Unplugged Public Library

Edito Journal Publishe
Author pennycook Year Article or Media Title rs Book/Journal Title volume r

Online Forum Report: English Language 59(4):363-
??? Year Dogme Teaching Journal 365
classroom language Press, Vol.
Allwright, R. L. (1984) learning Applied Linguistics 5, No. 2
Teacher Language University
Andrews, S. (2007) Awareness. Press
Marxist Critique of
Anon/Various (2010) Dogme ELT.
Dogme Language
Anon/Various (2006) Teaching
(1963/1 The Roaring in the London,
Ashton-Warner, S. 980) Chimney (extract) Teacher Virago
Dogme: A teacher's
Bertrand, J. view.
Blank, D. Cassidy, K. et A Conversation in (and Journal of Educational
al (2007) on) Process. Change 2007
An interview with Scott
David English House (2003) Thornbury ET Journal Vol. 4 No 3.
Questions which dog
Fogerty, D. (2011) me
Teaching: Just a fling or
Gabrielatos, C. (2005) wedding bells? TESL-EJ Issue 8:4
many paths - Dogme
Giddens, K. (2011) and DNT
Against Dogme: a plea (April/May
Gill, S. (2000) for moderation IATEFL Issues 2000)
Humanizing Language y,
Hamilton, R. (2004) Dogme in action Teaching Issue 6:3 Pilgrims
away from a pedagogy
Harmer, J. (2010) of essential bareness
Language Teaching London:
Harmer, J. (2007) (4th edition) Pearson
Language Teaching London:
Harmer, J. (2004) (3rd edition) Pearson
and notes from an
Harrison, M. (2011) unplugged afternoon
Scoop.it Dogme ELT
Lyon-Jones, S. (2011) aggregator
Unanswered questions
Lyon-Jones, Sue (2010) continue to dogme
really want from B. in Language Teaching University
Masuhara, H. (2011) coursebooks?’ (ed.) (2nd edn) Press
Throw away your The Guardian
Meddings, L. (2004) textbooks newspaper (UK)
Meddings, L. & Dogme in English Publicatio
Thornbury, S. (2009) Language Teaching ns
m, H. English Teaching November Media
Nield, D. (2005) Spirit of DOGME (ed.) Professional 2005 Ltd.
The Mindfulness of m, H. English Teaching Issue 105, Media
Nield, D. (2016) Dogme (ed.) Professional July 2016 Ltd.
Paul (surname Suspicious of
withheld) (2011) unplugged?
Postman, N. & Teaching as a London,
Weingartner, C. (1969) subversive activity Penguin
The road to teaching
Renshaw, J. (2011) unplugged
The trouble with
Renshaw, J. (2010) teaching unplugged
Unplugged Conference,
Roosken, B. (2011) Barcelona report
Samuda, V., & Bygate, Tasks in Second Macmilla
M. (2008) Language Learning n
The Experience of University
Senior, R. (2006) Language Teaching Press.
for research? MA
Sketchley, M. (2011) dissertation ideas
Dogme/Dogme 2.0
Stanley, G. (2009) Wiki
ourselves as Teachers Humanizing Language y,
Templer, B. (2003) through Self-Scrutiny Teaching Issue 6:3 Pilgrims
Responses to Dogme
Thornbury, S. (2011) (video)
D is for Dogme (blog
Thornbury, S. (2010) entry)
Language as an Council Portugal Summer
Thornbury, S. (2008) emergent system Newsletter 2008
Macmilla
Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z of ELT n
Dogme still able to Guardian Weekly,
Thornbury, S. (2003c) divide ELT Thursday, April 17th
instructional son, G. Language in Language Benjamin
Thornbury, S. (2002b) conversation (Eds.) Teacher Education s
Taboo topics and the Issue 3.
Thornbury, S. (2002a) alternative textbook It’s for Teachers February
(or: That’s Dogme with Council,
Thornbury, S. (2001a) an E) ITS for Teachers Portugal)
A Dogma for EFL.
Thornbury, S. (2000) IATEFL Issues,153, 2. IATEFL Issues 153, 2. IATEFL
Dogme: Dancing in the
Thornbury, S. (2000) dark? Folio 9/2, 3-5
Teaching Unplugged
Thornbury, S. (2000) website
Western Australia,
Thornbury, S. (2000) McEnglish in Australia October, 2000
Accuracy, fluency & m, H. English Teaching 16, 2000, 3-
Thornbury, S. (2000) complexity (ed.) Professional 6
English Language
Thornbury, S. (1999) Lesson art and design Teaching Journal 53/1
Grammar, power and 140, 1998,
Thornbury, S. (1998) bottled water IATEFL Newsletter 19-20
which promote English Language 51/4, 326-
Thornbury, S. (1997) 'noticing' Teaching Journal 35
Teachers research English Language 1996, 50/4,
Thornbury, S. (1996) teacher talk Teaching Journal 279-89
Thornbury, S. & Modern English October, 40-
Meddings, L. (2001d) Using the raw materials Teacher 43
Thornbury, S. & Coursebooks: The Modern English 10/3. July,
Meddings, L. (2001c) Roaring in the Chimney Teacher 11-13
Thornbury, S. & Humanizing Language
Meddings, L. (2003b) (2003b) What dogme feels like Teaching Issue 5:6
Thornbury, S. & Dogme and the Modern English January, 36
Meddings, L. (2002) coursebook Teacher –40
Thornbury, S. & 161, June-
Meddings, L. (2001b) Dogme out in the open IATEFL Issues July, 6
Thornbury, S. & Conte, Teaching Unplugged: English Teaching
N. (2003a) one teacher's account Professional 26, 57-59
Thornbury, S. & Dogme: a nest of IATEFL Global Issues November
Meddings, L. (2003) NESTs? SIG newsletter 2003
Thornbury, S. and Approach, design, Description to University
Slade, D. (2006) procedure. Chapter 9 Pedagogy Press
London:
Developing Materials Continuu
Tomlinson, B (ed.) (2003) for Language Teaching m
in/ Teaching without a
Underhill, A. 1980s) coursebook
Reservoir Dogme ELT
Various (2011) Facebook Page
and the Dogme Twitter #ELTchat
Various (2011) Symposium transcript
Various Dogme Discussion List
"teaching 2.0" can learn
Vickers, H. (2009) from dogme 2.0"
Investigating Routledge
Walsh, S. (2006) Classroom Discourse. .
Page
URL Retrieved on Quotes . Keywords
363-
pending 365
classroom happens through a process of live classroom
person-to-person interaction. 156 learning
dogme
citation
dogme-–-thoughts-after-iatefl-the-dogme- at 20:33hrs marxism
symposium-eltchat-summary-27042011/ CET situating
at 08:28hrs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogme_language_teaching
CET
at 11:26hrs a result. There's much more time for 118-
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Sylvia.htm CET conversation . . . communication. 119
at 08:18hrs a certain extent we could say that a Dogme
CET space is a classroom free zone as we know it.
at 11:35hrs emergence
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_edu/emergentpedagogy.html
CET pedagogy
no longer
http://www.davidenglishhouse.com/etjjournal.html available?
at 20:50hrs
http://managementspique.wordpress.com/2011/04/22/questions-which-dog-me/
CET
at 08:33hrs is usually further restricted to the teacher's dogme
http://www.tesl-ej.org/ej32/a1.html CET language variety and preferred usage. corpus research
at 20:14hrs
http://kevingiddens.posterous.com/?tag=dogmeelt CET
at 11:12hrs dogme
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/gill.htm CET criticism
at 08:40hrs dogme
http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sept04/mart4.htm CET teacher report
at 10:56hrs dogme
http://jeremyharmer.wordpress.com/2010/10/10/no-dogma-for-efl-away-from-a-pedagogy-of-essential-bareness/
CET criticism
at 07:54hrs
CET
http://www.mikejharrison.com/2011/05/exploding-board-pens-and-notes-from-an-unplugged-afternoon/
at 20:03hrs sources
http://www.scoop.it/t/dogme-elt CET Aggregator
at 11:04hrs
http://the-pln-staff-lounge.blogspot.com/2010/10/unanswered-questions-continue-to-dogme.html
CET
at 20:16hrs
CET
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/mar/26/tefl.lukemeddings
2013 at 2.40 the present and an acute eagerness to explore

