International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353

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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

A comprehensive review and assessment of islanding detection techniques

for PV systems
Mohammad Alobaid a, Ahmed G. Abo-Khalil b, c, *
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Almajmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia
b
Dept. of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Assuit University, Assuit 71515, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Islanding is a critical issue in the safe and reliable operation of photovoltaic (PV) systems. Different methods have
PV been developed for detecting and disconnecting the system from the grid to prevent islanding. This paper
Islanding detection comprehensively compares and discusses the different islanding detection methods for PV systems. The methods
Grid-connected
include frequency shift, voltage shift, rate of change of frequency (ROCOF), phase jump, active and reactive
power methods. The comparison and discussion focus on key factors such as reliability, sensitivity, complexity,
cost, and compliance with standards. The suitability of each method is evaluated for different applications and
system requirements. Future recommendations for research and development are also discussed, including the
need for standardized testing procedures and the potential of new technologies like machine learning and
artificial intelligence. This paper provides valuable insights for PV system designers and operators in selecting
and implementing the most suitable islanding detection method for their applications.

system is connected to the grid, it will respond to the signal in a pre­

1. Introduction
Photovoltaic (PV) islanding is when a PV system continues to
generate electricity during a power outage, creating a potential safety
hazard for utility workers trying to restore power. In order to prevent
this, islanding detection methods are used to detect the presence of an
islanding condition and quickly shut down the Several islanding detec­
tion methods exist, including passive, active, and remote detection. In
this literature review, we will discuss each of these methods in detail and
review some of the recent research on their effectiveness [1,2].
Passive detection methods rely on changes in the voltage and fre­
quency of the AC power grid to detect the presence of an islanding
condition. When the grid goes down, the voltage and frequency of the
power supplied by the PV system will change. This change can be
detected using passive methods such as the rate-of-change-of-frequency
(ROCOF) and the rate-of-change-of-voltage (ROCOV) methods. The
ROCOF method detects the rate at which the frequency changes, while
the ROCOV method detects the rate at which the voltage changes. Pas­
sive detection methods are relatively simple and inexpensive, but they
can have high false positive rates [3,4].
Active detection methods involve intentionally perturbing the grid
by injecting a signal into the grid and monitoring the response. If the PV
dictable way. However, if the grid is disconnected, the response will be
different, and this difference can be used to detect an islanding condi­
tion. Active methods can be more reliable than passive methods, but
they require more sophisticated equipment and may be more expensive
[5–9].
Remote detection methods use communication between the PV sys­
tem and the utility company to detect an islanding condition. In this
method, the utility company sends a signal to the PV system, and the
system responds in a predictable way if it is connected to the grid. If the
PV system does not respond or responds in an unexpected way, this
indicates that an islanding condition may be present. Remote detection
methods are highly reliable, but they require a reliable communication
channel between the utility company and the PV system [10–12].
Recent research has focused on improving the reliability and effi­
ciency of islanding detection methods. For example, researchers have
developed new algorithms for the ROCOF and ROCOV methods that can
reduce false positives and improve detection accuracy. Other re­
searchers have developed new active detection methods that can be used
with existing PV systems, without the need for additional equipment.
Islanding detection is an important safety feature of PV systems, and
there are several methods available for detecting an islanding condition.
Passive, active, and remote detection methods all have their advantages

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: a.abokhalil@mu.edu.sa (A.G. Abo-Khalil).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2023.100353

