Lecture No.: ….

– Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION:

Business organisations are today faced with a lot of challenges arising from rapid changes in the
political, economic, social, and technological spheres. These changes constantly bring about
modifications in the internal and external business environments. The response to the challenges
imposed by the changes alluded to, lies in training and development (T and D) of company personnel.
Effective T & D has an outstanding influence over the behaviours, skills, knowledge, potentials and
capabilities of employees. Thus, it (T & D) acts as a formidable tool for dealing with the complex
nature of challenges that confront organisations. As a result of this, the value system and attitude of
employers vis-à-vis T & D has undergone drastic change for the better.

In the early nineties, only a few isolated cases of training programmes were organized from time to
time for supervisors, newly promoted personnel, and trainees in some organisations. It was not clear if
management really believed in the intrinsic value of training and its contribution to the development of
the employees. Today, on the contrary, training is being increasingly viewed not only as a means of
fostering the growth of individual employees but as an integral part of organizational growth. That is to
say, the modern training outlook is the meshing of organizational growth with individual growth.

The need for employee T & D in organizations has grown drastically in recent years to the extent that
training has become booming business. Five factors help to explain this rise in importance:

 The creation of new jobs and the obsolescence of existing ones caused by the rapid rate of
technological change;
 Management attitudes towards maximizing available human resources;
 Employees’ expectations of challenge and growth opportunities on the job;
 Human rights legislation and a growing awareness of the need to provide opportunities for
women, native people, and foreigners;
 The existence of government-funded training programmes.

1 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

2. SCOPE AND NATURE OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

2.1. Definitions:

T & D encompasses three main activities, namely, education, training, and development. Although
some authors have argued that these ideas are synonymous, it is however, generally held by
practitioners that, the three deal with separate, though interrelated, activities. The three terms are now
defined below:

(a) Education: Education is a process of undertaking long-term learning activities aimed at

preparing individual persons for a variety of roles in society - as citizens, employees as
well as members of family groupings. The focus of ‘education’ is primarily on the
individual’s needs, and secondly on the needs of society as a whole. Individuals’ needs
include: the need to be literate; to be prepared for some occupation; and the need to
make the most of one’s talents. And society’s needs include: the need for respect for
law and order; and the need to sustain economic growth by utilizing the citizens’ talents.
(b) Training: Training refers to any learning activity which is directed towards the
acquisition of specific knowledge and skills for the purposes of an occupation or task;
the focus is a job or task. Examples of training needs are: the need to have efficiency
and safety in the operation of particular machines or equipment; the need for an
effective sales force; and the need for competent management in the organization. This
activity is both focused upon, and evaluated against, the job that an individual currently
holds.
(c) Development: Development refers to any learning activity which is directed towards
future needs rather than present needs, and which is concerned more with career growth
than immediate performance. The focus of development tends to be primarily on an
organization’s future manpower requirements, and secondly on the growth needs of
individuals in the workplace. Examples of development needs include the need for
managers to be able to utilize the facilities offered by microcomputers in the operation
of the business, the need for replacing senior staff with potential candidates from within
the organization, and the need for preparing employees to accept change.

2 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

This activity focuses upon the activities that the organization employing the individual,
or that the individual is part of, may partake in the future, and is almost impossible to
evaluate.
2.2. Distinction between Training and Development:

Although the terms ‘training’ and ‘development’ are used almost interchangeably with reference to
individual employees, there are, however, distinctions of emphasis and scope between them. Generally,
training is regarded as applying principally to the acquisition of skills and hence learning how to
perform specific tasks; while development is an unfolding process carried on as a form of growth and
maturation. Training is more a short term process of utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by
which non-managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for definite purposes.
Development on the other hand is a long term educational process, utilizing a systematic and organized
procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general
purposes.

The distinctions are depicted in the following table:

Training Development
(a)Usually a short term process; (a)invariably an on-going long term process;
(b) imparted mostly to non-managerial personnel; (b) designed mainly for managers and executives;
(c) Confined generally to the area of hands-on and (c) Relating more broadly to the level of
technical skills. interpersonal and decision-making skills.

3. HOW TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANIZATIONAL

EFFECTIVENESS:

There is no doubt that T & D contributes to the effectiveness of an organization as demonstrated in the
discussion below.

T & D provide employees with the knowledge and skills they need to remain qualified for their jobs.
Periodic training is often necessary because the nature of a job may change to include new

3 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

responsibilities, performance standards, equipment, or work methods. For many jobs, T & D are
essential simply to keep the job-holders abreast with current developments in their fields.