http://www.scribd.com/doc/3177782/SPIRIT-OF-DOGME EST our experience and how to express it.” energy
2018 at 4pm anything prescribed by a set methodology; mindful teaching
EST
https://www.etprofessional.com/the-mindfulness-of-dogme this is pure Dogme at its most radical.” ‘Dogme-style’
at 20:56hrs
http://paulseltjournal.blogspot.com/2011/05/suspicious-of-unplugged.html
CET
at 11:08hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Subversive.htm CET
at 07:56hrs
CET archive
at 07:41hrs prerequisites
CET
http://jasonrenshaw.typepad.com/jason_renshaws_web_log/2010/03/the-trouble-with-teaching-unplugged.html definition
at 07:49hrs conference
CET http://tdsig.org/2011/05/the-unplugged-conference-a-report/
tdsig
at 20:11hrs
CET research
at 12:13hrs
http://dogme2.wikispaces.com/ CET
at 08:53hrs humanism
http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sept04/mart3.htm CET dogme
23 May 2011 symposium
at 15:57 CET
http://www.youtube.com/user/scottthornbury#p/a/u/0/aZx04ehtMfk iatefl 2011
at 20:07hrs
http://scottthornbury.wordpress.com/2010/02/28/d-is-for-dogme/
CET
at 12:00hrs
http://www.britishcouncil.org/portugal-inenglish-200709-scott-thornbury.pdf
CET
at 08:21hrs
CET
http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2003/apr/17/tefl.lukemeddings?INTCMP=SRCH
95-
106
24 May 2011
at 01:03 CET
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Its%20magazine.htm
24 May 2011 dogme
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Dogma%20article.htm
at 00:14 CET origins
at 08:27hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/assets/dancing%20in%20dark.pdf
CET
at 11:38hrs
http://www.teaching-unplugged.com CET
at 11:44hrs pedagogy
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/McEnglish.htm CET imperialism
at 11:50hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/assets/Accuracy%20fluency.pdf
CET 3-6
at 12:03hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/assets/lesson%20art%20and%20design.pdf
CET 4-11
19-
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Power.htm 20
at 12:08hrs 326-
CET
http://www.thornburyscott.com/assets/reformulation.pdf 35
at 11:13hrs dogme
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/MET1rawmaterials.htm
CET emergence
at 11:15hrs
CET
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Harmer%20response.htm
at 07:55hrs
http://www.hltmag.co.uk/nov03/sart1.htm CET
at 11:20hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/MET3coursebook.htm
CET
at 11:18hrs
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Open%20space.htm
CET dogme
http://www.thornburyscott.com/tu/Nerina.htm
at 14:31hrs
http://gisig.iatefl.org/resources/newsletters/15/GISIGNewsletter15.pdf#page=15
CET
materials
at 11:06hrs
CET
http://www.facebook.com/reservoirdogme
dogme-–-thoughts-after-iatefl-the-dogme- at 20:19hrs
symposium-eltchat-summary-27042011/ CET
www.groups.yahoo.com/group/dogme
at 12:16hrs
http://www.avatarlanguages.com/blog/dogme-elt-web20-dogme20/
CET
Notes (please do not delete other's
notes; comment instead)
This is an example entry to show the kind

