This article was downloaded by: [New York University]

On: 02 February 2015, At: 03:10

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:
1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK

Communications in Soil
Science and Plant Analysis
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lcss20

Plant and soil analysis: An

Australian perspective
a
Lindsay C. Campbell
a
Department of Crop Sciences, Faculty of
Agriculture , University of Sydney , N.S.W.,
2006, Australia
Published online: 11 Nov 2008.

To cite this article: Lindsay C. Campbell (1994) Plant and soil analysis: An
Australian perspective, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis,
25:7-8, 767-780, DOI: 10.1080/00103629409369079

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00103629409369079

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all
the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our
platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors
make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy,
completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any
opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and
views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor
& Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information.
Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
 This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,
reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access
and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-
conditions
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015
 COMMUN. SOIL SCI. PLANT ANAL., 25(7&8), 767-780 (1994)

PLANT AND SOIL ANALYSIS: AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPEC-

TIVE

Lindsay C. Campbell1
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Department of Crop Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney,

N.S.W. 2006, Australia

ABSTRACT: Cropping, horticultural industries, and pastoral enterprises based

on improved pastures occupy only a small percentage of Australia's land mass.
The major part of Australian agriculture is confined to limited zones, usually
within 500 km of the coast, due to rainfall and limited irrigation potential. This is
in stark contrast to the United States with its productive mid-west agricultural belt.
Soil testing and plant analysis are services which have not been widely used
by the horticultural, floricultural, cropping, or improved pastoral enterprises.
Perhaps only 2% of the market has utilized these services. The ratio of soil tests to
plant tests is about 5:1. Regular crop or soil monitoring is rarely practised. The
general economic state of agriculture seems not to influence this markedly. Is this
a function of farmer education or a matter of the quality of the information
obtained by the farmer?
Once a soil test is developed, commercial laboratories tend to be reluctant to
adopt a better or multiple nutrient technique. For example, soil tests for
phosphorus (P) are largely based on the Olsen or Bray methods or modifications
of these methods. One new soil test, lactate for P, may become commercially
available soon for a large region of one state, whereas little interest is expressed in
the development of the Mehlich tests for Australian conditions. For a new method
to be accepted, the onus is mainly on the universities or publicly funded federal or
state agencies to undertake extensive field testing and calibrations before private

1. Visiting Professor of Plant Nutrition, Department of Soil, Crop and Atmospheric Sciences,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853.

767

Copyright © 1994 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 768 CAMPBELL

enterprise considers the adoption of the technique. DPTA seems to be the most
widely used extractant for micronutrient analyses of soils.
Plant testing ideally should be perceived for its preventative and monitoring
capabilities as well as a diagnostic tool for a deficiency or toxicity. Its potential to
examine the complete nutrient status of the plant taking into account nutrient ratios
and interactions has not been widely developed. This is probably due to the lack of
knowledge of plant nutrition in the educational background of advisers and district
agents. Another factor is the slow turn-around time from time of sampling to
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

return of results. Introduction of rapid digestion techniques of plant material,

analyses using inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometer (ICP) and better
management could improve this situation so that plant analysis becomes a regular,
reliable, and powerful tool for crop and pasture nutrient management.
For both plant analysis and soil analysis, improved sampling procedures
would be most beneficial. For soils, it is the number and location of samples in a
paddock and the extractant which require further attention. For plants, it is the
most suitable plant part or type of sample (e.g. leaf or sap) which needs to be
examined.

BACKGROUND
Countries having a geologically old landmass are usually confronted with
fertility levels which are less than optimum for plant growth. Mineral nutrient
deficiencies are often expressed in the vegetation and animal species which are not
adapted to the infertile conditions. Thus indigenous plants may have sufficient
adaptation to grow—albeit slowly —but introduced crop and pasture species,
which are comparatively fast growing and often bred on or adapted to highly
fertile soils, readily succumb to nutrient deficiencies. Since Australia is an ancient
continent, it is not surprising that nutrient deficiencies of nearly all the essential
nutrients have been found in crops and pastures. Nutrient deficiencies in pastures
in particular have resulted in major nutritional problems in sheep, cattle, and other
species (Lee, 1974). Intensive livestock industries, e.g. chicken and pig
production, which depend on grains have also learn the necessity for mineral
nutrient supplements. On account of these factors, both plant and soil analysis
should play a major role in plant and animal production systems in Australia.
In the Australian context, the major cropping and horticultural enterprises are
located in rather narrow bands up to 500 km from the south-western, southern,
and eastern seaboards (Figure 1). Horticultural activities are likely to increase in
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 769
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

