Earthworks

EARTHWORKS
involves the loosening, removal, and handling of earth quantities in the construction process

usually involves these processes; excavation, transport, and compaction

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

1. improve load-bearing capacity

2. control shrinkage and swelling

3. reduce permeability or improve permeability (the ability of water to pass through)

IMPORTANCE
1. carried out at an early stage in construction

2. precursor to the more expressive above-ground construction

3. correct execution contributes to ensuring proper foundation construction

4. completion within its allotted timeframe is key to the schedule of the entire project

EARTHWORK TERMS
excavation. the process of moving earth, rock, or other materials with tools, equipment, or
explosives
filling. to place soil or stones at specific places within the site to reach the required level
spreading. a process in which the dumped soil is spread with heavy rakes or hoes to an even
layer which is then compacted
compaction. process of applying mechanical energy to a soil mass to rearrange the particles and
make it dense through the expulsion of air from the voids between the soil grains
leveling. the volumes are small and only small adjustments have to be made to provide a level
base for the road

borrow. suitable soil has to be “borrowed” from outside when the excavated soil within the area
is not sufficient for a fill or embankment
embankment. thick wall of earth that is built to carry a road or railroad track over an area of low
ground

loading. to put in or on something for conveyance or transportation

hauling. the transport of soil, the modes of haulage vary with the distance
unloading. usually done by tipping. tipping vehicles can also spread the soil or gravel

EARTHWORK ACTIVITIES
1. site investigation

the process of determining the surface and subsurface conditions

2. excavation

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 may include cut to cross fill, U-cut, and borrow excavation

3. transport

loading, hauling, and unloading

4. filling and backfilling

filling, including spreading, compaction, and leveling

FACTORS THAT MIGHT AFFECT CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

1. the thickness of vegetation, density, and height of trees

2. disposal of the removed surface materials, particularly in the urban area

3. surface water and drainage system

4. availability of water supply and electric power

5. proximity of major transportation route

6. environmental regulations and zoning ordinances of various government agencies

SITE INVESTIGATIONS
all construction projects require an on-site subsurface exploration to obtain information on
the soil types and properties necessary for designing foundations and planning construction
activities

these can be obtained through the process of boring or test pits utilizing investigative
methods such as:

the depth of boring or test pits

number of boring test pits or geophysical lines

types of boring and penetration tests:

auger boring method — uses the simplest device for boring a hole in the ground

helical auger

iwan or post-hole auger

wash boring method — a piece of metal tube (5-10 cm diameter) is driven to a depth
of 1.5-3.0 meters; the tube or casing is cleared out by a chopping bit, fastened, to the
lower portion of the wash pipe inserted inside the tube or casing

hollow stem auger boring — a truck-mounted driving rig turns the auger into the
ground rapidly to a depth of more than 60 meters using continuous flights of the auger
with a hollow stem where sampling tools are operated. a 6-8 cm diameter auger is
commonly used for this boring operation

rotary drilling — the most rapid method of penetrating highly resistant materials such
as rocks, clay, or even sand. the rotary boring diameter ranges from 5-20 cm

percussion drilling — sometimes called cable tool drilling, is used when washing
boring or auger boring cannot penetrate exceptionally hard strata of soil or rocks

penetrometer — a device used to investigate and measure the consistency of cohesive

deposits or relative density of cohesionless strata without the necessity of drilling and

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 getting samples

dutch cone penetration — the most rapid and economical method in which a 60-
degree cone with a base of 10 sq cm is attached at the bottom of the rod protected by a
casing at a rate of 2cm per second

vane shear test — a testing in which the vane is pushed into the soil and twisted until
the soil is ruptured in a cylindrical form

EXCAVATION

CATEGORIES OF EXCAVATION
1. shallow excavation

a. includes wall footing, independent wall or combined and isolated footings

2. deep excavation

a. total extraction of soil

TYPES OF EXCAVATION: BY MATERIAL

1. topsoil excavation

a. removal of exposed layer of the earth’s surface including vegetation or decaying matter
which is unquitable for bearing structural loads; usually 150 to 300mm in depth

2. earth excavation

a. removal of the layer of soil directly beneath the topsoil, removed material (’spoil’) is
often stockpiled and used to construct embankments and foundations

3. rock excavation

a. required special excavation methods such as drilling or blasting with explosives

4. muck excavation

a. removal of excessively wet material and soil that is unsuitable for stockpilling

5. unclassified excavation

a. removal of a combintion of the above materials, such as where it is difficult to

distinguish between the materials

TYPES OF EXCAVATION: BY CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY

1. site clearing

a. removal of light scrub, trees, existing structures, and topsoil

2. excavation of trenches and foundations

a. small-size excavation where large (bulk) earthmoving paint cannot be used

3. bulk excavation

a. large excavation work that may involve:

i. cut and fill

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 large excavation cuts for roads, canals, large housing projects, and similar
forms of construction

excavated material is usually moved to some other part of the site either for
bulk fill or for general ‘spread and level’ operations

cut to crossfill — the soil is excavated (cut) from one side of the road and used
as fill material at the other. this is an effective form of balancing cut and fill in
rolling terrain without long haulage

u-cut — a cut which is roughly shaped as a U, excavating through a ridge

ii. shallow cut and fill

mainly in roadworks and airfield construction where the level of the site is
reduced to the required formation level

iii. basement

necessary when the building includes a basement which is a part of the

resulting structure that is either partially or completely below ground level

TYPES OF EXCAVATION: BY PURPOSE

1. cut and fill

a. elevated sections of the site are ‘cut’ and moved to ‘fill’ lower sections of the site

