (30
percent) mixture for cutting action of materials. Silicon carbides, corundum,
and glass beads are often used as abrasive materials. In AWJ machining,
material is removed by means of compressive stresses, shear erosion and
cracking created by high velocity abrasive water jet. Material removal is due
to the erosion caused by the impact of high velocity abrasive particles on the
workpiece material.
Abrasive waterjet cutting system

The various components of an AWJ cutting system are:
• Water preparation system
• Pressure generation system
• Cutting head (Nozzle assembly)
• Abrasive feeding system
• Catcher tank
• CNC controlled motion system
A schematic diagram of AWJ cutting system is shown in Fig. 11.5
Water preparation system

The salts and other particles presents in water tend to damage the orifice,
mixing tube, seals and other parts of AWJ machine. It also aids in the for-
mation of scales on the inner wall of the mixing tubes. In order to avoid
these problems and to maintain the quality of water, water preparation sys-
tem is employed. A reverse osmosis (RO) process is used to filter the water.

Figure 11.5: Schematic diagram of abrasive water jet system.
This pure water is stored in the tank and supplied to the pressure generation
system by the booster pump.
Pressure generation system
The purpose of pressure generation system is to generate high pressurised

water at rated rate of flow for delivering it to the cutting head. For achieving
higher pressures, an intensifier or a direct drive pump is used. As the water
from the RO system still has some foreign elements that may damage the
parts of a high pressure pump system. This water is again filtered and
pressured upto 20 MPa using a booster pump and delivered to the intensifier
or direct drive pump for further pressuring to higher pressure.
Cutting head (Nozzle assembly)
The major components of cutting head (nozzle assembly) are orifice, mixing
chamber and focussing nozzle(mixing tube).

In abrasive waterjet cutting head, the hydraulic energy of water is con-

verted into kinetic energy which in turn is transferred to abrasive particles.
Orifice
High pressure water is delivered to the orifice through a tubing from the
accumulator. When the high pressure water is passed through a small orifice,
it is converted into a high velocity jet. Orifice is normally made of sapphire,
ruby or a diamond. The diameter of the orifice is of range 0.05 to 0.5 mm.
It is mounted in a stainless steel or aluminum housing.
Mixing Chamber
Mixing chamber connects the orifice to focusing nozzle. The high velocity
waterjet flowing through the mixing chamber evacuates the air inside the
chamber and creates partial vacuum due to venturi effect. This creates a
suction, which draws the abrasive particles from the abrasive feed system
into the mixing chamber. These particles are further accelerated by the
waterjet. The coherency of waterjet is lost due to its spreading and mixing
with abrasives. To generate a coherent AWJ, the mixture of abrasives and
waterjet is directed through the focusing nozzle.
Focusing Nozzle(Mixing tube)
Due to the mixing of waterjet with abrasives and spreading, the jet loses its
coherency and subsequently loss of energy. To have the coherence of jet, it
is directed through a focusing nozzle. Focusing nozzle is a long tube with
uniform circular cross section through out its length. It is made with hard
and high wear resistant materials like tungsten carbide or boron carbide. In
the focusing nozzle, the abrasive particles after a short acceleration in the
mixing chamber interacts with the waterjet and hit the inner wall of the
focusing nozzle, rebounce and merge again with the waterjet. This happens
several times until the velocity direction of the particles is nearly parallel to
the direction of the jet. The length of the focusing nozzle is important for
producing a long and coherent jet.

Abrasive Feeding System

Abrasives used in AWJ cutting system should possess high hardness and
toughness when compared to the workpiece materials to use them without
much fragmentation. Different types of abrasive materials such as garnet,
silicon carbide, alumina, boron carbide, glass beads, etc are used to cut the
workpiece materials. Normally, garnet is used as abrasive for cutting the
workpiece materials. The abrasive particle diameters range from 239 µm to
124 µm( mesh size #60 to #120). These abrasives are stored in a hopper
and are transported into the mixing chamber by gravity feeding or forced
feeding. Abrasives are transferred from the hopper to the cutting head either
by wet or dry transportation. In wet transportation, a part of the waterjet
energy is used and in dry transportation, air is used as the carrier medium
for delivering abrasives to the cutting head.
Catcher Tank
During cutting, only a part of the total jet energy is utilised and the re-
maining of the energy is dissipated in catcher tank. Usually stainless steel
tank, partially filled with silica sand or abrasives are used. These partially
filled silica sand or abrasives helps in preventing the stainless steel tank from
cutting with AWJ.
CNC controlled motion system

The CNC motion system, based on the contour drawing provides the desired
motion for the cutting head to generate the required contour on the work-
piece. The contour drawing is prepared with the help of a computer system.
The CNC controlled system converts this contour drawing to CNC codes
(machine language) and feed it to the cutting head for AWJ.
Advantages and limitations

Advantages
1. Omni directional cutting.
2. Cool cutting ( no HAZ).

3. No thermal damage.
4. Cutting without delamination.
5. Material of any hardness can be cut.
Limitations
1. Stray cutting
2. High equipment costs.
3. High level of noise.
4. Low nozzle life.
Applications
The AWJ are used in cutting of some materials such as, steels, non-ferrous
alloys, Ti alloys, Ni-alloys, polymers, honeycombs, metal matrix composites,
ceramic matrix composites, concrete, stone, wood, reinforced plastics, metal
polymer laminates, glass fibre metal laminates etc.
AWJ machining can as well be used besides cutting for pocket milling,
turning, drilling etc.

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Contents

10 High energy rate forming processes 129

Manufacturing Technology notes is prepared with the help of

2. Elements of Workshop Technology, Vol: II Machine Tools, S K Hajra

3. Mechanical Metallurgy, George E. Dieter, McGraw Hill Education (In-

4. ASM Hand book, Volume 14B, Metalworking: Sheet forming.

5. Manufacturing Science, Amitabha Ghosh and Ashok Kumar Mallik,

6. Advanced machining processes, Hassan Abdel-Gawad El-Hofy, Mc-

7. Nontraditional manufacturing processes, Gary F. Benedict, Taylor &

Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 2 18th March 2020

Figure 1.1: Representation of Manufacturing Process.

Metal cutting involves, cutting of raw materials to desired shape to transform

Properties of cutting tool

4. Physical and chemical stability

5. Cost and easiness in fabrication

resistance and strength at such a high elevated temperature, which ranges

Physical and chemical stability

Cost and easiness in fabrication

Cutting tool materials

2. High speed steels (HSS)

Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 5 18th March 2020

5. Poly crystalline diamond

6. Cubic boron nitride (CBN)

7. Single crystal diamond

High-speed steels (HSS)

Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 6 18th March 2020

Cemented carbides are so named because they are composed principally of

Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 7 18th March 2020

Cubic boron nitride (CBN)

Dr. Prabhu Swamy N R 8 18th March 2020

at temperatures up to 16500 C. In addition to its hardness the diamond is

Figure 2.1: Cutting tool materials.

Types cutting tools

1. Single point cutting tool ( Turning, facing etc.)

2. Multi point tool ( Milling, Grinding etc.)

Nomenclature of a cutting tool

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Figure 2.2: Single point cutting tools.

Figure 2.3: Multi point cutting tools.

Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool

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Figure 2.4: Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool.

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The base of the tool is the underside of the shank.

End Cutting Edge Angle

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Side Cutting Edge Angle

Nomenclature of Milling Cutter-Multi point cutter

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Secondary Clearance (Relief ) Angle

Radial Rake Angle

Axial Rake Angle

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Figure 2.5: Orthogonal and Oblique cutting.

Differences between Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

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1. Crater wear : Wear on the tool face characterized by the formation of a