of info that would be useful!
citation
within wider edcational and political
landscapes.
defines dogme as a "teaching philosophy"

rather than a method(ology) or approach.
blog post asking for deeper critical

exploration of what dogme is and wants.
texts, or simply a certain unprincipled
employment of them?
DNT = Do-Nothing Teaching
early critical response to idea of dogme elt
serious idea which should not be taken too

far.
various references to dogme
various references to dogme
blog entry describing a teachers' self-
described "dogme lesson"
automatically updated digest of online
dogme elt related stuff
useful for critical questions about dogme
citation
Journal of a mainstream teacher’s

experiment with Dogme
A spiritual vision of Dogme
list of action points for educationalists

including moratorium on coursebooks.
blog post archive from a teacher working
in Australia relating to his dogme teaching
citation
Wiki set up to prepare for a presentation

at IH Barcelona
http://www.hltmag.co.uk/sept04/mart3.htm#10
This is an example of how you could cite
an online video
announcing closure of dogme discussion
list - decision revoked
includes entry on Dogme/Teaching

Unplugged
Simultaneously published online with
Luke Meddings
The equivalent of Martin Luther's 95 (sic)

theses
archived via
http://www.thornburyscott.com
Reprinted in Arena, 19, 1998, 41-43

how to deal with emergent language
subtitled "what coursebooks are good for"
AKA "Using a coursebook the dogme way"
AKA "Materials-free teaching"

discussion of the criticism that dogme is
viable only for NESTS.
citation
feeder idea into dogme. Author no longer
recals exact publication date
Aggegator site for references to dogme
twitter for fast exchanges on CPD related
issues.
citation
Ed Publisher/ Journal
Author Year Article Title ito Book/Journal Title Volume
rs
Chomsky, Noam 1965 Aspects of the Theory of Syntax MIT Press, Mass.
The Social Turn in Second Language Edinburgh University

Block, David 2003 Acquisition Press
Vol. 10, No. 2 Oxford;

Widdowson, H. 1989 Knowledge of language and ability for use Applied Linguistics
Oxford University Press
Vol. 10, No. 2 Oxford;