F"l Wheat and other crops

i Cotton
• Sugar Cane
^ Intensive Cropping
\ Peanuts

FIGURE 1. Cropping regions of Australia. Adapted from 'Bold Atlas of

Australia' (1983).

the northeastern state of Queensland which has a tropical to subtropical climate;

however, the interior parts of this state belong more to the semi-arid tropics where
opportunity crops such as sorghum are grown. The pastoral zone, based on
improved pastures, is largely coincident with the cropping regions except that the
zone extends a little more inland (Moore, 1970). A more extensive pastoral belt
occurs further into the interior but this is based on native grasses, and native and
some introduced legumes. No fertilizer inputs are used. This country has low
productivity and low stocking rates. The more productive areas are nearer the
coast due to rainfall, and in some areas, the availability of irrigation (Figure 2).
 770 CAMPBELL

500 km
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Less than 400mm

Summer dominant >400mm

Winter dominant >400mm

Elevation above 600m

LCS592rr* 7/9JB

FIGURE 2. Rainfall distribution patterns and regions of elevation greater than

600m in Australia. Adapted from 'Bold Atlas of Australia1 (1983)
and 'Natmap median annual rainfall' (1980).

The rainfall zones in Australia can be broadly subdivided into a winter

dominant rainfall in the southern part and a summer dominant rainfall in the north
of the country (Fitzpatrick and Nix, 1970). In fact, the most northerly regions
have virtually a monsoonal climate. In the wheat belt in eastern Australia, Boer et
al. (1993a) showed that latitudes <32'S were strongly winter dominant areas and
that the variability in rainfall at shorter latitudes results in periods of drought at
crucial stages of crop development and thus impaired yields. Frost, particularly at
anthesis, is another limiting factor for the length of the growing season and
impacts on yield (Boer et al., 1993b). Australian farmers are risk adverse in their
managerial decisions due to the very high variability in climatic variables. Thus,
fertilizer and nutrient management in general are not often given the attention they
deserve.
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 771

Major Agricultural Soils of Australia H i Red-Brown Earth

I Black Earth

I Cracking Clays
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Ironstone/Sand

I Solodised Solonetz
and Solodic Soils

I Other

FIGURE 3. Distribution of major agricultural soils of Australia. Adapted from

Soils: an Australian Viewpoint. (1983) CSIRO. Melbourne.

A factor which contributes to rainfall being confined to the coastal regions is

the low mountains and hills which run virtually the length of the east coast (Figure
2) and also the ranges in the southwest part of the continent. Much of the inland of
Australia is relatively flat and low. By contrast, the United States has substantial
mountain ranges near both east and west coasts but has warm waters to the south
and a large cool land mass (Canada) to the north. These geographical features
enhance the flow of moisture to the midwest of the country thus allowing highly
productive agriculture.

SOILS
Australian soils have been degraded both before and after white settlement
(Hughes and Sullivan, 1986; Jenkin, 1986). Some of the major soil types for
 772 CAMPBELL

cropping and pastoral activities are shown in Figure 3. As the Australian soil
classification system is different to the United States and other world schemes, an
approximation to the United States system is presented in Table 1. Details of
Australian soil classification can be found in Stace et al. (1968) and Northcote et
al. (1975) and keys in Northcote (1979). The black earth and some of the gray
clay soils are generally fertile and are prone to severe cracking in dry conditions
and often have self-mulching properties. These soils tend not to respond to P until
cropping has taken place for many decades; however, if double cropping (one
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

