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Use of LLS by Indian Learners of Spanish FL
Use of LLS by Indian Learners of Spanish FL
ABSTRACT
Learning a foreign language in a non-native context is both a challenging and difficult
task. This learning encompasses many processes and follows different trajectories. One
of the offshoots of these processes is the strategies used by the learners in their learning
route. During the last forty-five years, the research in the learning strategies field has
grown many folds and has contributed to our understanding of how learners use these
tools in their learning path. This article examines some of the common language learning
strategies (LLS) employed by the students while learning Spanish as a foreign language
(SFL) at two major Central Universities of India. The present study is carried out by
using a mixed-method under the descriptive framework in which the common learning
strategies have been analyzed and discussed. In terms of the higher proficient group, the
result shows no statistically significant differences in the use of LLS, on the contrary,
concerning the year of study, there were
statistically significant differences in the
ARTICLE INFO
use of LLS among the three groups. Finally,
Article history:
Received: 23 January 2021
regarding the effectiveness of the use of
Accepted: 11 April 2021 LLS among the participants, the results
Published: 22 June 2021
underlined a need for explicit or implicit
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.29.2.12 strategic training.
E-mail addresses:
andrew@ucm.cl (Andrew Philominraj) Keywords: Foreign language, language learning
ranjan@ucm.cl (Ranjeeva Ranjan)
rarellano@ucm.cl (Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra)
strategies, learning trajectory, Spanish in India,
gauravkumar@mail.jnu.ac.in (Gaurav Kumar) strategy usage
*Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702
e-ISSN: 2231-8534 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
956 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021)
Use of Language Learning Strategies
previous studies on the theme of LLS use, regulating their own language learning”
proficiency in Spanish, and the duration (p. 87). The latest definition of LLS by
of the study. The significance of the study Oxford (2017), arrived through content
lies in the fact that it does not limit to just analysis of 33 existing definitions involving
reporting the frequency and the use of LLS LLS and similar concepts encompasses
but also provides the list of LLS and its all theoretical concepts and provides the
effectiveness as stated by students. Finally, evolutionary trajectory of this area. Oxford
the limitations and educational implications (2017) defined strategies as “complex,
to the use of LLS in learning a foreign dynamic thoughts and actions, selected
language are reported. and used by learners with some degree
of consciousness in specific contexts to
LITERATURE REVIEW regulate multiple aspects of themselves” (p.
Definition and Classification of LLS 48). This selection and use of strategies are
directed towards “accomplishing language
Prominent scholars in LLS have tried to
tasks, improving language performance
define this concept since the beginning
or use, and/or enhancing long-term
of research in this field, but has not been
proficiency” (p. 48). She further adds that
exempt from criticisms and there has not
strategies are “mentally guided but may
been a common agreement on some of
also have physical and therefore observable
the issues. For Rubin (1975), strategies
manifestations” (p. 48). She also highlights
were “techniques or devices” (p. 43) and
the orchestration of strategies according to
Stern (1983) defined them as “general
the learning need and adds that strategies
tendencies or overall characteristics of the
can be taught (which is referred to as
approach” (p. 405). Wenden and Rubin
strategy instruction, SI). Another important
(1987) described, “learning strategies as
feature that appears in her definition is the
any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines
contextual use of strategies and finally,
used by the learner to facilitate obtaining,
she underlines that “appropriateness of
storage, retrieval, and use of information”
strategies depends on multiple personal and
(p. 19). Oxford (1990) termed strategies as
contextual factors” (p. 48). This definition
“steps taken by the students to enhance their
provides a comprehensive reflection of the
own learning” and referred to them as “tools
theoretical underpinnings in the historical
for active, self-directed involvement, which
development of LLS.