Widdowson, H. 1989 Knowledge of language and ability for use Applied Linguistics
Oxford University Press
Project Quotes Pg.
paradigm shift
Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a
completely homogeneous speech community, who knows its language perfectly
and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory
limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or
characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance.
This seems to me to have been the position of the founders of modern general
linguistics, and no cogent reason for modifying it has been offered. 3
But if we accept this view, then communicative competence is not a matter of knowing
rules for the composition of sentences and being able to employ such rules to assemble
expressions from scratch as and when occasion requires. It is much more a matter of
knowing a stock of partially pre-assembled patterns, formulaic frameworks, and a kit of
rules, so to speak, and being able to apply the rules to make whatever adjustments are 135
necessary according to contextual demands. Communicative competence in this view is
essentially a matter of adaptation, and rules are not generative but regulative and
subservient. This is why the Chomsky concept cannot be incorporated into a scheme for
communicative competence.
Hymes originally proposed the concept of communicative competence in opposition to

the concept of grammatical competence. If one follows through the implications of his
proposal, as I have tried in a small way to do in this paper, I think we arrive at a
recognition of the need to shift grammar from its preeminence and to allow for the
rightful claims of lexis. Linguistics may be about grammar rather than language. But the 136
study and teaching of language is about a lot more than that, and grammar needs to be
put in its place. 'There are rules of use ...' etc. But rules, of use, or of anything else, are
useless unless they can be effectively acted upon, unless the scope and the conditions of
their employment are understood.
My Notes
NOTE: C here dismisses as significant processing power

of the brain, environment, pragmatics, as well as
bootstrapping Saussure into agreeing with him when this
is debatable. He later cuts loose from S and ships in
with Humboldt. It is also interesting that Chomsky
states "linguistic theory" rather than "linguistics". The
two are not necessarily the same thing, yet Chomsky's
advocates proceed as if they were.
Referring to Gleason 1982: 355
Scope of language teaching more than linguistics

Author Year Article Title Editors Book/Journal Title
Senge
Bill O'Brien
Hax In Robson 1997
Robson 1997
Robson 1997
Torrington &
1995
Hall
Torrington &
Hall 1995
Handy 1986
Handy 1986
Handy 1993
Burgogne,
Pedlar & Boydell 1996
Hofstede 1991
Glass 1996
Hofstede 1991
Burgogne,
1996
Pedlar & Boydell
Revans 1998
Burgogne,
1998
Pedlar & Boydell
Senge
Senge
Senge
Senge
Charles 1993 IATEFL ELT Man SIG Newsletter
Deming 1986
Peters 1995
Easterby-Smith,
Burgogne & 1999 Organisational Learning
Araujo (Eds)
Easterby-Smith,
Araujo (Eds)
Easterby-Smith,
Araujo (Eds)
Easterby-Smith,
Araujo (Eds)
Easterby-Smith,
Elena 1999 Developing Learning managers within Burgogne & Organisational Learning
Antonacopoulou learning orgnsiations Araujo (Eds)
Arygris & Schö n 1978

Easterby-Smith,
Antonacopoulou learning orgnsiations
Araujo (Eds)
Easterby-Smith,
Easterby-Smith,
Easterby-Smith,
Easterby-Smith,
Easterby-Smith,
Elena Developing Learning managers within
1999 Burgogne & Organisational Learning
Easterby-Smith,
Easterby-Smith,
John Kotter The Heart of Change
White, Martin,
Stimson & 1991 Management in ELT
Hodge
White, Martin,
Hodge
White, Martin,
Hodge
"The Learning Organisation: An Idea

George Pickering whose Time Has Come?"
Kotter & Cohen 2002 Painting Ideas of the Future (Charles The Heart of Change
Berry)
Painting Ideas of the Future (Charles

Kotter & Cohen 2002 The Heart of Change
Berry)

Kotter & Cohen 2002 Cost versus Service (Ron Bingham) The Heart of Change
Kotter & Cohen 2002 Cost versus Service (Ron Bingham) The Heart of Change
Kotter & Cohen 2002 The Plane Will Not Move (Debbie Collard) The Heart of Change
Kotter & Cohen 2002 The Plane Will Not Move (Debbie Collard) The Heart of Change
The Body in the Living Room (Ron

Marschall)

Marschall)

Kotter & Cohen 2002 Marschall) The Heart of Change
Kotter & Cohen 2002 The Screen Saver (Ken Moran) The Heart of Change
Kotter & Cohen 2002 Retoolling the Boss (Tim Wallace) The Heart of Change
One more time: how do you motivate

1992 employees? (Frederick Herzberg) management and Motivation
1992 One more time: how do you motivate management and Motivation
employees? (Frederick Herzberg)

1992 employees? (Frederick Herzberg) management and Motivation

1992 management and Motivation
employees? (Frederick Herzberg)
Motivation Through the Design of Work

(Hackman & Oldham)

(Hackman & Oldham)

(Hackman & Oldham)
Management Challenging for the 21st

Drucker, P.F. 1999
Century
Drucker, P.F. 1999 Management Challenging for the 21st