Available online 11 April 2023

2666-2027/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353

make it more difficult to detect an islanding condition and may require

Nomenclature additional islanding detection methods [19].
The size and configuration of the PV system can also affect the
AFD Active Frequency Drift likelihood of islanding. Larger PV systems are more likely to cause an
Cf Chopping Fraction islanding condition because they can generate more electricity and have
Cp Changing Parameter a greater impact on the local grid. Similarly, PV systems that are
DG Distributed Generation configured in a way that makes it more difficult to detect islanding, such
Iac Coupling point current as systems with multiple inverters or systems that are not well grounded,
NDZ Non-Detection Zone may be more prone to islanding [20].
OUF over/under frequency- Islanding is a dangerous condition that can occur when a PV system
OUV over/under voltage continues to generate electricity during a power outage. Several factors
PCC Point of Common Coupling can contribute to the formation of an islanding condition, including the
PCS Power Conditioning System type of inverter used, the presence of other DERs, and the size and
Ppv Inverter active power configuration of the PV system. Islanding detection methods are essen­
Pload Load active power tial for preventing this condition and ensuring the safety of utility
Qload Load reactive power workers.
Qpv Inverter reactive power
R, L and C Load components 3. Operation during islanding
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
Vac Coupling point voltage Operation during islanding of photovoltaic (PV) systems refers to the
ω The frequency of the grid voltage behavior of the system when it is no longer connected to the utility grid
ΔP The difference between active power of generated and is generating electricity in an islanded mode. This can occur when
power and consumed power the utility grid experiences a power outage, or when the PV system is
ΔQ The difference between reactive power of generated intentionally disconnected from the grid for maintenance or other rea­
power and consumed power sons. It is important to understand how PV systems operate during
islanding in order to ensure their safety and reliability [21].
During islanding, the PV system continues to generate electricity and
provide power to the local load. The behavior of the system during
and disadvantages, and recent research has focused on improving the islanding depends on the type of inverter used in the system. Inverters
reliability and efficiency of these methods [13–15]. are responsible for converting the DC output from the PV panels into AC
This paper presents a review of islanding detection methods, which power that can be used by the load or fed back into the utility grid [22].
are used to detect the presence of islanding. This paper reviews various Inverter behavior during islanding can be categorized into two types:
islanding detection methods, including passive, active, and hybrid grid-forming and grid-following. Grid-forming inverters are capable of
methods, and compares their advantages, disadvantages, and perfor­ operating independently of the utility grid and can generate a stable
mance characteristics. The review also highlights the challenges and voltage and frequency for the local islanded system. These inverters are
future research directions for islanding detection methods in the context typically used in remote off-grid applications, such as remote villages or
of the growing use of distributed energy resources and the increasing military bases, where there is no utility grid available [23].
complexity of modern power systems. On the other hand, grid-following inverters are designed to syn­
chronize with the utility grid and cannot generate a stable voltage and
2. Formation of islanding frequency in islanded mode. These inverters typically rely on the utility
grid to provide a stable reference for their output voltage and frequency.
Photovoltaic (PV) islanding is a condition that occurs when a PV When the grid goes down, these inverters may continue to generate
system continues to generate electricity even though the utility grid has electricity but cannot maintain a stable voltage and frequency, which
shut down. This can be dangerous because utility workers attempting to can lead to instability and damage to the system [24].
restore power may be injured or killed if they come into contact with the It is important to note that in some cases, the PV system may not be
live wires. In order to prevent this, islanding detection methods are used able to operate during islanding at all. This can occur if the system is
to quickly shut down the PV system when an islanding condition is designed to shut down automatically when an islanding condition is
detected [16]. detected or if it relies on the utility grid to maintain its stability.
Islanding can occur when there is a mismatch between the PV sys­ In order to ensure the safe and reliable operation of PV systems
tem’s output and the load on the utility grid. Normally, the PV system’s during islanding, several measures can be taken. These include the use of
output is synchronized with the utility grid, and any excess electricity grid-forming inverters for off-grid applications, the implementation of
generated by the PV system is fed back into the grid. However, if the grid islanding detection methods to quickly shut down the system if an
goes down, the PV system may continue to generate electricity and islanding condition is detected, and the use of energy storage systems to
create a local "island" of electricity that is not connected to the rest of the provide backup power during islanding [25].
grid [17]. The behavior of PV systems during islanding depends on the type of
There are several factors that can contribute to the formation of an inverter used in the system. Grid-forming inverters are capable of
islanding condition in a PV system. One of the most important factors is operating independently of the utility grid, while grid-following in­
the type of inverter used in the system. Inverters are used to convert the verters require the grid to maintain their stability. It is important to
DC output from the PV panels into AC power that can be fed into the ensure the safe and reliable operation of PV systems during islanding
utility grid. Some inverters are designed to "ride through" short-term through the use of appropriate inverter technology, islanding detection
disruptions in the grid, while others are designed to quickly shut methods, and energy storage systems [26].
down when an islanding condition is detected [18]. In the context of islanding, the non-detection zone (NDZ) refers to a
Another factor that can contribute to islanding is the presence of region in the power system where the presence of an island is not
other distributed energy resources (DERs) in the local area. DERs such as detected by the islanding detection system. This can happen when there
wind turbines or diesel generators can also generate electricity during a is a lack of measurable changes in system variables that would indicate
power outage and create their own local islands of electricity. This can the occurrence of an island.

