NERVOUS

SYSTEM
The nervous system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that
plays a crucial role in coordinating and controlling the activities of the body. It
is responsible for transmitting signals and information between different parts of
the body and processing sensory input.
The nervous system can be divided into two main parts:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): The CNS consists of the brain and the
spinal cord. It serves as the central processing unit of the body,
responsible for processing information, making decisions, and sending
commands to the rest of the body. The brain is involved in functions such
as thinking, memory, emotion, and voluntary muscle movement, while
the spinal cord helps transmit signals between the brain and the peripheral
nervous system.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The PNS includes all the nerves and
ganglia (clusters of nerve cell bodies) that are outside the brain and spinal
cord. It acts as a communication network that connects the CNS to
various body parts, including muscles, glands, and sensory organs. The
PNS can be further divided into the somatic nervous system (which
controls voluntary muscle movements) and the autonomic nervous
system (which regulates involuntary bodily functions like heart rate,
digestion, and breathing).
The nervous system relies on the transmission of electrical impulses and
chemical signals through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons are the
fundamental building blocks of the nervous system and are responsible for
transmitting information in the form of nerve impulses or action potentials.
Overall, the nervous system plays a fundamental role in maintaining
homeostasis in the body, allowing us to perceive and respond to the
environment, and controlling a wide range of bodily functions. It is a highly
intricate and essential system for the functioning of all animals with a nervous
system, including humans.
 Organization of the Brain
The human brain is a complex organ responsible for various functions,
including cognition, emotion, memory, and sensory processing. It is organized
into different regions and structures, each with specific functions. Here is an
overview of the organization of the brain:
1. Cerebrum: The largest and most prominent part of the brain, the
cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres – the left and right
hemispheres – connected by a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus
callosum. Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes:
 Frontal Lobe: Involved in decision-making, problem-solving,
planning, and personality.
 Parietal Lobe: Responsible for processing sensory information
from the body, such as touch and spatial awareness.
 Temporal Lobe: Plays a role in memory, language
comprehension, and auditory processing.
 Occipital Lobe: Primarily responsible for visual processing.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, beneath the cerebrum, the
cerebellum is involved in coordinating motor movements, balance, and
posture.
3. Brainstem: The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and
includes several important structures:
 Medulla Oblongata: Controls essential functions like breathing,
heart rate, and blood pressure.
 Pons: Involved in sleep regulation, facial movements, and relaying
signals between different parts of the brain.
 Midbrain (Mesencephalon): Plays a role in sensory processing,
eye movement, and coordination.
4. Limbic System: This group of structures deep within the brain is
associated with emotions, memory, and motivation. Key components
include the hippocampus (involved in memory), amygdala (linked to
emotions, especially fear and aggression), and the hypothalamus
(regulates basic physiological processes and controls the endocrine
system).
 5. Basal Ganglia: Located deep within the cerebrum, the basal ganglia is
responsible for motor control, procedural learning, and habit formation.
6. Thalamus: Often referred to as the brain's "relay center," the thalamus
relays sensory information to the appropriate regions of the cerebral
cortex.
7. Hypothalamus: Located just below the thalamus, the hypothalamus
regulates many essential functions, including body temperature, hunger,
thirst, and the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
8. Cerebral Cortex: The outermost layer of the cerebrum is known as the
cerebral cortex. It is responsible for higher cognitive functions, including
conscious thought, perception, memory, and language. The cortex is
divided into various areas, each with specific functions. For example, the
prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making, while the primary motor
cortex controls voluntary muscle movements.
The organization of the brain is highly interconnected, and many functions
involve multiple areas working together. Neuroscientists continue to study the
brain to gain a deeper understanding of its complexity and how it functions in
health and disease.
 Structure of neuron
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and
transmit signals to different parts of the body.
This is carried out in both physical and electrical forms. There are several
different types of neurons that facilitate the transmission of information.
The sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptor cells present
throughout the body to the brain. Whereas, the motor neurons transmit
information from the brain to the muscles. The interneurons transmit
information between different neurons in the body.
Neuron structure
A neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function and location. All
neurons have three different parts – dendrites, cell body and axon.