Century
Publisher/ Journal
Volume Project Quotes
"For those in leadership positions, what is most important to remember that their
vision visions are still personal visions. Just because they occupy a position of leadership does
not mean that their personal visions are automatically the organisation's visions."
vision "Being a visionary leader is about solving day-to-day problems with the vision in mind."
"The essence of strategy is for a firm to achieve a long-standing advantage over its
competitors in every business in which it participates. A firm's strategic management
strategy has, as its ultimate objective, the development of its corporate values, managerial
capabilities, organisational responsibilities, and operational decision-making,at all
heirarchical levels and across all business and functional lines of authority."
"Strategy is the pattern of resource allocation decisions made throughout an

organisation. These encapsulate both desired goals and beliefs about what are
strategy acceptable and, most critically, unacceptable means for achieving them...it follows that
it is always possible to see what an organisation's strategy is by inspection of the whole
of what it does."
Strategic management.."encompasses the entire empire and looks beyond day-to-day

strategy operating concerns in order to focus on the organisation's long-term prospects and
development."
framework of
leadership
learning
organisation
"there are also no wholly good cultures and wholly bad structures. All cultures are OK,
culture in the right place, because each culture is good for some things, and less good at
others."
"few organisations have only one (culture)...What makes each organisation different is
culture the mix they choose. What makes them successful is, often, getting the mix right at the
right time."
culture
"finding the right form or forms is important, because inappropriate ones can constrain
rather than support the action and learning of the people in the company. Moving from
culture one form to another is a long-cycle process, best taken carefully and with due
consideration, reflection, discussion and dialogue."
structure of
organisations
"with depressing regularity, managers try to gain acceptance for change by appealing to
change their people's logic, while staff consistently interpret any change through the filter of
their emotional and political anxieties."
company practice
and culture
learning
"learning at the whole organisational level"
organisation
change and
learning
learning "a learning company is an organisation that facilitates the learning of all its members
organisation and consciously transforms itself and its context"
"organisations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results
learning they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where
organisation collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn
together."
learning
organisation
learning 1: systems thinking: "from seeing problem as caused by someone or something 'out
organisation there' to seeing how our own actions create the problems we experience"
learning 2: personal mastery: "continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of
organisation focusing our energies, of developing patience and of seeing reality objectively."
structure of
no 12, 1993 organisations
structure of
organisations
"What does a manager see when he looks at a front-line member of staff? Does he see
someone who will cheat hom, loaf on the job and generally dothe bare minimum? Or
does he see someone who could fly to the stars if we would just equip him or her to do
that and get the hell out of the way?
org learing "has concentrated on the detached observation and analysis of the
processes involved in individual and collective learning inside organsations, whereas
SAGE learning the learning organisation literature has an action orientation, and is geared toward
organisation using specific diagnostic and evaluativ methodological tools which cn help to identify,
promote and evaluate the quality of learning processes inside organisations." Tsang
1997
org learning: "understanding the nature and processes of learning (and unlearning)
learning
SAGE within organisations" and learning org: "development of normative values and
organisation
methodologies for creating change in the direction of improved learning processs"
technical or social process? (Agyris and Schö n 1978). But also political "how
SAGE learning organsiational defensive routines that reduce learning capacity arise between people
organisation
used to protect themselves against political threat." Also Agyris 1986 and Senge 1990.
learning political factor natural. Therefore: ""what is needed, therefore, are conceptions of
SAGE
organisation organisational learning which embrace political processes within them."
SAGE learning how learning takes place is still largely unresolved. Also Arygris and Schö n 1978,
organisation Hedberg 1981, Pedlar et al 1991
"...paradoxical...organisational learning is not merely individuyl learning, but

learning orgaisations learn only through the experience and actions of individuals...What then is
organisation an orgnsiation that it may learn?"
SAGE learning key questions: "when, why and how individuals are willing, or not, to learn...existing
organisation evidence has established that individuals cannot be forced to learn against their will"
according to stewart and stewart 1981 4 conditions for learning: :1: learner needs to
SAGE learning see connection bet task an consequences, 2: feedback needed, 3: practice opportunities,
organisation 4: help with vocab/ analytical skills.
acc to Lyons 1985/ Robert 1974 etc context also important: "a basic requirement if
SAGE learning learning is to take place is a climate which encourages, facilitates and rewards
organisation learning."
SAGE learning mumford 1989 factors for managers to encourage learning culture
organisation
Stewart and stewart 1981 no learning if "managers are out of practice, that is if they
have forgotten or never have acquired learning skills, and secondly, if they reject
SAGE learning anything that i likely to change their ways or, more significantly, expose or threaten
organisation them." also that if managers are "over-motivated" to perform that they have no time to
learn.
Mathophobia and philomathia: attitudes of managers tows the need to learn. Math =
learning
SAGE aware of need but reluctant, averse to risk, lack initiative; and Phil: aware of and
organisation engage in conscious learning process.
learning
SAGE "Learning managers de-politicize learning for themselves and those around them."
organisation
learning
SAGE bank managers often wanted to avoid failure rather than develop
organisation
learning
organisation People change more due to feelings than thinking
learning "successful organisations are learning organisations, and the potential to learn is
CUP
organisation present in all who work in them."
"staff development is a way of ensuring hat people learn and develop and theat te
CUP staff development organisation can grow and respond to a changing environment." even if they reject the
opportunities..."they need to know that the opportunities are there."
CUP staff development example of a training plan for all staff: new staff, newly promoted, existing staff, those
facing change
using metaphors can inspire and motivate
how to get the vision right: defining options in terms of sales turnover/ employees/
Harvard/ HBSP vision customers/ businesses/ competitors/ beliefs "what we would have to believe about
ourselves to be successful" / action steps to achieve this
Harvard/ HBSP vision encourages feeling of being involved in change - more than just numbers etc,
"frustration...anger...anxiety...and pessimism...go down. A sense of relief