summer and one winter crop in the same year) is practiced for about ten years,
then responses to this element can be demonstrated. This is interpreted in terms of
the rate of release of P from the soil being insufficient to meet the total demand
once the relatively labile pool of P has been utilized. When cropping activities are
less frequent and often with a long fallow or pasture in the rotation, zinc (Zn) is
often one of the first nutrients to be deficient.
Most Australian soils are N deficient. A considerable portion of this N comes
from the use of legumes in rotation with non leguminous species. The traditional
rotation in the winter dominant rainfall zone was a subterranean clover (Trifolium
subterraneum) or medic (Medicago sp.) pastoral phase for three to five years
followed by a cropping phase, e.g. two wheat crops followed by barley. In the
last 25 years, lupins have been introduced as a leguminous crop into the rotations
as well as diversifying into other crops especially oilseeds. With the greater
emphasis on cropping, the use of nitrogenous fertilizers especially urea,
ammonium nitrate, and combined N and P fertilizers has increased substantially. A
ten-fold increase in N usage has occurred in the past 30 years.
Phosphorus deficiency is prevalent throughout the continent. Wheat yields
typically declined late last century as the soil phosphate levels declined. Although
the first responses to P were recorded in 1882, it was not until the 1920s that
superphosphate was used extensively in the production of wheat. The widespread
application of superphosphate to pastures occurred from the 1950s onwards.
Many of the soils in South Australia and Western Australia are deficient in the
trace elements as well as N and P. In the case of the sandy soils, concentrations of
trace elements in soil solution are extremely low and this limited pasture and
animal production in the early part of this century. Addition of trace elements
usually in conjunction with phosphate (superphosphate)—Zn, copper (Cu),
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and cobalt (Co)—has boosted productivity.
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 773

TABLE 1. Major Soil Groups of Agricultural Regions of Australia and

their approximate US Soil Taxonomy Equivalent.

Australian Classification US Soil Taxonomy

Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Equivalent
(approximate)
Black Earth Pellustert,
Chromustert
Red-Brown Earth Natrixeralf,
Rhodoxeralf,
Paleustalf,
Haplustalf
Cracking Clays Torrert,
Chromustert,
Pellustert
Solodic and Solodised Natrustalf,
Solonetz Natrixeralf,
Paleustalf
Sands Quartzipsamment,
Torripsamment,
Xeropsamment
Adapted from Moore et al. (1983)
 774 CAMPBELL

The residual value of these trace element additions is typically five or more years.
In South Australia, some of these trace element deficient soils are calcareous.
Manganese deficiency occurs unless applied frequently, e.g. a soil application
followed by up to three foliar applications (Hannam et al., 1984; Reuter et al.,
1988).

ANALYTICAL SERVICES
Plant and soil analytical services across the nation undertake about 170,000
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

determinations annually (Peverill, 1993). Plant samples only account for 20% of
the analyses. Data from the United States show that soil samples comprise about
75% of the analyses (Jones, 1993a) so the Australian experience is not atypical.
However, approximately half of the samples come from a single state, Western
Australia (Peverill, 1993), which is far beyond the relative agricultural production
of this state to that of the nation. Samples from commercial enterprises are
probably less than that for research purposes (Handson and Shelley, 1993). As
the number of farms in Australia is about 200,000 and that more than a single
sample is sent from a farm, the conclusion drawn is that market penetration for
these analytical services is low. Good data on the usage of plant and soil analytical
services by horticultural, floricultural, cropping, and pastoral enterprises are not
readily available. It is likely that the more intensive industries rely more on these
services than the broadacre establishments.
Although growth in analytical services has occurred during the last decade, the
question must be posed as to why market penetration is small. Several hypotheses
are advanced: (i) the slow turn around time, (ii) reliability of results particularly in
relation to sampling procedures rather than the analytical procedures, (iii) lack of
clear communication of the benefits of soil and plant testing and especially the use
of these services in prevention and crop monitoring, (iv) interpretation of results,
(v) use of antiquated units of measurement, and (vi) comparison of analytical
results from different laboratories can not occur because of unstated testing
method; Most of these factors lead to loss of confidence or acceptance of the
value of the service—with the exception of propositions (ii) and (iv)—the others
can be rectified readily. A recent conference in Australia highlighted many of these
factors (Soil and Plant Analyses Council, 1993)
The anecdotal evidence is that many farmers, especially floriculturalists, send
sampk s by overnight air freight to the United States for analysis on account of the
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 775

fast turn-around time. The results are sent by facsimile to the grower. With
modern instrumentation, e.g. microwave digestion and ICP, the old batch-wise
procedures become less relevant. A fast turn-around time is essential for this type
of service.

