Chapter 4 - Groundwater Flow and Seepage.v1

CE 329
Chapter 4
Groundwater Flow and Seepage

Read: Coduto et al. (2011) Chapters 7 and 8
1
‫ أسامة دربي‬.‫د‬
Part 1
Introduction
Learning Objectives
Groundwater
• Introduction
• Hydrology
• Groundwater Hydrology
• Groundwater Flow Conditions
2
Introduction
“In engineering practice, difficulties with soils are almost exclusively due not to
the soils themselves, but to the water contained in their voids. On a planet without
any water there would be no need for soil mechanics”.
Karl Terzaghi
Shinkhole (Japan) Water leaking into rail tunnel

following heavy rain (UK). 3
Introduction
The Leaning Tower of Pisa
4
Introduction
Teton Dam, Idaho (1976 failure)
Before
During
After
5
Hydrology
Hydrology: It is the study of water movement through the earth
➢ Surface water hydrology
➢ Groundwater hydrology
Hydrologic cycle:
6
Groundwater Hydrology
Phreatic zone: below the groundwater table.
Vadose zone: above the groundwater table.
Aquifer: soils (e.g. sands and gravels) which can transmit large volumes of water.
Aquiclude: soils (e.g. clays) which transfer water very slowly.
Aquitard: soils (e.g. silty sands) which pass water at slow to moderate rate.
7
Groundwater Hydrology
Unconfined aquifer: which only the bottom flow boundary is an aquiclude.
Confined aquifer: both the upper and lower boundaries are aquicludes.
Artesian aquifer: in which water exists under pressure.
8
Groundwater Flow Conditions
One-, Two, and Three-Dimensional Flow
9
Steady and Unsteady Flow
Steady Flow: The flow in which the

direction and velocity of fluid flow is
constant with time.
Unsteady Flow (Transient Flow):

The flow in which the flow rate or
direction changes with time
10
Steady and Unsteady Flow
11
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow: The flow in which all

the particles of water move in
parallel paths without crossing the
path of other particles is called a
laminar flow. In such flows, the
resistance to flow is mainly due to
viscosity of water only.
Turbulent Flow: The flow in which all

the particles of water move in zig-zag
path is called turbulent flow.
12
Part 2
One-Dimensional Flow
13
Energy in Fluid Mechanics
(Bernoulli’s Equation)
Flow Rate:
𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
𝑄 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑣 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
A = Area
Flow Energy at Point B:
Potential Energy, which is due to its

elevation above the datum.
Strain Energy, which is due the
pressure in the water (similar to the
energy contained in a spring that has
been compressed under an external
load).
Kinetic Energy, which is due to its
velocity.
14
Expressing Energy in Unit of Length
The Elevation Head, hz, is the

difference in elevation between the
datum and the point. It describes the
potential energy at that point.
The Pressure Head, hp, is the
difference in elevation between the
point and the water level in a
piezometer attached to the pipe. It
describes the strain energy
The Velocity Head , hv, is the
difference in water elevations
between the piezometer and the
pitot tube and describes the velocity.
It is related to the velocity, v, and
acceleration due to gravity, g.
15
The Total Head, h, is summation of

elevation head, pressure head, and
velocity head. The total head at a
point in water under motion is related
by Bernoulli’s equation:
ℎ = ℎ𝑧 + ℎ𝑝 + ℎ𝑣
𝑍 𝑢 𝑣2
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
Where:
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to
gravity
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water 16
Head Loss and Hydraulic Gradient
https://www.slideshare.net/1mirfan/geotechnical-engineeringi-lec-23-soil-permeability 17
Velocity head in soil and rock is

much lower than open channel
flow; therefore
ℎ = ℎ𝑧 + ℎ𝑝
The head loss between two

points is equal to:
Δℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵
The hydraulic gradient is the

nondimensionalized form of the Das and Sobhan (2018)
head loss:
Δℎ
𝑖=
𝐿
▪ The three zones of the fluid flow are the

laminar flow, transition, and turbulent
flow zones
▪ Most flows through soil are laminar, and

velocity is linearly related to the
hydraulic gradient:
𝑣∝𝑖
Das and Sobhan (2018)
Example 1
Piezometers and piton tubes have been installed at points A and B in the pipe as
shown below. The water level under steady-state flow are as shown. Determine
the following:
a) The elevation, pressure, velocity and total heads at points A and B
b) The head loss between points A and B
c) The hydraulic gradient between points A and B
20
Example 1
Solution:
a)
▪ Point A
ℎ𝑧 = 3.62 𝑚, ℎ𝑝 = 3.01 m, and ℎ𝑣 = 0.5 𝑚
= 3.62 + 3.01 + 0.5
= 7.13 𝑚
▪ Point B
ℎ𝑧 = 4.28 𝑚, ℎ𝑝 = 1.60 m, and ℎ𝑣 = 0.5 𝑚
= 4.28 + 1.6 + 0.5
= 6.38 𝑚
b)
Δℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = 7.13 − 6.39 = 0.75 𝑚
c)
Δℎ 0.75
𝑖= = = 0.0038
𝐿 200 21
Application to Soil and Rock
Observation Well: the inside pipe is

hydraulically open along nearly its entire
length and simply gives the depth of the
ground water table.
Piezometers: the inside pipe is hydraulically

connected only to the small zone (response
zone) in the soil. It measures the average
head at the response zone.
The water level in a piezometer represents

the pressure “head” or potential at the
screen, and may be different than the water
table level in an adjacent well if there is a
vertical component to ground water flow
22
Pore water pressure, u: The pressure in the

