Article

Mining Technology
1–14
Developing a digital twin for a laboratory © The Author(s) 2024

ball mill operation – a step towards mining

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DOI: 10.1177/25726668231222990
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Juncong Qu1, Mehmet S. Kizil1, Mohsen Yahyaei2

and Peter F. Knights1

Abstract
Digital twins (DTs) are transforming business operations across industries through accurate replication of physical entities
using the Internet of Things and big data analytics. Despite booming progress in the manufacturing, aerospace and build-
ings sectors, the adoption of DTs in the minerals industry has been slow, and integration with efficient visualisation and
user interactions has not been fully optimised to achieve maximum fidelity and usability. One promising avenue for enhan-
cing DT capabilities is the utilisation of extended reality (XR) technologies, which also hold great potential for realising
an industrial metaverse where real-world business activities can be conducted in a virtual space. This article proposes
a cost-effective and scalable approach to developing a DT with real-time monitoring and control capabilities for a ball
mill operation, a widely used processing equipment in the minerals industry. The case study showcases two approaches
with different levels of system integration by leveraging serious game development platforms, toolkits and workflows.

Keywords
digital twins, industry 4.0, extended reality, minerals processing, industrial metaverse, cyber-physical system integration,
serious games

Received: 6 December 2023; accepted: 7 December 2023

Introduction Defined by Kritzinger’s publication in 2018, a true DT

Mining in the twenty-first century presents a complex set of
challenges. With shifted focus from a booming phase into a
steady operational phase in countries across the globe as
well as a rising concern in its contribution towards
climate change, and the ongoing labour shortage among
younger generations at remote locations, mining companies
are looking for ways to maximise long-term sustainability.
In turn, the minerals industry is investing heavily in digital
transformation of the workspace to retain young talents, and
improve safety, as well as productivity (Elbazi et al., 2022).
The term ‘digital twin’ (DT) came from the pioneering
vision of having a data-driven, digital replica that accurately
represents a real-world entity in terms of its attributes and
real-time behaviours (Rasheed et al., 2020). The concept
was first introduced as an idea for product lifecycle manage-
ment in 2002 by Dr Michael Grieves who later illustrated a
DT as the ‘Mirrored Spaces Model’ in 2005 (Grieves,
2005). In the age of Industry 4.0 powered by the Internet
of Things (IoTs), DTs have also demonstrated their
values in assisting design, production, maintenance, risk
management, as well as process optimisation across numer-
ous industries such as manufacturing and aerospace.
should have two-way integration of real-time data flows
between the digital space or the ‘mirrored space’, and the
physical space containing real-world entities as shown in
Figure 1. In such configuration, a true DT may also serve
as a controlling instance of objects in the real world
(Kritzinger et al., 2018).
Ultimately, advancements in DT research can also con-
tribute towards realising a future of industrial metaverse
(Liu et al., 2023; Stothard, 2023) – a hypothetical future
iteration of the Internet as a collective, immersive and col-
laborative virtual space where people can work, entertain,
trade as well as other things they could do in life using tech-
nologies such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality
(AR) and mixed reality (MR) to provide human-centred
1
School of Mechanical and Mining, The University of Queensland, St Lucia,
QLD, Australia
2
Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The University of
Queensland, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia
Corresponding author:
Juncong Qu, BEng. The University of Queensland, School of Mechanical
and Mining, St Lucia QLD Australia.
Email: juncong.qu@uqconnect.edu.au
2 Mining Technology 0(0)
Figure 1. Classification of data integrations in a two-space analogy (Qu et al., 2023).
Figure 2. Real-time DT operation from XR-based human–computer interfaces (Qu et al., 2023).
experiences which had also been used to deliver effective
industrial training (Bise, 1997; Denby et al., 1998; Kerridge
