See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/284002672

Multicultural Identity Processes

Article in Current Opinion in Psychology · October 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.020

CITATIONS READS

40 2,599

4 authors, including:

Ying Yi Hong Michael W. Morris

The Chinese University of Hong Kong Columbia University
251 PUBLICATIONS 16,881 CITATIONS 155 PUBLICATIONS 17,332 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Veronica Benet
University Pompeu Fabra
99 PUBLICATIONS 17,671 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Veronica Benet on 09 September 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Multicultural identity processes
Ying-yi Hong1,2, Siran Zhan1, Michael W Morris3 and
Verónica Benet-Martı́nez4
The study of multicultural identity has gained prominence in
recent decades and will be even more urgent as the mobility of
individuals and social groups becomes the ‘new normal’. This
paper reviews the state-of-the-art theoretical advancements
and empirical discoveries of multicultural identity processes at
the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and collective (e.g.,
organizational, societal) levels. First, biculturalism has more
benefits for individuals’ psychological and sociocultural
adjustment than monoculturalism. Bicultural individuals’ racial
essentialist beliefs and Bicultural Identity Integration affect
cultural frame switching, racial categorization, and creativity.
Second, identity denial and identity-based discrimination by
other people or groups threaten multicultural individuals’
psychological health and performance. Third, multiculturalism
and interculturalism policies are associated with different
conceptions of and attitudes toward diversity, and have distinct
outcomes for multicultural individuals and societies.
Addresses
1 tion and maintenance of multicultural identity, researchers
Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University,
50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore
2
Beijing Normal University, 19 Xinjiekou Outer St, Haidian, Beijing
100875, China
3
Columbia University, 718 Uris Hall, 3022 Broadway, New York, NY
10027, USA
4
ICREA at Pompeu Fabra University, Ramon Trias Fargas 25-27, 08005
Barcelona, Spain
Corresponding author: Hong, Ying-yi (yingyi.hong@gmail.com)
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53
This review comes from a themed issue on Culture
Edited by Michele Gelfand and Yoshi Kashima
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.09.020
2352-250/# 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
How many times, since I left Lebanon in 1976 to live in
France, have people asked me, with the best intentions in
the world, whether I felt ‘‘more French’’ or ‘‘more Leba-
nese’’? And I always give the same answer: ‘‘Both!’’ I say
that not in the interests of fairness or balance, but because
any other answer would be a lie. What makes me myself
rather anyone else is the very fact that I am poised
between two countries, two or three languages and sev-
eral cultural traditions. It is precisely this that defines my
www.sciencedirect.com
identity. Would I exist more authentically if I cut off a
part of myself?
(Amin Maalouf, 2000, p. 1)
Since 1990, the worldwide count of immigrants and
expatriates by birth or citizenship has grown by 75 percent
[1]. On top of migration, international tourism has in-
creased from 25 million to 1133 million in 2014 [2]. Global
internet usage has grown from 14 million to 2.93 billion
between 1993 and 2014 [3]. These aspects of globaliza-
tion have heightened intercultural exposure and the
diversity of societies.
As an adaptation to this globalization, Amin Maalouf’s
identification with multiple cultures is shared by an ev-
er-wider fraction of humankind. To understand the forma-
study influential factors at multiple levels: intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and collective. In this paper, we provide a
review of the latest scholarship on these multi-level pro-
cesses. Specifically, the research addresses (a) how indi-
viduals navigate and manage multicultural identities at the
intrapersonal level, (b) how exclusion and discrimination at
the interpersonal level affect multicultural identity forma-
tion and negotiation, and (c) how organizations’ and socie-
ties’ diversity policies also affect such processes.
Intrapersonal processes
Early models of acculturation assumed that high identifi-
cation with one culture (e.g., host culture) implied low
identification with other cultures (e.g., heritage culture).
