UnderstandingTheSelf GE-1 Module

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Module 1 THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

Lesson I. Philosophical Perspective of the Self
Competencies 1. Describe the role of philosophy in understanding the self;
2. Discuss the different concepts of the self from the philosophical
perspective;
3. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their
similarities; and
4. Develop and own philosophy of the self.
Discussion Introduction
Philosophy employs questioning to discover and understand the
causes, reasons, and principles of everything. It goes beyond scientific
investigation by exploring all areas of knowledge such as religion,
psychology, and medicine.
The etymological definition of Philosophy “love of wisdom” pertains
to the desire for truth and answers to every question about the nature of
existence and this s one of the topics of interest among philosophers. The
great Greek philosophers were the ones who seriously questioned myths
and moved away from them to understand reality and respond to
perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of the self.
The Philosophers and their Perspective of the Self
SOCRATES- For Socrates the self is synonymous with the soul. He

believes that every human possesses an immortal and enduring soul that
survives the physical body. He was the first to focus on the full power of
reason on the human self: who we are, who we should be and who we will
become.
He also suggests that REALITY divided into two categorical realms: the
physical and the ideal realm. The Physical realm is changeable,
momentary, and imperfect while the Ideal realm is unchanging, eternal,
and immortal or undying. Hence, our physical world and body belong to
the physical realm while the real meaning of soul, life, truth, beauty and
goodness belong to the ideal realm.
Socrates explains that the essence or real meaning of the SELF or the
SOUL is the everlasting being for it is the soul that strives for wisdom and
perfection and the dictate of reason as the soul’s tool to achieve a dignified
and noble state of human being. Socrates thus suggests that man must
live an examined life and a life of purpose and value. For him examining
our thoughts and emotions through a process called introspection
increases self-awareness and inclines us to become virtuous as we
continuously search for a meaningful life.
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PLATO- He believes and elaborates on Socrate’s concept of the soul on the

basis of process of self knowledge and purification of the soul. Specifically,
he introduces the idea of a three-part soul/self: reason, physical appetite
and spirit of passion. He points out Reason as the divine essence that
enables us to think deeply make wise choices, and achieve a true
understanding of eternal truths. Our basic emotions such as love, anger,
ambition aggressiveness and empathy are the Spirit or Passion while our
biological needs like hunger, thirst, and sexual desire are Physical Appetite.
For him these three elements of our selves are in a dynamic
relationship with one another, sometimes in conflict. When conflict
occurs, Plato suggests that we must be directed and governed by logical
reasons to restore harmonious relationship among these three elements
as this signifies essence of Plato’s concept of justice- being under the control
of Reason. Thus, if we live our life in accordance to the natural world, then
we are giving justice to our existence.
Further, having described his vision of the soul/self, Plato elaborates
his Theory of Forms where he introduced the concepts of the two worlds:
the world of Forms (the non-physical ideas) is real and permanent while
the world of Sense (reality) is temporary and just a replica of the ideal
world. He claims that the sensible world is dependent on the ideal world
where the concept of the self/soul belongs and since the soul is regarded
as something permanent, we should give more importance to it than the
physical body which resides in the world of sense.
ARISTOTLE- He believes that the soul is merely a set of defining features

and does not consider the body and soul as separate entities. He suggests
that anything with life has a soul and holds that the soul is the essence of
all living things. However, he claims that we, humans differ from other
living things because of our capacity for rational thinking. His discussion
about the self centers on the three kinds of soul we possess: the
Vegetative Soul includes the physical body that can grow, the Sentient
Soul includes sensual desires, feelings, and emotions, thirdly, the
Rational Soul is what makes us human it includes the intellect that
allows us to know and understand things.Thus, Aristotle suggests that
the rational nature of the self is to lead a good and fulfilling life which
includes doing virtuous or righteous actions.
ST. AUGUSTINE
St. Augustine integrates the ideas of Plato and teachings of Christianity
and regarded as a saint in the Catholic Church. He views the body as
spouse of the soul, united and inseparable and according to him, this is
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what makes us entirely complete as human. As a religious philosopher, he

considers soul as an important element of man and that the soul is what
governs and defines us as man.
In his work, Confessions, Augustine describes humanity as likeness of
God and takes everything created by God who is all good is good. He is
convinced that the self is known only through knowing God and self-
knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God. For him, knowledge can
only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us. The TRUTH which
Augustine speaks refers to the truth of knowing God. God is transcendent
and the self seeks to be united with God through faith and reason.
RENE DESCARTES
He is a French philosopher and the father of modern philosophy for he
brought an entirely new perspective to philosophy and the self. The Latin
phrase Cogito ergo sum- “I think therefore I am” is the keystone of Descartes’
concept of the self. For him, the act of thinking about the self is in itself
proof that there is a self and no rational person will doubt his or her own
existence as a conscious thinking human being. Further, he contends that
if man reflects thoughtfully he will realize that there are two dimensions of
the human self: The self as a thinking entity and the self as a physical
body.
JOHN LOCKE
The human mind at birth according to John Locke is a blank slate
“tabula rasa”. He explains that the self or personal identity is formed from
sense experiences and these experiences shape and mold the self
throughout a person’s life. For him, self awareness and memory of
experiences are keys to understanding the self and the essence of the self
is its conscious awareness of itself as thinking, reasoning, and reflecting
identity. At this point, he proposes that people could use the power of
reason to gain knowledge and consequently use this knowledge to
understand experiences. Knowledge is based on careful observation of
experiences. Reason plays an important role in helping to figure out the
significance of sense experience and to reach intelligent conclusions.
DAVID HUME
Hume explains that people experience is just a bundle or collection of
different perceptions. He maintains that if people carefully examine the
contents of their experience, they will find that there are only distinct
entities: impressions and ideas. Impressions are the basic sensations of
people’s experience, vivid, and are strong and lively such as hate and love.
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Hume asks us to consider what impression gives us our concept of self.

We tend to think of ourselves as selves—stable entities that exist over
time. But no matter how closely we examine our own experiences, we
never observe anything beyond a series of transient feelings, sensations,
and impressions. We cannot observe ourselves, or what we are, in a
unified way. There is no impression of the “self” that ties our particular
impressions together. In other words, we can never be directly aware of
ourselves, only of what we are experiencing at any given moment.
Although the relations between our ideas, feelings, and so on, may be
traced through time by memory, there is no real evidence of any core that
connects them. This argument also applies to the concept of the soul.
Hume suggests that the self is just a bundle of perceptions, like links in a
chain. To look for a unifying self beyond those perceptions is like looking
for a chain apart from the links that constitute it. Hume argues that our
concept of the self is a result of our natural habit of attributing unified
existence to any collection of associated parts. This belief is natural, but
there is no logical support for it.
IMMANUEL KANT
According to Kant, we all have an inner and an outer self which together
form our consciousness. The inner self is comprised of our psychological
state and our rational intellect. The outer self includes our sense and the
physical world. For him, the self is an organizing principle that makes a
unified and intelligible experience possible. In other words, the self
constructs its own reality, actively creating a world that is familiar and
predictable. Jump to Self-consciousness - Enlightenment is about
thinking for oneself rather than letting others think for you. Hence the
self is the product of reason.
Enrichment Write an essay on the philosophical perspective of the self. Consider the
Activities following questions in writing your essay.
1. Which philosophy relates to your own belief, explain its impact to
your self-understanding?
2. Describe who you are, the meaning of your life the purpose of your
existence, and how to achieve a happy and successful life.
Discuss your answer on a separate sheet of paper using the format below:
Family Name, Given Name, Middle Initial Subject Title:

Course, Year and Section: CP Number:
Module Number + Name of Activity email address:
Date of Submission
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and if you have access online please send the activity through my email
account, johnpaulcafalla@gmail.com using the format FAMILY NAME,
GIVEN NAME, MI., and Activity number as FILE NAME. Example: Santos,
Darlina C. Activity 1
Rubrics in number 1
5- complete, factual, and reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, factual, and reflective discussion, English construct is average
3 – complete and reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – reflective discussion but fair English construct
1 – answer is slightly reflective and English construct is poor
Rubrics in number 2
5- complete, reflective, and enlightening discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, reflective, and enlightening discussion, English construct is average
Comprehension Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer.

Check 1. According to him, “an unexamined life is not worth living.”
a. Socrates b. Plato c. Augustine
2. He is regarded as the father of modern philosophy.
a. Rene Descartes
b. Aristotle
c. Hume
3. He postulates that the human mind at birth is a blank slate.
a. Rene Descartes
b. Aristotle
c. Locke
4. In his theory of forms, he introduces the concept of the two worlds.
a. Socrates b. Plato c. Augustine
5. The foundation of Socrates’ philosophy is:
a. I think, therefore I am
b. Know thyself
c. The self is the way people behave
References Alata, E.J.P. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: Rex Book Store
Monila, J. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C
& E Publishing, Inc.
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Module 1 Lesson 2. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: The Self as a Product of

Society
Competencies 1. Recognize what sociology tells about understanding the self and
others;
2. Discuss how individuals view the self as a product of socialization;
3. Explain George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self;
4. Discuss the self as a product of modern and postmodern societies;
and
5. Appreciate your own social experiences that have been particularly
helpful in understanding the self.
Sociological theories of the self attempt to explain how social processes
such as socialization influence the development of the self. When we are
born, we have a genetic makeup and biological traits. However, who we
are as human beings develops through social interaction. Many scholars,
in the field of sociology, have described the process of self-development as
a precursor to understanding how that “self” becomes socialized.
Sociology as a scientific study of social groups and human
relationships generates new insights into the interconnectedness between
the self and other people. Hence, sociologists offer theories to explain how
the self merges as a product of social experience.
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: The Looking-Glass Self

Cooley's most significant contribution was his idea of the “looking-
glass-self.” The concept of the looking glass self explains that people
whom we interact with become a mirror in which we view our self. For
him, self identity or self image is achieved through a threefold event which
begins by conceiving an idea of how we present ourselves to others, how
we analyze other’s perception about us, and how we create an image of
ourselves. Since these perceptions are subjective, we might have wrong
interpretations of how other people evaluate us and it would be critical if
we think that others judge us unfavorably because we could also develop
a negative self-image.
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Figure 1 How the Looking-Glass Self works
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: Theory of the Social Self

He supports the view that a person develops a sense of self through social
interaction and not the biological preconditions of that interaction. He
posits that the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges
from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others,
responding to others' opinions about oneself, and internalizing external
opinions and internal feelings about oneself.
Mead’s theory of the social self explained that the self has two divisions:
The ‘I’ and the ’ME’. The “me” is the social self and the objective element
of the self that represents the internalized attitudes and demands of other
people and the people’s awareness to these demands. The “I” is the
response to the “me” and the subjective element and the active side of the
self. It is the individual's impulses and unique traits.
Figure 2 The self and the interaction between the I and the me.
Further, the full development of the self is attained when the ‘I’ and ‘ME’
are united. According to Mead, the self is not present at birth, it develops
only with social experience and it is through this experience that we
learned to understand the world from other’s point of view. This explains
that in our social contacts, we infer other’s actions and this process allows
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us to direct our behavior which Mead suggests Role Taking process. It is

when we perform our own particular role.
The SELF in a three-stage process

1. Preparatory Stage (0-3 years old), Children imitate the people
around them without understanding underlying intentions, and so
at this stage they have no sense of self.
2. Play Stage (3-5 years old), children start to view themselves in
relation to others as they learn to communicate through language
and symbols. At this stage, role-taking is exhibited.
3. Game Stage (begins in the early school years; about 8-9 years old),
children understand not only their own social position but also
those of others around them.
The SELF as a Product of Modern and Postmodern Societies

According to Gerry Lanuza, the attainment and stability of self-identity
are freely chosen and it is not restricted by customs or traditions.
However, this newfound freedom may hinder the full development of
human potentials because of infinite possibilities for self-cultivation and
problems such as alienation and humanization. For him, there is a need
to discover the “authentic core” of the self for the individual to freely work
towards self-realization.
Moreover, the dissolution of traditional values and communities in
modern society has led the individual to construct a solid and stable self-
identity, the postmodern individual welcomes all possibilities for self-
improvement. In postmodern societies, self-identity continuously changes
due to the demands of multitude of social contexts, new information
technologies, and globalization.
French sociologist Jean Baudrillard exposes the negative consequences
of post modernity to individuals in the society. He explains that the
postmodern individuals achieve self-identity through prestige symbols
that they consume. Thus, the postmodern person has become an
insatiable consumer and may never be satisfied in his or her life.
For example, if a person buys an expensive cellular phone not merely as a useful
communication device but because of its prestige symbol, he or she will desire to
buy a new cell phone when she learns that a new and more prestigious model has
come out in the market.
Further, it is implied that the self may be in a never-ending search for

prestige in the postmodern society.
Enrichment Answer the following essay questions:
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Activities 1. Discuss Mead’s stages of self. Describe how the development of self is
unique for every individual, and cite personal experiences showing
how Mead’s stages of self relate to your experiences.
2. What is the most expensive thing you have bought so far? Analyze the
reasons why you chose that item instead of a cheaper brand. Are you
satisfied with that expensive possession of yours? Do you still
consider buying another one when a new model comes out in the
market? Justify your answer.

Date of Submission
Rubrics in number 1
Rubrics in number 2
5- complete, reflective, and enlightening discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, reflective, and enlightening discussion, English construct is average

Check
1. He introduced the concept ‘looking-glass self”.
a. George Herbert Mead
b. Charles Horton Cooley
c. Gerry Lanuza
d. Jean Baudrillard
2. He proposed the theory of social self.
a. George Herbert Mead
b. Charles Horton Cooley
c. Gerry Lanuza
d. Jean Baudrillard
3. During this stage, there is no self.
a. Game stage
b. Play stage
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c. Preparatory Stage
d. Role Playing
4. During his stage the self is developing.
a. Game Stage
b. Play Stage
c. Preparatory Stage
d. Role Playing
5. The attitudes, viewpoints, demands, and expectations of others and
the society.
a. Role taking
b. Role playing
c. Generalized others
d. Looking-glass self
Magalona, E. and Evelyn S. Sadsad. (2016). Personal Development.
Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Omas-as, R.L. et. al. (2003). General Sociology, Society, Culture,
Population Dynamic and Gender Development. Bulacan: Trinitas
Publishing, Inc.
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Module 1 LESSON 3. ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONCEPTUALIZATION OF SELF
Competencies 1. Recognize what the field of anthropology can contribute to the

understanding of the self;
2. Understand how culture and self are complementary concepts;
3. Discuss the cultural construction of the self and social identity;
4. Explain the concept of identity struggles; and
5. Develop insights on how to achieve a sense of self, situated in
multicultural and dynamic situations.
Anthropology is concerned with how cultural and biological processes
interact to shape human experience. Contemporary anthropologists
believe that culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be
understood in relation to one another. Compared with other disciplines,
anthropology possesses a holistic and integrated approach in examining
human nature. Perhaps the most important contribution of anthropology
is providing insights into the nature of self based on continuous
understanding of the basic elements of culture (Peacock, 1986).
The Cultural construction of Self and Identity

Edward Tylor defines culture as complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society. It is emphasized that
culture is not behavior itself but the shared understanding that guide
behavior and are expressed in behavior. Therefore, it is how we make
sense of our experience and behave according to socially shared ideas,
values, and perceptions.
Martin Sokefeld, German anthropologist, believes that the concept of self

is a necessary supplement to the concept of culture in anthropology and
should be regarded as a human universal. Thus, culture and self become
complementary concepts that have to be understood in relation to one
another.
In social anthropology the concept of identity was used mostly in the
context of “ethnic identity” that is to point out the sameness of the self
with others and within a group. This identity therefore makes a human
being a person and an acting individual.
The two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different
societies are egocentric and sociocentric. In the egocentric view, the self
is seen as autonomous individual who is capable of acting independently
from others. While in the sociocentric view, the self is dependent on a
situation or social setting. This is a view of the self that is context-
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dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can

possess enduring qualities.
From the similarities and difference in characteristics among
individuals, people construct their social identities but our personal name
represents the self in all societies. Personal Naming is a universal practice
with numerous cross cultural variations, establishes a child’s birthright
and social identity. While the identity toolbox refers to the features of a
person’s identity that he or she chooses to emphasize in constructing a
social self. Family membership could be the most significant feature to
determine a person’s social identity. Another important identity
determinant that is often viewed as essential for the maintenance of a
group identity is language.
One’s identity is not inborn, it is something people continuously
develop in life. Arnold van Gennep believes that changes in one’s status
and identity are marked by a three-phased rite of passage:
1. Separation phase- people detach from their former identity to

another. Example: separation from one’s family to become part of a
new one.
2. Liminality phase- a person transition from one identity to another.
For example, the wedding ceremony itself is the process of
transition of the bride and groom from singlehood to married life.
3. Incorporation phase- the change in one’s status is officially
incorporated. For example, the wedding ceremony and reception
serve as the markers that officially recognize the bride and groom’s
change towards being husband and wife.
Further, the rites of passage help a person adjust from one social
dimension of his or her life to the others. However, sometimes we do
disagree on our own respective identities. Anthony Walace coined the term
“identity struggles” to characterize interaction in which there is a
discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess, and the
identity attributed to that person by others.
The Self as Embedded in Culture

Clifford Geertz (1973), an American anthropologist, offers a
reformulation of the concept of culture which favors a symbolic
interpretative model of culture. He defines culture as a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which
people communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge and
attitude toward life. Further, he proposes that it is necessary that we give
meanings to our experiences so that order in the world can be established.
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Thus, the concept of culture has its impact on the concept of man. In his
attempt to illustrate an accurate image of man, Geertz suggests two
important ideas:
1. Culture should not be perceived only as complex of concrete
behavior patterns.
2. Man is precisely the animal most desperately dependent upon such
extra-genetic outside the skin control mechanisms, such cultural
programs for ordering his behavior.
Therefore, man is defined by his genetic potentials shaped into actual
accomplishments which are made possible by culture. Geertz also
emphasizes that human nature is interdependent with culture: “Without
men, no culture, certainly; but equally, and more significantly, without
culture, no men.” Likewise, Robbins (2012) considered human beings as
cultural animals as they create the meanings of objects, persons,
behaviors, emotions and events, and behave in accordance with meanings
they assume to be true. Cultural differences exist when groups of people
assign different leanings to different life events and things. Hence, the self
is embedded in culture.
Enrichment Write an essay on the different anthropological perspective of how the self
Activities is constructed in societies.
1. Which of the anthropological views of the self relates to your own
belief? Explain how each view impact your self-understanding.
2. How are yourself and identity constructed and influenced by your

culture? Include three things you discovered about your cultural
identity.