et al., 2003; Kizil et al., 2001; Schofield et al., 1994;
Squelch, 1997) and human-centred cyber-physical systems
(Brune, 2010; Deryabin et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2022;
LeBlanc-Smith et al., 1998; Stothard et al., 2019; Xie et al.,
2019).
This article provides the details of developing a
proof-of-concept DT with real-time monitoring and
control capability (Figure 2) on a lab-scale ball mill oper-
ation. The case study introduces a cost-effective approach
to developing an operation-oriented DT by integrating a
legacy control system with VR visualisation, locomotion
and interaction techniques in a 3D virtual space powered
by Unity – a free modern real-time graphics engine used
extensively for serious games and modern XR applications
developments (Unity Technologies, 2023).
Developing the DT
Digital modelling
Development of the DT started with creating digital models
in the virtual domain. According to Stothard et al. (2019),
there are different ways to model a mining system, and
each would result in differences in the amount of human
overhead, time and quality of the modelling process. The
author of this article considered using a LiDAR scanner
for rapid point-cloud generation, which would reduce
human overhead and modelling time (Perez et al., 2020).
However, importing point-cloud models into Unity would
require specialised software add-ons that would cost hun-
dreds of dollars (Baggett and McMillan, 2018), and in the
context of this project, the simplicity of a proof-of-concept
led to the decision to employ a conventional approach to
modelling the physical aspects of the mill and its surround-
ing workspace. The cost benefit of employing point-cloud
generation would be justified when modelling large-scale
mining systems such as processing plants, buildings and
mine sites (Kharroubi et al., 2019). Alternatively, the
author considered using the Unreal Engine for its built-in
point-cloud supports. However, it was removed from the
scope of this study in favour of the streamlined XR devel-
opment workflows offered by the Unity Engine.
Modelling the ball mill. The physical dimensions of the ball
mill were first obtained through existing AutoCAD draw-
ings supplied by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research
Centre (JKMRC). Missing information was filled in from
measurements conducted on-site, as shown in Figure 3.
From here, a 3D model of the ball mill assembly was
built using Autodesk Inventor, with preliminary textures
applied to each component and later enhanced with
improved textures and details obtained from site measure-
ments that were absent from the original 2D drawings. It
is worth noting that such manual approach would only
make sense in a small-scale project due to increased
amount of human overhead (Stothard et al., 2019). The
Qu et al.
Figure 3. Ball mill CAD modelling in inventor.
time required to fill in missing data for a large-scale project
where 3D digital documentations are not always present
would make point-cloud modelling a compelling approach.
The Inventor assembly model (.iam) was then exported as
a STEP 3D CAD file (.stp) and further converted to
Autodesk’s proprietary Filmbox (FBX) format to ensure
compatibility with the Unity workflow which involves retex-
turing, lighting, animation design and VR/MR integration
(Ardolino et al., 2014). Figure 4 illustrates the file conversion
workflow used for this particular study where Autodesk
3DMax was used as a middleware to export FBX models
to Unity with pre-processed meshes and textures.
FBX format is one of many 3D formats that allow devel-
opers to individually place, orientate, re-texture and
animate components of the model with higher degree of
controls which would become extremely helpful when
trying to visualise the asset’s real-world behaviours with
the DT. It is worth noting that depending on the needs, an
organisation could opt for alternative approaches if visual
fidelity, and VR/MR support are not focused on. For
example, the ISO-ratified X3D graphical format supported
by the Web3D Consortium offers excellent compatibility
with existing industry standards while offering good adapt-
ability thanks to its web-based runtime architecture
(Web3D Consortium, 2023). Combining the X3D format
and free-to-use animation software such as Blender as a
substitute to 3DMax could also dramatically reduce the
entry cost for future developments.
Modelling the workspace. For the purpose of developing a
proof-of-concept to demonstrate a DT’s values in operation