Recent conceptual advancement recognizes that high
identification with one culture does not entail low iden-
tification with all other cultures [4]; multiple strong
identifications are not only possible but also beneficial
[5,6]. For instance, a meta-analysis of 83 studies shows
that biculturalism, that is, attachment to and competency
in two cultures, is associated with both positive psycho-
logical (e.g., self-esteem, lack of depression) and socio-
cultural (e.g., career success, lack of delinquency)
adjustment, but not with health [7]. This link between
biculturalism and adjustment was stronger than the asso-
ciation between monoculturalism (exclusive orientation
toward either the dominant or heritage/ethnic cultures)
and adjustment. The positive relationship between
biculturalism and adjustment may be due to a variety
of factors internal (e.g., bilingual competence, having
social support networks in two cultures) and external
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53
50 Culture
(e.g., non-discriminatory policies) to the acculturating
individual (see review [8] for related research on immi-
grant acculturation).
New insights have also been gained about ‘marginals’ [9],
multicultural individuals who have low identification with
all their cultures [10]. Recent evidence contradicts the
traditional view that these individuals are maladjusted
[11]; instead, these culturally ‘marginal’ individuals are
found to be well adapted and highly successful [13,14], as
demonstrated by their superior creativity [13], intercul-
tural communication skills [14], and likelihood of being in
upper management positions [15]. Based on these new
insights, Arasaratnam [16] proposed an alternative defini-
tion of multicultural identity as ‘the condition of persons
who have formed an identity that is not affiliated with one
particular culture but instead a blend of multiple cultures
and contexts’, themes that are developed in recent theory
on polyculturalism [17]. That said, the same identity
structure that may signal independence in business
executives may signal alienation in the underclass, thus
future research from a broader strata of economic groups
is necessary.
Research has revealed both positive and negative con-
sequences of priming international students with symbols
of their home versus host culture. On the one hand,
Zhang et al. [18] found that immigrants from mainland
China speak English less fluently when exposed to Asian
than Caucasian faces or when exposed to Chinese rather
than American images. Visual primes of the home culture
activate structures of their native language that interfere
with second language processing. On the other hand, the
same primes can have a positive emotional effect; Fu
et al. [19] found that home-culture primes soothe inter-
national students’ relational insecurities that hinder their
cultural adjustment. Similarly, Hong et al. [20] found that
subliminally exposing international students to home
cultural cues would increase subjective well-being in that
it buffers perceived discrimination, and acculturation
stress. These studies have broadened the range of con-
sequences explored in cultural priming research.
Bicultural individuals differ in the extent to which they
integrate their two cultural identities or Bicultural Identity
Integration (BII) [6]. Specifically, BII captures two dimen-
sions of dual cultural identity: distance (degree to which
two cultures are perceived as dissociated) and conflict
(amount of perceived tension between two cultures).
Recent research indicates that a low level of BII-distance
(perceiving two cultures as overlapping) is beneficial. For
instance, immigrants with lower BII-distance experience
less anxiety [21]. Latino biculturals with lower BII-
distance perceived their personalities as more similar to
a typical Latino and also more similar to a typical Anglo-
American (compared to those with higher BII-distance)
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53
[22]. Saad et al. [23] found that Chinese-Americans with
low BII-distance had better creative performance in a
bicultural contexts (where both Chinese and American
symbols were present) but not in a monocultural context
(where either Chinese or American symbols were pres-
ent). Tadmor et al. [13] found that low BII-distance
individuals exhibited higher cognitive complexity and
ultimately creativity.
Identity conflict is anxiety provoking [21]. However,
surprisingly, a high level of BII-conflict (perceiving high
tension between two cultures) is associated with some
positive cognitive outcomes. For example, Tadmor et al.
[12] and Benet-Martinez et al. found that biculturals who
experience identity conflict exhibit greater cognitive
complexity. Similarly, Thomas et al. [24] found that
biculturals perceiving greater identity conflict have
higher cultural metacognition — self-awareness of their
cultural assumptions and inferences.