SAMPLING AND TESTING PROCEDURES

There is still a considerable need throughout the world for better sampling
procedures for both soil and plant samples. Much has been written on this topic
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

but good universal solutions have not yet been found. For plant samples, it is
generally accepted that samples of a leaf (or petiole) of a given physiological age
are better indicators of nutrient status than whole plant samples. For soil samples,
the problem of obtaining a representative sample is still of paramount importance.
The relative contributions of the topsoil and subsoil are often neglected. For soils
where phosphate fertilizers have been added to the topsoil, sampling the topsoil is
likely to be more important. For micronutrients, investigation of the subsoil may
be found to be more profitable since very deep placement of micronutrients has
been shown to be beneficial (Graham and Asher, 1994).
There has been considerable reluctance to introduce new soil tests which
partially stems from problems of field calibration. Comparisons between soil test
extractants need to be made as has been done for the coastal plains soils of the
United States (Gascho et al, 1990). Soil tests are generally developed by non-
profit organizations, e.g. universities or publicly funded agencies which do not
receive grant money for extensive field testing. As a consequence, the tests are not
widely calibrated in the field. Commercial laboratories, whose clients are widely
scattered, are reluctant to undertake these field calibrations and often state that the
responsibility for these calibrations lies with the other party. A combined
approach would be very beneficial to all concerned. Calibrations should be
published with some estimate of reliability, i.e. confidence limits need to be
explicitly shown. If this were done, credibility of the service would be developed
in the long term by the client. Little investigation on the use of the Mehiich tests is
being undertaken. For micronutrients, DPTA is the extractant of choice, although
great care should be taken in the interpretation of results from this test (Evans,
1988; O'Connor, 1988). An excellent handbook is available for soil testing
methods from the Soil and Plant Analysis Council (1992).
However, two new soil tests are being adopted commercially. One test is the
lactate test for P (Holford and Doyle, 1992) and the other test for sulfur (S) in
 776 CAMPBELL

pastoral land (Blair et al., 1991). The use of the P-test strips developed by Menon
et al. (1989, 1990) should be evaluated for the Australian context. It is possible
that the effectiveness of the P-test strips may diminish due to the variability in
rainfall (Holford et al., 1988). Notwithstanding the new lactate test for P, the
most frequent tests for this nutrient are based on the Olsen test (or some
modification of it) or on one of the Bray tests.
The new S soil test proposed by Blair et al. (1991) uses potassium chloride
(0.25M KC1) as the extractant and is an improvement over the monocalcium
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

phosphate extractant. Potassium chloride extracts sulfate esters from the soil.
Results indicate a greater stability of the test over a range of Australian soil types
and that the critical levels for pastures are very tight (6.4 to 6.6 mg/kg).
The measurement of soil pH is not necessarily a standardized procedure and
pH values can be quite disparate depending on whether the measurement is made
in water or a salt solution—usually calcium or potassium chloride (Sumner,
1994). Within the Australian context, measurement in calcium chloride in a 1:5
(soil.-solution) ratio predominates in recent times. In the Australian Nutrient
Database (a computer database), Campbell and Farrell (1992) make provision for
different methods, viz. extraction in water, calcium chloride, etc. As liming is
becoming of increasing importance (Merry et al., 1990; Cumming, 1991), it is
desirable that pH is measured in both water and salt solutions.
Mostly plant tissue is digested in nitric and perchloric acids for mineral
nutrients (Sale and Campbell, 1980; Reuter et al., 1982; Robson et al., 1984), or
occasionally dry ashed (Alva et al., 1991), and subsequently analyzed by atomic
absorption spectrometry or ICP. Some commercial laboratories use only nitric acid
but there is always a risk of incomplete digestion for trace elements. With the
advent of microwave digestion techniques, oxidation with perchloric acid is
probably not advisable. Nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide are favored oxidants
for microwave digestions (Kalra et al., 1989; Rechcigl and Payne, 1990).
Microwave digestion of plant material has one potential limitation, viz. sample
weights for digestion are 50% or less than conventional techniques. Therefore, the
importance of obtaining a representative sample for analysis must be stressed.
Boron (B) and chloride (Cl) are extracted only in water. Nitrogen is analyzed by a
Kjeldahl, near infrad reflectance (NIR), or Dumas method, methods that are well
described by Jones (1991).
Sampling for tissue analysis has been recently reviewed by Robinson (1993).
Experience in my laboratory has consistently shown the need for sampling the
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 777

most responsive plant part and taking those samples from plants of the same
physiological age. Tissue testing after anthesis has been unreliable for both
macronutrients and micronutrients in cereals and soybeans (Campbell, unpub-
lished data). Sap tests have not been dealt with in this overview, a they are more
likely to be useful as qualitative guides than as good quantitative predictors.
Nitrogen status of cotton by petiole sap analysis is currently used by farmers. On
the other hand, a test kit for the determination of the P status of plants using
expressed sap has turned out to be a commercial disaster.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