monitoring and control, the ball mill was considered the
centre piece during the modelling process with a high
level of emphasis on replicating its dimensions, details
and surface appearances in the virtual domain. However,
having the DT placed inside of an empty space would not
be sufficient in delivering the sense of presence and
spatial awareness for human operators which they
develop from real-world experience (Bellanca et al.,
2019). Therefore, the effort to present a suitable workspace
for ball mill operators in the virtual space was considered an
integral part of the DT operation experience.
Modelling of the virtual workspace had gone through mul-
tiple iterations throughout the modelling stage of the project.
3
Initially, the idea was to create a point-cloud scan of the
actual pilot plant where the ball mill is located at JKMRC
to replicate the working environment for the plant operators
closely. The idea was later ditched considering the low level
of complexity the proof-of-concept was trying to achieve
and could not justify the costly hardware and software
needed for a point-cloud workflow (Baggett and McMillan,
2018). Instead, a workspace was recreated in Autodesk
Inventor based on measurements taken from the
Visualisation Laboratory at the University of Queensland,
built in collaboration with Glencore and Rio Tinto as shown
in Figure 5. The lab was designed as a Class 5 immersive visu-
alisation system described in Stothard et al. (2008), which
consists of a large 180-degree semi-immersive opaque
display capable of showing live video feed as well as com-
puter generated graphics simultaneously (Stothard et al.,
2008). This wall-projected visualisation system can also be
deployed in conjunction with modern head-mounted VR/
MR systems to deliver fully immersive visual experiences.
It is worth noting that when it applies to large-scale
mining projects where technical drawings of assets are
not always accessible or complete, point-cloud technologies
would be essential to reduce the amount of human overhead
during the modelling process (Stothard et al., 2019).
Monitor and control the ball mill
After modelling the ball mill and the workspace, the next
step was to establish the connections between the physical
assets and the digital models in the virtual domain. In this
study, achieving both real-time monitoring and control on
the ball mill from the virtual space is considered an essential
part of demonstrating a true DT with two-way, real-time
data connections as illustrated previously in Figure 1.
Assessing the ball mill. Real-world projects in the minerals
industry usually go through lengthy lifecycles from site dis-
covery to decommissioning. Unlike those that are seen in
other industries with a high adoption rate of IoT and
digital technologies, planning, design, as well as construc-
tion of mining operations often date back decades before
the introduction of the concept themselves (Farrelly and
Davies, 2021a; Farrelly and Davies, 2021b). During a
plant’s active lifecycle, changes to technologies, standards
4 Mining Technology 0(0)
Figure 4. CAD format conversion for DT modelling workflow.
Figure 5. Reconstruction of the workspace in unity (photo supplied by Qu et al. 2023).
and personnel presented a unique challenge for DT integra-
tion in the mineral processing industry, often amplified by
the absence of original technical documentation, scattered
data management and loss of skilled persons and corporate
knowledge. In addition, mineral processes of the same kind
differ from site to site in terms of their layouts and specifi-
cations due to variations in location, age, geology and ore
grade. Therefore, it is important to assess each case accord-
ingly when applying the DT concept to the minerals indus-
try. To effectively achieve operation monitoring and control
of legacy systems using DT, one must understand the pre-
existing set-ups in terms of hardware and software specifi-
cations, intended use and limitations.
In the context of this study, the ball mill was originally
built in 2015 as a lab-based test platform to study the size-
specific energy (SSE) consumption of different mineral
commodities under controlled grinding conditions. During
its operation, a torque sensor (Burster Model
86413-5500-V501) measures the induced strain in the
mill shaft and sends a voltage signal between 10 and −10
volts to a NI-USB6008 data acquisition (DAQ) device.
Torque was calculated from the voltage reading using