Parts of neuron
Following are the different parts of a neuron:

Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and
allow the transmission of messages to the cell body.
Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria and other components.

Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell body to
the axon terminals that pass the impulse to another neuron.
 Resting membrane potential
The resting membrane potential is an essential physiological property of
neurons and other excitable cells, such as muscle cells. It refers to the electrical
voltage difference, or potential, that exists across the cell membrane when the
cell is at rest, meaning it is not actively transmitting signals or undergoing an
action potential (nerve impulse). This potential is typically negative inside the
cell relative to the outside.

The resting membrane potential is primarily generated and maintained by the

following factors:
1. Ion Concentration Gradients: The cell membrane is selectively
permeable to various ions, including potassium (K+), sodium (Na+),
chloride (Cl-), and others. At rest, the concentrations of these ions inside
and outside the cell are different. For example, K+ ions are more
concentrated inside the cell, while Na+ ions are more concentrated
outside. This concentration gradient tends to drive K+ out of the cell and
Na+ into the cell.
2. Ion Channels: The cell membrane contains ion channels that allow
specific ions to move through the membrane. For example, potassium
channels are typically more permeable to K+ ions than sodium channels
are to Na+ ions. This selective permeability results in the net movement
of K+ out of the cell, which contributes to the negative resting potential.
3. Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na+/K+ Pump): This active transport
protein pumps three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions
into the cell against their respective concentration gradients. The sodium-
potassium pump helps maintain the ion concentration gradients required
for the resting membrane potential.

The typical resting membrane potential for most neurons is around -70
millivolts (mV), which means that the interior of the cell is about 70 mV more
negative than the extracellular fluid. However, the actual resting potential can
vary slightly among different types of neurons and across different species.