INTERPRETATION AND TRAINING

Jones (1993b) has recently reviewed interpretative systems of soil and plant
analysis in the United States. Given the mandated requirements (in some states in
the United States) on fanners to have some analytical test performed when
fertilizer is used, experts in the field will be required. Training of suitably trained
personnel is a high priority in any soil or plant analysis program. Advisors are
more likely to be generally trained in agricultural science with perhaps a major in
agronomy or soils than having had specific qualifications in soil testing or plant
analysis. The interpretation of data is a very important aspect which must not be
neglected. Is accreditation the way? The formation of Australian Soil and Plant
Analysis Council, which this author hopes will become closely affiliated with its
United States counterpart, may serve a role for commercial laboratories. At the
moment, the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science has only one certified
course in plant nutrition—this author's course.

CONCLUSIONS
Plant and soil analytical services are likely to expand in the future. They
should be seen as complementary tests. Preventative plant and soil nutrition
should be practised more widely rather than using them as diagnostic tools. The
detection of hidden hunger in crops and pastures before clinical symptoms appear
is an important but overlooked use of plant analysis. All too often plant analysis is
resorted to as a post mortem rather than emphasizing its preventative and monitor-
ing roles. This will become increasingly important as environmental issues must
be taken into account in any well managed agricultural enterprise. The need for
fast turn-around times is paramount if the benefits of these services are to be
captured and for these services to be creditable. Likewise well trained and well
informed personnel are necessary such services are to be successful.
 778 CAMPBELL

REFERENCES:

Alva, A.K., D.G. Edwards, and C.J. Asher 1991. Effects of acid soil infertility
factors on mineral composition of soybean and cowpea tops. J. Plant Nutr.
14:187-203.
Blair, G.J., N. Chinoin, R.D.B. Lefroy, G.C. Anderson, and G.J. Crocker.
1991. A soil sulfur test for pastures and crops. Aust. J. Soil Res. 29:619-
626.
Boer, R., D.J. Fletcher, and L.C. Campbell. 1993a. Rainfall patterns and
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

predictions for a major wheat growing region of Australia. Aust. J. Agric.

Res. 44:609-624.
Boer, R., L.C. Campbell, and D.J. Fletcher. 1993b. Characteristics of frost in a
major wheat growing region of Australia. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 44:1731-
1743.
Campbell, L.C. and R.A. Farrell. 1992. AND - Australian Nutrient Database.
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

Cumming, R.W. 1991. Long-term effects of lime in extensive pasture areas of

Australia. Dev. Plant Soil Sci. 45:453-464.
Fitzpatrick, E.A. and H.A. Nix. 1970. The climatic factor in Australian grassland
ecology, pp. 3-26. IN: R.M. Moore (ed.) Australian Grasslands. Australian
National University Press, Canberra, Australia.
Evans, A. 1988. Changes in DPTA-Fe levels in a loamy sand as influenced by
ionic strength. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant. Anal. 19:215-223.
Gascho, G.J., T.P. Gaines, and C.O. Plank. 1990. Comparison of extrac- tants
for testing coastal plain soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 21:1051-1077.
Graham, R.D. and J.S. Asher. 1994. Nutritional limitations of subsoils.
Proceedings 12th International Colloquium on Plant Nutrition. Perth, Western
Australia. Klewer Academic (in press).
Handson, P.D. and B. Shelley. 1993. A review of plant analysis in Australia.
Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 33: (in press).
Hannam, R.J., W.J. Davies, R.D. Graham, and J.L. Riggs. 1984. The effect of
soil and foliar-applied manganese in preventing the onset of manganese
deficiency in Lupinus angustifolius (Split seed symptoms). Aust. J. Agric.
Res. 35:529-538.
Holford, I.C.R. and A.D. Doyle. 1992. Influence of intensity/quantity charac-
teristics of soil phosphorus tests on their relationships to phosphorus
responsiveness of wheat under field conditions. Aust. J. Soil Res. 30:343-
356.
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS IN AUSTRALIA 779

Holford, I.C.R., E.J. Corbin, C.L. Mullen, and J. Bradley. 1988. Effects of
rainfall variability on the efficacy of soil phosphate tests for wheat on semi-
arid soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. 26:201-209.
Hughes, P.J. and M.E. Sullivan. 1986. Aboriginal landscape, pp. 117-133. IN:
J.S. Russell and R.F. Isbell (eds.) Australian Soils: The Human Impact.
University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Australia.
Jenkin, J.J. 1986. Western civilization in Australian soils: The human impact, pp.
134-156. IN: J.S. Russell and R.F. Isbell (eds.) Australian soils: The
Human Impact. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia, Australia.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Jones, J.B. 1991. Kjeldahi Method for Nitrogen Determination. Micro-Macro