the following linear equation:
Torque(Nm) = M ∗ Voltage(V ) + C
With a gradient coefficient (M) of 57.9620 and a y-intercept
(C) of 41.8066 based on the sensor calibration data sheet
shown in Figure 6. Based on this linear relationship, zero
torque would occur when the torque sensor outputs a
voltage of approximately 0.72 volts.
In addition to torque, shaft speed was measured using the
following equation:
60 seconds
RPM = Pulses per second∗
360 pulses per revolution
where the number of electrical pulses generated per second
was measured by the DAQ device as an edge counter input.
It is also known that it takes 360 pulses to complete one
revolution. Figure 7 shows an illustration of this process:
The hardware configuration is shown in Figure 8.
Besides processing input signals from the torque sensor,
the on-board DAQ device is also tasked with outputting a
voltage signal between 0 and 5 v to a variable frequency
drive (VFD) which in turn, powers a 3 kW three-phase
motor and controls the mill’s speed through a 25:1 ratio
gearbox.
In its original designed configuration, the NI-USB6008
DAQ device served as the brain for the ball mill’s control
system. The data acquisition (DAQ) device records ana-
logue signals from the torque sensor and converts them to
digital signals using the built-in analog to
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) shown in Figure 9. It
is worth noting that open-source hardware such as
Arduino microcontroller and Raspberry Pi microcomputer
were also considered for the task thanks to their excellent
accessibility, expandability and cost-effectiveness.
However, the author was instructed to digitalise the plant
equipment without modifying its original hardware config-
uration due to ongoing projects conducted by other research
groups.
At the front end, a 2D GUI application was used to
monitor and control the ball mill’s operation. The applica-
tion was developed using National Instruments’ proprietary
Qu et al.
Figure 6. Torque sensor calibration chart.
Figure 7. Pulse (edge) counting illustration.
LabView software which is widely adopted in laboratories
around the world (Chouder et al., 2013). Upon assessing the
ball mill’s design configuration and capabilities, the article
presents two different approaches to integrate its legacy
system with a Unity-based DT.
Frontend approach – interfacing with LabView. A frontend
approach was implemented to interface a Unity-based DT
with the existing LabView application developed for the
ball mill. A schematic of this approach is shown in
Figure 10. By keeping the DT application in the front
end, this approach was able to enable ball mill operation
within the boundary of the virtual space by taking advan-
tage of Unity’s VR and network multiplayer capability,
while retaining the ball mill’s existing hardware configur-
ation and programming logic.
The existing communication logic between LabView
and the ball mill remained untouched on the right-hand
side of the schematic. Meanwhile, a DT was created in
Unity following the procedures documented under
Section 2.1. According to National Instruments, several
methods could be used to establish data communication
between third-party software and LabView (NI, 2022a).
5
Here, a method called File I/O was chosen to connect
Unity and LabView. Refer to Figure 11 for the detailed pro-
gramming flowchart.
To control the mill, an operator would initiate an input to
the ball mill from the virtual workspace. The input settings
containing the desired operational parameters was written
to a data file located on the computer’s hard drive which
is updated when a new command was given by the operator.
Meanwhile, LabView checks the time stamp of when the
input file was last modified and reads the file when it
detects a change. The input parameters such as mill
speed, grinding duration, number of revolutions and
energy target were parsed through the existing control
loops in LabView, which in turn, controls the motor via
the USB6008 DAQ device. To monitor the mill, LabView
calculates the amount of torque on the main shaft based
on the voltage reading from the torque sensor. Together
with other parameters such as RPM and energy consump-
tion, these output values were written to a second data file
then displayed to the operator in the virtual workspace.
During this interaction, the operator can be fully immersed
in a virtual space in an accurate 1:1 scale. Figure 12 pro-
vides a comparison between LabView’s original 2D
6 Mining Technology 0(0)