water within the soil voids. It is measured by
using piezometers.
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑝
Where:
u = pore water pressure
hp = pressure head above the measured
point
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
Hydrostatic pore water pressure, uo: it is pore water pressure is due solely to the
force of gravity acting on the pore water. The is the case so long as the soil is not in the
process of settling or shearing and it should be under the following conditions:
▪ unconfined aquifer without any flow
▪ Stationary groundwater table
𝑢𝑜 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤
Where:
uo = hydrostatic pore water pressure
Zw = depth of point below water table 23
▪ The pressure head, hp is measured using piezometers
Filter tips for use on standpipe

piezometers. The reel in the An open standpipe piezometer consists of a perforated
background is a probe to measure pipe installed in a boring
the water depth
24
Example 2
Compute the pore water pressure at Points A and B. Point A is located in the
upper unconfined aquifer and Point B is located in the lower confined aquifer.
(m)
25
Example 2
Solution:
(m)
Since point A is in an unconfined aquifer, the pressure head at the location is simply
equal to the distance below the phreatic surface, zw, and the pore water pressure u is
𝑢𝑜 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤 = 9.81 × 260 − 250 = 98.1 kN/𝑚2
Since point B is in a confined aquifer, it is necessary to install a piezometer to determine

the pore water pressure. the pressure head, hp, is equal to the difference between point
B and the elevation to which the water rises in the piezometer and pore water pressure
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑝 = 9.81 × 268 − 240 = 274.68 kN/𝑚2
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Capillarity
Capillarity is the upward movement of water by surface tension at water air interface
▪ The vadose zone is defined as

that that zone above the ground
water table or phreatic surface.
▪ The phreatic zone is that zone
below the phreatic surface.
▪ Notice that the soil can be
saturated above the phreatic
surface in the zone of capillary
rise.
▪ The zone of capillary rise may be
only a fraction of an inch in
sands, but can be several feet in
clay or silt soils.
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Capillarity
Capillary action demonstrated by a thin

glass tube immersed in water.
0.03 0.15
ℎ𝑐 𝑚 = ℎ𝑐 𝑚 =
𝑑(𝑚𝑚) 𝐷10 (𝑚𝑚)
28
Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s Law
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Where:
Q = flow rate
k = Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
I = hydraulic gradient
A = area perpendicular to the flow direction
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Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability), k
Permeability is the measure of the soil’s ability to permit water to flow through its voids.
Factors Affect Soil Permeability
1- Particle size
2- Void ratio
3- Shape of particles
4- Degree of Saturation
5- Temperature
Units of k: cm/sec, ft/min, ft/yr, m/year.

30
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability), k
31
Apparent, Seepage, and True Velocities
Apparent (Darcian) velocity or discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water
flowing in the unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil.
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑄
= 𝑘𝑖
𝐴
𝑣𝑎 = 𝑘𝑖
Where:
va = Apparent velocity
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Apparent, Seepage, and True Velocities
Seepage velocity or discharge velocity,
which is the actual velocity of water through
the void spaces, which is greater than the
apparent velocity.
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠
Where:
vs = Seepage velocity
Av = Area of void in the cross section
of the specimen
𝑘𝑖 𝑣𝑎
𝑣𝑠 = =
𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒
Where:
ne = effective porosity
▪ For sand ne is equal to the porosity n

▪ For clay soil ne< n due clayey soils contain a
static layer of water around the particles, so 33
the flow area is less than the void area.
Example 3
A 3.2 m thick silty sand stratum intersects one side of a reservoir as shown
below. This stratum has a hydraulic conductivity of 4×10-2 cm/sec and extends
along the entire 1000 m length of the reservoir. An observation well has been
installed in this stratum as shown in the figure. Compute the flow in the aquifer in
m3/mon
34
Example 3
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑐𝑚 𝑚 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘=4 × 10−4
𝑠 100 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑚𝑜
= 1000 𝑚/𝑚𝑜
Δℎ (167.3 − 165)
𝑖= = = 0.009
𝐿 256
𝐴 = 3.2 × 1000 = 3200 𝑚2
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 1000 × 0.009 × 3200 = 30,000 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜

35
Example 4
Assume a chemical solvent, which is denser than water is spilled into the
reservoir in the past example. How long will it take for the contaminant to reach
the observation well assuming only advection occurs in the aquifer? The silty
sand in aquifer has a void ratio of 0.75.
36
Example 4
Solution:
𝐿(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑡(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒) =
𝑣𝑠
𝑘𝑖
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛𝑒
▪ Since the soil is silty sand; therefore, ne=n
𝑒 0.75
𝑛= = = 0.43
1 + 𝑒 1 + 0.75
−2 (𝑐𝑚 ) × 0.009
𝑘𝑖 4 × 10 𝑚 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟
𝑣𝑠 = = 𝑠 = 0.72 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑛𝑒 0.43 100 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 256
𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = 355 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 37
‫ أسامة دربي‬.‫د‬ 𝑣𝑠 0.72
Example 5
Landfills often use clay soils to control the flow of fluids in and out of the landfill.
At the sides and bottom of the land fill, compacted clay liners are used to contain
the accumulating fluid within the landfill (called leachate). At the top of the landfill,
clay cover systems keeps water from rain and snow from infiltrating into the
landfill and creating excess leachate. The fluid flow though these liner systems
can generally be approximated as one-dimensional flow. Leachate containing
trichloroethylene collects on the clay liner at the bottom of landfill as shown
below. Below the clay liner is a gravel layer that collects the leachate so it can be
pumped out and treated. There is a second clay layer below the gravel layer to
prevent leachate from entering the groundwater below. For the hydraulic
conditions shown below and a typical effective porosity value of 0.10, compute:
(a) The total amount of leachate that must be collected and treated each year.
Assume the total area of the landfill base is 5,000 m2.
(b) Find the time it takes the leachate to penetrate through the top clay liner.
38
Example 5
Solution
a)
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑐𝑚 𝑚 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑘 = 2.1 × 10−8 = 6.6226 × 10−3 𝑚/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑠 100 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑦𝑟
Δℎ 1.5
𝑖= = = 1.5
𝐿 1
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 6.6226 × 10−3 × 1.5 × 5000 = 49.7 𝑚3 /𝑦𝑟