The Zambia Institute for Human Resource Management (ZIHRM), an association for Human Resource
(HR) practitioners, plays a leading role in advising individuals and organizations as to what type of T &
D may be needed in view of the HR trends in the country and world over. It is continually informed
about the changing legal requirements and the new techniques and methods for dealing with the various
personnel functions – which information it in turn disseminates to stakeholders.

Training is also often necessary for individuals in order to remain qualified because integral skills may
be rarely used on the job. For example, a police officer must periodically take target practice to
maintain skill in using a gun. Besides assuring a qualified work force, T & D can increase
organizational effectiveness by helping to raise many employees’ performance capabilities beyond
merely acceptable levels. A more skilled labour-force allows an employer to adopt advanced
technologies and higher production standards.

T & D programs attract employees who are interested in career growth and upward mobility. Many
employers, especially large organizations, use their training programs to help recruit employees. When
promotional opportunities in an organization are good, development programs help to retain valuable
employees, thus reducing the high costs of turnover.

T & D programs can play a major role in organization development programs aimed at improving
organizational effectiveness. Organization development (OD) is a long-term process of changing
employees’ attitudes and behavior so that the members of the organization can interact better. By
improving interpersonal relations within the organization, OD seeks to improve the effectiveness of its
operation and its ability to cope with change.

4. PROCESS OF EFFECTING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT:

4.1. Determining training and development needs:

Ideally, training ought to be imparted as and when a need arises. Hence, prior to the formulation of a
training program, it is important that training needs are carefully and systematically determined or

4 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

identified. Areas where training could bring about tangible and, lasting, benefits must be defined in
clear-cut terms. If this effort remains vague or ambiguous, the organization might end up wasting its
resources such as time and money.

It is with this in mind that McGhee and Thayer developed a model in 1961 for identifying training
needs. This model advocates a three-pronged approach, viz: organizational anaylysis, task analysis, and
employee analysis.

4.1.1. Organizational analysis:

This is an attempt to turn the searchlight on the organization as a whole. Without doubt, training needs
must be looked at against the backdrop of organizational objectives and strategies. Unless this is done,
time and money may well be wasted on training programmes that do not advance the cause of the
organization. People may be trained in skills that they already have or the training budget may be
utilized on frivolously in giving employees some rest and entertainment instead of providing them with
required inputs or allocation may be frittered away on frills and fancies without meeting the real needs
of personnel.

This is the reason why a comprehensive analysis of organizational structure, objectives, culture,
processes of decision-making, future objectives and human resource needs to be made. The analysis
will assist in pin-pointing deficiencies and weaknesses and the kinds of mechanisms that would be
evolved in order to minimize them.

Along with this, an analysis of the organization’s external environment and internal climate is also
essential. Trends in union activities, accidents, illnesses, turnover, absenteeism and on-the-job
employee behavior – all provide relevant information as well as vital clues as to the areas where
training can provide supportive therapy to cure debilitating weaknesses within and without the system.

The entire analysis begins with an understanding of the short term and long term good of the
organization as a whole and for each department (and / or section as the case may be) specifically.
Essentially there are three requirements:

 Are there an adequate number of people to fulfill organizational objectives?

5 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

 Are these people equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge and is the general level of
their performance up to the required standard?
 Does the prevailing organizational climate provide a wholesome environment for the fulfilling
of the tasks and objectives?

A number of approaches can be used to arrive at meaningful conclusions to each of the above
queries. Some of these are state below:

(a) Observing employees

(b) Listening to employees
(c) Asking supervisors about employees
(d) Examining the problems that employees have
(e) Attitude surveys
(f) Performance assessments
(g) Assessment of the company’s public image
(h) Taking a fresh look at rules, procedures, and systems, etc.

Analysis of the data obtained from the above approach would provide valuable guidelines and clues as
to the training needs required – whether in attitude, knowledge, or skills.

4.1.2. Task analysis:

This requires a careful examination of the jobs to be performed after training. Four basic steps are
involved here:

 A systematic collection of information that explains and elaborates the details of how jobs are
done;
 This leads to the setting of standards of performance for various jobs;
 An examination of existing or better methods of doing jobs so that prescribed standards are met;
 Exploration of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics necessary for effective
task performance.

Essentially, therefore, task analysis entails a detailed examination of jobs, their components, various
operations required to be performed and the conditions under which they are to be carried out. The

6 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

focus here is on the task rather than on the individual performance and the objective is to derive some
concrete notions about training need for task performance. An analysis of the jobs and their various
components give us clear pointers as to the requirement of skills and knowledge as well as attitudes
that need to be included in employees.