Figure 8. Ball mill hardware configuration.

Figure 9. Working principle of analogue to digital converter (NI 2022a).

interface and the reimagined user interface in Unity. In
remote operations, such a level of immersion enabled by
fast-growing XR technologies is a major selling point of
the industrial metaverse which has the potential to facilitate
effective team communication through the implementation
of multiplayer with features such as animated virtual avatars
and real-time voice chat. Furthermore, presenting an oper-
ational scenario in a 3D spatial format allows an easy under-
standing of real-life states and behaviours of the plant as
naturally intended (Xie et al., 2018).
A File I/O interface would allow the developer to easily
integrate this workflow to a wide range of fixed-plant appli-
cations with legacy PLC by keeping the data exchange at
the front end of the control loop. It is simple to implement
as well as troubleshoot, and it is currently implemented by
industrial OEM applications that are running in integrated
remote operation centres (IROCs) today. Examples of
these applications include while not limited to haul route
dispatching, ship loading, plant process monitoring, as
well as mine planning (Benton, 2020; Guthrie, 2021).
To prevent access conflict from occurring between two
instances trying to access the same data file at a given time,
file reading follows a ‘Check-Access-Close’ logic. The pro-
gramming flow diagram of this process is shown in Figure 11.
By following this programming logic, the file I/O
method worked seamlessly between LabView and the
Unity3D-based DT application during testing, enabling
the user to navigate, interact, monitor and control the
actual ball mill from the 3D virtual environment with
minimal delay. While the DT program is running on the
front end, the output data containing the current states of
the asset was used only by the animator, audio and UI
Qu et al.
Figure 10. Interfacing with LabView through file I/O.
Figure 11. Data access flowchart.
components, hence no input will be sent back to the PLC
without explicit actions from the operator. To prevent
unwanted behaviours from the asset, input parameters
were parsed on a separate data file which could only be gen-
erated once the operator confirmed the intention to take
control. Besides the existing safety guards programmed
7
into the original LabView interface, Unity also ensures
only a predefined selection of text formats and a range of
values that are known to be safe for each input parameter.
The PLC will not log any value outside of this range or
format. To prevent dangerous actions from possible
human errors, the DT interface was designed to require
8 Mining Technology 0(0)
Figure 12. Reimagine of ball mill control UI in unity.
several precise inputs for the user in order to activate, edit
and execute (Stone, 2016).
Alternatively, parsing data through network interfaces
such as TCP/IP or hardwired serial buses could achieve a
similar outcome without the concern for file corruption
and access conflict during runtimes (NI, 2022a). From a
metaverse perspective, doing so would reduce process
latency and improve the responsiveness of data communi-
cation. However, transmitting operational data persistently
through wireless serial interfaces could also present a
higher risk to cyber security in the form of
man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks under an insecure
network that could even hinder human safety when data
are used to control the physical space. Practices such as
virtual private network (VPN) and web-based protocols
with data encryption such as HTTPS and WSS could help
here but in the long run, industries will have to commit to
the never-ending battle in the cyberspace.
Backend approach – custom data handler. After successfully
demonstrating a working DT that is capable of monitoring
and controlling a ball mill in real time from a 3D virtual
environment, a second approach was implemented to
explore the possibility of achieving a similar outcome
from the backend using a combination of data files as
well as serial communication, eliminating the reliance on
the LabView software.
In this approach, a custom-made data I/O handler
middleware application was programmed in Visual Studio
C# using NI’s native .NET Application Programming
Interface (API) which provides an object-oriented class
library that allows third-party software to interface with
NI hardware (NI, 2022b). A schematic of this intermediate
approach is shown in Figure 13.
The manufacturer’s API was packaged as a Dynamic
Link Library (DLL) file in the NI DAQmx driver installa-
tion along with official documentation and sample codes
written in both Visual Basic .NET and C# programming
language. The approach seamlessly integrated the native
DAQmx class library to a user-friendly C# programming
workflow in Visual Studio, therefore fully replacing the
need for the LabView software which requires a separate
licence subscription and pre-established knowledge of its
unique graphical programming language. In theory, the
same approach can be universally applied to a wider
range of industrial hardware manufacturers if there is an
official API published that allows programmers to access
full hardware functionalities from the backend. Ideally,
using open-sourced hardware for new projects with IoT
capability in mind would also eliminate the need to rely
on proprietary API from hardware manufacturers such as
National Instruments and Siemens.
In the case of utilising NI’s native .NET API to monitor
and control the USB6008 DAQ device installed on the ball
mill, a standard programming format specified by the
manufacturer was followed to communicate with the NI
hardware from a third-party .NET application. Depending
on the levels of API support provided by different hardware
manufacturers, DT developers may need to follow different
steps when integrating real-world functionalities into a real-
time graphics engine such as Unity. As mentioned previ-
ously, the use of open-source options would greatly
improve the compatibility and future expandability of a
DT system from a longevity standpoint. However, there is
Qu et al.
Figure 13. Intermediate file I/O between unity and NI DAQ device.
Figure 14. Dt data handler application interface for the ball mill.
also a pressing need to ensure the security of the system in
cyberspace. This is where standards for XR and industrial
metaverse development become essential as outlined by
Standards Australia (Wallace et al., 2023).
For data connections at the backend, two-way data flows
in and out of the ball mill communicate over a serial inter-
face. During operations, the data handler application shown
in Figure 14 would be running in the background on an
edge computer where the NI-USB6008 DAQ device is con-
nected via a USB cable. The operator would specify two
separate paths for data logging in the file explorer for
input and output parameters. The data handler application
also features a stop/start control to allow site workers to
manually disconnect and restart the data transmission
with the remote DT. This adds an extra layer of safety
during maintenance.
9
At the frontend, the operator uses a floating UI to control
the ball mill from the Unity3D-based DT. At the same time,
the mill’s actual behaviour was visualised in the virtual
environment in the form of animations and coloured texts.
During this process, the command actions taken by the
operator were written to the input data file and parsed to
the mill via the serial bus where sensor data from the ball
mill was parsed to the output file for visualisation in
Unity. The data handler program also displays the logged
values for both the input file and the output file which the
plant operator could use to debug data transmission
between the ball mill and the DT.
The simplicity of using files to transmit data between the
ball mill and the Unity3D-based DT provides flexibility for
future expansions and changes to the plant. Text formatting
conventions of the input and output parameters were
10 Mining Technology 0(0)