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M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil
The size and location of the NDZ depend on several factors, including
the topology of the power system, the type of generators and loads, and
the sensitivity of the detection scheme. A large NDZ can pose a signifi­
cant risk to the power system because it may lead to prolonged islanding
events, which can result in voltage and frequency instabilities, equip­
ment damage, and even blackouts. The NDZ region is depicted in Fig. 1.
To mitigate the impact of NDZs, it is important to have a robust
islanding detection system that is capable of detecting islanding events
quickly and accurately. This can be achieved by using multiple detection
techniques that complement each other, such as frequency-based,
voltage-based, and rate-of-change-of-frequency (ROCOF) methods. By
using multiple detection techniques, the system can reduce the size and
impact of NDZs and improve the overall reliability and stability of the
power system.
4. Islanding detection techniques
Islanding detection techniques can be broadly classified into three
categories: passive, active, and remote as shown in Fig. 2. Passive
techniques rely on changes in system parameters, such as voltage or
frequency, to detect an islanding condition. Active techniques inject a
signal into the system and monitor the response to detect an islanding
condition. Remote techniques use communication systems to monitor
the system from a remote location and detect islanding based on the
absence of communication signals from the utility grid.
Each of these techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages,
and the choice of technique depends on the specific requirements of the
PV system and the local regulations. Passive techniques are relatively
simple and do not require additional equipment, but they may not be as
reliable in detecting islanding in some situations. Active techniques are
more reliable and can detect islanding in a wider range of scenarios, but
they require additional equipment and can be more complex to imple­
ment. Remote techniques are particularly useful for large-scale PV sys­
tems that are difficult to monitor locally but can be more expensive and
require additional communication infrastructure.
4.1. Passive techniques
Passive islanding detection is a technique used in power systems to
detect whether the PV unit is unintentionally operating in island mode.
Islanding refers to the condition where a PV unit continues to supply
power to a local load even after the main grid has been disconnected due
to a fault or other event. This can be dangerous because the voltage and
frequency at the local load can become unstable, potentially damaging
equipment or causing a safety hazard.
Passive islanding detection does not require any communication
between the PV unit and the main grid and is therefore considered a
passive technique. This makes it simple and cost-effective to implement.
However, it may not be as reliable as active islanding detection tech­
niques that use communication between the DG unit and the main grid
to detect islanding. The flowchart of the passive islanding process is
shown in Fig. 3. Several passive islanding detection methods are
Fig. 1. An example of NDZ.
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International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353
discussed below.
4.1.1. Over/under voltage
Under/over voltage islanding detection method is a passive tech­
nique used to detect islanding conditions in photovoltaic (PV) systems.
This method is based on the principle that the voltage of the PV system
will drop below a certain threshold or rise above a certain threshold
when an islanding condition occurs.
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the voltage is maintained at a
constant level by the utility grid. When the grid is disconnected, the
voltage of the PV system will start to fluctuate due to changes in the load
and the generation of the PV system. Under/over voltage islanding
detection method relies on detecting these voltage fluctuations and
comparing them to a pre-determined threshold to determine if an
islanding condition exists.
The threshold for under/over voltage islanding detection is typically
set at a level that is significantly different from the normal operating
voltage of the PV system. If the voltage drops below this threshold, it is
an indication that the system is in islanding mode, and the PV system
should be shut down immediately. Similarly, if the voltage rises above
the threshold, it is an indication that the system is in islanding mode, and
the PV system should be shut down.
One advantage of the under/over voltage islanding detection method
is that it is relatively simple and does not require additional equipment
or sensors. It is also passive, meaning that it does not inject any signals
into the system, which can reduce the risk of interference with other
equipment.
However, this method has some limitations as well. For example, the
threshold voltage level must be carefully selected to avoid false positives