4.1.3. Employee analysis:

So far the picture about T & D in Zambia looks positive. However, a question may be raised as to
whether or not the people are getting the T & D they really need. Stone and Meltz (1983) observe that
sometimes employees undertake unnecessary or needless trainings. According to them such (needless)
trainings occur for several reasons:

 management identifies a performance deficiency and incorrectly labels it as a problem that can
be remedied through a training program; e
 employees are taught material or skills they already know;
 An existing, popular training program is purchased by an organization and used, whether or not
it satisfies an identified training or development need.

Unmet T & D needs can be identified and needless, inappropriate training eliminated if a thorough
training-needs assessment is conducted. The purpose or any such assessment is to discover and
describe any individual, unit, or organizational performance problem for which training is an
appropriate solution. Such a problem may be anticipated, as in the case of employees whose career
goals indicate the desire to move up in the organization. A training need exists whenever existing or
expected performance problems are caused by employees’ deficiencies in knowledge or skills.

4.2. Analyzing Performance Problems

Here is a case study (example) to help illustrate an analysis of performance problems. A Miss Womba
Kamboyi of Cho Chi Chu Investments Limited, has been identified by her supervisor as having a
performance problem with one aspect of her job, namely, packing beverages. She is required to pack
six beverages per minute with no breakage. Unfortunately, after three months on the job, she is still
able to pack only four beverages per minute, and she breaks an average of two per day. Evidently, Miss
Kamboyi has performance problems, but does it require a training solution? Stone and Meltz (1983),

7 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

suggest a method for analyzing performance problems. It consists of a series of questions representing
key determinations.

First, describe the performance problem and determine whether it is important enough to merit
attention. If it is important, determine whether it is caused by a skill or knowledge deficiency. (A key
question in this determination is “Could the employee do it if he or she really had to, if a life depended
upon it?”) If the problem is caused by a true skill or knowledge deficiency, training may be an
appropriate solution. If Miss Kamboyi has been trying very hard but still is unable to master this
activity, her problem falls in this category.

Next, consider whether the employee has ever performed the task adequately. Miss Kamboyi has not,
so her performance problem falls into this category. If performance has never been adequate, a formal
training program is an appropriate solution, assuming that the employee is trainable. Another
appropriate solution is to simplify the job so that the employee’s existing knowledge or skills are
adequate for the task. For example, using a different kind of packing material might increase Miss
Kamboyi’s packing speed. Or the company could lower performance standards to allow for some
breakage and fewer parts packed per minute.

4.3. Specifying training objectives

After determining training needs, T & D professionals specify training objectives, which describe what
trainees will be able to do upon completion of training. Stone and Meltz (1983) list three
characteristics of a useful instructional objective:

 it should define the behavior that will be accepted as evidence that the trainee has mastered the
objective;
 it should specify the important conditions under which the performance is expected to occur;
and
 It should specify a level of performance that will be considered acceptable.

8 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

4.4. Designing a Training programme:

Designing a training program involves four major considerations: the area of training content; the
extent to which the program incorporates key learning principles; trainees’ characteristics; and cost
factors.

4.4.1. Training program content:

Training program content can be divided into four basic areas, each representing a type of behavior or
material to be learned as follows: information acquisition; motor skills; interpersonal skills and attitude
change; and decision-making and problem-solving skills. Training needs can be classified into one or
more of these four areas. In practice, though, training programs often incorporate more than one area.
For example, training first-line supervisors includes all of them except motor skills.

(a) Information acquisition: One of the most common training needs is to provide employees
with information relevant to their jobs. Such information frequently concerns new company
policies, programs, or benefits, new laws and regulations affecting jobs, or new job
performance standards.
(b) Motor skills: Motor skills are related to the performance of specific physical activities.
Learning these skills involves learning to move various parts of the body in response to
specific external and internal stimuli. Common motor skills are walking, riding a bicycle,
tying a shoelace, throwing a ball, and driving a car. To learn a motor skill, one must first
acquire information so that one knows what on should do, then how to perform that action.
Practice and performance feedback are necessary. For example, one cannot learn to dance
from simply reading a book or watching a film; one must actually perform the activity in
order to master it.
(c) Interpersonal skills and attitude change: Interpersonal skills constitute the behavior
necessary for interaction with others in work and non-work situations. Examples of
interpersonal skills include listening, persuading, and showing understanding of others’
feelings. Since interpersonal skills are frequently used to influence others, changing other’s
attitudes is included in this area of training content. Acquiring interpersonal skills is also
useful in developing leadership and bargaining skills.