Figure 15. Pilot plant testing (left) of the ball mill digital twin (right).

Table 1. Ball mill DT test run results. the monitored parameters were accurately represented as
3D animations and floating texts in the Unity-based DT
Selected speed Displayed shaft Measured environment on a ten-second update interval.
Test run values in DT speeds in DT shaft speed The actual speeds of the mill were measured on-site
attempts (rpm) (rpm) (rpm) using a handheld RPM gauge and compared against the
1 20 ∼17 ± .3 16 speed values set by the DT operator. The results showed
2 50 ∼45 ± .3 45 an error averaging around 5 RPM which could be caused
3 70 ∼64 ± .3 63 by multiple factors such as internal friction of the motor
4 40 ∼35 ± .3 35 drive train and calibration (Table 1).
5 42 ∼36 ± .3 36 Overall, the outcome of the DT testing was satisfactory
6 64 ∼58 ± .3 57 as the ball mill operation monitoring and control capabil-
7 76 ∼70 ± .3 71 ities were achieved from a Unity3D-based DT application
8 15 ∼12 ± .3 13
with reasonable accuracy.

hardcoded into the File Handler application, while the loca-
tions of which the data files were saved could be modified
using the built-in Windows file explorer interface. For long-
distance remote operations, the data files can be saved and
updated to network storage such as OneDrive, an industrial-
grade Building Information Modelling (BIM) platform like
Autodesk BIM360, or the corporate’s internal network
drive if available in order to reduce long-term licensing
cost and potentially protect sensitive data hence adequate
cybersecurity measures are taken. For many advantages
such as ease of implementation, debugging, reliability and
backend compatibility with legacy hardware, data files
were used extensively by BHP’s IROC operation to
exchange real-time data with remote mine sites (Benton,
2020; Jurgens, 2018). For the purposes of this
proof-of-concept, OneDrive was chosen for its accessibility
and compatibility with the university’s network firewall.
During pilot plant testing (Figure 15), the file I/O handler
approach demonstrated a high level of responsiveness and
reliability. A webcam was installed to capture the ball
mill’s behaviour in the pilot plant while the times
between several control inputs and physical responses
were measured in seconds. The results show an approxi-
mately five-second response time for control inputs, and
Future considerations
From a programming perspective, the ability to access the
manufacturer API directly from a Unity3D-based DT appli-
cation (Figure 16) would allow DT developers to integrate
the full suite of functionalities of hardware without the need
for an intermediate data handler mentioned in the previous
section.
Unfortunately, system integrations in the real world
often present problems related to incompatibility with
established workflows and standards in industries (Qi
et al., 2021). In this case, NI’s native .NET API was pro-
grammed to work with the Visual Studio development
workflow, whereas Unity Editor could not import the
DAQmx class library DLL file as a ‘managed plugin’ at
the time when this article was produced. This means that
developers could not directly call the functions from the
class library to interface with NI hardware from Unity. To
bypass this compatibility issue without changing the hard-
ware itself, programmers would need to invest long hours
in importing as well as translating the manufacturer’s
class library to a custom C# class library which can then
be accessed seamlessly in the Unity editor environment.
In a case where the hardware manufacturer does not
provide its official API, the additional cost of additional
Qu et al. 11