is essential for developing communicative
Another area of debate is the
competence” (p. 1). Chamot (2004) referred
classification of LLS. Rubin (1981) provided
to them as “the conscious thoughts and
two categories, direct and indirect while
actions that learners take to achieve a
O’Malley and Chamot (1990) provided
learning goal” (p. 14). Griffiths (2008)
three; metacognitive, cognitive, and
defined LLS as “activities consciously
socio-affective strategies. Oxford (1990)
chosen by learners for the purpose of
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Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
classified LLS into six categories consisting variables like age, gender, motivation,
of memory, cognitive, compensation, style, and proficiency, including LLS
metacognitive, affective, and social in her use in “developing language skills and
Strategy Inventory for Language Learning subsystem” (Pawlak, 2019, p. 5). Currently,
(SILL). Oxford’s (2011) S 2R (Strategic the discussions to include the concept of
Self-Regulation) model of learning included self-regulation in the LLS field for a better
four categories: cognitive, affective, theoretical foundation and understanding are
sociocultural-interactive, and the master in place. However, scholars like Thomas and
category of “metastrategies” (includes Rose (2019) have questioned the self in self-
metacognitive strategies). Oxford (2017) regulation and point out that there is a need
opines, “no strategy classification, typology, to rethink the “current conceptualizations of
or taxonomy actually directly reflects how strategies to allow definitions to encompass
strategies operate, because strategies are both self-regulated strategy use and other-
complex and have multiple roles” (p. 141). regulated strategy use” (p. 5).
On the other hand, Griffiths (2008, 2013) The earlier research studies have shown
proposes grouping strategies according to that experienced language learners use more
post hoc thematic analyses in place of any learning strategies (Green & Oxford, 1995;
a priori classification. Oxford (2017) in Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995; Wharton,
her latest book has used the term “role or 2000). Due to maturational changes, learners
function” of strategies instead of categories of different age groups, with different
because of the flexibility and fluid nature of educational levels and cultural contexts,
the strategies. have different needs and consequently, use
different learning strategies (Gavriilidou
Previous Studies & Psaltou-Joycey, 2009; Griffiths, 2008;
The literature review indicates a gradual shift Lan & Oxford, 2003; Peacock & Ho,
in the research area with some dichotomies 2003). Ever since the study of the “good
and the most important one being the language learner” in the 1970s, high
LLS functioning in the cognitivism vs language proficiency is found to correlate
behaviorism theoretical underpinnings. positively with the frequency of strategy
However, as Griffiths (2020) argues the use. The research studies have shown that
theoretical foundation of LLS is “highly proficient language learners often use LLS
complex, dynamic, and eclectic, drawing more frequently and with a greater variety
inclusively on insights from many different (Anderson, 2005; Bruen, 2001; Chamot &
theoretical traditions” (p. 609). Research El-dinary, 1999; García & Jiménez, 2014;
highlights some approaches that can include Green & Oxford, 1995; Griffiths, 2003;
the use of LLS for the strategic learner and Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006; Martínez
its role in self/other regulated learning, in a et al., 2016; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990;
specific task, and its relation to individual Oxford & Nyikos, 1989; Purdie & Oliver,
958 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021)
Use of Language Learning Strategies
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Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
study. Further, the study also aims to shed to comprehend the participants’ opinion
light on students´ views on LLS and of regarding the strategies and their use in the
how to integrate this tool into their learning process of learning the Spanish language
process. in the Indian context. To respond to RQ1,
RQ3 and RQ4, a closed questionnaire with
Research Questions a 5 point Likert scale, adopted from Griffiths
The present study aims to respond to the (2008) was used to collect quantitative data,
following research questions: which according to Cohen et al. (2000)
RQ1. Which LLS is used by the students in describes a range of possible answers. Data
the learning of SFL in India? collected were triangulated and analyzed to
RQ2. Which LLS do they use most and find answer the research questions.
useful for learning SFL?