Harvard/ HBSP vision
grows...Optimism grows..." during process
"IN case of large-scale change, you find 4 elements that help direct action: budgets,
plans, strategies, and visions...A budget is the financial piece of the plan. A plan specifies
Harvard/ HBSP vision
step by step how to implement a strategy. A stetegy shows how to achieve a vision. A
vision shows an end state where all the plans and strategies will eventually take you."
"A vision can usually fit on a page and can be described in an elevator ride...it involves
Harvard/ HBSP vision trying to see possible futures. It inevitably has both a creative and emotional
component..."
"without a good vision, you can choose a wrong direction and never realize that you've
done so. You will have dificulty coordinating large numbers of people without using
Harvard/ HBSP vision endless directives. You'll never get the energy needed to accomplish something very
difficult. Strategic plans motivate few people, but a compelling vision can appeal to the
heart and motivte everyone."
"No vision issue today is bigger than the question of efficiency versus some
Harvard/ HBSP vision combination of innovation and customer service."
"without vision, and without everyone having the same vision, running into obstacles
Harvard/ HBSP vision and tripping over one another is inevitable."
people don't excited about cutting costs - way round is "crafting service-oriented
Harvard/ HBSP vision visions that are impossible to achieve without actions that significantly reduce
unnecesary expenses."
Harvard/ HBSP vision Conflict: "efficiency is the issue; efficiency is not our mission."
article on state government moving towards more efficient customer service to

Harvard/ HBSP vision automatically cut costs
"most of us get a great feeling from helping other people. So you make the vision
Harvard/ HBSP vision service-oriented, something with which people can identlfy."
Harvard/ HBSP strategy "bold visions require bold strategies"
Harvard/ HBSP strategy article on change in strategy to increase efficiency
Harvard/ HBSP strategy "No, that's not lfe. That'slife as we knew it."
Harvard/ HBSP strategy the need for speed.
"the question of speed is really very simple in today's world: the answer is to move as
Harvard/ HBSP strategy
fast as possible."
Harvard/ HBSP strategy "you get used to stepping over the dead body inthe living room."
Harvard/ HBSP strategy exercise for team on writing article for fortune magazine about school in 5 years' time
put vision on screen saver. "it is a constant reminder of our company's goals. It's
Harvard/ HBSP strategy amazing what can happen if large numbers of us all understand what the goals are."
p97
Harvard/ HBSP vision exercise to assess how well other understand and agree with vision and strategies
moving the boss to another company to motivate him/ make him aware of need for
Harvard/ HBSP change
change and help him to empower himself and others
"without conviction that you can make change happen, you will not act, even if you see
Harvard/ HBSP change a vision. Your feelings will hold you back." need for stories of "survival"
"successful change leaders identify a problem in one part of the change process, or a
Harvard/ HBSP change solution to a problem. Then they show this to people in ways that are as concrete as
possible."
Vroom & Deci motivation KITA (kick in the arse!) and hygiene vs motivation
"negative KITA does not lead to motivation, but to movement." (i.e. Person moves
Vroom & Deci motivation because consequences of not moving, not because he wants to...and sometimes positive
KITA is merely a pull than a push. i.e. "you kick yourself"
"it is only when he has his own generator that we can talk about motivation. He then
Vroom & Deci motivation needs no stimulation. He wants to do it."
"if only a small percentage of time and money that is now devoted to hygiene, however,
were given to job-enrichment efforts, the return in humansatisfaction and economic
Vroom & Deci motivation
growth would be one of the largest dividends that industry and society have ever
reaped through their efforts at better personnel management."
for strong internal motivation you need: knowledge of results of work, experience
responsibility for these results, feel work is meaningful.
"Motivation at work may actually have more to do with how tasks are designed and
managed than with the personal qualities of the people who do them."
"When people are well matched with their jobs, it is rarely necessary to force, coerce,
Vroom & Deci motivation bribe or trick them ino working hard and trying to perform the job well. Instead, they
try to do well because it is rewarding and satisfying to do so.
...a very large and steadily growing minority – though working for the organisation –
rise of non-
are no longer working its employees. ... increasingly they are individual contractors
employment
New York, Harper Collins working on a retainer or for a specific contractual period; this is particularly true of the
working most knowledgeable and therefore the most valuable people working for the
relationships organisation.
And knowledge workers are not subordinates; they are “associates”. For, once beyond
New York, Harper Collins knowledge worker the apprentice stage, knowledge workers must know more about thir job than their
and superiors boss does – or else they are no good at all. In fact, that they know more about their job
than anyone else in the organisation is part of the definition of knowledge workers.
organisation Organisation has to be transparent. People have to know and have to understand the
principles organisation structure they are supposed to work in.
Somebody in the organisation must have the authority to make the final decision in a
given area. And someone must clearly be in command in a CRISIS. It is also a sound
principle that authority be commensurate with responsibility.
It is a sound principle that one person in an organisation should have only one
“master”. There is wisdom in the old proverb of the Roman Law that a slave who has
three masters is a free man. It is a very old pronciple of human relations that no one
should be put into a conflict of loyalties – and having more than one master creaates
such a conflict.
It is a sound, structural principle to have the fewest layers, that is, to have an
organisation that is as “flat” as possible – if only because, as Information Theory tells us,
“every relay doubles the noise and cuts the message in half”.
Pg. My Notes
206
don't know which book?
framework from vision - mission - strategy - policy -