Figure 16. Direct serial communication between unity and NI DAQ device.

Figure 17. The seven dimensions of industrial metaverse (Qu et al., 2023).

labour or upgrading hardware without a favourable busi- Future developments of DTs will need to rely on the
ness case for XR-enabled DT in operational scenarios joint effort between hardware manufacturers and industry
could deter mining companies from investing in further members as well as regulatory bodies towards improving
development of the concept. interoperability. While the concept of industrial metaverse
12
Figure 18. Industry engagement for mining metaverse.
is still in its infant stage, the International Standards
Organisation (ISO) and Standards Australia are working
proactively towards creating standards for enabling tech-
nologies such as virtual reality, augmented reality, as well
as mixed reality (ISO, 2020; Wallace et al., 2023).
Initiatives from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) have also recognised the pressing need
to develop standards to guide future developments
towards industrial metaverses of different kinds (IEEE,
2023; Koziol, 2022; Saracco, 2022). For the mining meta-
verse, international and domestic standards should form
the governing layer for future research and developments
to improve compatibility with legacy systems, rapid
virtual modelling, human comfort and safety, accessibility
to technologies, privacy and security, interoperability and
communication, as well as cost-effectiveness (Figure 17).
An industry-led engagement approach should also be
considered to facilitate expert knowledge between peak
bodies from different sectors. Specifically, major mining
companies such as BHP, Rio Tinto and Anglo American
should work more closely with regulatory bodies such as
ISO as well as Standards Australia, and hardware manufac-
turers such as Siemens, National Instruments, Caterpillar
and Komatsu who provide products, services and expert
knowledge in the IoT space (Figure 18).
Mining Technology 0(0)
In addition, professional societies such as Engineers
Australia, the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy (AusIMM) and IEEE could serve well as
the middle body to bridge talents from different sectors
while universities and research institutions like CSIRO
provide dedicated resources and capacity for R&D. The
push towards realising the metaverse was initiated by
the leading bodies in the tech industries such as Meta,
Nvidia, Apple and Microsoft. This ecosystem provides
the disruptive technologies that enable the metaverse
concept. Currently, there is not enough collaboration
between the established circle of the mining community
with these technology companies. Therefore, it is vital
to include these players in the future development of
the mining metaverse by providing more networking
and employment opportunities for talents from this
space.
Lastly, although Unity currently provides the
best-in-class support for XR development workflows,
adopting web-based solutions such as WebXR, WebGL,
X3D and Three.js would not only reduce entry require-
ments for the industry metaverse experience but also
improve persistency of the virtual space where permitted
users can join from anywhere at any time. The implementa-
tion of multiplayer features such as animated avatars and
Qu et al. 13

voice chat with spatial audio would also highlight the WSS Web socket secure
advantages of a mining metaverse in a 3D spatial format. XR Extended reality
3D Three-dimensional (spatial geometry)
Conclusion
Declaration of conflicting interests
A true DT is one that allows two-way, real-time state syn- The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
chronisation between a virtual space and the real world. respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
The minerals industry is putting a large emphasis on sus- this article.
tainable operation in response to the rising concern in its
contribution towards climate change, and the ongoing
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