9 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

(d) Decision-Making and Problem-Solving: decision-making and problem-solving focus on

methods and techniques for making organizational decisions and solving work-related
problems. This kind of learning improves trainees’ abilities to define and structure
problems, collect and analyze information, generate alternative solutions, and make an
optimal decision from among alternatives. Training of this type is often provided to
potential managers, supervisors, and professionals.

4.4.2. Incorporating Key Learning Principles

Since learning is the goal of any training effort, a second consideration in training program design is
the extent to which it incorporates key learning principles. Learning principles (also called training
principles) are guidelines to the ways in which people learn most effectively. Some training methods
incorporate them to a greater extent than others. And depending on the area of training content, certain
learning principles may be more important than others. The following are the key learning principles.

(a) Participation: Learning is usually faster and longer-lasting when the learner can participate
actively in the learning process. People learn:
 30% of what they hear;
 50% of what they see; and
 80% and above, of what they hear, see and do

NB: “When I hear I forget; when I see I remember; and when I do it becomes part of me”.

The import from the above message is that participative learning is not only faster, but also
lasts longer in the learner’s mind. Thus T & D programmes should include sufficient
activities which enable trainees to participate effectively, because through participation they
are able to learn faster and to retain what they have learnt for a longer period of time. After
all the trainees in seminars and workshops are popularly known as participants, not
listeners!

(b) Relevance: A trainee learns well if he is convinced that what he is learning makes sense to
him. This is why it is important that in employee training programmes trainers spend
sufficient time to explain to the participants the overall purpose of the programme, its

10 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

design, and what they are expected to benefit from it, before going into the specific tasks.
Feedback: The most basic learning principles are feedback, or knowledge about one’s
performance. It is difficult to imagine learning occurring without feedback. For example,
imagine learning archery without being permitted to see if you hit the target. Feedback
serves two major functions in the learning process: it lets learners know whether they are
performing correctly, and it reinforces desired behavior.
(c) Repetition or Practice: The learning of specific behavior is the result of reinforced practice
or experience. Practice is defined as repetition or rehearsal in order to remember or improve
a response, a behavior, or material. Repetition or doing the same thing over and over again
creates a pattern in the learner’s memory, which helps him to master what is learned, fast.
A learner, who gets opportunities of repeating what he leans many times, has more chances
of mastering his material within a shorter period and for a longer time than the learner with
one or fewer opportunities for repetition. The English saying “practice makes perfect”
confirms this logic.
(d) Transfer of learning: Transference refers to how applicable the training is to the trainee’s
actual job situation. The learner learns and masters his job faster, if he can closely match
the demands of his training programme to the demands of his job. A person learning how to
drive a motor vehicle should not be trained on riding a motor cycle because the trainee
cannot transfer directly the tasks and conditions of motor cycle riding to motor vehicle
driving. The “bottom line” in any training program is whether the learning acquired there is
properly transferred to the job. When learning from one situation (such as a training
program) is successfully applied to a different situation (such as the job), positive transfer is
said to occur. Transfer can also be neutral or negative. Neutral transfer means that what has
been learned is not applied to another situation. In negative transfer, learned behavior or
material has an adverse effect on performance. For example, a driver of a new car may turn
on his windshield wipers instead of his turn signal if the knobs’ positions are the reverse of
what they were in his old car. In each case, learned behavior appropriate to an old situation
results in poor performance in a new situation. Assuring positive transfer is one of the most
important aspects of a training program. A number of factors have been suggested as
necessary for producing the transfer of learning to new situations, including:
 Maximize similarity between the learning and performance situation;
11 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM
Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

 Practice the new task extensively (over learning);

 Provide a range of learning experiences so the trainee can generalize;
 Identify key elements of the material or behavior so that the learner is able to
determine the appropriateness of transfer;
 Emphasize knowledge of general principles;
 Provide feedback on job performance and otherwise reinforce proper transfer of
new materials and behavior to the job.
(e) Motivation: Training programs should help motivate trainees to learn. Most learning
processes have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. For example, learning to perform a
new task may prove satisfying in itself because of pride in accomplishment, and this pride
intrinsically motivates the trainee to continue learning and performing the newly learned
task. On the other hand, the trainee may be extrinsically motivated to learn the new task
because mastery will result in a desirable new job assignment.
(f) Reinforcement: Reinforcement has a greater impact on learning and performance than any
other learning principle. The principle of reinforcement was stated nearly a century ago by
E.L. Thorndike in his Law of Effect: responses that are closely followed by a ‘reinforcing
state of affairs’ tend to be strengthened and to occur more frequently in the future in
response to the same stimuli. In other words, the occurrence of desired behavior can be
increased by attaching desirable consequences (positive reinforcers) to it.
(g) Feedback: Feedback refers to information that helps evaluate the success or failure of an
action or system. Through feedback learners can receive guidance from their trainers. Also
through feedback trainers can reinforce positive performance behavior and correct negative
behavior so that the learner knows his progress. Learners who do not receive feedback
necessarily become slow learners because they spend a long time trying and erring before
they can start doing the right thing.
5. Methods of Training and Development:

Methods are divided into two broad categories, namely, on-the-job training methods, and off-the-job
training method. On-the-job training methods include the following: Job instructions, Job rotation,
Apprenticeship, and Coaching. And off-the-job training methods include: Lecturing, Video

12 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

presentation, Vestibule, Role playing, Case study, Simulation exercises, Self-study, Programmed,
learning, and Laboratory learning. Below, therefore, are the T & D methods:

5.1. Job Instruction

Job instruction is training that is conducted directly on the job, i.e., the trainer and the trainee are both
on the job. This is why it is also called on-the-job training (OJT). It is used to teach employees
practically how to perform their job. The trainer could be a professional trainer, but very often, the
supervisor or a selected fellow employee.

Job instruction usually involves five main steps. First, the trainee receives an overview briefing of the
job, i.e., its purpose and desired outcomes. The briefing could be done away from the job premises, i.e.
in an office, or it could be done in the premises of the relevant job. Secondly, in the job premises, the
trainer demonstrates the actions of the job to the trainee, with the intention of providing him/her with a
model to copy. Thirdly, the trainer allows the trainee to perform the job, imitating the trainer’s model.
This stage is performed in the trainer’s presence and under his close supervision. At this stage, the
trainer offers expert guidance, correcting any mistakes made by the trainee in order to give him
feedback. Then fourthly, the trainee is allowed to repeat the imitation fairly more independently, until
he masters the job. Fifthly, the trainee is allowed to perform the job on his own, with the trainer
visiting him occasionally in order to clarify any remaining queries and reinforce the trainee’s
confidence.

Job instruction is the most commonly used method in the training of non-managerial employees in
most industrial organizations.

5.2. Job Rotation

Some organizations, notably commercial banks and media institutions in many African countries, have
a tradition for training their employees to master a large variety of jobs. So, from the orientation stage
employees are called trainees, and are moved from one job to another before they are finally fixed on a
particular job. This method of training is known as job rotation. Each move in job rotation is normally
preceded by job instruction.

13 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

Job rotation has three main advantages. First, it makes the employee versatile i.e. capable of
performing more than one job. An organization whose employees are versatile possesses useful
backup which it can deploy during vacations, absences, and abrupt employee resignations. Secondly,
job rotation improves the transferability as well as the promo ability of the employee. Thirdly, job
rotation reduces employee turnover, by giving the employees consistent anticipation for promotion and
transfer.

Job rotation has about four main disadvantages. Firstly, it is costly and time-consuming to the
organization. Secondly, trainees spend a short time on each job during the rotation period, under
conditions of expecting to move on, such that they do not feel sufficient sense of commitment and
accountability for their actions, which is a risk to the quality of goods and or services which the
organization produces. Thirdly, the critics of this method argue, that by attempting to make each
employee a “jack of all trades”, it probably ends up making them “masters of none”. Fourthly, this
method has been heavily criticized by college graduates that it frustrates them by subjecting them to
junior tasks.

5.3. Apprenticeship

Apprenticeship is a training method which involves learning from an expert employee or employees.
This method may be supplemented by classroom training away from the job, where the apprentices
attend formal training programmes in or outside their organization.

Apprenticeship training is used as part of vocational training programmes in Tanzania and in Zambia.
After attending the first part of their programme as full time students at vocational training colleges,
trainees are attached to experienced employees in work organizations for a certain period of time.
During this period, they work under close guidance and supervision of their “masters”, as their trainers
are called, until they master their work. The performance record during the apprenticeship period is
treated as an integral part of the vocational training programme. Apprenticeship training is popular
with university programmes as well. Again in Tanzania and Zambia, medicine and law graduates are
required education before they can be employed as qualified medical doctors or lawyers.

Apprenticeship training has a number of advantages to the trainee. First, it involves high learner
participation and therefore accelerates the apprentice’s learning speed. Second, apprenticeship exposes

14 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

the learning to real job experience which accords him transferability of knowledge between theory and
practice. Third, apprenticeship gives the learner ample opportunities to repeat the tasks he is taught and
thus faster mastery of the job. Fourth, the close interaction between the apprentice and the master
enables the apprentice to receive and prompt feedback which he may use to reinforce correct job
behavior as well as rectify incorrect job behavior if any.