Date of Submission
Rubrics in number 1
5- complete, comprehensive, and reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, comprehensive, and reflective discussion, English construct is average
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Rubrics in number 2
5- complete and reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
3 – reflective discussion, English construct is average
Check 1. It refers to “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief
art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.”
a. Identity toolbox
b. Social identity
c. Society
d. Culture
2. According to this view, there is no intrinsic self that can possess
enduring qualities.
a. Androcentric
b. Egocentric
c. Sociocentric
d. Polycentric
3. This refers to the features of a person’s identity that he or she
chooses to emphasize in constructing his or her social self.
a. Personal name
b. Social identity
c. Identity toolbox
d. Cultural construction of self
4. It is a universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations
and establishes a child’s birthright and social identity.
a. Personal naming
b. Rites of passage
c. Identity toolbox
d. Cultural construction of self
5. These are interactions in which there is a discrepancy between the
identity a person claims to possess and the identity attributed to
that person by others.
a. illusion of wholeness
b. identity struggles
c. rites of passage
d. separation
Leaňo, R, Jr. D and Ronald M. Corpuz. (2012). Society and Culture with
Family Planning. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.
Zulueta, F. M. (2009). Anthropological and Sociological
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Module 1 LESSON 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

Competencies 1. Define and describe the different psychological concepts of self;
2. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their
interrelationships;
3. Explain how the concepts of self influence behavior; and
4. Apply concepts of self in one’s life to develop self awareness and self-
understanding.
The development of self-understanding in adolescence involves a
number of theories about the self, identity, and personality. As the
following theories illustrate, adolescents construct their own
understandings of their selves well by integrating the information into
their lives. Understanding of the elf is highest when the different parts of
the self become integrative.
WILLIAM JAMES’ Concept of Self: The Me-Self and The I-Self

William James suggests that the self is divided into two categories:
the I-self and the ME-self. The I-self refers to the self that knows who he or
she is which is also called the thinking self. It also reflects the soul of a
person or the mind which is also called the pure ego. The ME-self on the
other hand, is the empirical self which refers to the person’s personal
experiences and is further divided into sub-categories:
1. The material self is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes
and material possessions that contribute to one’s self image.
2. The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in
social situations in a different social self depending on the context
of a social situation.
CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: Real and Ideal Self

Self-concept refers to the image of oneself and an aspect of self
understanding that is important in adolescent years. Rogers defines the
self as a flexible and changing perception of personal identity. He suggests
that the self develops from interactions with significant people and
awareness of one’s own characteristics and level of functioning. He also
emphasizes human beings’ determination for self-fulfilment or self
actualization. When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may
arise. Central to achieving self actualization is the development of self-
concept.
Rogers suggests two components of self-concept. The real self and the
ideal self. The real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness
of what one is and what one can do. On the other hand the ideal self is
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the person’s conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be

which includes one’s goals and ambitions in life.
Figure 3. How the two components of self-concept work
In Roger’s view, the closer the ideal self to the real self, the more fulfilled
and happy the individual becomes. When the ideal self is far from the real
self, the person becomes unhappy and dissatisfied.
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF, TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

Self understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the
self as multiple or unified and true or false. The construction of multiple
selves varies across different interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and
relationship. Coping with different selves constitutes an alarming and
difficult task among adolescents. These challenges contribute heavily to
the young person’s struggle for a unified self. The task of integrating one’s
multiple selves naturally causes concern. Given the enormous challenges
of self-integration, it is important that adolescents are supported in their
effort to create a consistent, coherent, or unified theory of the self.
Winnicott has found that the self is composed of the true self and the
false self. The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true self.
In other words, adolescents tend to display a false self to impress others
while the true self is shown when with their family and close friends.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

Albert Bandura (2001) posits that humans, through their agency are
perceived as proactive agents of experiences. Agency represents the
endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed
structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised,
rather than reside as a discrete or detached entity. Its core features
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enables us human beings to play a part in our self-development,

adaptation, and self-renewal with its main features: intentionality
forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness.
 Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. Intentions center
on plans of action with the anticipation of possible outcomes.
 Forethought enables us to anticipate the likely consequences of
prospective actions. Through the exercise of forethought, we are
guided with our actions in the anticipation of future events.
 Self-reactiveness involves making choices and choosing
appropriate courses of action as well as motivating and regulating
them.
 Self-reflectiveness gives us the ability to reflect upon and the
adequacy of our thoughts and actions.
Further, Bandura posits that we, as a person are not only agents of action
but also self-examiners of our own functioning. He added efficacy as the
foundation of human agency or the belief that we are capable to perform a
task. Having this belief influences our perception and disposition to think
pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are self-enhancing or
self-hindering. Hence, it is implied that efficacy beliefs also play a central
role in self-regulation which is the ability of an individual to control
his/her behavior without having to rely on others for help.

Activities
1. Which of the basic concepts described in the preceding theories do
you think applies to you the most?
2. Did your study of the different theories of the self lead you to
change any of your perceptions about yourself? If yes, what are
these changes? If no, why not? Elaborate your answer.

Date of Submission
Rubrics in number 1
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5- complete, detailed, and structured, English construct is outstanding

4 – complete, detailed, and structured, English construct is average
3 – detailed, English construct is average
2 – detailed discussion but fair English construct
1 – answer is uncritical and English construct is poor
Rubrics in number 2
5- complete, detailed, and reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, detailed, and reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – reflective but incomplete discussion, Fair English construct
Comprehension Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

Check 1. The term _______ refers to image of oneself.
2. William James suggests that the self is divided into two
categories:_____________ and the
3. _____________.
4. The ____________ represents the endowments, belief systems, self-
regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures and functions
through which personal influence is exercised.
5. It is defined as the foundation of human agency.
Corpuz, B. B. et. al. (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. Metro

Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.


Module 1 LESSON 5. THE WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF
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Competencies 1. Explain the Western concept of self;

2. Enumerate and discuss the different Eastern conceptions of self;
3. Compare Eastern and Western views of the self; and
4. Examine your own conceptualization of self.
The Western concept of self is defined by Geertz (2008) as a bounded,
unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a
dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized
into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such
whole and against its social and natural background.
INDIVIDUALISTIC VERSUS COLLECTIVE SELF

Western Self as Individualistic- Western individualism exhibits the
coexistence of favourable and unfavourable conditions inherent in
personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides
opportunities for self-fulfilment, it also increases the likelihood of
experiencing alienation and frustration.
David Ho (1995), describes the Western self as an individualistic self
that is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose,
and volition. For him, the self is located at the center within the individual
through which the world is perceived. Also, the self is seen as an entity
distinct from other selves and all other entities. This implies that the self
belongs to the individual and to no other. As a consequence of this
complete ownership of self, it becomes a sovereign subject possessing a
sense of personal control. Hence, in an individualistic perspective, the
Western self is the measure of all things, the source of all reflections.
Western Self as Collective - The collective self consists of those aspects

of the self that are based on memberships in social groups or categories.
It refers to a perception of self as an interchangeable exemplar of some
social category rather than a perception of self as a unique person.
In contrast to individualistic cultures, collectivistic cultures to be
characterized by a cultural perspective that places less emphasis on the
uniqueness of the individual’s personal characteristics as the focal point
of predicting and understanding the individual’s actions. Instead, such
cultures place more of an emphasis on the person’s identification with a
group, such as family, country, occupation, or caste, and the
expectations, duties, and roles associated with being a member of a group
as the primary source for understanding the individual (Benet-Martínez &
Oishi, 2008).These cultures appear as ‘tight’ societies because of the high
expectations they place on people to conform to societal values, roles, and
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norms.
For example, even though she may not like studying economics, a
young Japanese college student may pursue a career as an economist to
fulfill the wishes of the elder members of her family.
Due to their restrictive nature, such tight, collectivistic cultures

illustrate the proverb ‘the nail that stands out gets pounded down’. These
descriptions of individualistic and collectivistic cultures represent general
patterns of thinking and behavior associated with certain cultural
guidelines. As a point of clarification, within any given culture there will
be personal expression by individuals who do not conform to such
cultural guidelines. More specifically, even in tight, collectivistic cultures
reflect a greater degree of personal needs, motives, and values.
For example, even in highly repressive cultures, there will be those

individuals who will pursue their academic interests (e.g., study forbidden
texts), creative passions (e.g., play music), and/or political views (e.g., anti-
government protesting) that are at odds with the cultural guidelines.
The SELF AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of
Confucius). The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule: “Do not do
to others what you would not want others to do to you.”
The basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to
others. The most important of relationships are the FIVE CARDINAL
RELATIONSHIPS between:
1. ruler and minister
2. father and son
3. husband and wife
4. siblings
5. friends
Another important feature in Confucian thought is the individual’s
greatest mission of attaining self-realization wherein self cultivation is
instrumental. Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s
role in society and acting accordingly. There will be harmonious
relationships when individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior.
The individual is set to respond to what is socially required rather to one’s
personal needs and goals.
Enrichment Answer the question in essay form.

Activities Is the Philippines a collectivist society? Justify your answer.
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Date of Submission
Rubrics
2 – incomplete and fair English construct
1 – answer is uncritical and English construct is poor
Comprehension Write TRUE on the blank if the statement is TRUE and write FALSE if it is
Check False.
________1. Individualistic self involves uniqueness, sense of direction,
purpose, and volition.
________2. To act in the social context is to know how to fit with others in
social contacts.
________3. Moral character implies doing one’s role in society and acting
accordingly.
________4. The heart of Confucian thought embraces the reciprocity
principle.
________5. Collective culture includes personal expression by individuals
who do not conform to such cultural guidelines.
References Monila, J. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/plat.2012.11.3.413
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MODULE 1 ANSWER KEY

Quiz 1 1. a) Socrates
2. a) Descartes
3. c) Locke
4. b) Plato
5. b) know thyself
Quiz 2 1. Charles Horton Cooley
2. George Herbert Mead
3. Preparatory Stage
4. Play Stage
5. Looking-glass self
Quiz 3 1. Culture
2. Sociocentric
3. Identity toolbox
4. Personal naming
5. Identity struggles
Quiz 4 1. self
2. I
3. Me
4. agency
5. efficacy
Quiz 5 1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
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Module 2 Lesson 6 UNPACKING THE SELF: The Physical Self
Competencies 1. familiarize how physical self functions in relation to

understanding our self;
2. appreciate the physical body as an expression of the self; and
3. determine confirmatory statements about the physical
characteristics as part of individual’s identity.
Physical Self refers to the body, this amazing container and
complex, finely tuned, machine with which we interface with our
environment and fellow beings. William James considered body as the
initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance
of personality.
For Erik Erikson, experience is anchored in the ground-plan of
body (Erikson, 1963). According to him the role of bodily organs is
especially important in early developmental stages of a person’s life.
Carl Gustav Jung posits that physical processes are relevant to us
only to the extent they are represented in the psyche. The physical body
and the external world can be known only as psychological experiences.
The Physical Self: The Self as Impacted by the Body

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These
are the brain, heart, kidneys, liver and lungs.
 The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and

sending signals to other organs through the nervous system and
through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts,
feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.
 The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout
our body.
 The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the
blood. The kidneys take urea out of the blood and combine it with
water and other substances to make urine.
 The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful
chemicals, breakdown of drugs, filtering of blood, and secretion of
bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.
 The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we
breathe and transferring it to our blood where it can be sent to our
cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which we exhale.
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The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self Esteem
Our body image, which includes our perception of ourselves and our
own body and the manner in which we feel about our body, is influenced
by a variety of factors. Many aspects contribute to body image, including
the environment in which we are immersed in as well as our biological
makeup and genetic predisposition. Understanding how each of these
areas impact how we feel about our body is important to
understanding how we can create and build a positive body image.
1. Cultural Traditions and its Implications
 The culture in which we are surrounded by has a significant impact

on how we feel about ourselves and the manner in which we think
about our body.
 Many cultural traditions contribute to body image and can
influence either negative or positive body image or self-esteem.
 Depending on the culture and overall emphasis of traditions
involved, a person may find their surroundings either conducive to
or resistant to the building of a healthy body image and self-
esteem.
2. The Impact of Western Culture
 The Western culture in general, is one that tends to hyper-focus on

dieting and body appearance.
example, Digitally retouched photos are the norm in which our society is
saturated in, and this mentality can negatively influence an individual’s
body image.
 Other cultures that celebrate and uphold a person’s body and
whose traditions uphold what a person is capable of doing rather
than their appearance may more effectively support the building of
a positive body image.
3. Culture Is Just One Factor
Culture alone is not responsible for a poor or negative body image, the
influence and potential in which it can impact how a person feels about
themselves and their body are substantial. Being aware of your
surroundings and understanding how culture and traditions may affect
and impact how you think and feel about your body can be
helpful, especially in a conscious effort to build a positive body image and
increase self-esteem. Understanding each of the components that
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contribute to your body image is an important step towards making a

difference in how you see and feel about yourself.
Article Analysis
Beauty is in the Mind of the Beholder
There’s no getting around it. In this world, you’re better off being good-
looking. At all ages and in all walks of life, attractive people are judged
more favourably, treated better, and cut more slack. Mothers give more
affection to attractive babies. Teachers favor more attractive students and
judge them as smarter. Attractive adults get paid more for their work and
have better success in dating and mating. And juries are less likely to find
attractive people guilty and recommend lighter punishments when they
do. Many factors can play into personal attractiveness — the way you
dress, the way you act, the way you carry yourself, even things that are
hard or impossible to change, like social status and wealth, race, and
body size and shape. But the first thing we notice when we meet someone
is their face. There are faces that launch a thousand ships, and faces that
only a mother could love, and we are supremely attuned to tell the
difference. The brain, among its many other functions, is a beauty
detector.
The brain is such a good beauty detector, in fact, that it can judge the
appeal of a face before you’re aware you’ve even seen one. When
participants in a recent study were presented with attractive and
unattractive faces for only 13 milliseconds, they were able to judge the
faces’ attractiveness accurately (that is, in accordance with experimenters’
ratings), even though they were not consciously aware of the stimuli and
felt like they were just guessing (Olson &Marshuetz, 2005).
There is no doubt that beauty (which here means both male and female
attractiveness) is to some extent in the eye of the beholder, but across
individuals and across cultures there is nevertheless considerable
agreement about what makes a pretty or handsome face, and the evidence
strongly counters the conventional wisdom that attractiveness preferences
are mainly acquired through life experience. For one thing, the beauty
bias is already present in infancy. Six-month-olds prefer to look at the
same relatively attractive faces that adults do (Rubenstein, Kalakanis, &
Langlois, 1999).
Truth in Beauty
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The question is, is beauty really only skin deep, or does an attractive face
actually reflect underlying good qualities? In a few ways, the stereotype
that “beautiful is good” does hold. Evolutionary psychology holds that
faces really are windows onto certain fundamental and important
characteristics indicative of a person’s quality as a romantic partner and
as a mate — qualities of health and genes, and even character.
Among the most important and consistent factors in facial attractiveness

are structural qualities of the face that are highly sex-typical. An
attractive man, in the eyes of female experimental participants, is
generally one with relatively prominent cheekbones and eyebrow ridges
and a relatively long lower face. Likewise, prominent cheekbones, large
eyes, small nose, a taller forehead, smooth skin, and an overall young or
even childlike appearance add to women’s allure in the eyes of male
raters.
Our faces are sculpted by our hormones. These sex-typical facial features
of adult men and women reflect the ratio of testosterone to estrogen or
estrogen to testosterone, respectively, acting on the individual during
development. We are programmed to be drawn to strong indicators of
maleness (for women) and femaleness (for men) partly because they reflect
an individual’s health (Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002). The reason hormones
equate to health is somewhat counterintuitive. High levels of sex
hormones during puberty actually suppress the immune system, raising
vulnerability to disease and infection. It sounds like a bad thing. But
when a person with a particularly “male” or “female” face makes it to
adulthood with all his or her health intact, it means that the person has
withstood the potentially debilitating influence of those high hormones. In
other words it signifies a more robust constitution.
‘Your Symmetry Lights Up the Room’

No two faces are alike, and no two halves of a face are alike. Countless
small variables make faces somewhat asymmetrical – a slightly wider jaw
on one side, one eye a fraction of an inch lower than the other, a
cheekbone that sticks out just a wee bit more, a dimple on one cheek, etc.
Some asymmetries (called directional asymmetries) are common across
the population – for example, the left side of most people’s faces is slightly
larger than the right. But many asymmetries, called fluctuating
asymmetries, arise when one’s unfolding genetic program is perturbed
during development, for instance by parasites or other environmental
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challenges. The slings and arrows of life’s fortunes can literally knock our
faces off of kilter, just like a punch to the nose. A symmetrical face, like a
particularly masculine or feminine one, is a sign of having stood up better
to life’s figurative schoolyard beatings.
Numerous studies have found that when men and women are asked to
compare versions of faces that are more versus less symmetrical, the
symmetrical ones garner significantly higher ratings of attractiveness,
dominance, sexiness, and health, and are perceived to be more desirable
as potential mates (Rhodes, Proffitt, Grady, &Sumich, 1998; Shackelford
& Larsen, 1997). So as with masculine/feminine features, the appeal of
symmetry makes perfect sense to evolutionary psychologists. In a
beautiful face, we are really seeing the artistry of good genes. People prefer
symmetrical faces even when they can’t actually perceive the symmetry –
that is, when only face halves are presented. It may be that symmetry
covaries with other desirable characteristics that reflect the same genetic
endowment and overall health (Penton-Voak et al., 2001).
It may not be all that surprising that we’d rather mate with a symmetrical
Greek god or goddess than with someone who stepped out of a Picasso
painting. Less obvious is that a pretty or handsome face is also generally
one that is, well, average. When presented with individual faces and a
composite of those individual faces, participants will judge the composite
as more attractive than the individual, more distinctive faces. And the
more faces that contribute to the composite, the more attractive it become
(Langlois &Roggman, 1990). The most attractive faces appear to be those
whose features are closest to the average in the population—that is, more
prototypical.
Averageness, like symmetry, reflects a favorable genetic endowment.