Publishing, Athens, GA
Jones, J.B. 1993a. Perspectives, issues, and trends in soil and plant testing in the
United States. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. (in press).
Jones, J.B. 1993b. Modern interpretation systems for soil and plant analysis in
the United States. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. (in press).
Kalra, Y.P., D.G. Maynard, and F.G. Radford. 1989. Microwave digestion of
tree foliage for multi-element analysis. Can. J. For. Res. 19:981-985.
Lee, H.J. 1974. Trace elements in animal production, pp. 39-54. IN: D.J.D.
Nicholas and A.R. Egan (eds.) Trace Elements in Soil-Plantanimal Systems.
Academic Press, New York, NY.
Menon, R. G., S.H. Chien, and L.L. Hammond. 1989. Determination of plant-
available phosphorus by the iron hydroxide-impregnated filter paper. Soil Sci.
Soc. Amer. J. 53:110-115.
Menon, R. G., L.L. Hammond, and H.A. Sissingh. 1989. Determination of
plant-available phosphorus by the iron hydroxide-impregnated filter paper.
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 53:110-115.
Merry, R.H., K.G. Tiller, and A.F. Richards. 1990. Variability in charac-
teristics of some acidic pasture soils in South Australia and implications for
lime application. Aust. J. Soil Res. 28:27- 38.
Moore, A.W., R.F. Isbell, and K.H. Northcote. 1983. Classification of
Australian soils, pp. 253-266. IN: Soils: An Australian Viewpoint. CSIRO,
Melbourne, Australia.
Moore, R.M. (ed.). 1970. Australian Grasslands. Australian National University
Press, Canberra, Australia
Northcote, K.H. 1979. A Factual Key for the Recognition of Australian Soils. 4th
edition. Rellim Technical Publishers, Glenside, South Australia.
Northcote, K.H., R.F. Isbell, C.H. Thompson, and E. Bettenay. 1975. A
Description of Australian Soils. CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia.
 780 CAMPBELL

O'Connor, G.A. 1988. Use and misuse of the DPTA soil test. J. Environ. Qual.
17:715-718.
Peverill, K.I. 1993. Soil testing and plant analysis in Australia. Aust. J. Exp.
Agric. 33: (in press).
Rechcigl, J.E. and G.G. Payne. 1990. Comparison of a microwave digestion
system to other digestion methods. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 21:2209-
2218.
Reuter, D.J., A.M. Alston, and J.D. McFarlane. 1988. Occurrence and correction
of manganese deficiency in plants, pp. 205-224. IN: R.D. Graham, R.J.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 03:10 02 February 2015

Hannam, and N.C.Uren (eds.) Manganese in Soils and Plants. Klewer

Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Germany.
Reuter, D.J., J.F. Loneragan, A.D. Robson, and D. Plaskett. 1982. Zinc in
subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L. cv. Seaton Park. I. Effects of
zinc supply on distribution of zinc and dry weight among plant parts. Aust. J.
Agric. Res. 33:989-999.
Robinson, J.B. 1993. Plant sampling - a review. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 33: (in
press).
Robson, A.D., J.F. Loneragan, J.W. Gartrell, and K. Snowball. 1984. Diagno-
sis of copper deficiency in wheat by plant analysis. Aust. J. Agric. Res.
35:347-358.
Sale, P.W.G. and L.C. Campbell. 1980. Patterns of mineral nutrient accumu-
lation in soybean seed. Field Crops Res. 3: 157-163.
Soil and Plant Analyses. 1993. Review papers. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 33(8) (in
press).
Soil and Plant Analysis Council. 1992. Handbook of Reference Methods for Soil
Analysis. Soil and Plant Analysis Council, Athens, GA.
Stace, H.C.T., G.D. Hubble, R. Brewer, K.H. Northcote, J.R. Sleeman, and
Mulcahy, M.J. 1968. A Handbook of Australian Soils. Rellim Technical
Publishers, Glenside, South Australia.
Sumner, M.E. 1994. Methods for measuring soil pH. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant
Anal. 25(7-8) this issue.