2. trench excavation

a. shallow (less or more than 6m deep) may be used to form strip foundations, buried
services, etc. full depth, full length; suitable for long and narrow trenches of shallow
depth such as pipelines and sewers, done using these techniques:

i. full depth — for deep trenches where works can progress in sequence, reducing the
risk of collapse

ii. stage depth — for very deep trenches in confined areas, deep foundations, and
underpiping

3. basement excavation

a. an excavation for basements

4. road excavation

a. typically involves stripping topsoil and cut and fill

5. bridge excavation

a. for the footing and abutments of bridges; subdivided into wet (underwater), dry and
rock excavation

6. dredging

a. removing sediments and debris from below water level, typically from the bottom of
lakes, rivers, harbors, etc.

7. over excavation

a. exceeds depth required for the formation of below-ground structure due to presence of
unsuitable materials that must be removed

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 EXCAVATION SUPPORT
the type and extent of temporary support will depend on these factors:

1. the stability and angle of repose of the subsoil

2. the proximity of the excavation to vehicles, services, and buildings

3. the level of the water table

4. the type/s of subsoil

5. the length of time the excavation will be left open

6. the time of year and weather conditions

Angle of Repose — describes the steepest angle at which material will remain stable without
support. the exact angle of respose will depend on the presence of groundwater, but some typical
angles are:

drained clay: 45 degrees

wet clay: 16 degrees

gravel and dry sand: 40 degrees

wet sand: 22 degrees

the types of support that can be used include:

timber supports: commonly for low-rish, narrow trenches, shafts, or headings

trench boxes: can be placed in pre-excavated trenches in low-rish situations

trench sheers: can be overlapping or interlocking, and are used to provide continuous
support for deeper trenches

ground anchors and rock bolting

caissons: a box-like structure commonly used in projects where work is being carried out in
areas submerged in water

cofferdams: temporary structures used where construction is being carried out in areas
submerged in water. they are most commonly used to facilitate the construction or repai of
dams, piers, and bridges

TIPS FOR EARTHWORKS

suitable “tasks” can be determined after the basic soil properties have been defined

a rough assessment of the volumes of earth to be moved should be made at a very early stage
to facilitate planning (before construction is started)

EXCAVATION PROCESS
1. setting out corner benchmarks

2. surveying ground and top levels

3. excavation to the approved depth

4. dressing the loose soil

5. making up to cut off level

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 6. the construction of dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches

7. making boundaries of the building

8. the construction of protection bunds and drains

EXCAVATION: WHAT TO MEASURE?

1. the amound of soil or rock to be moved

2. the machies needed

3. the required manpower

EXCAVATION: STEPS TO ESTIMATE

1. conduct site investigation to determine the topography or terrain of the site, volume of the
earth or soil, soil type to be excavated, the surrounding structures on your site

2. check the construction shcedule to determine whether or not it is necessary to rent machine
to increase the productivity of the available manpower

3. compute for the cost of the work per area (cu.m)

formula:

cost per cu.m = (cost per hour x total hours) / total cu.m

ADDITIONAL RESEARCH

DEWATERING WELLS and INTERCONNECTING TRENCHES

dewatering is the process of removing water from a construction site and moving it to
another place to make the site safe to work on

methods:

wellpoints — consists of pipes (5-8 cm diameter), wire gauge screen (strainer), header
pipe, and pumping unit. used for depth of 10-15 meters deep; multi-storeyed and high-
rise structures

sump pumping — shallow pumps and ditches are dug at the periphery of area to be de-
watered (uses a pump)

eductor wells — based on wells that are drilled to lower the groundwater level to
provide stable working conditions

deep wells — a hole 45 cm diameter is done around the well point. used at depths
deeper than 15 meters and large excavation areas

PROTECTION BUNDS
bunds are constructed to:

contain the fill, and sometimes, the suspenses solids within the footprint of the reclamation
area or settling pond

control the slope angle of the edge of the reclamation area

imrpove stability of fill placed on soft existing subsoil

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 control the water table within the reclamation area

control flow of discharge water in the fill area

for operational reasons:

support or accommodate pipelines

allow access for equipment

accommodate anchors

compartamentalize reclamation area

allow access to the site

FOOTING TIE BEAM

reinforced concrete beam that connects two or more footings

used to provide additional stability and strength to a building’s footing especially where the
soil is prone to shifting or settling

GROUND BEAM
reinforced concrete beam for supporting walls, joists, etc. at or near ground level; either
resting directly upon the ground or supported at both ends

GRADE BEAM
beams designed to act as horizontal ties between footings or pile caps

reinforcements developed within or beyond the supported column or be anchored within pile
cap or footings

either rests directly on the soil or above the soil spans between piles

PLINTH BEAM
a rectangular stone block that supports the pillars and sub-columns of a building

serves as a wall dividing the ground floor from the ground level

distribute weight of the columns across the foundation uniformly

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