or false negatives, which can lead to unnecessary shutdowns or failure to
detect islanding conditions. Additionally, the method may not be
effective in detecting islanding conditions in systems with a high
penetration of distributed generation, where voltage fluctuations may
be more common [27].
The NDZ for active power was given by:
( )2 ( )2
V ΔP V
− 1 ≤ ≤ − 1 (1)
Vmax P Vmin
The NDZ for reactive power was given by:
( ( )2 ) ( ( )2 )
f ΔQ f
Qf 1 − ≤ ≤ Qf 1 − (2)
fmax P fmin
4.1.2. Over/under frequency
Under/over frequency islanding detection method is another passive
technique used to detect islanding conditions in photovoltaic (PV) sys­
tems. This method is based on the principle that the frequency of the PV
system will drop below a certain threshold or rise above a certain
threshold when an islanding condition occurs.
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the frequency of the AC power
is synchronized with the frequency of the utility grid. When the grid is
disconnected, the frequency of the PV system will start to fluctuate due
to changes in the load and the generation of the PV system. Under/over
frequency islanding detection method relies on detecting these fre­
quency fluctuations and comparing them to a pre-determined threshold
to determine if an islanding condition exists.
The threshold for under/over frequency islanding detection is typi­
cally set at a level that is significantly different from the normal oper­
ating frequency of the PV system. If the frequency drops below this
threshold, it is an indication that the system is in islanding mode, and the
PV system should be shut down immediately. Similarly, if the frequency
rises above the threshold, it is an indication that the system is in
islanding mode, and the PV system should be shut down.
One advantage of the under/over frequency islanding detection
method is that it can be more sensitive to islanding conditions than the
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil
Fig. 2. Islanding detection solutions classification.
Fig. 3. Passive islanding detection flowchart.
under/over voltage method. This is because frequency changes are
typically more significant than voltage changes during an islanding
event.
However, this method also has some limitations. The threshold fre­
quency level must be carefully selected to avoid false positives or false
negatives, which can lead to unnecessary shutdowns or failure to detect
islanding conditions. Additionally, the method may not be effective in
detecting islanding conditions in systems with a high penetration of
distributed generation, where frequency fluctuations may be more
4
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353
common [28].
4.1.3. Rate of change of frequency
Rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) is a passive method used to
detect islanding conditions in photovoltaic (PV) systems. This method is
based on the principle that the rate of change of frequency of the PV
system will exceed a certain threshold when an islanding condition
occurs.
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the frequency of the AC power
is synchronized with the frequency of the utility grid. When the grid is
disconnected, the frequency of the PV system will start to fluctuate due
to changes in the load and the generation of the PV system. ROCOF
islanding detection method relies on detecting the rate of change of
frequency and comparing it to a pre-determined threshold to determine
if an islanding condition exists.
The threshold for ROCOF islanding detection is typically set at a level
that is significantly different from the normal operating rate of change of
frequency of the PV system. If the rate of change of frequency exceeds
this threshold, it is an indication that the system is in islanding mode,
and the PV system should be shut down immediately.
One advantage of the ROCOF islanding detection method is that it is
more sensitive to islanding conditions than the under/over frequency
method. This is because it can detect rapid changes in frequency that
may be missed by other methods.
However, this method also has some limitations. The threshold rate
of change of frequency level must be carefully selected to avoid false
positives or false negatives, which can lead to unnecessary shutdowns or
failure to detect islanding conditions. Additionally, the method may not
be effective in detecting islanding conditions in systems with a high
penetration of distributed generation, where frequency fluctuations may
be more common [29].
4.1.4. Voltage phase jump
Voltage phase jump (VPJ) is an active method used to detect
islanding conditions in photovoltaic (PV) systems. This method is based
on the principle that the voltage phase angle of the PV system will jump
by a certain amount when an islanding condition occurs.
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the voltage phase angle of the
AC power is synchronized with the voltage phase angle of the utility
grid. When the grid is disconnected, the voltage phase angle of the PV
system will start to fluctuate due to changes in the load and the
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353