Those with average features are less likely to be carrying harmful
mutations. Additionally, averageness reflects greater heterozygosity —
having both a dominant and a recessive allele for given traits, rather than
two dominant or two recessive alleles (an advantage that symmetry also
reflects). Heterozygosity confers relatively greater resistance to pathogens,
in many cases, and thus, along with all the other indicators of resilience,
we may be programmed to seek it out through its subtle but telltale signs.
However, it has also been argued that there may be some much simpler
cognitive reasons for the preference for averages. Besides faces, people
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show a preference for average-looking dogs, average-looking birds, and

average-looking watches (Halberstadt& Rhodes, 2000). Prototypes are
more familiar-looking than less typical examples of a given class of
objects, be it the face of a potential mate or the face of a timepiece, and
they are easier to process. Easy on the eyes = easy on the brain.
In the Sex of the Beholder

Men and women both show the above preferences when it comes to faces,
but in general men’s preferences tend to be more pronounced (Rhodes et
al., 1998). Males may place greater importance on physical beauty when it
comes to mate choice, while females also attend to characteristics like
power and status. But a number of factors contribute to how much — and
when — male face characteristics matter to women.
One factor is a woman’s own attractiveness: Preference for masculine and

symmetrical features has been shown to be higher for women who regard
themselves as more attractive (Little, Burt, Penton-Voak, & Perrett, 2001).
Another is time of the month: The degree of women’s preferences for
different attractive qualities fluctuates strikingly across the ovulatory
cycle.
A group of University of Mexico psychologists have studied women’s

shifting preferences for symmetrical men. They have found that this
preference (which women can not only see, but even smell in tee-shirts
slept in by symmetrical men) increases dramatically around the time of
ovulation, when a woman is most fertile and the chance of conception is
highest (Gangestad, Thornhill, & Garver-Apgar, 2005). So does a woman’s
preference for more masculine-looking men. But this preference wanes
during other times of the month. Again, evolutionary psychology provides
a ready explanation.
Humans, like many other species, are socially monogamous but not
necessarily sexually monogamous. When sex might result in getting
pregnant, its health and fertility that are particularly desirable in a mate.
But good genes in the sense of physical health is not the same as good
genes in the sense of character, and what makes a good sperm donor may
not make the best long-term, nurturing, helpful life partner. The flip side
of high testosterone is an increased tendency toward aggression and
antisocial behavior, a tendency to compete rather than help. Thus a male
with less testosterone, indicated by less masculine features, may invest
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more in caring for offspring (whether or not he’s the biological father) and
so may be better to have around for the long term.
A Thousand Ships
In myth, beautiful women are disruptive of men’s reason, even causing
them to go to war. We now know that there’s truth to the idea that men
make worse decisions when exposed to female beauty, and we even are
beginning to understand the neural basis. A pair of McMaster University
researchers found that looking at photographs of attractive women (but
not unattractive women) caused a significant increase in delay
discounting in men — that is, choosing a smaller immediate reward over a
larger delayed one (Wilson & Daly, 2004). It’s the same tendency found to
a high degree in addicts and others with impaired self-control.
Interestingly, viewing attractive men did not influence women’s decisions.
The reason-unseating effect of a beautiful face partly involves the

amygdala. Activation of the amygdala, which detects the value of social
stimuli, has been associated with greater discounting of all kinds of future
rewards, and sure enough, this brain area shows much stronger
activation to attractive faces than to more ho-hum ones. (It is actually a
U-shaped relationship; the amygdala is also highly activated by
unattractive faces; Winston, O’Doherty, Kilner, Perrett, & Dolan, 2007.)
In both men and women, attractive faces cause greater activation in

several other brain areas involved in processing of rewards. These include
the nucleus accumbens, which also activates in response to rewarding
stimuli like money; the medial prefrontal cortex; and the anterior
cingulate cortex, which may be involved in shaping future behavior from
learning reward outcomes. In men (but not in women), the orbitofrontal
cortex, an area that evaluates the reward value of current behaviors, also
activates in response to attractive female faces (Cloutier, Heatherton,
Whalen, & Kelley, 2008).
Beautify Yourself
Beauty is unfair. Not everyone can be born with great genes. Not everyone
can be born symmetrical. Not everyone can be born enticingly, well,
average. But obviously there are many factors contributing to
attractiveness that are potentially under our control.
For women, makeup does have a strong effect. In one study, women
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wearing makeup were approached more, and approached faster, by men

at a bar than they were on nights without makeup (Gueguen, 2008b).
Effect sizes on beauty judgments for makeup have been found to be as
high as those for the facial structural features mentioned earlier (Osborn,
2006).
Getting enough beauty sleep is something everyone can do to up their

beauty quotient. A group of Swedish and Dutch researchers conducted an
experiment in which observers rated the attractiveness (as well as health)
of participants who were photographed both after a period of sleep
deprivation and after a good night’s sleep (Axelsson, 2010). Not
surprisingly, individuals who were sleep deprived were rated significantly
less attractive than those who were rested. They were also rated less
healthy.
And then there are the emotions we project through our faces. Not
surprising, positive emotions increase attractiveness. We are drawn to
those who smile, for example. As when they wore makeup, women who
smiled at men on entering a bar were more likely to be approached and
were judged more favorably (Gueguen, 2008a). Even a smile perceived
only in the periphery of one’s vision will be seen as more attractive than a
face with a neutral expression (Bohrn, Carbon, &Hutzler, 2010). And
attractive faces that smile produce even more activity in the orbitofrontal
cortex than do attractive faces wearing neutral expressions (O’Doherty et
al., 2003).
So here’s the timeless message of psychological science: Be beautiful—or,

as beautiful as you can. Smile and sleep and do whatever else you can do
to make your face a reward. Among its other social benefits, attractiveness
actually invites people to learn what you are made of, in other respects
than just genetic fitness. According to a new study at the University of
British Columbia (Lorenzo, Biesanz, & Human, 2010), attractive people
are actually judged more accurately—at least, closer to a subject’s own
self-assessments—than are the less attractive, because it draws others to
go beyond the initial impression. “People do judge a book by its cover,” the
researchers write, “but a beautiful cover prompts a closer reading.”
Answer the following essay questions:

Enrichment 1. What is the implication of the physical self in expression of your
Activities thoughts and feelings?
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2. List down and describe at least 3 of your positive physical self

attributes.

Date of Submission
Rubrics in number 1
Rubrics in number 2
5- complete and cohesive, English construct is outstanding cohesive
4 – complete and cohesive, English construct is average
3 – complete English construct is average
2 - complete but fair English construct
1 – incomplete answer and English construct is poor
Comprehension Identify what is defined and described. Write your answer on the space
Check provided for.
_____________1. It is responsible for removing oxygen from the air we
breathe and transferring it to our blood where it can be sent to our cells.
_____________2. The body's control center, receiving and sending signals to

other organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones.
_____________3. It removes waste and extra fluid from the blood. The
kidneys take urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other
substances to make urine.
_____________4. It is responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
_____________5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals and secretion of bile
and production of blood-clotting proteins are some of the major functions
of this organ.
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Module 2 Lesson 7. UNPACKING THE SELF: The Sexual Self
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Competencies 1. familiarize how physical self functions in relation to understanding our self;
2. appreciate the physical body as an expression of the self; and
3. determine confirmatory statements about the physical characteristics as part
of individual’s identity.
This part presents one of the most essential aspects of human
development, the sexual self. It highlights biological and environmental factors
that shape sexual development. It is also characterized as persons’ evaluation of
his or her own sexual feelings or actions. It also perceives in viewing ourselves.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics And The Human

Reproductive System
Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are formed.
The general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex hormone
levels, are similar in preadolescent boys and girls. As puberty begins and sex
hormone levels rise, differences appear, though some changes are similar in
males and females. Male levels of testosterone directly induce the growth of the
genitals and indirectly (via dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the prostate. Estradiol and
other hormones cause breasts to develop in females. However, fetal or neonatal
androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity of
breast tissue to respond to later estrogen.
Underarm hair and pubic hair are usually considered secondary sex
characteristics,but may also be considered non-secondary sex characteristics
because they are features of both sexes following puberty.
Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually
mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the
hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of
these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is
predictable for male and female adolescents. As shown in the image below, a
concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus (GnRH), the anterior
pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either testosterone or estrogen) is
responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems and the development
of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes that serve
auxiliary roles in reproduction.
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Figure 1. During puberty, the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates the
gonads to produce sex hormones in both male and female adolescents.
Signs of Puberty
Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute
to the development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples
of secondary sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Male Female
Increased larynx size and deepening of the voice Deposition of fat, predominantly in
breasts and hips
Increased muscular development Breast development
Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and Broadening of the pelvis and growth of
increased growth of body hair axillary and pubic hair
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As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the
development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and
pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11, and may
last two years or more. During this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a
year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation.
In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the
beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the
scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including
armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the
larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice
to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately 15
years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the early
growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt occurs toward the end
of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can increase as
much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue
through the early 20s.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Human reproductive system, organ system by which humans reproduce

and bear live offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally constructed,
and functioning properly, the essential features of human reproduction are (1)
liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, (2)
internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells, (3) transport of
the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the
early embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, (5)
formation of a placenta and maintenance of the unborn child during the entire
period of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7)
suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to
virtually their original state.
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Figure 2. Organs and structures of the male and female reproductive

systems.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
The Human Sexual Response Cycle
The human sexual response cycle is a four-stage model of physiological

responses to sexual stimulation, which, in order of their occurrence, are the
excitement-, plateau-, orgasmic-, and resolution phases. This physiological
response model was first formulated by William H. Masters and Virginia E.
Johnson, in their 1966 book Human Sexual Response. Since then, other human
sexual response models have been formulated.
1Excitement phase
The excitement phase (also known as the arousal phase or initial

excitement phase) is the first stage of the human sexual response cycle,
which occurs as a result of physical or mental erotic stimuli, such as
kissing, making out, or viewing erotic images, that leads to sexual arousal.
During this stage, the body prepares for sexual intercourse, initially
leading to the plateau phase.[1] There is wide socio-cultural variation
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regarding preferences for the length of foreplay and the stimulation

methods used.[3] Physical and emotional interaction and stimulation of the
erogenous zones during foreplay usually establishes at least some initial
arousal.
2Plateau phase
The plateau phase is the period of sexual excitement prior to orgasm. The
phase is characterised by an increased circulation and heart rate in both
sexes, increased sexual pleasure with increased stimulation and further
increased muscle tension. Also, respiration continues at an elevated level.
[1]
Both men and women may also begin to vocalize involuntarily at this
stage. Prolonged time in the plateau phase without progression to the
orgasmic phase may result in sexual frustration.
3Orgasm phase
Orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase of the sexual response

cycle and is experienced by both males and females. It is accompanied by
quick cycles of muscle contraction in the lower pelvic muscles, which
surround both the anus and the primary sexual organs. Women also
experience uterine and vaginal contractions. Orgasms are often associated
with other involuntary actions, including vocalizations and muscular
spasms in other areas of the body and a generally euphoric sensation.
Heart rate is increased even further
4Resolution phase
The resolution phase occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to
relax, blood pressure to drop and the body to slow down from its excited
state.[1] The refractory period, which is part of the resolution phase, is the
time frame in which usually a man is unable to orgasm again, though
women can also experience a refractory period.
Understanding “The Chemistry of love : lust, attraction, and attachment ”
THE SCIENCE OF LOVE

Research has shown that all of these crazy, haywire feelings and physical
reactions are, in fact, led by the brain and the chemicals released as a result of
attraction and desire. Experts believe that three neurotransmitters (chemical
messengers that transmit impulses (i.e. messages) between nerve cells) play a
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significant role during the initial stages of love.

According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers,
romantic love can be broken down into three stages: lust, attraction, and
attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming
from the brain.
STAGES
1st Lust – Testosterone and Estrogen

The first stage of romantic love, lust is defined as having an intense
sexual desire towards someone; therefore, lust is driven by having a desire to
achieve sexual gratification. This is based on an evolutionary need to reproduce,
something that is common among all living species. It is through reproduction
that we are able to pass on our genes and aids in contributing to the
continuation of our species.
The hypothalamus of your brain plays a major role in lust as it stimulates

the production of the sex hormones oestrogen and testosterone. It is a common
misconception that these hormones should be labelled as female and male
respectively, as these play a role in both women and men’s physiology and
sexuality.
Testosterone is known to increase libido in both genders. In women, the

effects of testosterone may be less significant than in men due to the presence of
higher levels of oestrogen. However, oestrogen promotes the function of two
hormones, testosterone, which increases sex drive, and oxytocin, commonly
referred to as ‘the love hormone’ which is released during physical contact and
sexual climax. It is little wonder then that women report being more sexually
aroused during the ovulation stage of their menstrual cycle when oestrogen levels
are at their peak.
2nd Attraction – Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

Attraction, although regarded as a distinct category in the stages of love, is
closely related to lust and while one can be linked to the other and vice versa,
they can also be mutually exclusive (i.e. one can occur without the other).
Attraction is associated with the ‘reward’ pathways in the brain that influence
our behaviour.
The ‘reward’ pathway is connected to parts of your brain that control memory
and behaviour and begin in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and prefrontal
cortex, this is where neurons release dopamine to induce feelings of pleasure
when we do something that feels good to us. The VTA forms an important part of
your brain’s reward circuit which is considered to be a primitive, evolutionary
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neural network. Some of the structures that make up this reward network or
circuit include the hippocampus, amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, all of
which are stimulated by pleasure-inducing behaviourssuch as food
consumption, sex and even gambling or drug use.
Dopamine, which is produced by your hypothalamus, is released during the
stage of attraction, specifically when we spend time with someone we are
attracted to or when we engage in sexual intercourse with them. Dopamine is a
natural stimulant that fills you with emotions of ecstasy, this is often why the
way falling in love feels is regarded as the natural equivalent to the high
experienced from taking an illicit drug.
Dopamine is also involved in focus and attention, which explains why you cannot
get that one special person out of your head and when you are with them as,
during this stage, you are ‘hyper-focused’ on their presence and the way they
make you feel.
Another hormone that is released during the stage of attraction is
norepinephrine. Norepinephrine, also referred to as noradrenaline, may sound
familiar to you, this is because it plays an important role in our ‘fight or flight’
response to stressful situations and keeps us alert. When it comes to love, the
combination of dopamine and norepinephrine allows us to feel energetic,
euphoric and even giddy. These hormones may also lead to insomnia and a
decreased appetite. Basically, these are why you can be so attracted to someone
that you can’t sleep or eat.
Serotonin is the final hormone associated with attraction. This hormone is a vital
neurotransmitter that aids in the regulation of social behaviour, mood, memory,
appetite, digestion and sexual desire. Interestingly, it is believed that serotonin
levels begin to decline during the attraction phase. Cortisol (also known as the
stress hormone) levels increase during the initial stage of falling in love, which
allows for our bodies to deal with the ‘crisis’ or ‘stressful situation’ that romantic
love is perceived by the body to be on a physiological level. As chemicals flood the
reward centre of the brain, our hearts race, palms sweat, cheeks flush and we
are overwhelmed with emotions of anxiety and passion.
3rd Attachment – Oxytocin and Vasopressin