Biculturals’ level of identity conflict also moderates how
they respond to cultural primes through frame switching
[5]. High BII-conflict individuals shift their biases to
contrast with norms of the primed culture rather than
to assimilate with it. Mok and Morris [25,26,27] com-
pared Asian-American with conflicted cultural identities
to those with compatible cultural identities. Conflicted
Asian-Americans exhibited a contrastive or contrarian
response — more Western biases (on measures such as
focal/holistic attention, need for uniqueness, and individ-
ualism) after Chinese priming and more East Asian biases
after American cultural priming. One explanation is that
conflicted biculturals feel dis-identified with their cul-
tures, motivated to dissociate themselves from each cul-
ture [4]. An alternative explanation is the motivation to
protect the non-cued cultural identity [25,26,27]. Recent
studies using subliminal priming indicate this response
occurs implicitly rather than through conscious impres-
sion management [25]. Although this response of con-
flicted biculturals may prevent them from meshing with
cultural contexts, it is useful in protecting them from
groupthink when working in groups from their two cul-
tures [28]. This finding implies that bicultural individuals
with conflicted identities can contribute to avoiding de-
cision biases.
Because culture and race/ethnicity are often conflated,
how bicultural individuals conceptualize the nature of
race and ethnicity should also affect how they manage
their identities. In particular, two lay theories of race have
been identified — racial essentialism refers to a belief in
race as fixed biological essence that determines a person’s
traits and ability, whereas social constructivism refers to a
belief in racial categories as malleable (see review, [29]).
Asian Americans (ethnic minorities) who believe in racial
essentialism identified less with American (host) culture
than did those who believe in social constructivism [30].
www.sciencedirect.com

Furthermore, holding racial essentialism was also associ-
ated with less flexibility in shifting between cultures [31],
more rigid racial categorization [32], and dampened
creativity [33]. Conversely, holding less racial essential-
ism was associated with better psychological well-being
for multiculturals because it reduces the racial barrier in
interracial contexts [34].
Interpersonal influences
Individuals negotiate their cultural identities within spe-
cific social contexts as social performers meet social
perceivers [35]. Problems arise when a person’s own
perceptions and others’ perceptions fail to align [35,36].
For instance, an Asian American can strongly embrace
both her Asian and American identities; however, percei-
vers might forcefully categorize her only as Asian (e.g., by
white Americans) or American (e.g., by her co-ethnics).
When this occurs, she may feel that her autonomy to
exercise identity choice is thwarted. Another key chal-
lenge for multicultural individuals is that they are often
ethnic minorities who face discrimination from majority
groups [37,38]. These problems contribute to a range of
negative outcomes such as dampened self-esteem, sense
of belonging, and motivation [40,41], increased substance
abuse and depression [42], and impaired academic per-
formance [43], among others.
Multicultural individuals, especially those with minority
status, can take a wide range of strategies to battle identity
denial and discrimination. An automatic response to iden-
tity denial is to over-emphasize the denied identity in a
compensatory defense manner, for example, by behaving
in more stereotypically American ways if one perceives
denial to her American identity [35,43]. Common strate-
gies for combatting discrimination are identity switching
and identity redefinition. Identity switching is deempha-
sizing the vulnerable target identity and self-recategorizing
into a more positively valued identity. Identity redefinition
is highlighting positive associations with the target identity
so as to protect self-esteem associated with that identity
(see [45] for a review on the mechanisms, moderators, and
limitations of each strategy). In addition to these reactive
strategies, preventive approaches can be taken to protect
multiculturals against potential threat. For instance, par-
ents who have successfully adjusted to a multicultural
environment can engage in racial socialization (i.e., raising
awareness of racism and discrimination, and possible cop-
ing strategies) with their children to improve their adjust-
ment and adaptation experiences [43].
Organizational and societal influences
The diversity policies that organizations and societies
adopt affect individuals’ multicultural identity formation
and negotiation. In the remaining section, we review the
impact of two alternative policies, that is, multicultural-
ism and interculturalism, on outcomes for multicultural
individuals and societies.
www.sciencedirect.com
Multicultural identity processes Hong et al. 51
Multiculturalism was coined in 1970s Quebec to name the
‘policy of honoring differences with the goal of preserving
different cultural communities within a society or organi-
zation, valuing purity of traditions’ [17], p. 636. In essence,
cultural groups have rights; societies should treat none of its
major cultural groups as more central than the others;
individuals should be recognized in their cultural identi-
ties. In two experimental studies, Verkuyten [46] found
that presenting a statement endorsing multiculturalism in
the local society enhances subsequent self-esteem of high
ethnic-minority identifiers’ but not that of low identifiers.