generation of the PV system. VPJ islanding detection method relies on

inducing a voltage phase jump in the PV system and then detecting any
changes in the voltage phase angle.
The induced voltage phase jump is typically created by injecting a
high-frequency signal into the system. This signal causes the voltage
phase angle of the PV system to shift by a known amount. If the voltage
phase angle does not return to its original position within a certain time
frame, it is an indication that the system is in islanding mode, and the PV
system should be shut down immediately.
One advantage of the VPJ islanding detection method is that it is an
active method, meaning it can be more reliable and precise than passive
methods. Additionally, it can be used in systems with high penetration of
distributed generation and where passive methods may not be effective.
However, this method also has some limitations. It requires addi­
tional hardware and software to induce the voltage phase jump and
detect any changes in the voltage phase angle. Additionally, it may not
be suitable for some types of PV systems or in certain operating condi­
tions [30].

4.1.5. Voltage harmonics

Voltage harmonics is a passive method used to detect islanding
conditions in photovoltaic (PV) systems. This method is based on the
principle that the harmonic content of the voltage waveform in the PV
system will change when an islanding condition occurs.
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the voltage waveform of the
AC power is synchronized with the voltage waveform of the utility grid.
When the grid is disconnected, the voltage waveform of the PV system
will start to fluctuate due to changes in the load and the generation of
the PV system. Voltage harmonics islanding detection method relies on
Fig. 4. Active islanding detection flowchart.
detecting any changes in the harmonic content of the voltage waveform.
The harmonic content of the voltage waveform is typically measured
using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm. If an islanding condition relatively low due to the large capacity of the utility grid. When the grid
occurs, the harmonic content of the voltage waveform will change due to is disconnected, the impedance of the PV system will increase due to
the unbalanced load and generation in the PV system. This change in changes in the load and the generation of the PV system. Impedance
harmonic content can then be compared to a pre-determined threshold measurement islanding detection method relies on inducing a small
to determine if an islanding condition exists. perturbation in the voltage or current of the system and then measuring
One advantage of the voltage harmonics islanding detection method any changes in the impedance of the system.
is that it is a passive method, meaning it does not require any additional The induced perturbation can be created by injecting a small AC
hardware or software to be installed in the PV system. Additionally, it signal into the system, which causes the voltage or current to fluctuate
can be used in systems with high penetration of distributed generation slightly. The changes in voltage or current can then be measured, and
and where other passive methods may not be effective. the impedance of the system can be calculated. If an islanding condition
However, this method also has some limitations. The threshold for occurs, the impedance of the PV system will increase, and this change in
detecting changes in harmonic content must be carefully selected to impedance can be compared to a pre-determined threshold to determine
avoid false positives or false negatives. Additionally, it may not be if an islanding condition exists.
effective in detecting islanding conditions in systems with a high level of One advantage of the impedance measurement islanding detection
harmonic distortion [31,32]. method is that it is an active method, meaning it can be more reliable
and precise than passive methods. Additionally, it can be used in systems
with high penetration of distributed generation and where passive
4.2. Active techniques
methods may not be effective.
However, this method also has some limitations. It requires addi­
Active islanding detection works by using communication between
tional hardware and software to inject the AC signal and measure the
the DG unit and the main grid to detect islanding. The DG unit contin­
changes in voltage or current. Additionally, it may not be suitable for
uously monitors the voltage and frequency at its point of interconnec­
some types of PV systems or in certain operating conditions [33].
tion with the main grid and compares it to the voltage and frequency set-
points provided by the grid. If the voltage and frequency at the POI
4.2.2. Slip mode frequency shift
deviate from the set-points for a certain period of time, the DG unit
The Slip Mode Frequency Shift Islanding Detection Method is a
assumes that the main grid has been disconnected and it stops supplying
technique used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect island­
power to the local load. The flowchart of the active islanding process is
ing. Islanding occurs when a section of the electrical grid becomes iso­
shown in Fig. 4. Several passive islanding detection methods are dis­
lated from the rest of the grid, but continues to generate and supply
cussed below.
power. This can be dangerous for utility workers and damage equipment
if not detected and resolved quickly.
4.2.1. Impedance measurement
In this method, the frequency of the grid voltage is constantly
Impedance measurement is an active method used to detect islanding
monitored. When an islanding condition occurs, the frequency of the
conditions in photovoltaic (PV) systems. This method is based on the
grid voltage will deviate from its normal operating range. The Slip Mode
principle that the impedance of the PV system will change when an
Frequency Shift Islanding Detection Method detects this deviation by
islanding condition occurs.
using a slip mode controller to adjust the output frequency of the PV
In a typical grid-connected PV system, the impedance of the system is