5.4. Coaching

Coaching as a method of learning has similarities with apprenticeship. Many organizations use this
method to train and develop their employees. It is usually less formal than apprenticeship in that it is
provided when required rather than being part of a formally drawn programme. It is usually carried out
by the trainee’s supervisor. Coaching provides the learner the advantages of participation, knowledge
transference, and the feedback provided by the coach. Because coaching is rather informal it usually
carries the disadvantages of interruptions from the coach’s substantive business, and lack of seriousness
from the trainee. Coaching as discussed here should be distinguished from football team coaching
which is in fact job instruction learning.

5.5. Lecturing

Lecturing is mainly one-way communication from the speaker to the listeners. It relies on
communication to impact the learning process. The advantages in using lecturing are first, that the
presenter can communicate everything he wishes to communicate within the shortest time. Secondly,
the trainer can organize his presentation in the desired logical sequence. However, since it relies on
communication, lecturing has the disadvantages of being less effective as a learning method as a result
of low participation, transference, feedback and repetition. Skillful trainers are able to improve the
effectiveness of lecturing by punctuating their lectures with questions, discussions, and audio-visual
presentations such as, film strips, flip charts, and transparencies.

5.6. Video Presentations

Video, television, and slide presentations as methods of learning have great similarities with lecturing.
In the place of a human being, under this method the participants are treated to an audio-visual
presentation from a screen. The advantages of using this method include time economy, logical

15 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

organization of what is to be presented, plus amusement. Participants are said to prefer video
presentations to lectures.

5.7. Vestibules

Some organizations are concerned with the disruption that other training methods inflict on their
normal operations. So they set up facilities and equip them with tools and equipment similar to those
that trainees would find at their jobs. These facilities are known as vestibules. They use these
vestibules for their T & D programmes.

Because of their similarly with the real working environment, vestibules have the advantages of high
transference, repetition, and participation. It must however be mentioned the vestibules are expensive
to set up, and they become idle productive facilities in times when the organization does not have T &
D programmes in session. Vestibules are very common in hotel training programmes.

5.8. Role Plays

Role playing is a technique of asking trainees to assume a desired identity and role. For instance, in a
skill building workshop, a supervisor and a manager may be asked to switch roles. Then both would be
given a typical work problem and asked to respond as each would expect the other to do. Each one
would be in a position to see himself as others see him in real work place.

Role plays have the advantages of high participation, relevance, feedback, and transference. Role plays
are a useful method in attitude changing and interpersonal skills development programmes.

5.9. Behavior Modeling

Behavior modeling is another training method which is used by work organizations to change the
behavior and attitudes of their employees. Modeling behavior means imitation, matching or copying
behavior through the process of observing an ideal person.

Trainees may learn a new behavior by observing the new behavior or model and then being drilled by
imitating, matching or copying behavior could be videotaped. Them, the trainer and the trainee play it
back, watch it and critique it. During the playback, the trainee is able to see the positive and negative

16 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

consequences that face the person who does not master and use the model behavior. In this way the
trainee gets the benefit of feedback.

Behavior modeling has the advantages of high relevance, transference, repetition and feedback. It is
often used in training managers on the correct skills for performance appraisal interviews and
disciplining interviews.

5.10. Case Studies

Studying a case involves analyzing a real or hypothetical phenomenal situation where trainees learn the
actions that other people have taken under the circumstances of the case. Besides learning the details
of the case, the trainees get opportunities to employ their technical analytical principles during the
analysis and discussions, and thus develop their decision-making skills.

Good case writing is a highly specialized job. But the selection of cases that suit the training
requirements of a target group is a manifestation of a good trainer. Well written cases are meaningful
and similar to the desired work situation. In this way, they enjoy the advantages of relevance and
transference. Cases have the additional advantage of drawing high participating from the trainees. Case
studies are very useful for management T & D programmes.

5.11. Simulation Exercises

Simulation involves giving the trainees information, about the organization, and using the computer is
used to input this, information and analyze the team decisions, results of trainees actions are evaluated
and discussed.

5.12. Self-Study

Self-study involves a trainee’s independent learning from carefully prepared instruction material. This
method is particularly useful where employees are geographically dispersed, but also where the
learning requires little interaction either among the trainees or between the trainees and the trainers.
Examples of self-study materials are computer programmes learning materials on floppy disks which
are growing in importance among home users today.

17 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

Self-study provides learners with advantages of high participation, repetition, relevance and feedback.
The method has the disadvantages of a low transference and the likelihood of dishonest trainees
looking up for provided answers instead of working them out as required by the programme.