39
Example 5
Solution
b) 𝐿(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑣𝑠
𝑘𝑖
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛𝑒
𝑘𝑖 6.6226 × 10−3 × 1.5

𝑣𝑠 = = = 0.1 𝑚/𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑛𝑒 0.1
𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1
𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = 10 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑣𝑠 0.1
40
Example 6
The laboratory apparatus shown in Figure below maintains a constant head in
both the upper and lower reservoirs. The soil sample is a silty sand (SM) with k =
5×10-3 cm/sec and w = 18.5%. Assume a reasonable value for Gs, then determine
the time required for the plug of colored water to pass through the soil or
absorption (i.e., from when the leading edge first enters the soil to when it begins
to exit). Assume the colored water travels only through advection and it has the
same unit weight and viscosity as plain water.
41
Example 6
Solution:
𝐿(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑣𝑠
𝑘𝑖
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛𝑒
𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒
𝑤𝐺𝑠 0.185 × 2.7
𝑒= = = 0.5
𝑆 1
Therefore,
0.5
𝑛= = 0.33
1 + 0.5
Δℎ 185
𝑖= = = 0.841
𝐿 220
𝑘𝑖 5 × 10−3 × 0.841
𝑣𝑠 = = = 0.0127 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑛𝑒 0.33
𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 22.0
𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = = = 1732.3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 28.9 𝑚𝑖𝑛 42
𝑣𝑠 0.0127
Example 7
A permeable soil layer is underlain by an impervious layer, as shown in the
Figure. With k=5.3×10-5 m/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of
seepage through it in m3/hr/m width if H= 3 m and a =8o.
43
Example 7
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Δℎ 𝑆 tan 𝛼
𝑖= = = sin 𝛼
𝐿 𝑆
cos 𝛼
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 sin 𝛼 (3 cos 𝛼) × 1
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
= 5.3 × 10−5 sin 8 (3 cos 8 × 1) = 2.2 × 10−5 𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 Τ1𝑚
𝑄 = 2.2 × 10−5 × 3600 = 0.079 𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟Τ1𝑚
44
Example 8
Find the flow rate in m3/sec/m length (at right angles to the cross section shown)
through the permeable soil layer shown in the figure below. Given H= 8 m, H1= 3
m, h= 4 m, S= 50 m, a =8o, and k = 0.08 cm/sec.
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Δℎ ℎ ℎ cos 𝛼
𝑖= = =
𝐿 𝑆 𝑆
cos 𝛼
ℎ cos 𝛼
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 (𝐻1 cos 𝛼 × 1)
𝑆
0.08 4 cos 8
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = × (3 cos 8 × 1)
100 50
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 1.88 × 10−4 𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 Τ𝑚
45
Hydraulic Conductivity Measurements
Laboratory tests
➢ Constant –head test
➢ Falling-head test
In-situ tests
➢ Slug test
➢ Pumping test
Empirical relationships
➢ Hazen’s correlation
➢ Kozeny-Carman’s correlation
46
Constant-Head Test
In this setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a way that the difference of
head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant during the test period. After a
constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated flask for know
duration.
Δℎ
Constant-Head Test is a valid test for soils with 𝑖=
a high rate of flow like sands and gravels, but 𝑑𝑙
also some clay soils.
𝑉
𝑄=
𝑡
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑸
𝒌=
𝒊𝑨
47
Falling-Head Test
The rate of flow of water through the specimen at any time t is given by
𝑑Δℎ
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = −𝑎
𝑑𝑡
Δℎ 𝑑Δℎ
𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑎
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 Δℎ
Where: 𝑖=
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe 𝐿
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen
𝑎𝐿 dΔℎ
𝑑𝑡 = (− )
𝐴𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝐿 Δℎ𝑜
𝑡= 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑘 Δℎ1
𝒂𝑳 𝜟𝒉𝒐
𝒌= 𝒍𝒏
𝑨𝒕 𝜟𝒉𝟏
Falling head methods are generally limited to

48
fine-grained soils.
Slug Test
lowering or retrieving a solid cylinder of known volume within the borehole water column
and recording the rate of water level recovery.
49
Pumping test
pumping water out of the main well and monitoring the changes in water levels in the
observation wells.
50
Empirical Correlations:
Hanzen’s Correlation:
𝒌 (𝒄𝒎Τ𝒔) = 𝑪𝑫𝟐𝟏𝟎
➢ For loose clean sands
𝐶 = 0.8 − 1.2
➢ 0.1 mm <D10 < 3 mm
➢ Cu <5
Kozeny-Carman correlation
𝜸 𝟏 𝒆𝟑
➢ For sands 𝒌=
𝝁 𝑻𝟐 𝑺𝟐𝒐 𝟏+𝒆
➢ Semi-empirical
➢ Based on Darcy’s Law g: unit weight of pore fluid;
m: viscosity of pore fluid;
T: factor accounting for shape of pores;
S0: specific surface of soil particles
e = void ratio
51
Empirical Correlations:
𝟐 𝟐
Carrier Correlation
𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝟏 𝒆𝟑
𝒌 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎
σ 𝒇𝒊 Τ𝑫𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟒
𝒍𝒊 × 𝑫𝟎.𝟓𝟗𝟓
𝒔𝒊
𝑺𝑭 𝟏+𝒆
Where,
k = hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec
fi = fraction of soil between two sieve
sizes
SF = Shape factor
Dli = the size of the openings in the
larger of the two sieves in cm
Dsi =the size of the openings in the
smaller of the two sieves in cm
52
Flow Through Anisotropic Soils
Anisotropic Soils: Kx ≠ Kz
Alluvial soils and varved clays: Kx > Kz
53
Flow Parallel to Layers (kx)
➢ The total flow is the sum of the flow