Also, individuals endorsing multiculturalism show less
social dominance orientation, more interest in and appre-
ciation of diversity, and greater comfort with differences
[47]. However, some findings reveal costs of multicultur-
alism. One cost is reduced national unity [48]. Further-
more, multicultural approaches that focus only on
superficial characteristics of cultural groups may uninten-
tionally reinforce group stereotypes [49,50].
Discontent with multiculturalism has led to the adoption
of interculturalist policies that promote ‘intercultural
contact and dialog.’ The underlying theory is polycultur-
alism, the view that individuals have ‘partial and plural’
connections to cultures and that cultural communities
have always interacted and affected each other’s evolu-
tion [17], p. 634. Recent studies of diversity ideologies
find that individuals with a polyculturalist mindset, com-
pared with those with multiculturalist mindsets, were
more willing to criticize their own cultural traditions
[51], more eager for intergroup contact [47], and held
more positive attitudes toward people from different
cultures [52]. Foreign visitors who dramatically accom-
modate to the norms of the society they are visiting are
appreciated by polyculturalists and derided by multicul-
turalists [53] as multiculturalists generally prefer individ-
uals to maintain their cultural distinction. In general,
polyculturalist individuals welcome fluidity and hybridity
in enacting cultural norms whereas multiculturalist indi-
viduals see them as threats to cultural preservation and
authenticity.
Conclusion and directions for future research
The study of multicultural identity has gained prominence
in recent decades and will be even more urgent as the
mobility of individuals and social groups becomes the ‘new
normal.’ As reviewed, this topic cuts across three (intraper-
sonal, interpersonal, and collective) intimately linked
levels. For instance, Cheng and Lee [54] have shown that
asking Asian Americans participants to recall positive (neg-
ative) interactions with the mainstream American group
increases (decreases) participants’ level of bicultural iden-
tity integration, suggesting that the interpersonal level
affects the intrapersonal level. Conversely, intrapersonal
level can also affect interpersonal experiences as well. For
instance, No et al. [30] found that Asian American partici-
pants who held a social constructivist view of race increased
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53
52 Culture
their American identification significantly after recalling a
large (vs. small) number of positive encounters with Amer-
ican culture but those who held a racial essentialism did
not. Finally, both the intrapersonal and interpersonal
experiences are affected by national policies [55]. Future
research can further elucidate the interplay between the
three levels of multicultural identity processes.
Interestingly, the exponential prevalence of multicultural
contacts and mixing could possibly change human biology
as well. A recent study found that adult Spanish-English
bilinguals have larger gray matter volume in frontal and
parietal brain regions (that are typically implicated in
executive control) when compared with English-speaking
monolinguals [56]. The researchers explain that manag-
ing two languages (i.e., the experience with two languages
and the increase need for cognitive control to use them
appropriately) changes the brain. To the extent that
adapting to multiple cultures also requires navigating
between cultural contexts and managing multicultural
identities, multicultural experiences may change human
brain as well [see elaboration in [29]). Future research can
investigate this intriguing possibility.
Conflict of interest statement
Nothing declared.
References and recommended reading
Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review,
have been highlighted as:
 of special interest
1. International Migration Report 2013, New York, 2013. http://www.
un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/
migration/migrationreport2013/Full_Document_final.pdf.
2. UNWTO, UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2015.
3. Internet Users by Year, Internet Live Stats. (2014).
4. Zou X, Morris MW, Benet-Martı́nez V: Identity motives and
cultural priming: cultural (dis)identification in assimilative and
contrastive responses. J Exp Soc Psychol 2008, 44:1151-1159
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.02.001.
5. Hong Y, Morris MW, Chiu C, Benet-Martı́nez V: Multicultural
minds: a dynamic constructivist approach to culture and
cognition. Am Psychol 2000, 55:709.