RQ3. Which strategies did the higher Participants
proficient students report using? The participants of the current study were
RQ4. How does the use of LLS vary with 65 undergraduate university students (Table
the year of study? 1) learning SFL, out of which, 47.7% of the
RQ5. Which LSS did the students find participants are from the third year followed
effective in their individual learning process by 18.5% from the second and 33.8%
communicated to them? from the first year. These participants were
selected from the two renowned central
METHODS universities in India because of the fact that
Research Instruments Spanish is taught as a full-time course in
these universities and at the same time, they
The present study is of a mixed approach.
are important centers of foreign language
The qualitative data were collected using
education.
an open questionnaire to students that
To measure the proficiency, the grades
carried four open-ended questions on
(CGPA) of students from these two centers
various aspects of LLS to respond RQ2 and
of foreign language institution were
RQ5. The open-ended questions were used
Table 1
Participants of the study
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Use of Language Learning Strategies
considered. Students who have CGPA of 7 year students to check, validate, and assess
or more have been categorised as a higher the viability of the processes. As the
proficient group in this study. The second questionnaire was in English, there was
group consists of those participants whose no problem in understanding the strategy
CGPA is between 5.5 and 6.9, and the third items and the participants could respond
group comprises of those with CGPA<5.5. easily on the Likert scale between 1 and
The sample involved 27 (41.5%) male and 5. Later, the data collected from the whole
38 (58.5%) female students. The age of the population involved in the research was
participants varied from 18 to 27 years with analyzed through Pearson’s correlation,
an average age of 20.5 for the whole group. which confirmed the construct (convergent)
validity of all items of the questionnaire.
Ethical Consideration, Validation and
Pilot Study Cronbach’s Alpha
The study followed ethical protocols wherein To check the reliability and the internal
the participants were informed about this consistency of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s
study obtaining their consent and assuring Alpha test in SPSS was used. This was
its confidentiality. The content validity substantiated to be very high (α = .879).
of the questionnaire based on relevant The reliability score of 0.70 is considered to
existing components of LSS was carried be standard (Vaus, 1995) and in the present
out by expert panel, which assured the case, it was in the range described as “very
clarity of language and practical pertinence. respectable” by Oxford and Burry-Stock
The content validated questionnaire was (1995, p. 7) (See Table 2).
verified through a pilot test with ten third-
Table 2
Cronbach’s alpha
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Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
Table 3
List of strategies with mean and SD
except for the first two items. The high SD results profile key (Oxford, 1990) as their
value suggests that there is great variation in mean is greater than 3.50. The rest of the
the reported use of these strategies and the 14 strategies pertain to the medium usage
participants vary widely in their responses. group with their mean oscillating between
The first 11 strategies belong to the high 2.50 to 3.49. There were no items from the
usage category according to the Strategy use low usage group. The first 11 strategies that
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Use of Language Learning Strategies
pertain to the high usage group have been manipulator and function as an active agent
discussed below. when it comes to awakening autonomy in
It is not surprising to see the strategy the language classrooms.
“learning from the teacher”, being reported The second strategy on the list is “doing
as most frequently used with the highest homework on time”. There exist subjectivity
mean by almost all the participants. This in this learning strategy as it may carry
suggests two interesting points; a) Indian many meanings in terms of the type of
students, in general, give a lot of importance task, the process of completing the task,
and respect to teachers and consider him/ among others. These strategies mentioned
her as the main protagonist in their learning on the list were very generic and were not
process b) the role of the teacher in guiding subdivided into more specific behaviours.
and stimulating the students and set the stage The reason behind this decision was that
for them to become autonomous learners the researchers did not want to generate
becomes crucial. The first activity is also disinterest among the participants by
a reflection of the Indian tradition and developing a questionnaire of very long
culture where the teacher in the classrooms duration.
is still considered the sole authority of the The next two strategies are “using a
class and the students do not get much computer/mobile/tablet and a dictionary”.