The resting membrane potential is essential for neuronal function because it

provides the baseline electrical state from which neurons can generate and
propagate action potentials, which are rapid and temporary changes in
membrane potential that enable the transmission of signals along the length of
the neuron. Alterations in the resting membrane potential can have significant
effects on the excitability and function of neurons.
 Origin of Action Potential
The initiation of an action potential occurs at a specialized region of the neuron
called the axon hillock, which is typically where the axon emerges from the cell
body (soma). The generation of an action potential involves a series of events:
1. Resting Membrane Potential: Neurons have a resting membrane
potential, typically around -70 mV, due to the differential distribution of
ions (primarily sodium, Na+ and potassium, K+) across the cell
membrane. This resting potential is maintained by ion channels and
pumps.
2. Threshold: To initiate an action potential, the neuron's membrane
potential must reach a certain threshold level, usually around -55 to -50
mV. This threshold is the critical point at which voltage-gated sodium
channels in the neuron's membrane open.
3. Depolarization: When the membrane potential reaches the threshold,
voltage-gated sodium channels rapidly open, allowing an influx of
sodium ions into the neuron. This causes a rapid depolarization of the
membrane, making it more positively charged inside.
4. Rising Phase: The influx of sodium ions causes a rapid and steep
increase in the membrane potential, known as the rising phase of the
 action potential. The inside of the neuron becomes positively charged
relative to the outside.
5. Repolarization: After reaching its peak, the membrane potential begins
to repolarize as voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing
potassium ions to leave the cell. This leads to a decrease in membrane
potential, returning it to a negative state.
6. Hyperpolarization: In some cases, the membrane potential may briefly
dip below the resting potential during hyperpolarization before returning
to the resting state.
Propagation of Action Potential
The propagation of action potentials along nerve fibers (axons) can vary
depending on whether the axon is myelinated or unmyelinated:
1. Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers: In unmyelinated axons, action potentials
propagate continuously along the entire length of the axon. This is often
referred to as continuous conduction. As the action potential reaches a
region of the axon, it depolarizes that region, opening voltage-gated
sodium channels in the adjacent section, and the action potential moves
along the axon in a wave-like fashion.
2. Myelinated Nerve Fibers: In myelinated axons, the action potential
propagation is more efficient and faster due to the presence of myelin, a
fatty insulation around the axon. Action potentials "jump" from one node
of Ranvier (small gaps between myelin segments) to the next, a process
known as saltatory conduction. This allows for faster transmission of the
action potential because the axon's membrane is only depolarized at the
nodes, where ion channels are concentrated, and the signal effectively
"skips" along the myelinated sections.
In summary, action potentials originate at the axon hillock and propagate along
the length of the axon, allowing for the transmission of electrical signals in the
nervous system. The process differs in myelinated and unmyelinated axons,
with myelination significantly increasing the speed of propagation through
saltatory conduction.
 Types of synapse
Synapses are specialized junctions that allow neurons to communicate with one
another and with other types of cells, such as muscle cells or gland cells. There
are several types of synapses in the nervous system, each with its unique
characteristics. The main types of synapses are:
1. Chemical Synapse: Chemical synapses are the most common type of
synapses in the nervous system. They involve the release of
neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron's axon terminal into the
synaptic cleft, a small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic
neurons. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane, leading to changes in the postsynaptic neuron's membrane
potential. This can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron,
depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor involved. Chemical
synapses allow for complex and modifiable signaling in the nervous
system.
2. Electrical Synapse: Electrical synapses, also known as gap junctions, are
less common than chemical synapses but are found in some areas of the
nervous system. In electrical synapses, the membranes of the presynaptic
and postsynaptic neurons are physically connected by gap junction
proteins, allowing direct electrical communication between the two cells.
 This means that ions and electrical signals can pass directly from one
neuron to another without the need for neurotransmitters. Electrical
synapses are faster than chemical synapses and are often involved in
synchronizing the activity of groups of neurons.
3. Axo-axonic Synapse: This is a specialized type of synapse where the
axon terminal of one neuron forms a synapse with the axon terminal of
another neuron. These synapses are involved in modulating the release of
neurotransmitters from the second neuron's axon terminal. They can
either enhance or inhibit the release of neurotransmitters, thus providing a
fine level of control over synaptic communication.
4. Axo-dendritic Synapse: In this type of synapse, the axon terminal of the
presynaptic neuron forms a connection with the dendrite of the
postsynaptic neuron. This is the most common type of chemical synapse,
where neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal and bind to
receptors on the dendrite of the receiving neuron.
5. Axo-somatic Synapse: Axo-somatic synapses occur when the axon
terminal of the presynaptic neuron forms a connection with the cell body
(soma) of the postsynaptic neuron. These synapses can have a significant
influence on whether the postsynaptic neuron generates an action
potential or not because they are located close to the trigger zone of the
neuron.
6. Axo-secretory Synapse: This type of synapse is found in specialized
situations where a neuron's axon terminal synapses with an endocrine
gland or a secretory cell. The release of neurotransmitters at the synapse
can trigger the release of hormones or other substances from the target
cell.
These various types of synapses play critical roles in neural communication and
the functioning of the nervous system. The choice of the type of synapse used in
a particular neural circuit can influence the speed, strength, and precision of the
signal transmission.
 Synaptic transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate with each
other or with other cells (such as muscle cells or gland cells) in the nervous
system. It is a fundamental mechanism for transmitting information and
enabling the functioning of the nervous system. Here's an overview of the key
steps involved in synaptic transmission:
1. Action Potential Propagation: The process typically begins when an
action potential (nerve impulse) travels down the axon of the presynaptic
neuron. This action potential is initiated at the axon hillock, as described
earlier, and propagates along the axon towards the axon terminals.
2. Arrival at the Axon Terminal: When the action potential reaches the
axon terminal (synaptic bouton) of the presynaptic neuron, it triggers a
series of events that lead to the release of neurotransmitters.
3. Release of Neurotransmitters: In response to the action potential,
voltage-gated calcium channels in the presynaptic membrane open.
Calcium ions (Ca2+) enter the axon terminal, which leads to the fusion of
synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine,
glutamate, GABA) with the presynaptic membrane. This fusion causes
the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
4. Diffusion Across the Synaptic Cleft: The synaptic cleft is a small gap
between the presynaptic neuron's axon terminal and the postsynaptic
neuron's dendritic spine or the target cell's membrane. Neurotransmitters
released into the synaptic cleft diffuse across this gap.
 5. Binding to Postsynaptic Receptors: Neurotransmitters bind to specific
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. These receptors can be ion
channels (ligand-gated ion channels) or G-protein-coupled receptors,
depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor type. The binding of
neurotransmitters to their receptors leads to changes in the postsynaptic
membrane potential.
6. Postsynaptic Response: Depending on the type of neurotransmitter and
receptor, the postsynaptic response can be excitatory or inhibitory.
Excitatory neurotransmitters, like glutamate, typically lead to
depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron, making it more likely to
generate an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters, like GABA,
usually cause hyperpolarization, reducing the likelihood of an action
potential.
7. Integration of Signals: The postsynaptic neuron receives signals from
multiple synapses, and these signals are integrated at the neuron's
dendrites and cell body. The sum of excitatory and inhibitory inputs
determines whether the postsynaptic neuron will reach its threshold and
generate an action potential.
8. Termination of Signal: To ensure precise signaling, neurotransmitter
effects are terminated through reuptake, enzymatic degradation, or
diffusion. For example, some neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by
transporters in the presynaptic neuron, while others are broken down by
enzymes in the synaptic cleft.
9. Postsynaptic Action: If the postsynaptic neuron reaches its threshold, it
generates an action potential that propagates along its axon, continuing
the transmission of the signal to other neurons or target cells.
The process of synaptic transmission allows for the transmission of information
from one neuron to another or from neurons to other cells in a highly regulated
and precise manner. It is a dynamic and fundamental process underlying various
functions of the nervous system, including sensory perception, motor control,
learning, and memory.