through each layer.
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑖𝐴
➢ Head loss in each layer is the same, Dh,

as is the length of the flow path, L
Δℎ
𝑖 = 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖3 =
𝐿
Applying this knowledge, we get an expression:
σ 𝑘𝑖 𝐻𝑖
𝑘𝑥 =
σ 𝐻𝑖
54
Flow Normal to Layers (kz)
➢ The flow in each layer is equal to the total

flow, Q
𝑄 = 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 = 𝑘𝑧 𝑖𝐴
➢ The total head loss in the system is equal to

the sum of the head loss in each layer.
∆ℎ = ∆ℎ1 + ∆ℎ2 + ∆ℎ3
Applying this knowledge, we get an expression:
σ 𝐻𝑖
𝑘𝑧 =
𝐻
σ 𝑖
𝑘𝑖
55
Example 9
The results of a constant-head permeability test for a fine
sand sample having
a diameter of 150 mm and a length of 300 mm are as
follows:
Constant head difference = 500 mm
Time of collection of water = 5 min
Volume of water collected = 350 cm3
Determine the hydraulic conductivity for the soil in cm/sec.
Solution:
𝑄
𝑘=
𝑖𝐴
and
𝑉
𝑄=
𝑡
Therefore,
𝑉 350
𝑘= = = 3.96 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑖𝐴𝑡 50 × (𝜋 152 ) × (5 × 60) 56
30 4
Example 10
For a falling-head permeability test, the following
values are given:
Length of specimen = 200 mm
Area of soil specimen = 1000 mm2
Area of standpipe = 40 mm2
At time t = 0, the head difference is 500 mm
At time t = 180 sec, the head difference is 300 mm
Determine the hydraulic conductivity for the soil in
cm/sec.
Solution:
𝑎𝐿 Δℎ𝑜
𝑘= 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑡 Δℎ1
200
(40 × 10−2 ) × ( 10 ) 500
= 𝑙𝑛
(1000 × 10−2 ) × (180) 300
= 2.27 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
57
Example 11
A certain varved clay consists of alternating horizontal layers of silt and clay. The
silt layers are 5 mm thick and have k= 3×10-4 cm/sec. The clay layers are 20 mm
thick and have k= 6×10-7 cm/sec. Compute kx and kz.
Solution:
Flow Parallel to Layers (kx)
σ 𝑘𝑖 𝐻𝑖 3 × 10−4 × 0.5 + 6 × 10−7 × 2.0
𝑘𝑥 = = = 6.05 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
σ 𝐻𝑖 (0.5 + 2)
Flow Normal to Layers (kz)
σ 𝐻𝑖 (0.5 + 2)
𝑘𝑧 = = = 7.46 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝐻 0.5 2.0
σ 𝑖 +
𝑘𝑖 3 × 10−4 6 × 10−4
58
Example 12
The below figure shows three layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm × 100 mm in
cross section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant-head difference of 300 mm
across the sample. The hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the direction of
flow through them are as follows:
kA= 10-2 cm/sec
kB= 3.2×10-3 cm/sec
kC= 4.9×10-4 cm/sec
a) Find the rate of water supply in cm3/hr
b) Determine the magnitudes of hA and hB.
59
Example 12
Solution:
a)
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Flow Normal to Layers

σ 𝐻𝑖 (15 + 15 + 15)
𝑘= =
𝐻 15 15 15
σ 𝑖 + + +
𝑘𝑖 1 × 10−2 3 × 10−3 4.9 × 10−4
= 0.001213𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Δℎ 300
𝑖= = = 0.667
𝐿 450
100 100
𝐴= × = 100 𝑐𝑚2
10 10
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 0.0809 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 291.27 𝑐𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟
60
Example 12
Solution
b)
∆ℎ𝐴
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
∆ℎ𝐵
Since the flow in each layer is equal to the total
flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through Soil A
can be calculated as
∆ℎ𝐴
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑖𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴 𝐴
𝐿𝐴
𝑄𝐿𝐴 0.0809 × 15
∆ℎ𝐴 = = = 1.214 𝑐𝑚 = 12.14 𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 10−2 × 100
Therefore,
ℎ𝐴 = 300 − ∆ℎ𝐴 = 300 − 12.14 = 287.86 𝑚𝑚
Similarly, for Soil B

𝑄𝐿𝐵 0.0809 × 15
∆ℎ𝐵 = = = 4.045 𝑐𝑚 = 40.45 𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝐵 𝐴 3 × 10−3 × 100
ℎ𝐵 = 300 − ∆ℎ𝐴 − ∆ℎ𝐵 = 300 − 12.14 − 40.45 = 247.41 𝑚𝑚
61
Example 12
Solution
b)
Another solution to find hB
flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through Soil C
can be calculated as
ℎ𝐵
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑖𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
𝐿𝐶
𝑄𝐿𝐶 0.0809 × 15
ℎ𝐵 = = = 24.77 𝑐𝑚 = 247.7 𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝐶 𝐴 4.9 × 10−4 × 100
62
Example 12
Solution
b)
∆ℎ𝐴𝐵
Another solution to find hB
flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through Soils
A and B can be calculated as
∆ℎ𝐴𝐵
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝐴𝐵 𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴𝐵 𝐴
𝐿𝐴𝐵
σ 𝐻𝑖 (15 + 15)
𝑘𝐴𝐵 = = = 0.004615𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝐻𝑖 15 15
σ +
𝑘𝑖 1 × 10−2 3 × 10−3
𝑄𝐿𝐴𝐵 0.0809 × 30
∆ℎ𝐴𝐵 = = = 5.259 𝑐𝑚 = 52.59 𝑚𝑚
𝑘𝐴𝐵 𝐴 4.615 × 10−3 × 100
ℎ𝐵 = 300 − ∆ℎ𝐴𝐵 = 300 − 52.59 = 247.42 𝑚𝑚
63
Example 13
The constant head permeameter shown
contains three different soils as shown. Their
hydraulic conductivities are:
Soil 1 : k = 9 cm/sec
Soil 2 : k = 6×10-2 cm/sec
Soil 3 : k = 8×10-3 cm/sec
The four piezometer tips are spaced at 100
mm intervals, and the soil interfaces are
exactly aligned with piezometer tips B and C.
The total heads in piezometers A and D are
98.9 and 3.6 cm, respectively. Compute the
total heads in piezometers B and C.
64
Example 13
Solution:
Q and A are the same for all three soils, and i=Δh/Δl.
Therefore, we can rewrite Darcy’s Law as:
∆ℎ𝑖 Dh1 A
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖 𝐴 1
𝐿𝑖 Dh2 B
10 cm
σ 𝐻𝑖
Flow Normal to Layers (kz) 𝑘𝑧 = 98.9 cm C 10 cm
𝐻 Dh3 2
σ 𝑖 hB
𝑘𝑖 hC D
3
10 cm
Head loss from A to D 3.6 cm