5.13. Laboratory Training (or sensitivity training).

This is used for organization development; it involves creating situations and examining participants a
reactions and behavior, then having feedback on the behavior. Group members exchange thoughts and
feelings in unstructured ways.

5.14. Group Discussion (conference)

As speech by the instructor, with a lot of participation (questions and comments) from the listeners.
Sometimes an instructor not necessary; however, a leader is needed. More ideas can be generated,
although sometimes they get away from the subjects. Fair and group contribution or participation must
be encouraged.

5.15. Projects

Similar to group discussion method. Trainees analyze data and reach conclusions together. Help
trainees to know more about the subject. Requires instructor’s time to ensure the group is going in the
right direction.

5.16. E-learning

E-learning or online learning refers to instruction and delivery of training by computers through the
internet or, company intranets. E-learning includes Web-based training, long distance learning, virtual
classrooms and use of CD-ROMs. E-learning can include task support, simulation training, distance
learning and learning portals. There are three important characteristics of E-learning:

 E-learning involves electronic networks that enable information and instruction to be

delivered, shared and updated instantly.
 E-learning is delivered to the trainee via computers with internet technology.
 It focuses on learning solutions that go beyond traditional training to include
information and tools that improve performance.

18 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

The diagram below depicts the features of E-learning, which include collaboration and sharing links to
resources, learner control, delivery and administration.

Content:
* Text
* Video
* Graphics
* Sound

* Link to Resource Collaboration and sharing

* other training materials * Communities of
practice
* other web based
materials Learner Control * Peers
* link to electonic * Practice * Other trainees
perfornance support * Pacing * Other Exparts
system * Mentors and advisors
* Feedback
* Content
* Accessibility

Administration Delivery
* Enrolment *Internet/Intranet
* Monitoring * Web
* Pregress * CD-ROM
Assessment * Distance learning

As the diagram shows, learning not only provides training content but lets learners control what they
learn, the speed at which they progress through the program, how much they practice and even when
they learn. E-learning also allows learners to collaborate or interact with trainees and experts and it
provides links to other learning resources such as reference materials, company websites and other
training programmes.

Text, video, and graphics, can present course content. E-learning may also include various aspects of
training administration such as course enrolments, testing and evaluating trainees and monitoring
learning progress, various delivery methods can be incorporated into E-learning including distances
learning, CD-ROMs and the internet. These features of E-learning give it advantages over other
training methods.

E-leaning has a number of benefits:

19 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

 E-learning initiatives are designed to contribute to strategic business objectives.

 E-learning supports company initiatives such as attracting customers, devising new ways to
operate such as e-business or quickly developing products or new services.
 E-learning may involve a larger audience than traditional training programmes, which focus on
employees; it may involve partners, suppliers, venders and potential customers.
 Learning is enhanced through e-learning because more trainees are more engaged through the
use of videos, graphics, sound and text, which appeal to multiple senses of the learner.
 E-learning requires that learners actively participate in practice, questions, and interaction with
other learners and experts.
 E-learning can reduce training costs and time.
 E-learning brings training to geographically dispersed employees at their locations, reducing
travel costs.
 The ability of all employees to access E-learning has changed the role of classroom instruction.
Previously classroom training delivered all training content, but now prerequisite training is
provided on the Learning Network for every classroom session.

6. Factors to Consider in Selecting a Suitable Method

In selecting a suitable method to use for either training or development, careful consideration must be
made of the following factors:

(a) The method should be affordable. It is no use selecting a good method that is
unaffordable;
(b) The method must be cost effective; the expected results must justify the cost of the
method;
(c) The contents of the programme will dictate what method to use.
(d) The available facilities, e.g. overhead projector, TV, will determine what method to
use.
(e) The preferences of the trainee.
(f) The preferences of the organization.
(g) The professional advice of the trainer

20 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

(h) The principles of learning e.g. participation, lecturing.

7. Implementing the training programme

Once a training program has been designed, PAIR professionals are responsible for its implementation.
This responsibility includes planning and executing the training sessions and building a body of
competent trainers.

7.1. Training Sessions

Training sessions must be well planned. A poorly planned and executed program can create negative
impressions for trainers and trainees alike. Trainers should know well in advance the general purpose
of the training and the dates, duration, and location of the program. Materials must be readied and any
equipment put in operational order. Whether the training program lasts one hour or a year, each part
should be co-ordinated with trainees’ regular work activities to minimize disruption of their work and
of the organization’s operations and to maximize learning, practice, and transfer opportunities. This
requires careful planning and co-ordination of trainees, trainers, their bosses, and material and
equipment suppliers.