Neuromuscular junction
Neuromuscular junction, also called myoneural junction, site of chemical
communication between a nerve fibre and a muscle cell. The neuromuscular
junction is analogous to the synapse between two neurons.
A nerve fibre divides into many terminal branches; each terminal ends on a
region of muscle fibre called the end plate. Embedded in the end plate are
thousands of receptors, which are long protein molecules that form channels
through the membrane. Upon stimulation by a nerve impulse, the terminal
releases the chemical neurotransmitter acetylcholine from synaptic vesicles.
Acetylcholine then binds to the receptors, the channels open, and sodium ions
flow into the end plate. This initiates the end-plate potential, the electrical event
that leads to contraction of the muscle fibre. SYNAPSE Synapse, also called
neuronal junction, the site of transmission of electric nerve impulses between
two nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron and a gland or muscle cell
(effector).
A synaptic connection between a neuron and a muscle cell is called a
neuromuscular junction. At a chemical synapse each ending, or terminal, of a
nerve fibre (presynaptic fibre) swells to form a knoblike structure that is
separated from the fibre of an adjacent neuron, called a postsynaptic fibre, by a
microscopic space called the synaptic cleft.
The typical synaptic cleft is about 0.02 micron wide. The arrival of a nerve
impulse at the presynaptic terminals causes the movement toward the
presynaptic membrane of membrane-bound sacs, or synaptic vesicles, which
fuse with the membrane and release a chemical substance called a
neurotransmitter. This substance transmits the nerve impulse to the postsynaptic
fibre by diffusing across the synaptic cleft and binding to receptor molecules on
the postsynaptic membrane.
The chemical binding action alters the shape of the receptors, initiating a series
of reactions that open channel-shaped protein molecules. Electrically charged
ions then flow through the channels into or out of the neuron. This sudden shift
of electric charge across the postsynaptic membrane changes the electric
polarization of the membrane, producing the postsynaptic potential, or PSP.
If the net flow of positively charged ions into the cell is large enough, then the
PSP is excitatory; that is, it can lead to the generation of a new nerve impulse,
called an action potential. Once they have been released and have bound to
postsynaptic receptors, neurotransmitter molecules are immediately deactivated
by enzymes in the synaptic cleft; they are also taken up by receptors in the
presynaptic membrane and recycled.
This process causes a series of brief transmission events, each one taking place
in only 0.5 to 4.0 milliseconds. A single neurotransmitter may elicit different
responses from different receptors.
For example, norepinephrine, a common neurotransmitter in the autonomic
nervous system, binds to some receptors that excite nervous transmission and to
others that inhibit it. The membrane of a postsynaptic fibre has many different
kinds of receptors, and some presynaptic terminals release more than one type
of neurotransmitter. Also, each postsynaptic fibre may form hundreds of
competing synapses with many neurons.
These variables account for the complex responses of the nervous system to any
given stimulus. The synapse, with its neurotransmitter, acts as a physiological
valve, directing the conduction of nerve impulses in regular circuits and
preventing random or chaotic stimulation of nerves.
Electric synapses allow direct communications between neurons whose
membranes are fused by permitting ions to flow between the cells through
channels called gap junctions. Found in invertebrates and lower vertebrates, gap
junctions allow faster synaptic transmission as well as the synchronization of
entire groups of neurons.
Gap junctions are also found in the human body, most often between cells in
most organs and between glial cells of the nervous system. Chemical
transmission seems to have evolved in large and complex vertebrate nervous
systems, where transmission of multiple messages over longer distances is
required.