5
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil
inverter slightly. If the inverter is still connected to the grid, the fre­
quency of the output voltage will be the same as the grid frequency, and
there will be no change in the phase angle between the two signals.
However, if the inverter becomes isolated from the grid, the fre­
quency of the output voltage will be slightly different from the grid
frequency, causing a phase shift between the two signals. This phase
shift can then be detected by the slip mode controller, triggering the
inverter to shut down and disconnect from the grid [34].
4.2.3. Frequency bias
The Frequency Bias Islanding Detection Method is another technique
used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect islanding. Like the
Slip Mode Frequency Shift method, it monitors the frequency of the grid
voltage to detect changes that may indicate an islanding condition.
In this method, the PV inverter is equipped with a frequency bias,
which is a small deviation from the normal operating frequency of the
grid. If the inverter becomes isolated from the grid and begins to operate
in islanding mode, the frequency of the grid voltage will begin to deviate
from the inverter’s frequency bias.
When the frequency deviation reaches a certain threshold, the
inverter detects it as an islanding condition and initiates a protective
action, such as disconnecting from the grid. This threshold is set to
prevent false alarms caused by normal frequency fluctuations that occur
in grid-tied systems.
The Frequency Bias Islanding Detection Method is a simple and
reliable technique that has been used in many grid-tied PV systems.
However, it may not be as effective in detecting islanding conditions in
systems with high penetration of renewable energy sources, where the
frequency of the grid voltage may fluctuate more rapidly and unpre­
dictably [35].
4.2.4. Sandia frequency shift
The Sandia Frequency Shift Islanding Detection Method is a tech­
nique used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect islanding.
This method is based on the concept that the impedance of the PV
inverter changes during an islanding condition, causing a shift in the
frequency of the inverter’s output voltage.
In this method, the PV inverter is equipped with a frequency meter
that continuously measures the frequency of the grid voltage. The
inverter also contains a switching circuit that alternately connects and
disconnects a load from the inverter’s output. This causes the inverter’s
output frequency to shift slightly, which can be detected by the fre­
quency meter.
During normal operation, the inverter’s output frequency will match
the grid frequency, and there will be no change in the phase relationship
between the two signals. However, if an islanding condition occurs, the
impedance of the inverter will change, causing a frequency shift in the
inverter’s output. This shift can then be detected by the frequency meter,
indicating the presence of an islanding condition.
The Sandia Frequency Shift Islanding Detection Method is a reliable
and effective technique for detecting islanding in grid-tied PV systems.
However, it requires a switching circuit to be integrated into the
inverter, which can add complexity and cost to the system. Additionally,
it may not be as effective in detecting islanding conditions in systems
with high penetration of renewable energy sources, where the frequency
of the grid voltage may fluctuate more rapidly and unpredictably [36].
4.2.5. Sandia voltage shift
The Sandia Voltage Shift Islanding Detection Method is a technique
used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect islanding. This
method is based on the concept that the voltage of the PV inverter
changes during an islanding condition, causing a shift in the voltage of
the inverter’s output.
In this method, the PV inverter is equipped with a voltage meter that
continuously measures the voltage of the grid. The inverter also contains
a switching circuit that alternately connects and disconnects a load from
6
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353
the inverter’s output. This causes the inverter’s output voltage to shift
slightly, which can be detected by the voltage meter.
During normal operation, the inverter’s output voltage will match
the grid voltage, and there will be no change in the phase relationship
between the two signals. However, if an islanding condition occurs, the
voltage of the inverter will change, causing a voltage shift in the in­
verter’s output. This shift can then be detected by the voltage meter,
indicating the presence of an islanding condition.
The Sandia Voltage Shift Islanding Detection Method is a reliable and
effective technique for detecting islanding in grid-tied PV systems.
However, like the frequency shift method, it requires a switching circuit
to be integrated into the inverter, which can add complexity and cost to
the system. Additionally, it may not be as effective in detecting islanding
conditions in systems with high penetration of renewable energy sour­
ces, where the voltage of the grid may fluctuate more rapidly and un­
predictably [37].
4.3. External methods
4.3.1. Power line carrier
The Power Line Carrier (PLC) Islanding Detection Method is a
technique used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect island­
ing. This method is based on the concept of using a carrier signal that is
superimposed on the power line voltage to communicate islanding
detection signals between the PV inverter and the grid.
In this method, the PV inverter is equipped with a PLC module that
can send and receive signals over the power line. During normal oper­
ation, the inverter sends a carrier signal over the power line to the grid,
indicating that it is connected and operating normally. If an islanding
condition occurs and the inverter becomes disconnected from the grid,
the carrier signal will be lost, indicating the presence of an islanding
condition.
The PLC module in the inverter is also designed to receive carrier
signals from the grid, which can be used to indicate the presence of an
islanding condition. If the grid detects an islanding condition, it can send
a carrier signal over the power line to the inverter, indicating that it
should disconnect from the grid and enter a protective mode.
The PLC Islanding Detection Method is a reliable and effective
technique for detecting islanding in grid-tied PV systems, and it does not
require any additional hardware or complex algorithms to be integrated
into the inverter. However, it does require the power line to be available
and free from interference for the carrier signal to be transmitted and
received effectively [38].
4.3.2. Disconnect signal
The Disconnect Signal Islanding Detection Method is a technique
used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems to detect islanding. This
method is based on the concept of using a disconnect signal to detect
when the PV inverter becomes disconnected from the grid.
In this method, the PV inverter is equipped with a disconnect signal
generator that sends a signal to the inverter’s control system when it