Datum
∆ℎ𝐴𝐷 = 98.9 − 3.6 = 95.3 𝑐𝑚
σ 𝐻𝑖 (10 + 10 + 10)
𝑘𝐴𝐷 = = = 0.02116 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐻𝑖 10 10 10
σ
𝑘𝑖 9 + 6 × 10−2 + 8 × 10−3
95.3 𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 0.02116 × 𝐴 = 0.0672
30 𝐴
65
Example 13
flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through
Soil 1 (from A to B) can be calculated as
∆ℎ1 Dh1 A
𝑄 = 𝑘1 𝑖𝐴 𝐴 = 𝑘1 𝐴 1
𝐿1 Dh2 B
10 cm
𝑄𝐿1 10
∆ℎ1 = = 0.0672 × = 0.1 𝑐𝑚 98.9 cm
Dh3
C
2
10 cm
𝐴𝑘1 9 h
B
hC D 10 cm
3
3.6 cm
Since the flow in each layer is equal to the total Datum
flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through

Soil 2 (from B to C) can be calculated as
𝑄𝐿2 10
∆ℎ2 = = 0.0672 × = 11.2 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑘2 6 × 10−2
Since the flow in each layer is equal to the total flow, Q, the loss of head during flow
through Soil 3 (from C to D) can be calculated as
𝑄𝐿3 10
∆ℎ3 = = 0.0672 × = 84.0 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑘3 8 × 10−3 66
Example 13
Total Head of Piezometer A
ℎ𝐴 = 98.9 𝑐𝑚
Dh1 A
Total Head of Piezometer B 1

10 cm
Dh2 B
ℎ𝐵 = 98.9 − 0.1 = 98.8 𝑐𝑚 10 cm
98.9 cm C
hB Dh3 2
hC D 10 cm
3
Total Head of Piezometer C 3.6 cm
Datum
ℎ𝑐 = 98.9 − 0.1 − 11.2 = 87.6 𝑐𝑚
Total Head of Piezometer D

ℎ𝐷 = 3.6 𝑐𝑚
67
Part 3
TWO-Dimensional Flow
Learning Objectives
Two-Dimensional Flow
• Laplace’s equation
• Flownet
• Confined Flow in Homogeneous Isotropic Soils
• Confined Flow in Homogeneous Anisotropic Soils
• Flownet for Unconfined Conditions
• Confined Flow in Non-homogeneous Soils
• Hydraulic Uplift Pressure
• Quick (Piping) Condition
• Seepage Analysis of Wells 68
Two-Dimensional Flow
69
LaPlace Equation
▪ The flow of water through soil is not generally uniform
or only in one direction.
▪ The flow can be two-dimensional or three-
Dimensional.
▪ LaPlace equation is used to solve the problems of
two- and three-dimensional flows.
Assumptions of LaPlace Equation:
1. Darcy’s Law is valid.

2. The soil is completely saturated (S=100%)
3. The size of the element remains constant
4. The soil is homogenous (i.e., k is constant everywhere in the aquifer)
5. If the soil is isotropic (i.e., k is the same in all directions) the question becomes
70
LaPlace Equation
▪ Based on the continuity equation, and
▪ Since the soil is saturated and it is volume
remains constant
dy=1
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
Since
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧
𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑧 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
▪ Since Darcy’s Law is valid
𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖, 𝑖𝑥 = , 𝑖𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ
+ =0 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑧 2 = 0 71
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
LaPlace Equation
▪ Since the soil is isotropic:

dy=1
2 2
𝜕 ℎ 𝜕 ℎ
𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑧 2 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2ℎ 𝜕2ℎ
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Solution of LaPlace Equation

1. Flownet Solution (Graphical Solution)
2. Numerical Solution
72
Flownet
▪ Flownets is the graphical solution of
LaPlace Equation.
▪ Flow nets are used for the calculation
of groundwater flow and the
evaluation of heads in the soil
medium.
▪ A combination of flow lines and
equipotential lines forms a flow net
▪ A flow line is a line which traces a
particle’s motion.
▪ An equipotential line is a line along
which the total head is constant (no
loss in the water head at the same
equipotential line).
▪ Equipotential lines and flow lines
must intersect at 90o angles.
▪ The cells in the flow net must have a
constant aspect ratio. 73
Flownet
Boundary Conditions
1. The upstream and downstream

surfaces of the permeable layer are
equipotential lines.
2. Because AB and EF are equipotential
lines, all the flow lines intersect them
at right angles
3. The boundary of the impervious layer
is a flow line, and so is the surface of
the impervious sheet pile
4. The equipotential lines intersect
BCDE and GH at right angles
74
Confined Flow in Homogeneous Isotropic
Soils
Steps to Draw Flownet
1. Draw the structure and soil mass to a