Reflex action
Reflex action is an involuntary and sudden response to stimuli. It
happens to be an integral component of the famed survival instinct.
Most of the common reflexes are a response to all the well-trained,
accumulated knowledge of caution that we have internalized. It could
be anything and ranges from the reflex action of abruptly
withdrawing the hand as it comes in contact with an extremely cold
or hot object. This action is termed as the reflex action. It has a
subtle relation to instinct.
A point to be thought upon is that we all have our instincts differently
depending on our past experiences and understanding. A reflex is a
reaction triggered by this instinct. At times, we have no prior
knowledge if the pan is hot or not. In other words, instinct has little
to do with reflex.
The Action of Neuron
Two neurons dominate the pathway, afferent nerves (receptor) and
the efferent nerves (effector or excitor).
Below is a brief description of the events that take place:
• Firstly, it begins with receptor detecting the stimulus or a
sudden change in the environment, where the instinct again
has a role to play. The stimulus is received from a sensory
organ.
• Then, the sensory neuron sends a signal to the relay neuron.
• This is followed with the relay neuron sending the signal to the
motor neuron.
• Further, the motor neuron sends a signal to the effector.
• The effector produces an instantaneous response, for example,
pulling away of the hand or a knee-jerk reaction. From the
above explanations, it can be clearly summarized that the
moment the afferent neuron receives a signal from the sensory
organ; it transmits the impulse via a dorsal nerve root into the
Central Nervous System. The efferent neuron then carries the
signal from the CNS to the effector. The stimulus thus forms a
reflex arc.
• In a reflex action, the signals do not route to the brain – instead,
it is directed into the synapse in the spinal cord, hence the
reaction is almost instantaneous.