The final stage of falling in love is attachment, this is the predominant factor in
defining the success of long-term relationships. Although the previous stages of
lust and attraction are seen as exclusive to a more romantically euphoric stage of
falling in love, the attachment stage refers to a more meaningful bond developing
between two people, moving a romantic relationship to an advanced level of
falling in love wholeheartedly. The two main hormones involved in the stage of
attachment include oxytocin, as well as vasopressin.
Oxytocin is referred to as ‘the love hormone’ or ‘the cuddle hormone’ is also
produced by the hypothalamus and is released in substantial amounts during
sexual intercourse and is stimulated through skin-to-skin contact. Interestingly,
oxytocin is also released during childbirth and breastfeeding. It may seem like
the same hormone is responsible for a strange combination of activities, however,
what all of these have in common is a form of bonding and attachment.
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Therefore, oxytocin, or OT, plays an important role in forging bonds

representative of the depth of love and attachment to a partner as it heightens
the feelings of calmness, security and contentment that are so often linked to
bonding with a mate2.
The second hormone involved in the phase of attachment is one that is released
in large quantities directly after having sex. The pituitary gland in both men and
women release vasopressin. Experts believe that vasopressin plays a role in
social interactions between humans and encourages pair-bonding
(monogamous, long-term relationships). Researchers have also noted that this
hormone may in actual fact, have a taming effect on more promiscuous people,
thus, when this hormone is increased after sex with someone that you are in love
with, this may affect your brain by triggering your neural reward system which
stimulates feelings of happiness, encouraging you to want to stay with that
person as a result.
These two hormones provide us with an explanation as to why euphoric
love will begin to fade as attachment and long-term love grow
GENDER AND SEXUAL DIVERSITY
Gender and Sexual Diversity (GSD), or simply sexual diversity, refers to

all the diversities of sex characteristics, sexual orientations and gender identities,
without the need to specify each of the identities, behaviors, or characteristics
that form this plurality.
Overview
In the Western world, generally simple classifications are used to describe

sexual orientation (heterosexuals, homosexuals and bisexuals), gender identity
(transgender and cisgender), and related minorities (intersex), gathered under the
acronyms LGBT or LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/transsexual
people, and sometimes intersex people); however, other cultures have other ways
of understanding the sex and gender systems. Over the last few decades, some
sexology theories have emerged, such as Kinsey theory and queer theory,
proposing that this classification is not enough to describe the sexual complexity
in human beings and, even, in other animal species.
For example, some people may feel an intermediate sexual orientation

between heterosexual and bisexual (heteroflexible) or between homosexual and
bisexual (homoflexible). It may vary over time, too, or include attraction not only
towards women and men, but to all the spectrum of sexes and genders
(pansexual).[9] In other words, within bisexuality there exists a huge diversity of
typologies and preferences that vary from an exclusive heterosexuality to a
complete homosexuality (Kinsey scale).
Sexual diversity includes intersex people, those born with a variety of

intermediate features between women and men. It also includes all transgender
and transsex identities which do not frame within the binary gender system and,
like sexual orientation, may be experienced in different degrees in between
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cisgender and transsexuality, such as gender fluid people.

Lastly, sexual diversity also includes asexual people, who feel disinterest in
sexual activity; and all those who consider that their identity cannot be defined,
such as queer people.
Socially, sexual diversity is claimed as the acceptance of being different but

with equal rights, liberties, and opportunities within the Human Rights
framework. In many countries, visibility of sexual diversity is vindicated during
Pride Parades.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION

STIs are diseases that are passed from one person to another. The most
common STIs are: chlamydia, syphilis, trichomonas, chancroid,
genitalherpes, hepatitis B and HIV infection. Some STDs, such as syphilis
and HIV can also betransmitted through exposure to contaminated blood and
from a pregnant woman to the unborn child. Table below was presents the
sexually transmitted infection
Types of Diseases and Pictures Description or TREATMENT

Symptoms
Chlamydia A certain type of Antibiotics can easily
bacteria treat chlamydia
 pain or discomfort
during sex or
urination
 green or yellow
discharge from the
penis or vagina
 pain in the lower
abdomen
Syphilis The first symptom to If earlier diagnose
appear is a small treated with antibiotics
round sore, known as
a chancre. It can
develop on your
genitals, anus, or
mouth. It’s painless
but very infectious.
Later symptoms
include: rash, fatigue,
fever. Headaches, joint
pain
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HIV HIV can damage the

immune system and
raise the risk of
contracting other
viruses or bacteria and
certain cancers.
Symptoms :fever,
chills, aches and
pains, swollen lymph
nodes, sore throat,
headache
Nausea.
Gonorrhea Gonorrhea is another If earlier diagnosed
common bacterial STD. curable and treated
It’s also known as “the with antibiotics
clap.”
present symptoms may
include:
a white, yellow, beige,
or green-colored
discharge from the
penis or vagina
pain or discomfort
during sex or urination
more frequent
urination than usual
itching around the
genitals
sore throat
Pubic Lice “Crabs” “Crabs” is another Pubic lice can be
name for pubic lice. treated with over-the-
They’re tiny insects counter lice-killing
that can take up medications.
residence on your
pubic hair. Like head
lice and body lice, they
feed on human blood.
Common symptoms of
pubic lice include:
itching around the

genitals or anus, small
pink or red bumps
around the genitals or
anus, low-grade fever,
lack of energy
Trichomoniasis Also known as “trich.” Trich can be treated
It’s caused by a tiny with antibiotics.
protozoan organism
that can be passed
from one person to
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another through
genital contact.
symptoms:
discharge from the

vagina or penis,
burning or itching
around the vagina or
penis, pain or
discomfort during
urination or sex,
frequent urination
In women, trich-related
discharge often has an
unpleasant or “fishy”
smell.
Shortened name for There’s no cure for
Herpes the herpes simplex herpes yet. But
virus. (HSV). Most medications are
common symptom of available to help
herpes is blistery control outbreaks and
sores. In the case of alleviate the pain of
genital herpes, these herpes sores. The same
sores develop on or medications can also
around the genitals. In lower your chances of
oral herpes, they passing herpes to your
develop on or around sexual partner.
the mouth.
Hepatitis B It is a virus that Although there is no
spreads through cure, there is a vaccine
contact with body to prevent hepatitis B
fluids and blood, so it infection.
can be transmitted
through sexual
intercourse. Hepatitis
B infection is also
possible through
sharing of needles,
razors, and
toothbrushes. Nausea,
Abdominal pain,
Jaundice (yellowing of
the skin and whites of
the eyes) ,Over time,
scarring of the liver
(cirrhosis) and liver
cancer can develop.
Chancroid It is more common in About half the time

Africa and Asia. It when untreated.
causes painful lumps
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in the genital area that

can progress to open
sores. Antibiotics can
cure the infection;
chancroid is caused by
bacterial infection with
Haemophilusducreyi.
One or more sores or
raised bumps on the
genitals. A narrow, red
border surrounds the
sores.
Scabies This parasite is not Prescription creams

necessarily sexually can cure a scabies
transmitted, since it infestation.
can affect any area of
the skin. However,
scabies is often spread
during sexual contact.
Extreme itching that is
worse at night. The
skin appears to have a
pimple-like rash, as
shown in the above
photo.
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL METHOD OF CONTRACEPTION
Table 2. Presents the Natural and Artificial Methods of Contraception
NATURAL METHOD ARTIFICIAL METHOD

Calendar Method 1. Oral
● Also called ● Also known as the
Contraceptives
as the pill, oral
rhythm contraceptives
method, contain synthetic
this natural estrogen and
method of progesterone.
family
● Estrogen suppresses
planning
involves the FSH and LH to
refraining suppress ovulation,
from coitus while progesterone
during the decreases the
days that permeability of the
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the woman cervical mucus to

is fertile. limit the sperm’s
access to the ova.
● According
to the Side effects for OCs are
menstrual
cycle, 3 or 4 nausea, weight gain,
days before headache, breast
and 3 or 4 tenderness,
days after breakthrough bleeding,
ovulation, vaginal infections, mild
the woman hypertension, and
is likely to
depression
conceive.
The process in
calculating for
the woman’s
safe days is
achieved when
the woman
records her
menstrual cycle
for six months.
The basis of 2. Hormonal Injections ● A hormonal injection

2. Cervical Mucus this method is
Method consists of
the changes in
medroxyprogesteron
the cervical e, a progesterone,
mucus during and given once every
ovulation. The 12 weeks
fertile days of intramuscularly.
a woman
● The injection inhibits
according to
this method is ovulation and causes
changes in the
as long as the
endometrium and
cervical mucus the cervical mucus.
is copious and
watery and a ● After administration
day after it. the site should not be
Therefore, she massaged so it could
must avoid absorb slowly.
coitus during
these days. It has an effectiveness of
almost 100%, making it
one of the most popular
choices for birth control.
1. Coitus ● This is one of 3. Intrauterine Device ● An IUD is a small, T-
Interruptus
the oldest shaped object that is
methods of inserted into the
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contraception uterus via the vagina.

. The couple
● It prevents
still proceeds
with the fertilization by
coitus, but the creating a local
man sterile inflammatory
withdraws the condition to prevent
moment he implantation.
ejaculates to ● The IUD is fitted only
emit the
spermatozoa by the physician and
outside of the inserted after the
vagina. The woman’s menstrual
disadvantage flow to be sure that
of this she is not pregnant.
method is the
pre- The device contains
ejaculation progesterone and is
fluid that effective for 5 to 7
contains a few years.
spermatozoa
that may
cause
fertilization.
Coitus
interruptus is
only 75%
effective
because of
this.
4. Lactation ● Through Male Condoms ● The male

Amenorrhea exclusive condom is a
Method breastfeedin latex or
g of the synthetic
infant, the rubber sheath
woman is that is placed
able to on the erect
suppress penis before
ovulation vaginal
through the penetration to
method of trap the sperm
lactation during
amenorrhea ejaculation.
method.
It can prevent STIs
However, if and can be bought
the infant is over-the-counter
not without any fitting
exclusively needed.
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breastfed,
this method
would not be
an effective
birth control
method.
● Males VASECTOMY ● Males undergo
undergo vasectomy, which is
vasectomy, executed through a
which is small incision made
executed on each side of the
through a scrotum.
small
incision The vas deferens is
made on then tied, cauterized,
each side of TUBAL LIGATION cut, or plugged to
the scrotum. block the passage of
the sperm.
The vas
deferens is
then tied, ● In women, tubal
cauterized, ligation is
cut, or performed by
plugged to occluding the
block the fallopian tubes
passage of the through cutting,
sperm. cauterizing, or
blocking to inhibit
the passage of the
● In women, both the sperm
tubal and the ova.
ligation is
performed After menstruation
by and before ovulation,
occluding the procedure is done
the through a small
fallopian incision under the
tubes woman’s umbilicus.
through
cutting,
cauterizing,
or blocking
to inhibit
the passage
of the both
the sperm
and the
ova.
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After
menstruation
and before
ovulation, the
procedure is
done through
a small
incision under
the woman’s
umbilicus.
Enrichment Write an essay on the three most important things you learned from this topic. What are
Activities your insights and how are you going to apply these insights in understanding your sexual
self?
Rubrics in number 1
5- complete, cohesive, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, cohesive, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – self-reflective discussion but fair English construct

Date of Submission
and if you have access online please send the activity through my email account,
johnpaulcafalla@gmail.com using the format FAMILY NAME, GIVEN NAME, MI.,
and Activity number as FILE NAME. Example: Santos, Darlina C. Activity 1
Comprehensio Multiple Choice: Select the best answer among the four choices and write only
n Check the letter on the space provided before the number.
_____1. Which of the following hormones will induce the development of female breast
a. estrogen c. estradiol
b. androgens d. all of the above
_____2. Sexual behavior begins before puberty

a. true
b. false
c. either a nor b
d. none of the above
_____3. These are the hormones which is responsible for the development of secondary
sex characteristics
a. hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, gonads
b. GRH, LH and FSH, testosterone
c. Gonads ,Testosterone and estrogen
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d. GnRH, LH and FSH, estrogen

_____4. The variability among any group of boys from practically complete maturity to
absolute preadolescence was ranged from the age of __________
a. 13-15 b. 11-13 c. 12-15 d. all of the above
_____5. It is a part of human reproductive system by which humans reproduce and bear
child is called ________________
a. Organ c. birth
b. Reproduction d. none of the above
_____6. If the organs are present normally constructed improperly function is it essential
for human reproduction?
a. yes c. either a nor b
b. no d. none of the above
_____7. What is the first sign of changes that is visible among girls?
a. the start of menstruation c. growth of pubic hair
b. development of breast tissue d. all of the above
_____8. The initial stage of physiological human sexual response is called __________
a. excitement phase c. resolution phase
b. plateau phase d. none of the above
_____9. This phase is characterised by an increased circulation and heart rate in both
sexes __.
a. excitement phase c. resolution phase
b. plateau phase d. none of the above
_____10. He was the first one who formulated physiological response model in 1966
a. Virginia E. Johnson c. William H. Masters
b. William Master d. a and c
Monila, J. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Module 2 Lesson 8. Unpacking the Self: The Spiritual Self
Competencies
● Discuss Spirituality and its importance
● Understand the self in relation with religious beliefs
● Explain ways of finding the meaning of life
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The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of the
self. In William James book, The Principles of Psychology Spiritual self is
one of the four constituents of the “self”. In his famous Sermon on the
Mount, Jesus said: “Happy are those conscious of their spiritual need.”
You probably agree with that statement. People everywhere recognize the
need for spirituality in their life and assume that once found, it will bring
them happiness. It is the most intimate version of the self because of the
satisfaction experienced when thinking of one’s ability to argue and
discriminate, of one’s moral sensibility and conscience, and of our
unconquerable will (James 1890) is purer than all other sentiments of
satisfaction. Moreover, seeking the meaning of life is a journey that the
spiritual self is on.
In Search of Spirituality
One dictionary defines spirituality as “sensitivity or attachment to

religious values” and “the quality or state of being spiritual.” Thus, such
terms as “spirituality,” “being spiritual,” or “being spiritually-minded” are
viewed as synonymous. To clarify the term further, think of this
comparison: An individual who is skillful in commercial affairs is said to
be business-minded. Similarly, someone who keenly values spiritual or
religious interests is called spiritually-minded.
How, then, is true spirituality achieved? Though just about every religion
claims to know the path to spirituality, the directions given are about as
numerous as the religions themselves. A Protestant claims to be saved at
a revival meeting. A Catholic seeks communion with God at Mass. A
Buddhist pursues enlightenment through meditation. A Hindu strives for
release from the cycle of rebirths through self-denial. Are all of these on
the path to true spirituality? Are any?
For many, the answer to those questions is no. They hold that spirituality
means to “believe without belonging,” that is, to believe in a god or a deity
without belonging to a church. Others feel that spirituality refers, not to a
religious experience, but to a desire for inner peace and for meaning in
life. They assert that those seeking spirituality need not look to religion at
all. Rather, they need only to look inwardly, to their innermost feelings.
One writer says: “True spirituality is something that is found deep within
oneself. It is your way of loving, accepting and relating to the world and
people around you. It cannot be found in a church or by believing in a
certain way.”
Clearly, people differ greatly in their ideas about spirituality. Thousands of

books claim to show the way to a spiritual life, yet all too often readers are
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left feeling unfulfilled and confused.
Religion—How Did It Begin?
The history of religion is as old as the history of man himself. That is what
archaeologists and anthropologists tell us. Even among the most
“primitive,” that is to say, undeveloped, civilizations, there is found
evidence of worship of some form. In fact The New Encyclopædia
Britannica says that “as far as scholars have discovered, there has never
existed any people, anywhere, at any time, who were not in some sense
religious.”
Besides its antiquity, religion also exists in great variety. The headhunters
in the jungles of Borneo, the Eskimos in the frozen Arctic, the nomads in
the Sahara Desert, the urban dwellers in the great metropolises of the
world—every people and every nation on earth has its god or gods and its
way of worship. The diversity in religion is truly staggering.
Logically, questions come to mind. From where did all these religions
come? Since there are marked differences as well as similarities among
them, did they start independently, or could they have developed from one
source? In fact we might ask: Why did religion begin at all? And how? The
answers to these questions are of vital importance to all who are
interested in finding the truth about religion and religious beliefs.
Question of Origin
When it comes to the question of origin, people of different religions think of names such as Muam
Even though these individuals are considered founders of the major