procedures - planning - practice - evaluation
idea that a learning organisation needs to reassess its

procedures, strategies and policies
85
91
Handy's 4 cultures: power/ club culture, role culture, task

culture, person culture
131
organisational structure as: holistic, historically

determined, anthropologically related, socially constructed,
difficult to change.
122
6 dimensions of practices
L equals or is greater than change - if not the organisation

is declining
4 core disciplines: systems thinking, personal mastery,

mental models, building shared vision
13
7
sideways view of organigram so teachers are face to face
with customers and channel knowledge back through the
organisation
need to include all workers in decision making and

improvement of the company
does that mean that people can take their knowledge from
the company and leave to further their own position? Or
does it mean that the company would fly with them?
difference between learning organisation and

organisational learning
difference between learning organisation and

organisational learning
217
still relevant today

219
219
220
220
221
222
224
236
61
61
62
64/65
65
67
68
68
69
69
69
70
70
70 - 72
72-73
73
73-76
76
78-79
78
79
81
95-97
99
104-106
115
180
252-259
253
254
258-9
260-261
261
260
18
key to our business
18
13
13
13
How does this talk of “loyalties tally with Drucker's idea

that loyalty is not owed to an organisation (or, by
extension, its management and therefore ones superiors)?
Author Year Article Title Editors Book/Journal Title
Chomsky, Noam 1979 (1998) Language and Responsibility
Chomsky, Noam 2000 The Architecture of Language
A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal

Chomsky, Noam 1959 Behavior Language
Chomsky, Noam 1975 Reflections on Language
Aspects of the Theory of

Chomsky, Noam 1965 Syntax
why do infants begin to talk?

Language as an unintended
Locke, John 1996 consequence Journal of Child Language






Pinker, Steven 1995 The Language Instinct
Pinker, Steven 1995 The Language Instinct
Postal, Paul 2005 Foreward The Language Instinct Debate
A Theory of Justice (revised

Rawls, John 1999 ed.)
Sampson,
Geoffrey 2005 The Language Instinct Debate
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Sampson,
Publisher/ Journal
Keywords
Volume
The New Press, New York Innateness
Oxford University Press,

New Dehli Innateness
vol 35 no 1 pp. 26-58 Skinner Induction
Speed of
The New Press, New York acquisition
MIT Press, Mass. Simplifications
Vol 23, No 2, June 1996, Age dependence

Cambridge University Press Motivation
Vol 23, No 2, June 1996, Age dependence

Cambridge University Press Motivation
Vol 23, No 2, June 1996,

Cambridge University Press
Vol 23, No 2, June 1996,

Vol 23, No 2, June 1996,

Vol 23, No 2, June 1996,

Vol 23, No 2, June 1996,

Harper Perennial, New speed of
York acquisition (i)
Harper Perennial, New speed of

York acquisition (i)
Continuum, London Innateness
Oxford University Press, Age dependence

London Motivation
Continuum, London Experiment
Examples of
Continuum, London human flexibility
Continuum, London biology
Pre-existant
Continuum, London knowledge
Continuum, London Innateness origins
Continuum, London Plato
Continuum, London Plato
Empiricism
Continuum, London Politics
Continuum, London Chomsky Data
Chomsky
Continuum, London Obscurity
Continuum, London Pinker Motives
SSSM Wacky
Continuum, London Feminists
Human nature
Continuum, London Society
Instincts and
Continuum, London How humans learn
Speed of
Continuum, London acquisition (i)
Speed of
Continuum, London acquisition (i)
Speed of
Continuum, London acquisition (ii)
Speed of
Speed of
Speed of