6. Nguyen A-MD, Benet-Martínez V: Multicultural identity: what it is
and why it matters. In Psychol. Soc. Cult. Divers.. Edited by
Richard Crisp. Wiley-Blackwell; 2010:87-114.
7. Nguyen A-MD, Benet-Martinez V: Biculturalism and adjustment:
a meta-analysis. J Cross Cult Psychol 2012 http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/0022022111435097.
8. Ward C, Gaaert N, Acculturation. This special issue.
9. Berry JW: Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In Accult.
Theory, Model. Some New Find. Edited by Padilla A. Westview
Press; 1980:9-25.
10. Fitzsimmons SR, Lee Y, Brannen MY: Demystifying the myth
about marginals: implications for global leadership. Eur J Int
Manag 2013, 7:587-603.
11. Hoersting RC, Jenkins SR: No place to call home: cultural
homelessness, self-esteem and cross-cultural identities. Int J
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53
Intercult Relations 2011, 35:17-30 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.ijintrel.2010.11.005.
12. Tadmor CT, Tetlok PE, Peng K: Acculturation strategies and
integrative complexity the cognitive implications of
biculturalism. J Cross Cult Psychol 2009, 40:105-139.
13. Tadmor CT, Galinsky AD, Maddux WW: Getting the most out of
living abroad: biculturalism and integrative complexity as key
drivers of creative and professional success. J Pers Soc
Psychol 2012, 103:520-542 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0029360.
14. Moore AM, Barker GG: Confused or multicultural: third culture
individuals’ cultural identity. Int J Intercult Relations 2012,
36:553-562 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002.
15. Gillespie K, McBride JB, Riddle L: Globalization, biculturalism
and cosmopolitanism the acculturation status of mexicans in
upper management. Int J Cross Cult Manag 2010, 10:37-53.
16. Arasaratnam La: A review of articles on multiculturalism in
35 years of IJIR. Int J Intercult Relations 2013, 37:676-685 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.09.006.
17. Morris MW, Chiu C, Liu Z: Polycultural psychology. Annu Rev
 Psychol 2015, 66:631-659 http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-
psych-010814-015001.
In this study the authors proposes an alternative framework, polycultur-
alism, to complement the traditional frameworks of multiculturalism and
colorblindness in understanding culture and its relationship with its
agents.
18. Zhang S, Morris MW, Cheng C, Yap AJ: Heritage-culture images
 disrupt immigrants’ second-language processing through
triggering first-language interference. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2013,
110:11272-11277.
In this research the authors found that heritage-culture cues hinder
immigrants’ second-language processing by priming first-language
structures. This finding extends the effect cultural priming to linguisitc
performance.
19. Fu JHY, Morris MW, Hong Y: A transformative taste of home:
home culture primes foster expatriates’ adjustment through
bolstering relational security. J Exp Soc Psychol 2015, 59:24-31.
20. Hong Y, Fang Y, Yang Y, Phua DY: Cultural attachment a new
 theory and method to understand cross-cultural competence.
J Cross Cult Psychol 2013, 44:1024-1044.
This paper provides the first evidence that acculturation is analogous to
infants’ attachment to their caretakers, whereby forming secure attach-
ment to the native and/or host cultures can help sojourners to cope with
anxiety and stress and to gain a sense of safe haven.
21. Hirsh JB, Kang SK: Mechanisms of identity conflict:
 uncertainty, anxiety, and the behavioral inhibition system,
personal. Soc Psychol Rev 2015:1-22 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
1088868315589475.
This paper uses the Behavioral Inhibition System perspective to propose
a mechnistic model that dellineates the nature and consequences (i.e.,
stress responses) of identity conflict.
22. Miramontez DR, Benet-Martı́nez V, Nguyen A-MD: Bicultural
identity and self/group personality perceptions. Self Identity
2008, 7:430-445.
23. Saad CS, Damian RI, Benet-Martinez V, Moons WG, Robins RW:
 Multiculturalism and creativity: effects of cultural context,
bicultural identity, and ideational fluency. Soc Psychol Personal
Sci 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550612456560.