religions that we are familiar with, it must be noted that they did not
actually originate religion. In most cases, their teachings grew out of
existing religious ideas, even though most of these founders claimed
divine inspiration as their source. Or they changed and modified existing
religious systems that had become unsatisfactory in one way or another.
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For example, as accurately as history can tell us, the Buddha had been a
prince who was appalled by the suffering and deplorable conditions he
found surrounding him in a society dominated by Hinduism. Buddhism
was the result of his search for a solution to life’s agonizing problems.
Similarly, Muhammad was highly disturbed by the idolatry and
immorality he saw in the religious practices around him. He later claimed
to have received special revelations from God, which formed the Qurʼān
and became the basis of a new religious movement, Islām. Protestantism
grew out of Catholicism as a result of the Reformation that began in the
early 16th century, when Martin Luther protested the sale of indulgences
by the Catholic church at that time.
Thus, as far as the religions now in existence are concerned, there is no

lack of information regarding their origin and development, their founders,
their sacred writings, and so on. But what about the religions that existed
before them? And the ones even before those? If we go back far enough in
history, we will sooner or later be confronted with the question: How did
religion begin? Clearly, to find the answer to that question, we must look
beyond the confines of the individual religions.
Different yet Similar
We can get the answer in the same way that linguistic experts got their
answers about the origin of language. By placing the languages side by
side and noting their similarities, an etymologist can trace the various
languages back to their source. Similarly, by placing the religions side by
side, we can examine their doctrines, legends, rituals, ceremonies,
institutions, and so on, and see if there is any underlying thread of
common identity and, if so, to what that thread leads us.
On the surface, the many religions in existence today seem quite different
from one another. However, if we strip them of the things that are mere
embellishments and later additions, or if we remove those distinctions
that are the result of climate, language, peculiar conditions of their native
land, and other factors, it is amazing how similar most of them turn out to
be.
For example, most people would think that there could hardly be any two
religions more different from each other than the Roman Catholic Church
of the West and Buddhism of the East. However, what do we see when we
put aside the differences that could be attributed to language and culture?
If we are objective about it, we have to admit that there is a great deal that
the two have in common. Both Catholicism and Buddhism are steeped in
rituals and ceremonies. These include the use of candles, incense, holy
water, the rosary, images of saints, chants and prayer books, even the
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sign of the cross. Both religions maintain institutions of monks and nuns
and are noted for celibacy of priests, special garb, holy days, special foods.
This list is by no means exhaustive, but it serves to illustrate the point.
The question is, Why do two religions that appear to be so different have
so many things in common?
As enlightening as the comparison of these two religions turns out to be,

the same can be done with other religions. When we do so, we find that
certain teachings and beliefs are almost universal among them. Most of us
are familiar with such doctrines as the immortality of the human soul,
heavenly reward for all good people, eternal torment for the wicked in an
underworld, purgatory, a triune god or a godhead of many gods, and a
mother-of-god or queen-of-heaven goddess. Beyond these, however, there
are many legends and myths that are equally commonplace. For example,
there are legends about man’s fall from divine grace owing to his illicit
attempt to achieve immortality, the need to offer sacrifices to atone for sin,
the search for a tree of life or fountain of youth, gods and demigods who
lived among humans and produced superhuman offspring, and a
catastrophic flood that devastated nearly all of humanity.
What can we conclude from all of this? We note that those who believed in
these myths and legends lived far from one another geographically. Their
culture and traditions were different and distinct. Their social customs
bore no relationship to one another. And yet, when it comes to their
religions, they believed in such similar ideas. Although not every one of
these peoples believed in all the things mentioned, all of them believed in
some of them. The obvious question is, Why? It was as if there was a
common pool from which each religion drew its basic beliefs, some more,
some less. With the passage of time, these basic ideas were embellished
and modified, and other teachings developed from them. But the basic
outline is unmistakable.
Logically, the similarity in the basic concepts of the many religions of the
world is strong evidence that they did not begin each in its own separate
and independent way. Rather, going back far enough, their ideas must
have come from a common origin. What was that origin?
Some World Religious Beliefs & Practices

There are different religions with different beliefs & practices. Some
of the major world religions are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam
and Judaism.
BUDDHISM
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Beliefs
Buddhism believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are
suffering, pain, frustrations. When people suffer, they want to experience
the goodness of life and avoid disappointments. It becomes a habit known
as the reactive cycle of wanting and hating, like and dislike, and craving
and aversion. This reactive cycle can be broken through the practice of
mediation, acquiring more wisdom and deeper understanding, and
acceptance of things as they are.
Customs and Practices
There are two types of meditation practices: samatha and vipassana.
Samatha is practiced as mindfulness of breathing and development of
loving- kindness (Metta Bhavana). Vipassana practices aim at developing
insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha’s teaching.
The Dharma. Through the reflection of the Dharma.
Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding of life. Buddhists believe
in non-violence principle.
Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parinirvana Day in February;
Buddha Day (Wesak) in May; Dharma Day in July; Padmasambhava Day
in October; and Sangha Day in November.
CHRISTIANITY
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Beliefs
Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas:
God the Father (Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit
(Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be achieved through faith in Jesus
Christ. Jesus Christ is, God the Son, who came into flesh, to spread the
Good News of Salvation. He died on the Cross for the sin of the humanity
but resurrected from the death, so that anyone who believes in Him will
be saved and have eternal life. The Holy Bible is a selection of books,
which is divided into two, the Old Testament and New Testament.

Sacrament of Baptism and Sacrament of Communion are practiced
by Christian churches. The sacrament of Baptism symbolizes the birth in
Christian world, while the sacrament of communion is an act of
remembrance of Jesus Christ’s sacrificial love. Jesus Christ teaching in
unconditional love that is expressed in loving the poor, oppressed, and
outcast of the society.
Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations
in Christianity. Christmas, usually on December 25, commemorates the
birth of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday (depends on the lunar
calendar, sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus
Christ from death.
HINDUISM
Beliefs
Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious
groups; thus there is no single founder or leader. Hindus believe that
existence is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth , governed by Karma.
Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the
past life was spent. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of
successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the
previous life was lived. Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus.
Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important texts of the Hindus.

Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus.
Diwali is the Festival of Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights,
which celebrate the triumph of good over evil. Hindus have set dates to
honor particular manifestations of Gods.
ISLAM
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Beliefs
Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God.” They believe in the
unity and universality of God. Muslims also have a strong sense
community or “ummah” and an awareness of their solidarity with all
Muslims worldwide. Islam means “willing submission to God.”
Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by
God. Mohammed was born in Mecca in 570 CE and received revelations
from God through the Angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years. The Holy
Book of Islam is called the Quran, which was taught to be recited in
Arabic because any translation is seen as inadequate.

Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of
Muslims life:
1. Shahadah- statement of faith: “There is no God but the one true

God and Mohammed is his messenger.”
2. Salat- the prayer that is practiced five times a day.
3. Zakat- the monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It
compromises the 2.5% of a Muslim’s assets.
4. Hajj- the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford are
asked to do the pilgrimage at least once in their lifetime.
5. Sawm- the fasting. Muslims do fasting, from food, drink and sexual
act, during the celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth
month of the Islamic lunar calendar. The fast is from dawn to
sunset.
Two of the major festivals in Islam are:
Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan while
Eidul-Adha is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage, the Hajj.
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Hajj, the Pilgrimage to Mecca
JUDDAISM
Beliefs
The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the
Hebrew slaves from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the
leadership of Moses and later, Joshua.
The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah the Savior. The sacred
scripture of the Jews is called the Torah of the Law. The Torah is the
guide of the Jewish living. The study and interpretation of Torah is part of
the Jewish culture.

There are five major festivals observed by the Jews:
1. Rosh Hashanah- the New Year
2. Yom Kippur- the Day of Atonement
3. Pesach- Passover
4. Shavuot- Pentecost
5. Sukkot- Tabernacles. The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening
at sunset and is an important time when families gather to the
Shabbat meal.
Religious beliefs, rituals, practices, and customs are all part of the
expression of the spiritual self. What to believe and how to manifest the
belief is entirely dependent on the individual, to the self. A person might
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believe that there is a higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed

as God, but not necessarily wants to be affiliated or identified with a
certain religious group. Others may have religious beliefs and practices
which are perceived to be contrary to the practices of other groups.
Religious beliefs and practices, therefore, are formed relative to its context
and culture.
Shabbat meal Rosh Hashanah Pesach
Religious beliefs, rituals, practices, and customs are all part of the
expression of the spiritual self. What to believe and how to manifest the
belief is entirely dependent on the individual, to the self. A person might
believe that there is a higher being, a supernatural being, usually termed
as God, but not necessarily wants to be affiliated or identified with a
certain religious group. Others may have religious beliefs and practices
which are perceived to be contrary to the practices of other groups.
Religious beliefs and practices, therefore, are formed relative to its context
and culture.
The Need for Meaning
It is man alone of all earth’s creatures that raises the question, Does life
have any meaning? Every generation has pondered it. If the need for
meaning were not inherent in man, the question would not have haunted
him through the centuries.
If life is so fleeting and followed by a future of oblivion, how could it have

meaning? But the need for meaning and permanence is so great that
doctrines of immortal souls and reincarnations are seized upon. Many feel
the need to make this present life memorable by leaving something of
themselves behind—a book, a painting, a musical composition, an
endowment, a foundation, anything to give some kind of tangible evidence
of their having been here. It seems to help them to feel that there was
some meaning to their existence. Even those who made a name for
themselves fade from memory as they are eclipsed by prominent ones now
living.
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In spite of man’s tininess in universal space, however, and his fleeting

appearance in the stream of time, he still needs to feel his life is
meaningful. This springs from the way he was created. It is an inborn
need. Viktor Frankl, the psychiatrist who originated the psychiatric
school of logotherapy, which he defines as meaning-therapy, says: “The
striving to find a meaning in one’s life is the primary motivational force in
man.”
Making Lives Meaningful
By Setting Goals
“Hitch your wagon to a star,” advises the old saying. Goals of high
purpose give meaningful direction to our life; keep us from drifting,
floundering or stagnating. Human creatures are goal-oriented. Setting
goals aids progress and strengthens purpose. Psychiatrist Viktor Frankl,
in “Man’s Search for Meaning,” writes of the importance of goals even in
Nazi concentration camps: “Any attempt to restore a man’s inner strength
in the camp had first to succeed in showing him some future goal.”
He tells of two men in camp who had decided to commit suicide—
what did they have to live for? But when one realized his adored child was
waiting for him, and the other had a series of scientific books to finish,
both chose to live. “There is nothing in the world; I venture to say,” Frankl
wrote, “that would so effectively help one to survive even the worst
conditions, as the knowledge that there is a meaning in one’s life.”
If this is true in “the worst conditions,” how much more so would

setting goals and striving to reach them help people in their day-to-day
living!
By Doing Work
Goals in themselves, however, mean little. Only when they are
accompanied by deeds do they have real meaning. A farmer may have as a
goal the harvesting of a certain crop, but to attain that goal he must sow
seed and do all the additional work needed to produce and bring in the
crop.
Even children benefit from work. Professor Alice Rossi, a sociologist at the
University of Massachusetts, urged parents to give children work in the
home: “To feel needed and useful is as important as to feel loved. Yet our
child-rearing ideas have stressed only love and the child’s need to play,
neglecting the work children can do.”
By Minding Spiritual Things

Purpose and meaning are based in the things of the spirit, not the flesh.
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Frankl wrote of the ability to resist the tortures of the concentration

camps because of spiritual strength: “The consciousness of one’s inner
value is anchored in higher, more spiritual things, and cannot be shaken
by camp life.” Why do successful executives, materially well off, change
careers in mid-life? Psychologist Levinson said that they begin to ask: “Is
this all there is? Was it worth all I had to give up along the way? Do I want
to go on like this for the rest of my life?”
It is the awareness of a person’s spiritual need and the fulfilling of that

that brings happiness and meaning to his life.
By a Right Attitude
Do you work toward a goal with confidence and vigor, not doubting or
drifting willy-nilly? Think negative and get negative results; think positive
to get positive results. Doubts are traitors that make us lose what we
might win if we didn’t fear to try. Think on that which is good.
By Serving Others
We feel useful when we help others. It shows we have something to offer.
Useful lives become meaningful lives, viewed so by others as well as by
ourselves. Serving mankind can in itself become a goal and impart
meaning to a person’s life.
Serving God does much more toward enabling us to view our life as
meaningful, even though we are small in a vast universe and exist only in
a tiny fraction of the stream of time.
By Suffering For Righteousness’ Sake
“Suffering ceases to be suffering in some way at the moment it finds a
meaning, such as the meaning of a sacrifice,” writes Frankl. “Man is even
ready to suffer, on the condition, to be sure, that his suffering has a
meaning.” What greater meaning could it have than being for
righteousness’ sake?
Enrichment Answer the following questions:

Activities 1. Distinguish the difference between belief in spirits and belief in the Holy Spirit.
2. What is the relationship between religion and spirituality?
Rubrics
5- complete and structured discussion, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete and structured discussion, English construct is average
3 – complete but unstructured, English construct is average
2 – complete but fair English construct
1 – vague discussion English construct is poor
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Date of Submission
Comprehension Write TRUE if the statement is correct and if otherwise, write FALSE.
Check
1. Christians believe in eternal life and Bible.
2. Buddhist believes in non-violence principle.
3. Ritual is a belief that anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as
spirits and gods really exist.
4. Islam believes that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
governed by karma.
5. Zakat is the monetary offering among the Muslims for the benefit of the
poor.
Publishing, Inc.
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Module 2 LESSON 9. UNPACKING THE SELF: The Material Self

Competencies 5. Develop understanding about the material self;
6. Describe the basic components of the material self; and
7. Develop qualities of a wise buyer.
A person’s possessions like his/her car and house, even family and
friends make up his her material self. Regardless of how much or how
little a person owns materially, he or she will always strive to acquire more
because material possessions are usually reflection of a person’s success
or failure.
Material Self
William James claims that the self is everything that an individual

considers to be his or hers, not only the body and material possessions
but also the reputation and beliefs.
Shaping the Way we See Ourselves

Body
One of the tasks of adolescents is to accept and appreciate the
physical characteristics of their body. However, few adolescents are able to
do this successfully. Adolescents tend to worry about their bodies and
physical appearance. Generally, girls are more concerned about the
appearance of their body than boys. Perceptions about what makes a body
beautiful are usually influenced by the media as shown in television and
the internet.
Clothes
The style and brand of clothes become significant symbols among
adolescents. The clothes they tend to wear are greatly influenced by their
peer groups because adolescents are anxious to conform to what their
peer groups find fashionable and attractive.
People
The material component of the self also includes people an individual
has relationships with such as one’s immediate and extended family
members as well as close friends with whom one feels psychologically
connected. These people are likely to shape and influence the development
of one’s self and identity.
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Pet
Pets could also be an expression of one’s social status, pride, and
prestige as in owning a dog or cat of a very expensive breed.
CONSUMER CULTURE
Consumer Culture is a social system in which consumption is dominated

by the consumption of commercial products. It denotes social
arrangement in which the relations between lived culture and social
resources, and between meaningful ways of life and the symbolic and
material resources on which they depend on, are mediated through
markets.
A Consumerist Society is one in which people spend a great deal of time,

money, and energy to ‘consume” commercial products, goods and
services.
Consumerism is the consumption of material goods and services in

excess of one’s basic needs and is closely tied to materialism. Both heavily
influence the way individuals view the self. It can be viewed positively and
negatively.
For example people tend to be more motivated and happier when their
wants and needs are met. On the other hand, it encourages people to buy
products and services that they do not really need or afford.
The Role of Consumer Culture on the sense of Self and Identity
1. Social Status Symbol - regardless of how much or how little material

possessions people have, they remain valuable. The more expensive
they are, the more other people are impressed.
2. Objective manifestation of the self – material possessions can be a
reflection of hard work and success. People tend to measure success
through the amount of their material possessions, owning it becomes
a driving force in urging an individual to seek high level of
achievement.
3. Defining the Self- it contributes to a feeling of well-being, including
a sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life.
However the lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to
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one’s mental health like people losing their houses and other
possessions because of disasters and calamities.
4. Significant reference of one’s sense of self and identity- people

tend to judge others through their material possessions. The greater
the material possessions, the more likely one will be accepted and
regarded well by other people.
Negative Effects on One’s Sense of Self and Identity
1. Materialism refers to giving more importance to material

possessions than intangible values. A materialistic person is one
who is excessively concerned with the acquisition of material
possession.
2. Psychological Dysfunction- The strong desire for material
possessions could lead to psychological dysfunction or impairment
in functioning such as compulsive buying disorder which is
characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying behaviors
that can cause adverse consequences such as debts.
Developmental evidence suggests that identification with material

things begins quite early in lie but remains high throughout life as people
seek for happiness (Belk, 1988). Nevertheless psychologists identify other
social and cultural factors that seem to be strongly implicated in the
etiology of materialism.
Lack or loss of these material possessions could lead to anxiety,
insecurity, and depression in people who are overly materialistic. Thus
when a person is about to make a purchase, he or she should ask himself
or herself a very important question: Do I really need this?
The state of needs and wants tends to be endless, and thus could
cause negative effects such as dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and
depression.