becomes disconnected from the grid. The control system can then take
appropriate action, such as entering a protective mode or shutting down
the inverter.
During normal operation, the PV inverter is connected to the grid and
does not generate a disconnect signal. However, if an islanding condi­
tion occurs and the inverter becomes disconnected from the grid, the
disconnect signal will be generated, indicating the presence of an
islanding condition.
The Disconnect Signal Islanding Detection Method is a simple and
reliable technique for detecting islanding in grid-tied PV systems, and it
does not require any additional hardware or complex algorithms to be
integrated into the inverter. However, it does require the control system
of the inverter to be capable of detecting the disconnect signal and
taking appropriate action [39].
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil
4.3.3. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Islanding
Detection Method is a technique used in grid-tied photovoltaic (PV)
systems to detect islanding. This method is based on the concept of using
a centralized monitoring and control system to detect changes in the
behavior of the PV system that may indicate an islanding condition.
In this method, the PV system is equipped with sensors and other
monitoring devices that collect data on various system parameters, such
as voltage, current, and frequency. This data is then transmitted to a
central SCADA system, which continuously monitors the behavior of the
PV system and can detect changes that may indicate an islanding
condition.
If an islanding condition occurs, the behavior of the PV system will
change in a predictable manner, such as changes in the voltage, fre­
quency, or power output. The SCADA system can use advanced algo­
rithms and analytics to detect these changes and alert the system
operator to the presence of an islanding condition.
The SCADA Islanding Detection Method is a powerful and effective
technique for detecting islanding in grid-tied PV systems, and it can
provide real-time monitoring and control capabilities for large-scale PV
systems. However, it requires a significant investment in hardware and
software infrastructure, and may not be cost-effective for smaller PV
systems [40].
5. International standards - islanding detection
There are several international standards related to islanding
detection in photovoltaic (PV) systems. These standards provide
guidelines and requirements for designing and implementing islanding
detection methods in grid-tied PV systems.
One of the key standards is the International Electrotechnical Com­
mission (IEC) 62,116 standard, which provides requirements and test
procedures for grid-connected PV inverters and related equipment. This
standard includes specific requirements for islanding detection methods,
including the use of frequency and voltage measurement methods, as
well as the evaluation of the effectiveness and reliability of islanding
detection methods.
Another important standard is the IEEE 1547 standard, which pro­
vides guidelines for interconnecting distributed resources, including PV
systems, with electric power systems. This standard includes re­
quirements for islanding detection methods, as well as other safety and
performance requirements for grid-tied PV systems.
In addition, there are other standards and guidelines from organi­
zations such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and
the International Energy Agency (IEA) that provide recommendations
and best practices for islanding detection in PV systems as shown in
Table 1 [41].
6. Main criteria/parameters in the islanding mode
In grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) systems, islanding is a condition where
a portion of the PV system continues to generate power even when the
grid is disconnected, which can pose a safety hazard to utility workers
and cause damage to equipment. Islanding detection methods are used
to detect and prevent these conditions from occurring. The main criteria
Table 1
Anti-islanding and corresponding International Standards (From
IEEE Std. 929–2000).
Voltage (at PCC) Maximum trip time
(V<50%) 6 cycles
(50%<V< 88%) 120 cycles
(88%<V<110%) Normal Operation
(110%<V<137%) 120 cycles
(137%<V) 2 cycles
7
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353
or parameters used in islanding detection in PV systems are [42–45]:
1 Frequency: The frequency of the power generated by the PV system
should be closely synchronized with the grid frequency. If the fre­
quency of the PV system deviates significantly from the grid fre­
quency, it may indicate an islanding condition.
2 Voltage: The voltage of the power generated by the PV system should
be maintained within a narrow range to ensure safe and reliable
operation. If the voltage of the PV system deviates significantly from
the grid voltage, it may indicate an islanding condition.
3 Rate of change of frequency and voltage: Rapid changes in the fre­
quency or voltage of the PV system can be an indication of an
islanding condition.
4 Active power and reactive power: Changes in the active power and
reactive power of the PV system can also be used to detect islanding
conditions.
5 Duration of islanding: The length of time that the PV system con­
tinues to generate power after the grid is disconnected can also be
used to detect islanding conditions.
A single-phase grid-connected PV circuit in islanding mode refers to
a photovoltaic (PV) system that is connected to the grid and is designed
to automatically disconnect from the grid in the event of a power outage,
while continuing to generate power for local loads.
In a single-phase grid-connected PV circuit, the PV modules are
connected to a single-phase inverter, which converts the DC power
generated by the modules into AC power that is fed into the grid. The
inverter is equipped with a control system that monitors the grid voltage
and frequency, and when a power outage occurs, the inverter auto­
matically disconnects from the grid and switches to islanding mode
[46].
In islanding mode, the inverter continues to generate AC power, but
instead of feeding it into the grid, it supplies it to local loads through a
local distribution system. The inverter also monitors the voltage and
frequency of the local distribution system to ensure that they remain
within safe and stable limits.
To ensure safe and reliable operation in islanding mode, a single-
phase grid-connected PV circuit must comply with local regulations
and standards. This may include requirements for islanding detection
methods, which are used to detect and prevent islanding conditions from
occurring, as well as requirements for system monitoring and control to
ensure safe and stable operation in islanding mode [47].
7. IEEE STD 929–2003
Power quality refers to the degree to which the electrical power
delivered to consumers is free from disturbances or variations that can
affect the performance of electrical equipment. These disturbances or
variations can include voltage fluctuations, frequency variations,
waveform distortions, and interruptions.
IEEE STD 929–1992 is a previous version of the IEEE standard for