prominence in the teaching plan (Ranjan, These two approaches suggest that the
2018). In Asian classrooms in general, students require both technological and non-
there is a strict discipline and absolute technological resources to learn a foreign
teacher authority considered as prominent language. It should be mentioned here again
characteristics (Sadeghi & Esmaeili, 2021). that subjectivity has not been addressed. It
Sometimes, it is very difficult to break this means using a computer could lead to many
custom and rigid practice. Therefore, in other questions such as why, when, how
this type of situation, the teachers should often, etc.
act as facilitators of learning (Vattøy & The other strategy in the table
Gamlem, 2020) and not just transmitters of is “learning from mistakes”. Although
content. This is very much in line with the all students reported using this strategy
idea of scaffolding expressed by Vygotsky with an average use of 3.71, successful
(1978) in his theory of Zone of Proximal students reported using it more frequently
Development (ZPD), wherein a guidance (M=4.00, as shown in Table 4). This strategy
from a knowledgeable one (teacher) is underlines that ability to focus on details
required. The good teacher focuses on and thereby learn from experience. This
creating situations that, on the one hand, particular way of learning is typical of those
help them to teach the language content and students who care less about precision but
on the other, focuses on student´s learning. maintain a rapport in fluency (Brumfit,
In addition, the teacher has to be a skillful 1984; Shallenberger, 2015).
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021) 963
Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
The next strategy in Table 3 is “learning these languages. Furthermore, due to the
in an environment where the language multi-linguistic context in which they grow
is spoken” (M=3.69). In reference to the up, they unconsciously develop a translation
Indian context, this fact is more obvious competence (Ranjan, 2018). Therefore,
as the students do not have the possibility most students, contrary to their wish end
of being immersed in a Hispanic culture up translating during a conversation. In
environment. The only options are the given this type of situation, grammar plays an
local conditions, the textbook available and important role. This result also indicates that
the online resources through which they students pay close attention to internalizing
practice the language. In other words, their grammar rules. Moreover, the Spanish
experience to learn and use the Spanish language courses offered in the Indian
language is limited to local surroundings universities have Translation subject offered
that include colleagues, teachers, and/or where the norm is to practice Spanish-
natives if found any. English or English-Spanish translations
The subsequent strategy is “listening (Kumar, 2020). Hence, the Indian students
to songs in Spanish”, which is also demonstrate a high degree of dependence
recommended by teachers. Listening to on grammar and translation for fulfilling
songs serves two main purposes. First, it their purpose of expressing themselves in
helps to develop listening skills and second, Spanish.
it improves speaking ability. Again, it was “Listening to native speakers” and
observed that successful students reported “speaking with other students (classmates)
using this strategy very frequently with in Spanish” are two strategies that the
an average of 3.93 compared to 3.63 as participants reported using. The average use
informed by surveyed students. is 3.55 for the first strategy and 3.53 for the
“Practising Spanish grammar” is the next. These strategies suggest that students
next strategy used by students according to use social strategies very often. They are
this survey. There is no significant difference not shy and take control of their affective
in the use of this among the three groups filters. They always look for opportunities to
of participants (as shown in Table 5). practice their Spanish either with the natives
The language aspect that Indian students or with friends.
find more difficult about learning SFL is The following strategy “trying to think
grammar. This has to do with teaching in Spanish” (M=3.53) strengthens and
methodology because some of the teachers makes possible metacognitive skills that are
still often follow the traditional Grammar- important at the time of learning a language
Translation method. Given the multilingual and sustain a conversation. Thinking about
context, Indian students, in general are the learning process in itself, its success,
aware of two or more languages, which at error, and failure help a lot in achieving
times lead them to even contrast between mastery of the language (Ranjan et al. 2019).
964 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021)
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Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
Table 4
List of strategies that higher proficient reported using with mean and SD
Table 5 presents a comparison of the participants. These groups have been divided
use of strategies between the three groups of based on the CGPA of the participants.