This study shows that greater bicultural identity blendedness predicted
domain-general creativity in bicultural but not in monocultural contexts,
and this was mediated by ideational fluency.
24. Thomas DC, Brannen MY, Garcia D: Bicultural individuals and
intercultural effectiveness. Eur J Cross-Cultural Eff Manag 2010,
1:315-333.
25. Mok A, Morris MW: Bicultural self-defense in consumer
 contexts: self-protection motives are the basis for contrast
versus assimilation to cultural cues. J Consum Psychol 2013,
23:175-188 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2012.06.002.
The authors found that individuals high (low) in bicultural identity integra-
tion assimilated (contrasted) to both subliminal and supraliminal cultural
primes in consumer information seeking and choice. This study is also the
first to show that experience of identity exclusion threat mediated the
relationship.
www.sciencedirect.com

26. Mok a, Morris MW: Attentional focus and the dynamics of dual
identity integration: evidence from asian americans and
female lawyers. Soc Psychol Personal Sci 2012, 3:597-604 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550611432769.
27. Mok A, Morris MW: Cultural chameleons and iconoclasts:
assimilation and reactance to cultural cues in biculturals’
expressed personalities as a function of identity conflict. J Exp
Soc Psychol 2009, 45:884-889.
28. Mok A, Morris MW: An upside to bicultural identity conflict:
resisting groupthink in cultural ingroups. J Exp Soc Psychol
2010, 46:1114-1117 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.020.
29. Hong Y, Khei M: Dynamic multiculturalism: the interplay of
socio-cognitive, neural, and and genetic mechanisms. In
Oxford Handb. Multicult. Identity. Edited by Benet-Martı́nez V,
Hong Y. Oxford University Press; 2014:9-34.
30. No S, Hong Y, Liao H-Y, Lee K, Wood D, Chao MM: Lay theory
of race affects and moderates asian americans’ responses
toward American culture. J Pers Soc Psychol 2008, 95:
991-1004.
31. Chao MM, Chen J, Roisman GI, Hong Y: Essentializing race:
implications for bicultural individuals’ cognition and
physiological reactivity. Psychol Sci 2007, 18:341-348.
32. Chao MM, Hong Y, Chiu C: Essentializing race: its implications
 on racial categorization. J Pers Soc Psychol 2013:619.
The authors are the first to demonstrate that belief in racial essentialism
increase the tendency and sensitivity toward race-based categorization,
thus shed light on the process of interracial perception and relationship.
33. Tadmor CT, Chao MM, Hong Y, Polzer JT: Not just for
 stereotyping anymore racial essentialism reduces domain-
general creativity. Psychol Sci 2013, 24:99-105.
It is found in this study that endorsing racial essentialism led to motivated
close-mindedness which in turn hampers creativity. This finding shows
that beyond its typical social consequences on stereotyping, racial
essentialist belief also holds important cognitive implications.
34. Sanchez DT, Garcia JA: When race matters: racially stigmatized
others and perceiving race as a biological construction affect
biracial people’s daily well-being. Personal Soc Psychol Bull
2009, 35:1154-1164.
35. Wiley S, Deaux K: The bicultural identity performance of
immigrants. In Identity Particip. Cult. Divers. Soc.. Edited by Azzi
AE, Chryssochoou B, Klandermans B, Simon B. Wiley-Blackwell;
2010.
36. Sanchez DT, Shih MJ, Wilton LS: Exploring the identity
autonomy perspective (IAP): an integrative approach to
multicultural and multiracial identity. In Oxford Handb.
Multicult. Identity. Edited by Benet-Martı́nez V, Hong Y. Oxford
University Press; 2014:139-159.
37. Jasinskaja-Lahti I, Mähönen TA, Liebkind K: Identity and
attitudinal reactions to perceptions of inter-group interactions
among ethnic migrants: a longitudinal study. Br J Soc Psychol
2012, 51:312-329 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-
8309.2011.02059.x.