recommended practice for utility interface of photovoltaic (PV) systems.
This standard provides guidelines for the design, installation, and
operation of grid-connected PV systems, with a focus on ensuring safe
and reliable interconnection with the utility grid [48].
The standard covers a range of topics related to PV system inter­
connection, including system design considerations, safety re­
quirements, protection equipment, grounding and bonding, and
performance monitoring. The standard also provides guidance on the
use of inverters and other equipment to convert the DC power generated
by PV modules into AC power that is suitable for interconnection with
the utility grid.
IEEE STD 929–2000 provides guidelines for assessing power quality
in electrical power systems. The standard specifies procedures for
measuring and analyzing various power quality parameters, including
voltage and frequency variations, waveform distortions, and other
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil
disturbances.
The standard also provides guidelines for defining power quality
limits and for assessing the impact of power quality disturbances on
electrical equipment. It includes recommendations for monitoring
power quality and for identifying and correcting power quality
problems.
IEEE STD 929–2003 is a standard that provides recommended
practices for assessing power quality in grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) systems. The standard focuses on the impact of the PV system on
the quality of the electrical power delivered to the grid and on the
quality of the power supplied to the PV system by the grid [49–52].
By following the guidelines of IEEE STD 929–2003, utilities and
other electrical power providers can ensure that their power systems
meet acceptable levels of power quality, which can help to reduce
equipment failures, improve energy efficiency, and enhance the reli­
ability of the electrical power supply. Similarly, consumers of electrical
power can use the standard to assess the quality of the power they are
receiving and to identify and correct any power quality problems that
may be affecting their equipment or operations.
An outline of a grid-connected PV distributed generation system is
shown in Fig. 5, which is composed of the arrangement of panels, con­
verter, local load, distribution transformer, and physical disconnect
switch.
A typical configuration for studying islanding detection in a PV
system involves a PV inverter connected to an RLC tunable load is shown
in Fig. 6. The RLC load is designed to simulate the electrical character­
istics of the grid, which can vary depending on the location and the type
of grid connection.
The RLC load consists of a combination of resistors, inductors, and
capacitors that are arranged in a specific configuration to simulate the
behavior of the grid. The values of the components in the RLC load can
be adjusted to simulate different grid conditions, such as changes in
frequency, voltage, or phase angle.
The PV inverter is connected to the RLC load through a coupling
transformer. The transformer is used to isolate the PV system from the
grid and to provide a means of controlling the power flow between the
PV system and the RLC load.
During an islanding event, the PV inverter continues to generate
power and supply it to the RLC load. The behavior of the PV system and
the RLC load can be studied by monitoring the electrical signals, such as
voltage and current, at various points in the system.
The objective of studying islanding detection in this configuration is
to develop methods for detecting and preventing islanding events. This
is important for ensuring the safety and stability of the grid and for
preventing damage to the PV system.
In summary, the typical configuration for studying islanding detec­
tion in a PV system involves a PV inverter connected to an RLC tunable
load, which is designed to simulate the electrical characteristics of the
grid. This configuration allows researchers to study the behavior of the
PV system and the RLC load during an islanding event and to develop
methods for detecting and preventing islanding.
Fig. 5. PV system configuration in the islanding mode.
8
International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353
Fig. 6. Test schematic for islanding detection of PV inverter.
8. Comparison, discussion, and future recommendation
Comparison and discussion of islanding detection methods for PV
systems are important for evaluating the effectiveness, reliability, and
suitability of different techniques for different applications. Some of the
key factors to consider when comparing and discussing islanding
detection methods for PV systems include:
1 Reliability: The reliability of an islanding detection method is a
critical factor in ensuring the safe and effective operation of the PV
system. The method should be able to detect islanding events quickly
and reliably to prevent safety hazards and equipment damage.
2 Sensitivity: The sensitivity of an islanding detection method refers to
its ability to detect islanding events under different operating con­
ditions and load levels. The method should be able to detect
islanding events even under low-load conditions or when the power
generation capacity of the PV system is reduced.
3 Complexity: The complexity of an islanding detection method refers
to the level of hardware and software required for its implementa­
tion. Simple methods like passive methods may require less hard­
ware and software, but they may not be as reliable or effective as
more complex methods.
4 Cost: The cost of an islanding detection method is an important
consideration for PV system designers and operators. The method
should be cost-effective and provide a good balance between cost
and performance.
5 Standards compliance: Compliance with relevant standards and
regulations is important for ensuring the safe and reliable operation
of the PV system. The islanding detection method should comply
with applicable standards.
Some of the commonly used islanding detection methods for PV
systems include:
• Frequency shift method
• Voltage shift method
• Rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) method
• Phase jump method
• Active method
• Reactive power method
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and the suit­
ability of a particular method depends on the specific application and
system requirements. For example, frequency and voltage shift methods
are simple and widely used but may not be effective under certain
operating conditions. On the other hand, more complex methods like
ROCOF and phase jump methods may be more reliable but require more
hardware and software.
In terms of future recommendations, there is a need for continued
research and development of islanding detection methods to improve
their effectiveness, reliability, and suitability for different applications.
There is also a need for more standardized testing procedures and pro­
tocols to ensure the consistent and accurate evaluation of different
M. Alobaid and A.G. Abo-Khalil International Journal of Thermofluids 18 (2023) 100353

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