Activities 1. Write your most treasured material possessions and explain the
reasons why you consider them to do so.
2. Choose one material thing that you possess and has personal
significance or meaning to you. Why do you find that particular
object personally relevant or meaningful? Discuss your answer.
Rubrics in number 1
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2 – detailed discussion but fair English construct
1 – answer is unclear and English construct is poor
Rubrics in number 2

Date of Submission
Comprehension Identify what is defined or described. Write your answer on the space
Check provided for.
_________________1. It refers to a social system in which consumption is

dominated by the using up of commercial products.
_________________2. A behavioral trait that denotes giving more
importance to material possessions than intangible values.
_________________3. A mental condition that illustrates one’s strong desire
for material possessions.
_________________4. It refers to consumption of material goods and
services in excess of one’s basic needs.
_________________5. He posits that the self is everything that an individual
considers to be his or her greatest possession.
Corpuz, B. B. et. al. (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. Metro
Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
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Module 2 LESSON 10. UNPACKING THE SELF: The Political Self

Competencies 1. Identify values, traits, political community and institutions as aspects
of political self.
2. Describe what a democratic culture is.
3. Understand the concept of self in political thought; and
4. Examine one’s political identity.
As members of the society, people are naturally obligated to participate

in a political system as social citizens. Politics is the way that people living
in groups make decisions. It is about making agreements between people
so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries.
As Aristotle stated, “man is, by nature, a political man.” This is because
man is a social being and that people naturally drawn to various political
involvements in order to satisfy their social needs. The political self-
explores how our social and economic contexts profoundly affect our
overall well-being. It is the aspect of our identity that is political, such as
beliefs about what a “good society” means or how much government
regulation is appropriate.
This section allows students to have an understanding of their self –
concept in political perspective and improve one’s political identity as a
Filipino.
Who is a Filipino?
According the 1987 Phil. Constitution, Filipino citizen are "those who
father or mother are citizens of the Philippines those born before Jan.17,
1973 of Filipino, mother who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching
the age of majority and those who are naturalized in accordance with law".
What is Political?
It is primarily concerned with the making as distinguished from the
administration of governmental policy. A republic is a political system in
which the government remains mostly subject to those governed. Some
scholars define any political system in which the citizens legitimize the
government.
The Philippines today has only emerged in the 1980s after over three
centuries colonization of the Spaniards. Meanwhile, the Japanese only
occured in 1946. Foreign culture, beliefs, language, and religion have
made a huge dent on our own by setting a foundation to the contemporary
Filipino identity and culture. Filipino have truly developed an identity of
their own? or we still living in the shadow of our colonial friends.
The individual's race, ethnicity, and physical characteristics are not
the only factors that make a person's national identity. The important of
values and traits are set apart ne nationality from the other. This values
and traits may not always be a positive thing, but being able to identity
one's self apart from other nationalities and point out weakness and
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mistakes, paired with unity and progress a possibility.
What is Political Self?

It captures the extent to which a person thinks of themselves as a
“political person”. These are beliefs about what a “good society” means or
how much government regulation is appropriate. Political self-organization
then refers to the formation of political patterns through the local
interactions of the members only; this can be seen in the formation of
public opinion, political movements, and political revolutions. In a
cultural context, self-organizing processes can be seen in the formation of
customs and the development of beliefs. In a socioeconomic context self-
organization can be seen in the growth, competition, and extinction of
companies, national economies and the stock market.
Filipino Traits and Values
What do Filipinos value?

The term kapwa or a shared inner self lies at the core of Filipino values
and psychology. A person who treats another as a kapwa has a shared a
sense of identity and consciousness with that ‘other’ person. Both in the
individual and community level, strong emphasis is placed on social
acceptance and maintaining social harmony. As such, social approval and
caring about what others will think, say, or do strongly influence social
behavior.
FILIPINO TRAITS
Hospitality - Offer the warmth and
comfort of your place to a
friend or relative who needs
a place to stay.
- Give more than of your best
to make your guests feel at
home.
Cheerful & Optimistic - Problems are inevitable but
Filipinos are known to be
positive and joyful – plaster
a sweet smile on your face.
Respect - Pagmamano, beso, and
paghaliksakamay should be
manifested.
- Use po and opo and/or
polite expressions when
talking to someone older
than you.
Close family Ties - Maintain a harmonious
relationship with your
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family members.
- Avoid conflicts and if
possible settle disputes and
misunderstandings.
- Support and help your
family and relatives up to
any extent.
Bayanihan/Unity and Helpfulness - Sincerely extend help to
your fellowmen.
- Do not choose whom to
help.
- Offer help when someone
needs assistance.
Filipino Time - Show respect, sincerity and
sensitivity by arriving at a
meeting or event on time.
Mañana Habit - Procrastination leads to a
bulkier and heavier
workload.
- Do not delay tasks.
Colonial Mentality - Support locals.
NingasKugon - Be consistent of the
ventures and things you
have started.
Crab Mentality - Be happy of other’s
achievements and success.
- Put off jealousy /
enviousness.
Pride - Learn to ask for an apology
without waiting for the
other party to do it.
FILIPINO MARKERS
Proverbs or Salawikain - Filipino proverbs or Philippine proverbs
are traditional sayings or maxims used by Filipinos based on local
culture, wisdom, and philosophies from Filipino life. If used in everyday
conversations, proverbs are utilized to emphasize a point or a thought of
reasoning: the Filipino philosophy.
Examples:
1. Habang may buhay, may pag-asa. (Meaning: Never lose hope in life.)
2. Kapagbinato ka ng bato, batuhinmo ng tinapay. (Meaning: Repay evil
with kindness and blessing.)
3. Ang buhay ay parang gulong. (Meaning: There is no permanent
situation in this world.)
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Superstitions - beliefs or practice based upon one's trust in luck or other

irrational, unscientific, or supernatural forces. Often, it arises from
ignorance, a misunderstanding of science or causality, a belief in fate or
magic, or fear of that which is unknown.
Examples:
1. The number of steps of staircases at home should not be divisible by
three.
2. Don’t go straight home after attending a wake.
3. Siblings should not marry within the same year (sukob).
Myths and Legends - historical fact morphs into a legend when the truth
has been exaggerated to the point that real people or events have taken on
a romanticized, "larger than life" quality. In contrast, a myth is a type of
symbolic storytelling that was never based on fact.
Examples:
1. Mythical creatures such as duwende, diwata, engkanto, kapre, aswang,
etc.
2. The Legend of Makahiya
3. The Heartbreaking Story of Alitaptap (Bataan Legend)
Heroes and Icons - heroes serve as reminder of true patriotism and

nationalism as they have sacrificed their lives for the sake of their
country`s freedom and progress.
Examples: Manny "Pacman" Pacquiao, Lea Salonga
Political Community and Institutions

According to Aristotle, every community “is established for the sake
of some good.” This is because “everyone does everything for the sake of
what they believe to be good,” though they of course can be wrong about
what “the good” is. It follows that a political community must also be
established for the sake of some good. Like Plato, Aristotle believed that
such a community must be large enough to be self-sufficient, but must
nevertheless remain relatively small. It is a group of like-minded people
who share common political goals and values such as social justice,
lowering taxes, improving educational policy, etc.
Political institutions definitely impact our economy, education,
culture and society. For example, political parties, trade unions,
legislature and judiciary are needed in order to safeguard the interests of
citizens of the country and to ensure the unity and integrity of the nation.
It further results in the overall development of the country. they ensure
that the laws are being followed by the citizens of the country.
Establishing a Democratic Culture

The word democracy describes a political system. In a democratic
country, all eligible citizens have the right to participate, either directly or
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indirectly, in making the decisions that affect them.

Democratic culture is defined as the desire and ability of
individuals in a population to participate actively, individually and
together, to the government of public affairs affecting them. The existence
of a democratic culture within a population is characterized by the active
contribution, effective and in duration, of members of civil society to
development of: the common good, the terms of “living together” and the
construction of collective decisions. An example of democracy at work is
in the Philippines, where people have political freedom and equality. In
our country, supreme powers lies with the people, the power of the elected
representatives would be supreme, democracy requires free
and fair election and requires respect for law and minority opinion.
Strengthening your Political Skills

Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work,
and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that
enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives. Dimensions
include social astuteness (how well you understand other), interpersonal
influence (how you make others feel at ease), networking ability (using
your formal and informal network to advance your goals) and apparent
sincerity (how genuine and sincere you appear to others).
How to Improve your Political Skills

1. Make a political "book." With any organization or group you're
involved with, it's a good idea to gather some insights on the people
you work with most often. Record notes regarding how they each
tend to approach problems.
2. Draw a "power web." Create a chart showing the power
relationships among all the people in your organization or
workgroup. Power relationships are those connections in which the
parties help one another move projects forward and obtain needed
support and resources.
3. Strengthen and forge relationships. Review your power web to spot
opportunities to strengthen existing relationships, as well as forge
new ones. For example, ask yourself which individuals on your web
might make valuable power-relationship partners — but you
haven't yet cultivated mutually beneficial connections with them.
4. A key part of developing and wielding political skill is simply
knowing other people — their major concerns and their priorities.
By figuring out what you can do for them and what they can do for
you, you nurture relationships of mutual influence and benefit.
Enrichment Answer the question in essay form.

Activities 1. Give at least three problems that ail the Philippine political system.
Explain how these problems can affect your political views and
beliefs. Provide your insights.
2. Identify at least two current politically driven contributions to
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address the COVID19 public health emergency in our country?

Rubrics
5- complete, factual, and structured, English construct is outstanding
4 – complete, factual, and structured, English construct is average
3 – incomplete but factual , English construct is average
2 – incomplete and fair English construct
1 – answer is vague and English construct is poor

Date of Submission
Comprehension Identify what is described in each item.

Check ________1. It captures the extent to which a person thinks of themselves
as a political person.
________2. These are beliefs or practices based upon one’s trust in luck.
________3. A Filipino term used to refer “other” person of shared identity
and consciousness.
________4. A Filipino marker that describes local culture, wisdom and
philosophies from Filipino life.
________5. It reminds Filipinos the essence of patriotism and nationalism

through sacrifices for the sake of their countries freedom and progress.
References Alata, E. et al. 2018. Understanding the Self. RexBook Store, Inc. (RBSI)


https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Filipino-Traits-and-Characteristics
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/plat.2012.11.3.413
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Module 2 LESSON 11. UNPACKING THE SELF: The Digital Self

Competencies 1. Discuss on - line identity and its relation to the digital world.
2. Describe the influence of internet to the self.
3. Demonstrate good values and attitude online.
This unit explains the concept of digital self and the importance of digital
technology in human activities. It also presents the implications of and the
ethical issues involved in sharing personal information especially in social
network.
I, me, myself and my user ID on line identity

Much of our communication and socialization mode now a days happens
on – line, relying more on the unse of technology and internet. Even business
transactions and meetings are mostly done virtually through the use of the
internet. As we interact with other people in on-line sites and uses online
services that require personal accounts such as password and usernames, we
are already creating and sharing our on-line identity. On-line identity
(Olshansky, 2016) is a social identity that network users establish in online
communities. In the internet, there are many social identity providers such as
Facebook, twitter, Google, and many others where one can manage how their
identities can be presented. When you are using the Internet, your online
identity is the sum of your characteristics and interactions. Every website you
interact with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees
you and your characteristics differently. Through the internet, we are able to
make multiple on-line identity for different purposes that possible suits us. This
according the William James is an extension of our self – identity. Our on-line
identity is just one facet of who we are.
Selective Self Presentation and Impression Management

On – line identity most of the time requires sharing of self – identity and
people are likely to share their on-line identity that usually matches what is
needed or required in the online community. People usually consider proper
selection of words, photos, and comments in order to create or make a
difference. This process is called impression management. Impression
management is the effort to control or influence other people's perceptions. This
could be their perception of a certain person (including you), a material
possession or an event. An example of online impression management is when
people post happy moments about their family and their travels because they
wanted others to think and to present themselves as having a happy and
contented family life. We usually do impression managing in order to feel good
about our lives but if we try to look into the deeper meaning of it, we may be
striving for positive perceptions from others in the internet world.
Another way of on – line presentation is through selective self –

presentation. Self-presentation refers to how people attempt to present
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themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It
involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired
impression. Girls would post filtered images of themselves because they wanted
to feel satisfied with their personal looks as well as try to present herself as
beautiful or sexy or stylist to others. Selective self-presentation focuses on
changing how other people view an individual.
FIVE CHANGES THAT IMPACT THE NATURE OF SELF DUE TO OUR

CURRENT DIGITAL AGE
(Excerpt from Belk (2013) study)
1. DEMATERIALIZATION
Our tangible things and possessions become invisible. Photos that
are collected and place in an album are now stored in digital storage
devices such as phones and in some internet location. Music and movies
are now stored in small devices instead of CD and tape collections. Our
private acquisition becomes group because of sharing.
2. REEMBODIMENT
Refers to new construction and definition of the self. Through the
digital technology, we are able to disembody and re-embodied our photos
and videos through the help of editing, photo shop and other accessories
that can help enhance it. An example of this is those who are undergoing
sexual identity crisis. Through the virtual worlds they are able to present
themselves in the way they want to present themselves. The internet
provides us a mask as well as safety which means that we do not see true
identity thus we must rely on the feedback of others for self –
improvement.
3. SHARING
Digital devices help us share more, as well as more broadly, than
ever before. Through Facebook, it is likely that social media friends know
more than the immediate families about daily activities, connections and
thoughts. Diaries that were once private or shared only with close friends
are now posted as blogs for anyone to read. In posting photos on sites like
Flickr or Photo bucket the use of arm’s-length self-photography marks a
change. Facebook is now a key part of self-presentation.
4. CO- CONSTRUCTION OF SELF

Our blogs invite comments, social media thrive on interaction and
while cell phones may be decreasingly used for telephone calls and e-
mails, they are increasingly used for text messaging, taking and posting
photos and videos, and geo-locating to connect with others. Blogging is a
form of affirmation seeking. The affirmation by readers provides
confidence to extend the self in a new direction. Feedbacks from friends
and anonymous readers help in the co – construction of the self.
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5. DISTRIBUTED MEMORY
Social media help us remember other people, emotions and events
of significance in our lives. We can look up old friends, see photos with
others who help a jointly construct the memory of shared events. Our
memories benefit not only from our online actions but those others who
post images of us and tag us in. Our self is not just co – constructed on
line but so is our shared portion of our memory co- constructed with
others on social media.
BOUNDARIES OF THE SELF ONLINE

Expression of Gender and Sexuality Online
According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, sexuality is the quality or
state of being sexual while gender is the psychological identification of a person
as masculine or feminine. Both could affect not only how people think about
themselves but also relationship with others and how others think of them as
well (Cicarelli & White, 2012).
The portrayal of male and female behaviors in media could affect the
construction of appropriate sexual behaviors of people, especially adolescents.
The internet and social networking sites provides channels for the dissemination
of information including information about gender and identity and sexuality.
For this reason, better and accurate information is now becoming available. With
the increasing urgency to uphold human rights and to protect the dignity and
equality of all persons of various sexual orientations, a pleasure prohibiting
discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity or expression
is developed.
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC SELF

Most users of social networking sites prefer to be anonymous and
sometimes use false names. Privacy and confidentiality should be a major
concern, especially for adolescents who may not be entirely aware of the
consequences of sharing private information online, for anyone to see. Thus,
adolescents are particularly susceptible to cyberbullying, gossips, and stalking.
For this reason, the government together with academic and even religious
institution in the Philippines make efforts to prevent and effectively manage the
spread of identity theft, false information, and fake news in the country.
Effects of Cyberbullying
EFFECTS ON THE BULLIED EFFECTS ON THE BULLIES
Emotional issues (anxiety, depression) Emotional issues
Concentration issues Concentration issues

Behavioral issues Behavioral issues
Trouble getting along with peers More likely to be hyperactive
Experience physical symptoms such as More likely to abuse drugs or alcohol
headaches, and stomach pain
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How to avoid or stop cyberbullying

1. Keep your profile set to private.
2. Don’t friend or follow anyone who isn’t a friend.
3. Don’t accept requests or messages from users you don’t know
4. Never share and protect your password and prevent others from gaining
access to your profile and private photos
5. Educate yourself and others on the negative impact of cyberbullying.
6. If you see it, report it.
Etiquettes Rules For Students
Social media have greatly influenced and hanged our everyday interactive
behaviors and new norms are formed. It is not already uncommon for us to see
people walking while talking to someone in their phone or even doing a live –
streaming. People are posing for a selfie, taking photos before meal for their
instagram and posting for their instagram. Since this is already the modern
communication landscape, it is important that people who are using social
media should be able to practice modern social media etiquette
General Social Media Etiquette for Students

1. Act like you would in real life. How you act on social media sites is often
the most direct way of how people will perceive who you are.
2. Don’t Discriminate. You can’t be friends with everybody on line but be
willing to open up to all types of friends and followers.
3. Earn Respect. Offer accessible information in a friendly way. Share
relevant and verified link, commentary and helpful tips. Be responsible
and do not spread fake news.
4. Avoid Burnout. Balance your social media life, do not burn yourself out.
5. Be curious but not nosy. Social media communities are all about learning
each other but do not invade other people’s lives.
6. Be extra polite. Apply some attitude to your social media activity by being
friendly and helpful and not to spread hate.
7. Follow the golden rules. Treat others the way you want to be treated.
8. Remember that there are boundaries. Not everyone you are following or
following you is your personal friend. Try not to talk about health and
mushy stuff.
Rules on Facebook
1. Don’t cyber-stalk.
2. Don’t drunk – Facebook. Making drunk post can be funny for some
friends but it can seriously damage your image or self-representation.
3. Don’t sent apps. When you try out an application, do not send it to
everyone you’re friends with. Again, not everyone is your personal friend.
4. Don’t write private messages on wall posts. It’s embarrassing, rude and
makes you look immature.
5. Edit your photo choices. Posting personal photos can trigger bullying. Do
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not post photos of yourself or others engaging in irresponsible or illegal

activities.
6. Be careful who you tag. Ask permission if it oks to the person you tag.
7. Write Clear Status Updates. People who write or post vague status
updates such as depressing songs or images can be self – indulgent.
In order for a harassment to be considered bullying, the following basis should
be considered:
1. There must be an imbalance of power between the victim and the
perpetrator/s and occur over an extended period of time.
2. It is characterized by the repetition of the abuser behavior – it happens
more than one or it has potential to happen again.
3. The imbalance and repetition of the harassment happens via any form of
electronic communication, such as texting online, on websites, social
networks, via email and others.