Types Of Reflex Actions

Common reflexes that occurs day in and day out in our body:
Accommodation reflex: The most common reflex of eyes, that helps the
pupils, lens and vergence change the shape to accommodate of sight, when we
look at distance object and near object. The change in shape is made by the
ciliary muscles of the eyes.
Pupillary light reflex: If a light is flashed near one eye, the pupils of both eyes
contract. Light is the stimulus, impulses reach the brain via the optic nerve, and
the response is conveyed to the pupillary musculature by autonomic nerves that
supply the eye. Reflexes are there to protect your body parts.
Acoustic Reflex: It is related to contraction of stapedius and tensor tympani
muscles in the middle ear that responses to high decibel sounds.
Ankle jerk reflex: The jerking of ankle is the common reflex action that is
tested by the doctors to check the reflex. This reflex helps maintain the balance
and posture of a person, that allows to maintain the balance with little effort and
conscious thought. The doctors tests the knee jerk reflex by hitting the hammer
on the knee. Absence of reflex may indicate receptor damage or peripheral
nerve disease.
Biceps reflex: The jerking of forearm when biceps brachii tendon is struck with
tendon hammer leads to biceps reflex. Biceps reflex are also used to detect
reduced reflexes.
Absent reflexes are used as clues to locate neurological disease. Blushing: This,
perhaps doesn’t need any introduction. Blushing refers to the reddening of the
face caused by embarrassment, shame or modesty. This is faced by a person
because of psychological reasons.
Corneal reflex: Refers to blinking of both eyes when the cornea of either eye is
touched. This reflex is responsible to act when dust or foreign particles
accidentally enters our eyes. Use of contact lens may diminish or abolish the
testing of this reflex.
Cough reflex: When a dust enters our trachea or respiratory tract, the cough
receptors produces a cough which in turn remove the foreign material from the
tract before it reaches the lungs.
Sneeze: Irritation of nasal mucosa in the nose create a sneeze that helps get rid
of the foreign particle in the nostrils.
 Physiology of Ear
Ears perform two main functions, hearing and equilibrium maintenance.
I. The organ of Corti (Cochlea) is responsible for hearing function.
II. Maculae (Saccule and Utricle) are responsible for static equilibrium.
III. Cristae (semicircular canals) are responsible for dynamic equilibrium.
Mechanism of Hearing
The pinna receives the sound waves and it reaches the tympanic membrane
through the meatus. The eardrum vibrates and these vibrations get transmitted to
the three ossicles present in the middle ear.
Malleus, incus and stapes amplify the sound waves. These vibrations then reach
the perilymph (scala vestibuli) through the oval window.
Then the pressure waves get transferred to the endolymph of scala media and
reach basilar membrane and then to perilymph of scala tympani.
This movement of fluid is facilitated by the round window present at the end of
scala tympani. The basilar membrane movement causes rubbing of stereocilia
against the tectorial membrane.
Stereocilia are bent resulting in the opening of ion channels in the plasma
membrane of hair cells. Glutamate, a neurotransmitter, is released due to Ca++
ion movement inside the cell.
These neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of afferent neurons, which
synapse with hair cells causing depolarisation of neurons.
A nerve impulse is generated and transmitted to the auditory cortex of the brain
through the auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII).
The brain analyses the impulses and we hear the sound. The brain not only
recognises the sound but also judges the direction, loudness and pitch of the
sound.