suitable scale.
2. Identify impermeable and permeable
boundaries.
➢ The soil–impermeable boundary
interfaces are flow lines because
water can flow along these interfaces.
➢ The soil–permeable boundary
interfaces are equipotential lines
because the total head is constant
along these
75
Soils
3. Sketch a series of flow lines (four or

five) and then sketch an appropriate
number of equipotential lines such that
the area between a pair of flow lines and
a pair of equipotential lines (cell) is
approximately a curvilinear square.
Checks
➢ The average width and the average
length of a cell are approximately
equal by drawing an inscribed circle.
➢ You should also sketch the entire
flownet before making adjustments.
76
Soils
Flow Rate Calculation
𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐿∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 𝑎
Where:
Q = Flow rate
k = Permeability
L = Length of the aquifer perpendicular to the cross-section
𝑁𝐹 = Number of flow channels
𝑁𝐷 = Number of equipotential drops
b/a = width-to length ratio of cells.
Note
▪ A strip between adjacent flow lines is a flow channel
▪ The drop in the piezometric level between adjacent flow elements is the equipotential
drop
▪ Number of equipotential Channels (NF) = Flow lines (Ψ) - 1 77
▪ Number of equipotential drops (ND) = Equipotential lines (Φ) - 1
Example 14
Draw the flownet for the following sections
78
‫‪Example 14‬‬
‫‪79‬‬
‫د‪ .‬أسامة دربي‬
Example 15
Compute the total flow rate under the dam shown in Figure 8.2 under the
following conditions: Δh = 15 m, the soil beneath the dam has a hydraulic
conductivity of 3×10-3 cm/s, and the length of the dam is 80 m.
80
Example 15
𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐿∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 𝑎
𝑁𝐹 = 4
𝑁𝐷 = 10
𝑐𝑚 𝑚 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟
𝑘 = 3 × 10−3 = 2.59 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑠 100 𝑐𝑚 ℎ𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
4
𝑄 = 2.59 × 80 × 15 1 = 1244 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦
10
81
Confined Flow in Homogeneous Anisotropic
Soils (kz≠ kx)
Steps to draw flownet
The previous procedure should be
adjusted to accommodate for
anisotropy
1. Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z
axis) for drawing the cross section.
2. Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x
axis) such that horizontal scale =
= 𝑘𝑧 Τ𝑘𝑥 × 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
3. With scales adopted as in steps 1
and 2, plot the vertical section
through the permeable layer
parallel to the direction of flow.
4. Draw the flow net for the permeable
layer on the section obtained from
step 3, with flow lines intersecting
equipotential lines at right angles
and the elements as approximate 82
squares.
Confined Flow in Homogeneous Anisotropic
Soils (kz≠ kx)
The rate of seepage can be calculated
as
𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐿∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 𝑎
where
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑥
83
Confined Flow in Non-homogeneous Soils
1. Equivalent permeabilities should be
obtained
σ 𝑘𝑖 𝐻𝑖 σ 𝐻𝑖
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 =
σ 𝐻𝑖 𝐻
σ 𝑖
𝑘𝑖
2. Similar steps used in calculating
H1
the flow in homogeneous k1
anisotropic soils (kz≠ kx) should be

followed
H2
k2

The rate of seepage can be calculated
as
𝑁𝐹 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐿∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 𝑎
where
84
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑥
Flownet for Unconfined Conditions
85
Hydraulic Uplift Pressure
➢ When buried structures extend

below the groundwater table, they
are subjected to uplift pressures
from the pore water.
Zw
➢ For horizontal ground water table,
or nearly so, then the uplift
pressure at a point can be
calculated as following Uplift pressure, u=gwZw
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑤
➢ If the groundwater table is far from being

H1
horizontal, then significant head losses
are occurring as the water flows from
H2
one side of the structure to the other.
u2=gwH2
86
‫ أسامة دربي‬.‫د‬ u1=gwH1
Hydraulic Uplift Pressure
Calculation of Uplift Pressure due to Seepage
1. Draw a flow net in the soil beneath the structure.
2. Using the equipotential lines, compute the total head at several points along the
base of the structure.
3. Determine the elevation head at the points used in step 2
4. Determine the pressure head at each point using the data from steps 2 and 3 and
the following equation
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ − ℎ𝑧
5. Determine the pore water pressure at each point using

6. Develop a plot of uplift pressure across the structure.
87
Example 16
A proposed twenty-story office building with three levels of underground parking
will be supported on a concrete mat foundation, as shown in the figure below. The
bottom of this mat will be 12 m below the street, and its plan dimensions will be 60
m × 45 m. The groundwater table is currently at a depth of 7 m below the ground
surface but could rise to only 4 m below the ground surface during the life of the
building. Compute the total hydrostatic uplift force to be used in the design.
Solution
The most critical case would be when the groundwater table is
4 m below the ground surface, so the design should be based
on this condition.
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑤 = 9.81 12 − 4 = 78.48 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 = 𝑢𝐴 = 78.48 60 × 45 = 211,896 𝑘𝑁
88
Example 16
Compute the uplift forces acting on the dam in the figure using the following data
Δh = 15 m, the soil beneath the dam has a hydraulic conductivity of 3×10-3 cm/sec,
and the length of the dam is 80 m. Draw a diagram of the uplift pressure acting on
the dam and compute the total uplift force.
89
Example 16
➢ Step 1: Draw the cross-section on
scale
16 m
➢ Step 2: Find all missing dimensions
4.5 m
➢ Step 3: Find ND, and ∆ℎ
𝑁𝐷 = 10
∆ℎ = 15 𝑚
➢ Step 4: Determine the equipotential

drop
∆ℎ 15
= = 1.5 𝑚/equipotential drop
𝑁𝐷 10
➢ Step 5: Select datum: use the bottom of the dam as a datum 90