Table 5
Comparison of the use of strategies between three groups of participants with mean and SD
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Use of Language Learning Strategies
Table 5 (Continued)
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Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
Table 6
Skewness and kurtosis for checking normality of the data
Figure 1. Histograms for normality of data (proficiency level wise for three groups)
968 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021)
Use of Language Learning Strategies
Use of LLS and the Year of Study a visual inspection of their histograms
A one-way analysis of variance test was (Figure 2), showed that the LLS scores
conducted to evaluate if there is any were normally distributed for first, second
significant difference in the use of LLS and third-year students, with the following
based on the year of study of participants. skewness and kurtosis (Table 7).
The independent variable, year of study, The assumptions of homogeneity of
included three groups: First Year (M= 3.00, variances were tested and found tenable
SD=.39, n=22), Second Year (M=3.57, using Levene´s Test, F (2, 59) = .70, p=
SD=.42, n=12), and Third Year (M=3.72, .50. The ANOVA was significant F (2, 59)
SD=.54, n=28). = 14.49, p= .000, η2= .33. Thus, there is
A Shapiro- Wilk’s test (p> .05) (Razali a significant difference between the three
& Wah, 2011; Shapiro & Wilk, 1965) and groups in their use of LLS.
Table 7
Skewness and kurtosis for checking normality of the data
Figure 2. Histograms for normality of data (year of study wise for three groups)
Post hoc comparisons to evaluate from the first year with the students of the
pairwise differences among group means second and third year. The pairwise p-value
were conducted with the use of a Tukey HSD is mentioned in Table 8.
test since equal variance was tenable. Tests This result is in line with the previous
revealed significant pairwise differences studies (Khalil, 2008; Magogwe & Oliver,
between the mean scores of students who are 2007) where a gradual progression in the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021) 969
Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
Table 8
ANOVA test result in the usage of strategies between three groups of participants
(I) Year of study (J) Year of study Mean difference (I-J) Sig. (p)
LLS use was found with the duration of the As per Table 9, 41 % of the students
study. The overall implication of this part responded watching Spanish television /
indicated that the repertoire of the learners movies/soap operas, as the main strategy
increases with the duration. It means the communicated to them by their teachers.
more experienced learners (in terms of years Therefore, Indian teachers consider visual
of study) use LLS more frequently than the elements as an important factor in learning.
less experienced ones. Some students provided the following
answers included in the category “others”,
Effective LSS to Students’ Learning which are:
Process
• Learning the culture and lifestyle of
The last research question was aimed at
the natives to capture information
finding if any LLS has been communicated
• Doing role play
to the participants, which they found
• Instead of using English as the base
effective in complementing their individual
language, Hindi should be the base
learning process. Most of the participants
language
responded, along with other strategies,
• Trying to speak to eliminate doubts
watching movies or videos as strategies
• Group learning
communicated to them to supplement their
• Comparing languages
learning process. The responses indicated
• Talking to natives and make new
that almost all the strategies mentioned are
friends
generic in nature and no concrete answer
was found. This may be due to a lack of These responses can be seen as activities
strategic training. However, an attempt was and procedures to facilitate learning. For
made to codify the responses and arrive at example, Hindi is the language of instruction
the main themes, which are presented in the or base language or comparison between
following graph. languages. After analysing the responses,
970 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021)
Use of Language Learning Strategies
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 29 (2): 955 - 976 (2021) 971
Andrew Philominraj, Ranjeeva Ranjan, Rodrigo Arellano Saavedra and Gaurav Kumar
This may be because of a lack of strategic to explain their choice and use of these
training, which can be considered as one particular strategies could have strengthened
of the implications of the present study. the present research.
ANOVA test results for RQ3 showed no
significant difference in the use of LLS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
among the three groups. RQ4 ANOVA We would like to express our cordial thanks
results highlighted a statistically significant to all the participants that voluntarily took
difference in the LLS use among the groups. part in this study. The authors confirm that
The third-year participants used LLS more this article is not part of any funding.
frequently than the second and first-year
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