Activities 1. What are the basic ethical issues to consider when sharing personal
information in social networks?
2. Explain why privacy and confidentiality matters in one’s life.
Rubrics in number 1
5- contains at least 3 ethical issues, structured, and reflective, English construct is outstanding
4 – contains at least 2 ethical issues, structured, and reflective,, English construct is average
3 – cited 1 ethical issue and reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – cited 1 ethical issue but incomplete discussion and fair English construct
1 – answer is unclear and English construct is poor
Rubrics in number 2
Date of Submission
account, johnpaulcafalla@gmail.com using the format FAMILY NAME, GIVEN
NAME, MI., and Activity number as FILE NAME. Example: Santos, Darlina C.
Activity 1
Comprehension Identify what is defined and described. Write your answer on the space provided
Check for.
1. It refers to a social identity that network users establish in online
communities.
2. It pertains to one’s preference on presenting themselves to control or shape
how others or their audience view them.
3. A mental effort that aims to control or influence other people's perceptions on
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one’s post in a social media.

4. It refers to the quality or state of being sexual.
5. The psychological identification of a person as masculine or feminine.
Corpuz, B. B. et. al. (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. Metro Manila:
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Publishing, Inc.
Magalona, E. and Evelyn S. Sadsad. (2016). Personal Development. Manila:

Mindshapers Co., Inc.
How the Digital era has changed the lives of Pinoys

https://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/tech/2018/03/23/digipinoy-
interview.html
Olshansky, Steve. 2016. Online Identity: who, Me? Internet Society. October 10,
2016. https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2016/online-identity-
who-me/
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MODULE 2 ANSWER KEY

Quiz 6 6. lungs
7. brain
8. Kidneys
9. heart
10. liver
Quiz 7 6. c 6. b
7. a 7. b
8. c 8. a
9. d 9. b
10. a 10. d
Quiz 8 1. True
2. True
3. False, Religion
4. False Buddhism
5. True
Quiz 9 1. Consumer culture
2. Materialism
3. psychological dysfunction
4. consumerism
5. William James
Quiz 10 1. political self
2. superstitions
3. kapwa
4. proverbs or salawikain
5. heroes and icons
Quiz 11 1. Online Identity
2. Self-presentation
3. Impression management
4. Sexuality
5. Gender
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Module 3 Lesson 12. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF: Learning to be
Better Student
Competencies 1. Explain learning and how it works in humans;
2. Identify the parts of the brain involved in learning;
3. describe the importance of neuroplasticity and its implications on learning;
4. Discuss the influence of metacognition and self-regulation in learning; and
5. Choose and apply strategies to improve learning.
“The person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn
and change.”
- Carl Rogers
This chapter discusses theories and concepts that explain the nature
and dimensions of learning. Further, metacognition and self-regulated
learning will also be discussed with suggestions and strategies on how to
improve learning and become a better learner.
It also presents techniques that you can adapt depending on your
situation and preferences to make you a better learner. When we discuss
learning, it does not just include studying for quizzes and examinations but
mostly learning to be equipped with knowledge and skills. It can occur
outside the corners of a classroom or thickness of the book, like pursuing
one’s passion to acquire a new move of your favorite sports or learning skills
for a certain hobby.
WHAT HAPPENS IN THE BRAIN DURING LEARNING

Humans have the capacity to learn new skills and adapt to new
environments. Development and learning are powerful agents of change
throughout one’s lie that induce structural and functional plasticity in the
neural systems of the brain. Education helps a person adjust to his or her
dynamic and diverse world. It's a continuous cycle that starts in life from
birth; a cycle that can result from direct and indirect experiences. Individuals
learn from one another through observation and imitation.
The brain functions as a dense fiber pathway network consisting of about
100 billion neurons that are responsible for all interactions among the three
main parts: nucleus, cerebellum and cerebrum. Learning may be attributed to
the cerebrum, because higher order functions such as memory and thinking
occur there (Villafuerte et al., 2018). The mission is apparent in behaviour, as
each performs roles in vision, voice, short-term memory, vocabulary, and
reasoning (Ford, 2011).
How Learning Happens in the Human Brain
Human beings have the potential to acquire new skills and adapt to
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new conditions. Training and growth are potent drivers of transition during
one's life and promote structural and functional plasticity in the brain's
neural networks (Galvan, 2010). The neuroplasticity cycle is the brain's
capacity to alter over lifetime. This includes the addition of new neurons, new
neuronal interconnections, and the reorganization of areas for information
processing. The brain's capacity to change occurs in two ways; it may be by
an increase in the amount of neuronal synapses, or a change in neuronal
function and structure.
Learning happens through a network of neurons where sensory
information is transmitted by synapses along the neural pathway and stored
temporarily in short-term memory, a volatile region of the brain that acts like
receiving center for the flood of sensory information we encounter in our daily
lives (Ford, 2011). Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous
system which transmits impulses or messages from stimuli throughout one’s
physical body. Every single neuron is made up of a cell body (soma), dendrites
and axon. Shapes and appearance of neurons vary according to its functions
and locations. The impulses that travel along neurons are electrochemical in
nature. A neuron transmits impulses or a message to another neuron through
a junction is called synapse. Neurons are not totally connected and are
separated by a small gaps of neurons. Neurotransmitters are the
electrochemical that connect and allow transmission of impulses from one
neuron to another. Several neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine,
glutamate, dopamine and norepinephrine are associated with memory and
learning.
Figure 1. Parts of a neuron
The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body.

The soma has branching extensions known as dendrites. The neuron is a
small information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals
are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted electrically
across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as
the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons
contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical
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messengers of the nervous system.

The neuroplasticity phase, or changes in the structure and functions of
the brain cells, typically occurs in the cerebral cortex that is the wrinkled
layer of the brain. The cerebral cortex is lined with neurons and is responsible
for the complex processing of information within the brain.
Figure 2 The lobes of the brain
The cortex has four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
Each lobe is responsible for processing sensory information of the different
forms. Figure 2 illustrates of how learning happens in the brain. It will start
by getting information at the sensory cortices that is located at the parietal
lobe. Then, the information will be processed and analyzed at the temporal
lobe. After making meaning, information gathered will be formed into
abstractions, stored into memory which will be used for future planning,
complex behaviors and greatly contributes to personality development. Then,
when the need arises the learned behavior will be actively tested.
Right from the moment a person is born, learning fundamentally involves

the acquisition of new knowledge. What makes the brain search for the
unexpected is its inherent interest in the world. Stevens (2014) explained that
brain changes make for quicker, stronger signaling between neurons as the
brain learns new skills, but the best way to improve these signals is to
implement them gradually new information to the head.
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning

Metacognition is the awareness of one’s thinking and the strategies one
uses to learn or “thinking about thinking” (Livingston, 1997; Papaleontiou-
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Louca 2003 as cited from Alata, et al., 2018). Pierre Paul Gagné et al. (2009)
discussed that metacognition activated the students’ drive for learning,
utilizing all their available resources, towards efficient learning experiences.
To do this, students must be knowledgeable on the process on how they
acquire information, solve problems and perform tasks essential for learning
(cited from Villafuerte et al., 2018).
Zimmerman 92002) defines self-regulated learning (SRL) as the process in
which students systematically direct their thoughts, feelings and actions
toward the attainment of their academic goals. It is a process of taking control
of and evaluating one’s own earning and behavior. It is a self-directed process
through which students transform their mental abilities into academic skills.
GENERAL BENEFITS OF METACOGNITION AND SELF-REGULATION IN

LEARNING
1. Increase student’s knowledge and understanding of different subject

matters;
2. Help students understand the kinds of information they need to
successfully solve a problem in school;
3. Help students choose the most appropriate and useful learning
strategies to improve their learning capabilities;
4. Help students organize daily tasks in school;
5. Help students identify strengths and weaknesses in their academic
performance;
6. Allow students to learn ideas from others such as their teachers and
fellow students;
7. Allow students to give and receive feedback in their own thinking
performance;
8. Develop students’ autonomy and control;
9. Develop students’ high sense of self-efficacy and self-esteem.
HOW TO DEVELOP METACOGNITIVE AND SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
BEHAVIORS
1. Set your short-term and long-term academic goals in your studies.

Identify the negative outcomes if you don’t achieve your goals as well
as the positive outcomes when you achieve them;
2. Make a self-help pan to achieve your academic goals. Think and select
strategies to achieve your goals such as staying focused, avoiding
distractions, and developing skills to manage your time efficiently;
3. Monitor your academic performance and progress. Use a chart to
monitor your work outcomes. When faced with difficult tasks, seek
social when you need it. Look for inspiration to keep you motivated in
achieving your academic goals. When confronted with difficulties,
always think and keep working toward your goals and the future;
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4. Reflect on what you have learned and accomplished. Reflection helps

you develop your strengths and overcome your weaknesses.
Enrichment 1. Write an essay on the three important things you need to become better
Activities student.
Rubrics
5- complete and cohesive, English construct is outstanding cohesive
4 – complete and cohesive, English construct is average
3 – complete English construct is average
2 - complete but fair English construct
1 – incomplete answer and English construct is poor
Date of Submission
account, johnpaulcafalla@gmail.com using the format FAMILY NAME, GIVEN
NAME, MI., and Activity number as FILE NAME. Example: Santos, Darlina C.
Activity 1
Comprehension Identify what is asked or described. Write your answer on the space provided
Check for.
__________1. These are building blocks of the nervous system which transmits
impulses throughout the physical body.
__________2. It serves as a pathway of impulse transmission to another neuron.
____3. These are branching extensions where signals are received from other neurons.
__________4. The wrinkled layer of the brain and is responsible for the complex
processing of information within the brain.
__________5. The Information received by the parietal lobe is processed and analyzed
at this lobe of the brain.
Publishing, Inc.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/cells-of-the-
nervous-system/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/reading-parts-
of-the-brain/
Lesson 13. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF: Setting Goals for
Success
Module 3
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Competencies 1. identify the types of motivation;

2. determine short-term and long term-goals;
3. recognize the importance of goal setting; and
4. apply the ways on how to achieve your goals.
Learners are bound to face multifarious tasks, overlapping with other
roles they portray at different social institutions. Enlightening them with
which goals they are to track would ease their minds in possible dilemma.
“Conscious goals affect actions, thus, a goal is the object or aim of an action”
(Villafuerte et al., 2018). Goal is a driving force that directs one’s action.
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOALS

1. Goals Give You Focus
Imagine having to shoot an arrow without being given a target. Where would
you aim? And say you did aim at some random thing (out of sheer perplexity).
Why would you aim there? And what would the purpose be? Get the idea? This
is a literal example of what life is like without a goal or target in mind. It’s
pointless and a waste of energy and effort. You can have all the potential in
the world but without focus your abilities and talent are useless. Just like how
sunlight can’t burn through anything without a magnifying glass focusing it,
you can’t achieve anything unless a goal is focusing your effort. Because at the
end of the day goals are what give you direction in life. By setting goals for
yourself you give yourself a target to shoot for. This sense of direction is what
allows your mind to focus on a target and rather than waste energy shooting
aimlessly, it allows you to hit your target and reach your goal.
2. Goals Allow You to Measure Progress

By setting goals for yourself you are able to measure your progress because
you always have a fixed endpoint or benchmark to compare with. Take this
scenario for example David makes a goal to write a book with a minimum of
300 pages. He starts writing every day and works really hard but along the
way, he loses track of how many more pages he has written and how much
more he needs to write. So rather than panicking David simply counts the
number of pages he has already written and he instantly determines his
progress and knows how much further he needs to go.
3. Goals Keep You Locked In and Undistructed
By setting goals you give yourself mental boundaries. When you have a
certain endpoint in mind you automatically stay away from certain
distractions and stay focused towards the goal. This process happens
automatically and subtly but according to research does happen. To get a
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better idea, imagine this. Your best friend is moving to Switzerland and his
flight takes off at 9:00 PM. You leave right after work at 8:30 PM to see him off
and you know it’s a 20-minute walk to get to the airport. So you make it a goal
to reach the airport in 15 minutes by jogging so that you can have more time
to say your goodbyes. Would you get distracted by “anything” along the way?
Would you stop for a break or a snack? Would you stop by your house before
going to the airport? I bet you answered no for each question and at the end of
the day, this is what a goal gives you. FOCUS. No matter who you meet along
the way or what you see (assuming nothing is out of the ordinary) your goal
allows you to stay locked in. You subconsciously keep away from distractions
and your focus remains only on the goal. And by the way, if you didn’t know
yet this is how you become successful, you set a goal, you lock it in and then
give it your 100%.
4. Goals Help You Overcome Procrastination

When you set a goal for yourself you make yourself accountable to finish
the task. This is in complete contrast with when you do things based off a
whim and it doesn’t matter whether you complete them or not. Goals tend to
stick in your mind and if not completed they give you a “Shoot! These
reminders in the back of your head help you to overcome procrastination and
laziness. But keep in mind that long-term goals actually promote
procrastination. Most people aren’t good with deadliness 3 months away. So
whenever you’re given a long term goal, break it down into several short-term
goals so you can complete a chunk of the larger long term goal every week or
even every day.
5. Goals Give You Motivation

The roots of all the motivation or inspiration you have ever felt in your entire
life are goals. Goal setting provides you the foundation for your drive. By
making a goal you give yourself a concrete endpoint to aim for and get
excited about. It gives you something to focus on and put 100% of your effort
into and this focus is what develops motivation. Goals are simply tools to
focus your energy in positive directions, these can be changed as your
priorities change, new ones added, and others dropped.
BANDURA’S SELF EFFICACY
Albert Bandura was a well-known social-cognitive psychologist. He was

born in 1925 in Alberta, Canada, and best-known for his work in social-
cognitive psychology, or the branch of psychology that deals with people
learning from observing others and interacting with them.
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CORE CONSTRUCTS of the THEORY
 Bandura defined Self-Efficacy as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities

to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over
events that affect their lives”
 Self-Efficacy Theory tells us that people generally will only attempt

things they believe they can accomplish and won’t attempt things they
believe they will fail. However, people with a strong sense of efficacy believe
they can accomplish even difficult tasks. They see these as challenges to
be mastered, rather than threats to be avoided (Bandura, 1994).
 The basic idea behind self-efficacy is that when individuals feel their
actions can influence the outcome of a given situation, several things
happen. For one, they feel much better about themselves. Second, they
feel that they have a sense of power and control over what happens in the
world. And finally, they don't float hopelessly from one activity to the
other. In short, they act, think, and feel differently than people who have
no self-efficacious beliefs.
 Self-efficacy, or confidence as it is commonly known, is one of the most

enabling psychology models to have been adopted into positive psychology.
It is the optimistic self-belief in our competence or chances of successfully
accomplishing a task and producing a favorable outcome.
 Self-efficacy plays a major part in determining our chances for success; in

fact some psychologists rate self-efficacy above talent in the recipe for
success. We need to pay special attention to self-efficacy when setting
goals to make sure that our efficacy beliefs are in line with our aims and
not working against them.
So where does self-efficacy come from and how can you get more of it? The
originator of the theory, Albert Bandura names four sources of efficacy
beliefs.
BANDURA’S SOURCES OF EFFICACY BELIEFS
1. Mastery Experiences
The first and foremost source of self-efficacy is through mastery experiences.
However nothing is more powerful than having a direct experience of mastery
to increase self-efficacy. Having a success, for example in mastering a task or
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controlling an environment, will build self- belief in that area whereas a failure
will undermine that efficacy belief. To have a resilient sense of self-efficacy
requires experience in overcoming obstacles through effort and perseverance.
2. Vicarious Experiences
The second source of self-efficacy comes from our observation of people
around us, especially people we consider as role models. Seeing people similar
to ourselves succeed by their sustained effort raises our beliefs that we too
possess the capabilities to master the activities needed for success in that
area.
3. Verbal Persuasion
Influential people in our lives such as parents, teachers, managers or coaches
can strengthen our beliefs that we have what it takes to succeed. Being
persuaded that we possess the capabilities to master certain activities means
that we are more likely to put in the effort and sustain it when problems arise.
4. Emotional & Physiological States