38. Adida CL, Laitin DD, Valfort M-A: Identifying barriers to Muslim
integration in France. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010, 107:22384-
22390 http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015550107.
40. Sanchez DT: How do forced-choice dilemmas affect
multiracial people? The role of identity autonomy and public
regard in depressive symptoms. J Appl Soc Psychol 2010,
40:1657-1677 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-
1816.2010.00634.x.
41. Townsend SSM, Markus HR, Bergsieker HB: My choice, your
categories: the denial of multiracial identities. J Soc Issues
www.sciencedirect.com
View publication stats
Multicultural identity processes Hong et al. 53
2009, 65:185-204 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-
4560.2008.01594.x.
42. Chavez GF, Sanchez DT: A clearer picture of multiracial
substance abuse: rates and correlates of alcohol and tobacco
use in multiracial adolescents and adults. Race Soc Probl 2010,
2:1-18.
43. Mistry J, Contreras MM, Pufall-Jones E: Childhood socialization
and academic performance of bicultural youth. In Oxford
Handb. Multicult. Identity. Edited by Benet-Martı́nez V, Hong Y.
Oxford University Press; 2014.
45. Shih M, Young MJ, Bucher A: Working to reduce the effects of
 discrimination: identity management strategies in
organizations. Am Psychol 2013, 68:145-157 http://dx.doi.org/
10.1037/a0032250.
The authors discussed the effectiveness of two classes of identity
management strategies individuals use to mitigate the negative conse-
quences of discrimination: identity switching and identity redefinition
under organizational policies of multiculturalism versus colorblindness.
They provide practical advice on how organizations can reduce the need
of identity management and facilitate the process when necessary.
46. Verkuyten M: Self-esteem and multiculturalism: an
examination among ethnic minority and majority groups in the
Netherlands. J Res Pers 2009, 43:419-427.
47. Rosenthal L, Levy SR: The relation between polyculturalism and
intergroup attitudes among racially and ethnically diverse
adults. Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol 2012, 18:1-16.
48. Reitz J, Breton R, Dion KK, Dion KL: Multiculturalism and Social
Cohesion: Potentials and Challenges of Diversity. Springer; 2009.
49. Gutiérrez AS, Unzueta MM: The effect of interethnic ideologies
on the likability of stereotypic vs. counterstereotypic minority
targets. J Exp Soc Psychol 2010, 46:775-784.
50. Crisp RJ, Meleady R: Adapting to a multicultural future. Science
(80-.) 2012, 336:853-855.
51. Rosenthal L, Levy SR, Moss I: Polyculturalism and openness
about criticizing one’s culture: implications for sexual
prejudice. Gr Process Intergr Relations 2011, 15:149-165.
52. Bernardo AB, Rosenthal L, Levy SR: Polyculturalism and
 attitudes towards people from other countries. Int J Intercult
Relations 2013, 37:335-344.
As one of the first empirical analysis on the effect of endorsing poly-
culturalism, the results show that greater endorsement of polyculturalism
relates to more positive attitudes toward foreigners above and beyond a
number of established predictors such as national identification and
social dominance orientation.
53. Cho J, Morris MW, Dow B, When in Rome, what do Romans think
about newcomers? Locals perceptions of a newcomer’s cultural
adaptation, London, 2014.
54. Cheng C, Lee F: The Malleability of Bicultural Identity
 Integration (BII). J Cross Cult Psychol 2013:1235-1240.
This study provides initial evidence that rather than being an individual
difference trait, bicultural identity integration can be situationally induced
after recalling positive bicultural experiences.
55. Berry JW, Sam DL: Multicultural Societies. In Oxford Handb.
Multicult. Identity. Edited by Benet-Martı́nez V, Hong Y. Oxford
University Press; 2014.
56. Olulade OA, Jamal NI, Koo DS, Perfetti CA, LaSasso C, Eden GF:
Bilinguals of two spoken languages have more gray matter
than monolinguals. Cereb Cortex 2015. www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2015/07/150716135054.htm (accessed August 16,
2015).
Current Opinion in Psychology 2016, 8:49–53