7.2. Trainers

Unless an organization employs enough trainers to meet training needs (and most do not), the
implementation of training programs involves building a corps of competent trainers. Consulting
organizations can provide trainers as needed. More often, however, managers, supervisors, and
personnel staff within the organization serves as trainers.

A trainer is basically a teacher, and a teacher’s primary goal is to influence student’s attitudes and
behavior. Organizations too often assume that an experienced employee, supervisor, or manager is a
good teacher, especially in the case of on-the-job training. Like any other interpersonal skill, training
or teaching can and should be taught to those with training responsibilities. Generally, trainers should
be taught how to organize and present their material, motivate and reinforce trainees, and prepare them

21 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

to apply the new material to the job. Training the trainers is an important responsibility of PAIR
professionals and T & D specialists.

8. Evaluating the training programme (Stone, p. 215)

The effectiveness of training programs is taken on faith by many employers. For years, psychologists
and many training professionals have argued that organizations spend far too little money and time
evaluating the effectiveness of training programs. There are many reasons why training programs
should be thoroughly evaluated.

8.1. Why Evaluate?

The major reason for evaluating training programs is to determine if they are accomplished specific
training objectives. For example, the success of a program to teach T & D specialists to write training
objectives can be measured in terms of how well the specialists can write objectives after completing
the program. A training program that does not change employees’ knowledge, skills, or attitudes in the
desired direction should be modified or replaced. Economists have attempted to measure the impact of
training by comparing the before and after earnings of persons who undertook training with those who
did not. A 1972 study estimated that adult occupational training in Canada produced $2.0 to $3.00 in
benefits to the employee for each $1.00 invested. (This calculation was, however, viewed with some
reservation because, among other things, no control group was used.)

A second reason for evaluation is to ascertain whether changes in trainees’ capabilities come from the
training program and not from other conditions. This is particularly important when a training program
is first begun, since good results may lead to its adoption for other employees. To determine that a
training program is responsible for changes in trainees, it is necessary to compare the trainees’
performance before and after the program with the performance of a control group. For example, a
training program on managerial decision-making can be given to one group of management trainees,
but not to another. If, after training, both groups demonstrate similar increases in decision-making
skills, the improvement is not attributable to the training program. If, on the other hand, only those
who participated in the training program demonstrate increases in their decision-making skills, then the
program has probably had some degree of success.

22 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

Another reason to evaluate training programs is to explain failure if it occurs. A basically sound
program may fail to meet its objectives for many reasons. Perhaps the training objectives were too
ambitious, and although the trainees may have made substantial progress towards their mastery, the
program seems to have failed because it fell short of its objectives. A sound program may also fail
because of circumstances beyond its planners’ control. Perhaps the program was not implemented
properly because of equipment breakdown or human failure. Depending upon the reasons for a
program’s lack of success, the program may either be retained or discontinued.

Training programs should also be evaluated to determine their cost effectiveness. Like any other
personnel or business programs, training programs must demonstrate their cost effectiveness in order to
justify their continuation. Basically, to be cost effective, a training program must result in gains in
employee performance or job-related behavior that outweigh the costs of training. When training
programs are evaluated for cost effectiveness, programs can be compared to determine the least costly
way of achieving the desired results. For example, if both on-the-job training and a formal safety
instruction program result in increased use of protective devices on the job, an organization would want
to retain the less costly program for meeting these training needs in the future.

8.2. Conducting the Evaluation

The evaluation of training programs has four parts: (1) setting training objectives; (2) gathering pre-
training data, sometimes called baseline data because they show the level, or base, of a trainee’s
performance before training; (3) gathering data during and after training; and (4) comparing the pre-and
post-training data. If possible, the results of this comparison should then be compared with those of a
control group of similar employees who were not trained.

9. CONCLUSION:

T & D programmes are beneficial to both the organization and the individual person for a number of
reasons as presented below:

(i) Improves corporate image

(ii) Improve morale of workers/improves attitude of workers
(iii) Improves relationship between box and subordinates (How: Alignment – if people have
similar knowledge)

23 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM

Lecture No.: …. – Training and
Development BBS 130 HUMAN RESOURCE MGT

(iv) Promotion within organization

(v) Reduces organization from looking outside
(vi) Job evaluation is better done by outsiders than insiders
(vii) Helps employees to adjust to change, type writer – computer
(viii) Improves employee confidence
(ix) Increases job satisfaction
(x) Eliminates fear in employ

24 Kwame Nkrumah University By Patrick Mwela, MZIHRM