The state you’re in will influence how you judge your self-efficacy. Depression,
for example, can dampen confidence in our capabilities. Stress reactions or
tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor performance whereas
positive emotions can boost our confidence in our skills.
5. Imaginal Experiences
Psychologist James Maddux has suggested a fifth route to self-efficacy
through “imaginal experiences”, the art of visualizing yourself behaving
effectively or successfully in a given situation.
MINDSET THEORY
People vary in the degree to which they attribute the causes of intelligence and
other traits. Are they innate and fixed factors (“fixed” mindset) or are they
variable factors that can be influenced through learning, effort, training, and
practice (“growth” mindset)? A “growth” mindset is generally seen as more
advantageous.
Carol S. Dweck, a psychologist and faculty member at Stanford University,
proposed mindset theory as a way to understand the effects of the beliefs
that individuals hold for the nature of intelligence. This in turn has
implications for learning and education.
Individuals with a fixed mindset tend to be interested only in feedback on
their success in activities to the degree that it serves to evaluate their
underlying ability. They are not using the feedback to learn, since they do not
believe that their success depends on their effort to learn. Rather, they believe
that success depends on the level of innate ability that they have. Therefore,
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they dread failure, because it suggests constraints or limits that they will not
be able to overcome.
A growth mindset, on the other hand, attributes success to learning.
Therefore, the individual is not terrified of failure, because it only signals the
need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new
learning opportunity. They are confident that after such effort they will be able
to learn the skill or knowledge, and then to improve their performance.
Figure 1. The two basic mindsets that shape our lives
The Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
The theory emphasizes the important relationship between goals and

performance; a goal setting theory of performance management. It supports
predictions that seem to result in the most effective performances, when the
goals are specific and challenging, when they are used to assess the
performances and are linked to feedback.
According to Locke and Latham, there are five goal-setting principles that
can increase the chance of success:
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Figure 2. Goal Setting Principles
1. Clarity
 A clear goal can be measured; no room for misunderstandings;

 Explicit goals with regard to which result is desired and how it will be
measured;
 Comparable to the SMART principles that help to understand the task,
measuring the results and achieving success.
2. Challenge
Setting challenging goals demands an accurate balance to guarantee the right

level of challenge. Goals that are either too easy or too difficult negatively
influence the motivation and decrease performance. The highest level of
motivation is reached when goals are somewhere between easy and difficult.
 Setting challenging goals demands an accurate balance to guarantee

the right level of challenge;
 Goals that are too easy or too difficult negatively impact motivation and
may reduce the performance;
 The highest level of motivation is achieved upon the right balance
between easy and difficult.
When you set next goals, make sure these are challenging yet realistic,
difficult yet achievable. Ask yourself the following questions when setting
goals. Are they challenging enough? Are they significant enough to be
motivating? Are they realistic and achievable?
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3. Effort
 Fully understanding and coordinating the set goals;

 Motivation due to own input when setting goals;
 People have the tendency to work harder for a goal when they were
involved in setting it, particularly in a team;
 Staying motivated as long as the goal is actually achievable and is in
accordance with the aspirations of all those involved.
4. Feedback
In addition to selecting the right goal, you must also listen to feedback to
determine whether you’re doing it right. This allows you to adjust the goal and
your approach to achieve it. Feedback doesn’t necessarily have to come from
other people. Feedback can also come from within.
 Listening to feedback to check whether you’re headed in the right

direction;
 If necessary, adjusting the goal and approach to achieve the goal;
 Feedback both from others and yourself.
5. Task complexity
 Takes into account the complexity of the goals, given the fact that
complexity can influence morale, productivity and motivation;
 Complex goals can be overwhelming to people;
 Make sure there’s enough time, allowing everyone enough time to work
towards the goal and improve the performances;
 If necessary, adjusting the complexity and level of difficulty of the goal.
Finally, look at the results and ensure commitment and acceptance. The
motivation impact of goals can be influenced by moderators, such as
capability and self-reliance. Additionally, deadlines improve the effectiveness of
goals. Focus on a learning goal leads to higher performances than an objective
and group goal, where mindset is just as important as individual goal setting.

Activities
1. When do you think Dweck’s Mindset theory will be effective? Cite two of
your goals as student to expound your insight.
2. What do you believe are success factors that contribute to the practical
application of Locke’s Goal Setting theory? Give at least 3 factors for
your explanation.
Rubrics
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5- complete, cohesive, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding

4 – complete, cohesive, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – self-reflective discussion but fair English construct
1 – answer is vague, English construct is poor
Comprehension Identify the term being referred to in each item.

Check 1. According to Carol Dweck, there are two categories of
mindset:__________ and growth mindset.
2. It entails judgement of individual capacity.
3. It emphasizes the important relationship between goals and
performance.
4. In selecting the right goal, this principle allows a person to adjust the
mean and approach to achieve success.
5. The object toward which the behavior is directed.
Monila, J. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E Publishing,
Inc.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1994). Goal-setting theory. Organizational Behavior 1:
Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership, 159-183.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of
goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American psychologist,
57(9), 705.
Module 3 Lesson 14. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF: Taking Charge
of One’s Health
Competencies
● Explain the concepts of stress
● Discuss the dimensions of stress
● Explain how stress affects health
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● Identify strategies to control stress
● Develop your own self-care plan

One of the first changes to make in your life is that of setting time
aside for your own self-care. This is a huge issue and usually the first
obstacle to overcome in reclaiming our power. We are often kept to a very
tough schedule; it’s easy to be overwhelmed and lose control. Making
changes of our life may call for reprioritizing a routine and taking charge
of one’s health should be everyone’s prime responsibility.
STRESSORS and RESPONSES
Stress refers to events that are perceived as challenging, damaging, or

threatening to one’s physical or psychological well-being. These events
referred to as stressors and the way people respond to them is called
stress response (Nolen, 2009)
Fight-Or-Flight Response: What Happens In The Body
When you feel threatened, your nervous system responds by releasing a

flood of stress hormones including adrenaline and cortisol, which rouse
the body for emergency action. Your heart pounds faster, muscles tighten,
blood pressure rises, breath quickens, and your senses become sharper.
These physical changes increase your strength and stamina, speed up
your reaction time, and enhance your focus—preparing you to either fight
or flee from the danger at hand.
The Effects of Chronic Stress
Your nervous system isn’t very good at distinguishing between emotional

and physical threats. If you’re super stressed over an argument with a
friend, a work deadline, or a mountain of bills, your body can react just as
strongly as if you’re facing a true life-or-death situation. And the more
your emergency stress system is activated, the easier it becomes to trigger,
making it harder to shut off.
If you tend to get stressed out frequently, like many of us in today’s

demanding world, your body may exist in a heightened state of stress
most of the time. And that can lead to serious health problems. Chronic
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stress disrupts nearly every system in your body. It can suppress your
immune system, upset your digestive and reproductive systems, increase
the risk of heart attack and stroke, and speed up the aging process. It can
even rewire the brain, leaving you more vulnerable to anxiety, depression,
and other mental health problems.
Conflicts
The word conflict has been derived from a Latin word ‘Conflicts’ which
means ‘strike two things at the same time’.
Conflict is an opposition or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses.

According to Colman ‘A conflict is the anticipated frustration entailed in
the choice of either alternative’. Conflicts occur in the individual when
more than one, equally powerful desires or motives present at the same
time and pressurize for immediate satisfaction.
Types of Conflict
1. Approach-approach conflict:
In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive
valence which are equally powerful. For example, a person has two
attractive job offers and he has to choose any one of them, at this point
tension arises.
Such conflicts are not so harmful, because after selecting one, the other
one automatically subsides or loses its importance to him. But in some
situation choice will be very difficult. For example, a girl has to choose
either loving parents or a boy friend. The individual will be psychologically
torn and may lose equilibrium.
2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the
individual is forced to choose one among two negative goals. In such
conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot keep quiet without
opting also. Here the individual is caught between two repelling threats,
fears or situations. When she cannot choose either of them she may try to
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escape from the field itself. But the consequences of the escape may also
be harmful. For example, a person who cannot convince the mother or the
wife may resort to Alcohol consumption which is otherwise dangerous or
some people may even commit suicide. Also, in the event of such conflicts
when there is no way to escape- some people may find a way to reduce
their tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defense mechanisms like
regression or fantasy.
3. Approach-avoidance conflict
This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because
in this type of conflict a person is both attracted and repelled by the same
goal object. Here the goal object will have both positive and negative
valences.
The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the

negative valence repels him back. Attraction of the goal and inability to
approach it leads to frustration and tension.
For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the

salary is attractive- but at the same time he is repelled back as the job is
very risky. A man wants to marry to lead a family life, but does not want
the responsibilities of family life.
4. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict:
Some of the situations in life we come across will involve both positive and
negative valences of multiple nature. Suppose a woman is engaged to be
married. The marriage to her has positive valences like-providing security
to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.
Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because

she has to quit her attractive job and salary, recognition which makes her
dependent, the situation builds up tension in her. The resolution of this
conflict depends upon the sum total of both valences. If the sum total of
attractive valence takes upper hand, she will quit the job and go for
marriage; otherwise she may reject marriage and continue the job if the
sum total of negative valence is powerful.
SOURCES OF COPING AND STRENGTH
Key Points
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 Coping is the process of spending mental, conscious energy on

dealing with problems in life. Mechanisms used to cope with stress
attempt to overcome or diminish the amount of stress experienced.
 Coping mechanisms can be categorized into three broad types:
appraisal -focused, which affects thought associated with the
stressor; problem-focused, which affects the stressor itself; and
emotion -focused, which affects the feelings associated with the
stressor.
 Coping strategies can be either positive or negative. Positive or
adaptive strategies decrease the amount of stress perceived and
experienced, while negative or maladaptive strategies diminish
symptoms of stress without addressing the real problem or disorder.
 Coping ability varies to the extent that a person perceives a situation
as stressful (primary appraisal) and decides he/she has the
necessary resources to deal with what has been labeled stressful
(secondary appraisal).
 Coping-strategy selection varies among people and populations
based on situational, sexual, personal, and cultural differences.
Coping Strategies
While psychologists disagree on the specific classification of the hundreds

of coping strategies available today, distinctions are often made among
various contrasting strategies.
The three most common distinctions are appraisal-focused, problem-

focused, and emotion-focused coping strategies.
Appraisal-Focused Strategies
Appraisal-focused strategies attempt to modify thought processes

associated with stress. People alter the way they think about a problem by
approaching it differently or altering their goals and values.
Problem-Focused Strategies
Problem-focused strategies aim to deal with the cause of the problem or

stressor. People try to change or eliminate the source of stress by
researching the problem and learning management skills to solve it.
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Emotion-Focused Strategies
Emotion-focused strategies address the feelings associated with the

stressor. People modify the emotions that accompany stress perception by
releasing, distracting, or managing their mental state.
A typical person will employ a mixture of all of these strategies when

attempting to cope with stress. Skill or prowess at employing these
strategies changes over time.
STRESS AND THE FILIPINO: The social and cultural dimensions of

stress
In the Philippines, poverty remains a critical problem. Experiencing

poverty or receiving low compensation means higher stress level (Crowder,
2013). Thus both parents need to work to make ends meet. As parents
take on multiple roles, achieving balance between work and family
becomes a source of stress.
Even if a person has a job and is making an adequate salary there are
stresses associated with the workplace that add to the daily stressors
such as work overload. Long hours, and poor physical work environment.
In the cultural perspective, a person from one culture who must live in
another culture may experience a great deal of stress. One primary source
of stress imposed on immigrant Filipino workers in other countries is the
need to adapt to a new culture. Acculturation is the process of adaptation
by which immigrants, native groups, and ethnic minority groups adjust to
the new culture making behavioral and attitudinal changes. Acculturative
stress refers to the feelings of tension and anxiety that accompany efforts
to adapt to the orientation and values of a dominant culture.
What is self-compassion?
Self-compassion is the act of having empathy for oneself. Empathy is
showing care, concern, and nonjudgmental acceptance of feelings as they
arise without declaring them “right” or “wrong”. Self-compassion is often
tricky in families or cultures that emphasize self-discipline and “no
excuses” mentalities because in extreme, these perspectives often view
self-compassion as an undesirable quality synonymous with being lazy,
self-pitying, or weak.
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How does self-compassion help in reducing stress?

At the end of the day, we can’t fool ourselves about how we’re feeling any
more than a runner with a blister on the bottom of his foot. And if a
runner with a blister on the bottom of his foot wants to finish the race, he
needs to stop, examine it, put some ointment on, and find a bandage or
cushion. That’s self-compassion … acknowledging what’s going on
and addressing what you need accordingly. Otherwise, the runner will
just be in more pain and even less able to run further on down the road …
more stressful, not less. The same is true of any individual facing
emotional or mental stress or pain. Taking care of our needs requires
us to acknowledge what those needs are, and that means being willing to
have self-compassion and accept our feelings so that we can reach out,
find, and utilize the tools we need.
Once we accept and acknowledge our feelings, we can get a much more
effective handle on addressing them. Otherwise, we’re running blind, so to
speak, and highly likely to hit a wall. Self-compassion is a nonjudgmental
curiosity about and warm acceptance of how we are doing, having the
intention of supporting ourselves accordingly through those feelings,
just as we would someone else. It enables us to reduce our stress by more
effectively identifying and therefore addressing our needs.
Enrichment Write an essay on the three important things you discovered about
Activities yourself and learned from self-compassion and coping strategies.
Rubrics
5- complete, structured, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is outstanding
4- complete, structured, and self-reflective discussion, English construct is average
3 – incomplete but self- reflective discussion, English construct is average
2 – incomplete but reflective discussion, fair English construct
1 – answer is vague and English construct is poor
Comprehension Identify the term being referred to in each item.

Check 1. It refers to experiencing events that endanger or threaten the
psychological and physiological well-being of a person.
2. It is a type of conflict that occurs when an individual is simultaneously
motivated toward two equally attractive goals.
3. A type of conflict that concerns two elements, one of which is very
desirable while the other is undesirable.
4. A coping strategy used to modify thought processes associated with
stress.
5. This coping strategy is preferred when a person chooses to remove the
source of stress by understanding and managing the problem to solve it.
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Publishing, Inc.
https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-practice-of-self-compassion-and-
reducing-stress/
https://store.samhsa.gov/product/Tips-for-Healthcare-Professionals-
Coping-with-Stress-and-Compassion-Fatigue/PEP20-01-01-016
MODULE 3 ANSWER KEY

Quiz 12 1. neurons
2. synapse
3. dendrites
4. cerebral cortex
5. temporal
Quiz 13 1. fixed
2. self-efficacy Page | 98
3. focus

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QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Module 1 THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

The Philosophers and their Perspective of the Self

SOCRATES- For Socrates the self is synonymous with the soul. He

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

PLATO- He believes and elaborates on Socrate’s concept of the soul on the

ARISTOTLE- He believes that the soul is merely a set of defining features

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

what makes us entirely complete as human. As a religious philosopher, he

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Hume asks us to consider what impression gives us our concept of self.

Family Name, Given Name, Middle Initial Subject Title:

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Comprehension Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer.

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Module 1 Lesson 2. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: The Self as a Product of

CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: The Looking-Glass Self

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Figure 1 How the Looking-Glass Self works

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: Theory of the Social Self

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

us to direct our behavior which Mead suggests Role Taking process. It is

The SELF in a three-stage process

The SELF as a Product of Modern and Postmodern Societies

Further, it is implied that the self may be in a never-ending search for

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Family Name, Given Name, Middle Initial Subject Title:

Comprehension Encircle the letter that corresponds to your answer.

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Module 1 LESSON 3. ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONCEPTUALIZATION OF SELF

Competencies 1. Recognize what the field of anthropology can contribute to the

The Cultural construction of Self and Identity

Martin Sokefeld, German anthropologist, believes that the concept of self

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can

1. Separation phase- people detach from their former identity to

The Self as Embedded in Culture

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

2. How are yourself and identity constructed and influenced by your

Family Name, Given Name, Middle Initial Subject Title:

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Module 1 LESSON 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

WILLIAM JAMES’ Concept of Self: The Me-Self and The I-Self

CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: Real and Ideal Self

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

the person’s conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be

Figure 3. How the two components of self-concept work

MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF, TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

enables us human beings to play a part in our self-development,

Enrichment Answer the following essay questions:

Family Name, Given Name, Middle Initial Subject Title:

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

5- complete, detailed, and structured, English construct is outstanding

Comprehension Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

Corpuz, B. B. et. al. (2015). Child and Adolescent Development. Metro

Monila, J. and Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C

Magalona, E. and Evelyn S. Sadsad. (2016). Personal Development.