Example 16
➢ Step 6: Calculate the total head,
16 m
elevation head, and pore water
4.5 m
pressure head at each point under
the dam.
ℎ𝑖 = ℎ − 𝑁𝐷𝑖 × equipotential drop
ℎ𝑧 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑧
Point ℎ𝑖 (m) ℎ𝑧 (m) ℎ𝒑 (𝒎) u (kPa)
1 =16+4.5 =20.5 4.5 16 =9.81×16=157
2 =20.5-1(1.5)=19.5 0 19.5 191 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
3 =20.5-2(1.5)=17.5 0 17.5 172 ∆ℎ 15
=
4 =20.5-3(1.5)=16.0 0 16.0 157 𝑁𝐷 10
= 1.5 𝑚/equipotential drop
5 =20.5-4(1.5)=14.5 0 14.5 142
6 =20.5-5(1.5)=13.0 0 13.0 128
7 =20.5-6(1.5)=11.5 0 11.5 113
8 =20.5-7(1.5)=10.0 0 10.0 98
9 =20.5-8(1.5)=8.5 0 8.5 83
10 =20.5-9(1.5)=7.0 0 7.0 69
91
11 =20.5-10(1.5)=5.5 4.5 1.0 9.81≈10
Example 16
➢ Points 3 to 9 are located under the dam
Point ℎ𝑖 (m) ℎ𝑧 (m) ℎ𝒑 (𝒎) u (kPa) Dxi Puplift (kN)

3 =20.5-2(1.5)=17.5 0 17.5 172 4.1 =172 X (4.1X80) =56,416
4 =20.5-3(1.5)=16.0 0 16.0 157 4.7 =157 X (4.7X80) =59,032
5 =20.5-4(1.5)=14.5 0 14.5 142 4.8 54,528
6 =20.5-5(1.5)=13.0 0 13.0 128 4.9 50,176
7 =20.5-6(1.5)=11.5 0 11.5 113 4.8 43,392
8 =20.5-7(1.5)=10.0 0 10.0 98 4.7 36,848
9 =20.5-8(1.5)=8.5 0 8.5 83 4.1 27,224
Total force 327,616
Puplift=u Area Puplift1
Puplift2
Area = Dxi X 80 m
Dx1 Dx2
92
‫‪Example 16‬‬
‫‪93‬‬
‫د‪ .‬أسامة دربي‬
Example 17
Assume Ground elevation is the
16 m
datum, calculate h, hz, hp , and u at
4.5 m
points 1 to 11.
ℎ𝑖 = ℎ − 𝑁𝐷𝑖 × equipotential drop
ℎ𝑧 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑝 = ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑧
Point ℎ𝑖 (m) ℎ𝑧 (m) ℎ𝒑 (𝒎) u (kPa)
1 16 0 16 =9.81×16=157
2 =16-1(1.5)=14.5 -4.5 19.5 191 ℎ𝑖 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
3 =16-2(1.5)=13.0 -4.5 17.5 172
∆ℎ 15
4 =16-3(1.5)=11.5 -4.5 16.0 157 =
𝑁𝐷 10
5 =16-4(1.5)=10.0 -4.5 14.5 142 = 1.5 𝑚/equipotential drop
6 =16-5(1.5)=8.5 -4.5 13.0 128
7 =16-6(1.5)=7.0 -4.5 11.5 113
8 =16-7(1.5)=5.5 -4.5 10.0 98
9 =16-8(1.5)=4.0 -4.5 8.5 83
10 =16-9(1.5)=2.5 -4.5 7.0 69
94
11 =16-10(1.5)=1.0 0 1.0 9.81≈10
Hydraulic gradient
➢ The hydraulic gradient is,
∆ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿
➢ The hydraulic gradient between

two equipotential lines,
∆ℎ
𝑖=
𝑁𝐷 𝐿
➢ However, the hydraulic gradient is not constant (L is not constant) in two-dimensional

seepage. The maximum hydraulic gradient occurs at exit point (down stream), where
L is minimum
∆ℎ
𝑖𝑒 =
𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛
95
Quick (Piping) Condition
➢ The upward movement of water
at the down stream might
resultant that body force would
be zero if the hydraulic gradient
was high.
➢ The value of hydraulic gradient
corresponding to zero resultant
body force is called the critical
hydraulic gradient (ic).
➢ For an element of soil of volume
V subject to upward seepage
under the critical hydraulic ➢ Factor of safety against piping is
gradient, the seepage force is 𝑖𝑐
therefore equal to the effective 𝐹𝑜𝑆 = ≥ 1.2
𝑖𝑒
weight of the element, i.e.
ic = critical hydraulic gradient
′
𝑖𝑐 𝛾𝑤 𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑉 ie = maximum exit gradient
Therefore,
𝛾 ′ 𝐺𝑠 − 1 ∆ℎ
𝑖𝑐 = = 𝑖𝑒 =
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒 𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 96
Example 18
Check the Factor of Safety against piping if the saturated unit wight of the soil is
20 kN/m3
𝑁𝐷 = 10
∆ℎ = 15 𝑚
∆ℎ = 4 𝑚(measurment)
∆ℎ 15
𝑖𝑒 = = = 0.375 𝑚
𝑁𝐷 𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 10 × 4
𝛾 ′ 20 − 9.81
𝑖𝑐 = = = 1.04
𝛾𝑤 9.81
𝑖𝑐 1.04
𝐹𝑜𝑆 = = = 2.8 ≥ 1.2
𝑖𝑒 0.375
97
Therefore, piping will not occur at the down stream
Seepage Analysis of Wells
Wells:
➢ Water supply
➢ Control groundwater flow in civil engineering projects
Flow into Wells:

➢ Axisymmetric flow condition
➢ Radial coordinate system
98
Confined Aquifers
➢ Pump water from well at a
constant rate (Q) until reach
steady state.
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑑ℎ
𝑄=න 𝐾𝑖𝐴 = න 𝐾 𝐻 𝑟𝑑𝜃
0 0 𝑑𝑟 𝑎
2𝜋𝑘𝐻𝑎 (ℎ0 − ℎ𝑤 )
𝑄=
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
where,
𝑟0 = 300(ℎ0 − ℎ𝑤 ) 𝑘
𝑘 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 99
Unconfined Aquifers

steady state.
𝜋𝑘 (ℎ02 − ℎ𝑤
2
)
𝑄=
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
100
Mixed Aquifers
steady state.
𝜋𝑘 (2ℎ0 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑎2 − ℎ𝑤
2)
𝑄=
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
The height of the ground water

table at any distance from the
well, r is
𝑄 𝑟0
ℎ= 2ℎ0 𝐻𝑎 − 𝐻𝑎2 − 𝑙𝑛
𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑤 101
Example 19
After reaching steady-state conditions, the test well shown in the figure below is
producing a flow rate of 17 l/sec. The aquifer is an alluvial soil with interbedded
medium-to-coarse sand and silty sand.
The water depths in the observation wells
are as follows
Using the best available data, compute the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in the
aquifer. Is the computed k value reasonable? Explain why or why not.
102
Example 19
➢ The groundwater table is completely within
the aquifer, so this is an unconfined aquifer
and unconfined aquifer equation.
2
)
𝑄=
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
➢ Well C is beyond the radius of influence
because the water level during pumping is
the same as that before pumping.
Therefore, it cannot be used to compute k.
The analysis must be based on wells A and
B.
Well A:
𝑟 = 3 × 100 = 300 𝑐𝑚, ℎ = 19 + 11 − 23.5 × 100 = 650 𝑐𝑚
Well B:
𝑟 = (3 + 27) × 100 = 3000 𝑐𝑚, ℎ = 19 + 11 − 18.1 × 100 = 1190 𝑐𝑚
𝑙 1000 𝑐𝑚3
𝑄 = 17 = 17,000 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑙 103
Example 19
2)
𝑄=
𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
𝑟
𝑄𝑙𝑛 𝑟0
𝑤
𝑘= 2 2)
𝜋 (ℎ0 − ℎ𝑤
3000
17,000𝑙𝑛 300
𝑘= 2 2 = 1.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 (1190 − 650 )
This is an alluvial soil which has horizontal stratifications, The flow to the well is primarily
horizontal, so the measured k will be very close to the horizontal hydraulic conductivity,
kh. According to the discussion of anisotropic soils, the value of kh will be close to that of
the medium-to-coarse sand layers. According to the above table, clean coarse sand
typically has k=10-2 to 1 cm/sec and fine sand typically has k=10-3 to 10-1 cm/sec, so
medium-to-coarse sand typically has k≈10-2 to 10-1 cm/sec. The measured value is in the
range. Therefore, the measured value seems reasonable.
104

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CE 329

Groundwater Flow and Seepage

Shinkhole (Japan) Water leaking into rail tunnel

The Leaning Tower of Pisa

Teton Dam, Idaho (1976 failure)

Steady Flow: The flow in which the

Unsteady Flow (Transient Flow):

Laminar Flow: The flow in which all

Turbulent Flow: The flow in which all

Flow Energy at Point B:

Potential Energy, which is due to its

The Elevation Head, hz, is the

The Total Head, h, is summation of

Velocity head in soil and rock is

The head loss between two

The hydraulic gradient is the

▪ The three zones of the fluid flow are the

▪ Most flows through soil are laminar, and

Das and Sobhan (2018)

Observation Well: the inside pipe is

Piezometers: the inside pipe is hydraulically

The water level in a piezometer represents

Pore water pressure, u: The pressure in the

Filter tips for use on standpipe

𝑢𝑜 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑍𝑤 = 9.81 × 260 − 250 = 98.1 kN/𝑚2

Since point B is in a confined aquifer, it is necessary to install a piezometer to determine

▪ The vadose zone is defined as

Capillary action demonstrated by a thin

Factors Affect Soil Permeability

Units of k: cm/sec, ft/min, ft/yr, m/year.

▪ For sand ne is equal to the porosity n

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 1000 × 0.009 × 3200 = 30,000 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜

▪ Since the soil is silty sand; therefore, ne=n

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 6.6226 × 10−3 × 1.5 × 5000 = 49.7 𝑚3 /𝑦𝑟

𝑘𝑖 6.6226 × 10−3 × 1.5

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 sin 𝛼 (3 cos 𝛼) × 1

𝑄 = 2.2 × 10−5 × 3600 = 0.079 𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟Τ1𝑚

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 1.88 × 10−4 𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 Τ𝑚

Falling head methods are generally limited to

Alluvial soils and varved clays: Kx > Kz

Flow Parallel to Layers (kx)

➢ The total flow is the sum of the flow

➢ Head loss in each layer is the same, Dh,

Applying this knowledge, we get an expression:

Flow Normal to Layers (kz)

➢ The flow in each layer is equal to the total

➢ The total head loss in the system is equal to

Applying this knowledge, we get an expression:

Flow Normal to Layers (kz)

Flow Normal to Layers

𝑄 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 0.0809 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 291.27 𝑐𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟

Similarly, for Soil B

ℎ𝐵 = 300 − ∆ℎ𝐴𝐵 = 300 − 52.59 = 247.42 𝑚𝑚

Head loss from A to D 3.6 cm

flow, Q, the loss of head during flow through

Total Head of Piezometer B 1

Total Head of Piezometer D

Assumptions of LaPlace Equation:

1. Darcy’s Law is valid.

▪ Since the soil is isotropic:

Solution of LaPlace Equation

1. The upstream and downstream