Mechanism of Maintaining Equilibrium

We all know that hearing ability is due to ears. Other than hearing, ears are also
responsible for maintaining equilibrium.
The vestibular apparatus is the main organ for maintaining equilibrium. Static
equilibrium is maintained by macula of saccule and utricle.
Otoliths press against stereocilia due to gravitational pull and stimulate the
initiation of a nerve impulse. When the head is tilted or moves in a straight line
with increasing speed, otoliths press on stereocilia of different cells.
The brain interprets the nerve impulses resulting in the awareness of body
position with respect to ground, irrespective of the head position.
Utricle responds to the vertical movement and Saccule responds to the sideways
movement of the head. Dynamic equilibrium is detected by cristae of
semicircular canals
Physiology of Vision
Visual process is the series of actions that take place during visual perception.
During the visual process, the image of an object seen by the eyes is focused on
the retina, resulting in the production of visual perception of that object.
The physiological events which take place are as follows –
• Light’s refraction which enters the eye
• Image focuses on the retina by accommodation of lens
• Image convergence
• Photochemical activity in the retina and the conversion into neural impulse
• To process in the brain and then perception
• All the parts of the eye function together thus enabling us to see. At first light
enters through the clear front layer of the eye, the cornea. Due to its structure
(dome-shaped), it bends light to aid the eye in focusing.
• Some part of this light passes the eye through the pupil opening. The coloured
part of the eye, the iris, regulates how much light enters the pupil.
• Light enters through the lens then when the lens functions with the cornea to
focus light aptly on the retina. When light passes the retina, special cells
referred to as photoreceptors convert light into electrical signals. These signals
pass from the retina to the brain through the optic nerve. The brain then turns
signals into images which we see.
 QUESTIONS
2MARKS
1.What is the primary function of the nervous system?
2.Name the two main divisions of the nervous system.
3.Define a neuron.
4.What is the function of dendrites in a neuron?
5.Explain the role of the myelin sheath in nerve cells.
6.Differentiate between afferent and efferent neurons.
7.What is the synapse, and what occurs there?
8.Name the three main parts of a reflex arc.
9.Define neurotransmitters and give an example.
10.Explain the concept of the “resting potential” in a neuron.
11.What is the function of the central nervous system (CNS)?
12.Describe the difference between gray matter and white matter in
the brain.
13.What is the role of the cerebellum in the brain?
14.Name the three protective layers surrounding the brain and spinal
cord.
15.Define the fight-or-flight response and its neural basis.
16.Explain the process of neurotransmission in a chemical synapse.
17.What is a motor unit, and how does it function in muscle
contraction?
18.Discuss the importance of the blood-brain barrier.
19.Describe the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and its divisions.
20.What are the main functions of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS)

5MARKS
1.Describe the structure and functions of a typical neuron. Include
explanations of dendrites, the cell
body, axons, and synapses.
2.Explain the difference between the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
Provide examples of their respective functions.
3.Discuss the role of the central nervous system (CNS) in processing
and integrating sensory information
and generating motor responses.
4.Describe the components of a reflex arc and how it allows for rapid,
involuntary responses to stimuli.
5.Explain the concept of neural plasticity and its significance in terms
of learning and recovery from brain
injuries.
6.Discuss the major regions and functions of the human brain,
including the cerebrum, cerebellum,
brainstem, and limbic system.
7.Detail the steps involved in the propagation of an action potential
along a neuron, including the role of
ion channels and the sodium-potassium pump.
8.Compare and contrast the functions of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions of the
autonomic nervous system, including their effects on various organs.
9.Explain how drugs or substances that affect neurotransmission can
influence behavior and brain
function. Provide examples.
10.Describe the potential consequences of damage or dysfunction in
specific regions of the brain, such
as the frontal lobe or hippocampus, on behavior and cognitive
abilities.

12MARKS
1.Discuss the structure and function of a typical neuron in detail,
emphasizing the role of each
component, such as dendrites, cell body, axon, and synapses. Explain
how neurons communicate with
each other in a neural circuit.
2.Explore the organization and functions of the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). Provide examples of sensory and motor pathways and
how they contribute to our ability
to perceive and respond to the environment.
3.Describe the various brain regions and their specific functions in the
human nervous system, including
the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and limbic system. Explain how
damage or dysfunction in these
areas can result in neurological disorders and their associated
symptoms.
4.Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous
system. Discuss their roles in regulating physiological responses in
different situations and provide
examples of how these systems interact in the body.
5.Investigate the concept of neuroplasticity, its significance in
learning and memory, and how it can be
harnessed for rehabilitation following brain injuries. Provide real-life
examples and research findings
related to neuroplasticity.