Continuum, London Age Dependence
Continuum, London Poverty of Data
Continuum, London Quality of data
Continuum, London Quantity of data
Continuum, London Convergence

Continuum, London Convergence
Continuum, London Simplifications
Input/Output
Continuum, London systems
Input/Output
Input/Output

Sequence of
Continuum, London acquisition
Specific Language
Continuum, London Impairment
Specific Language
Specific Language
headless
Continuum, London compounds
Continuum, London Universality

Quotes Page.
When certain ideas are dominant, it is very reasonable to ask why. 89
To say that 'language is not innate' is to say that there is no difference between my granddaughter, a rock and a rabbit. In
other words, if you take a rock, a rabbit and my granddaughter and put them in a community where people are talking
English, they'll all learn English. If people believe that, then they believe that language is not innate. 50
Given an input of observed Chinese sentences, [the brain] produces (by an induction of apparently fantastic complexity and
suddenness) the rules of Chinese grammar…
Grammar and common sense are acquired by virtually everyone, effortlessly, rapidly, in a uniform manner, merely by living
in a community under minimal conditions of interaction, exposure and care. 144
Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech community,
who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations,
distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the
language in actual performance. This seems to me to have been the position of the founders of modern general linguistics,
and no cogent reason for modifying it has been offered. 3
Behaviours that occur in the early phases of development may LEAD TO language, but that is not to say that the infant does
them for that reason.
According to Halliday (1975:43), 'the child is [not] learning language in order to learn language; he cannot seriously be
thought to be storing up verbal wealth for future uses he as yet knows nothing about. 253
…(the child's) reasons for doing the things that lead to linguistic competence cannot be the learning of language. This puts
many theorists in an awkward position - having to ask what NON-LINGUISTIC factors prompt the infant to engage in the
behaviours that contribute to development of LINGUISTIC capability. 253
…some writers interpret babbling to mean the infant is 'practising' the sounds that will be needed for language. Others
speak of the skills infants 'bring to the task of language learning', as though they were intentionally working toward some
desired goal. Accounts such as these are teleological... 253
It is desireable to avoid these 'plan ahead' types of explanations in individuals who lack the ability to ake actions in the
furtherance of some long-term goal that they cannot possibly anticipate. Instead, we should be seeking a sort of 'feels good'
type of account that explains why, in Tinbergen's (1951) terms, a particular infant is carrying out a particular behaviour at
a particular time. Development would thus be seen - properly, in my view - as a series of individual behavious that build
one upon the other. 254
That mimicry captures speech material along with cues to emotionality is a linguistically favourable consequence, one that
might not be intended by the infant. 259
…in the early stages of talk at least, infants appear merely to state the obvious…In order to blend in with the individuals
with whom they share an emotional relationship - family members who spend most of their time talking - infants draw the
conclusion, on some level, that they themselves must also talk. By talking, infants convey an important piece of
information: that they wish, and have the ability, to become a worthwhile member of a worthwhile group. 261
A bit of arithmatic shows that pre-literate children, who are limited to ambient speech, must be lexical vacuum cleaners,
inhaling a new word every two waking hours, day in, day out. Remember we are talking about listemes, each involving an
arbitrary pairing. Think about having to memorise a new batting average or treaty date or phone number every ninety
minutes of your waking life since you took your first steps. The brain seems to be reserving an especially capacious storage
space and an especially rapid transcribing machine for the mental dictionary. 145
The child, constrained by Universal Grammar, knows what to focus on in decoding case and agreement inflections… If the
hypotheses were not constrained to this small set, the task of learning inflections would be intractable. 292
...first language learning depends on general human intelligence and capabilities, not on some specialized biological
structure dedicated to language. Since rocks and rabbits lack general human attributes of every sort, any failure on their
part to learn languages when (hypothetically) exposed to the same linguistic experience as a human child would,
necessarily, entirely fail to distinguish the hypotheses at issue. IX
In due course, the child comes to trust his parents and to have confidence in his surroundings; and this leads him to launch
out and to test his maturing abilities, all the while supported by their affection and encouragement. Gradually he acquires
various skills and develops a sense of competence that affirms his self-esteem. 406-407
We are born knowing nothing - we do not have, say, the beaver's instinctive knowledge of how to build a strong dam… but
we have a natural curiosity, a propensity to come up with new ideas and put questions to Nature by practical experiment,
so that Nature has to give us answers whether she will or no. 2
Because people develop knowledge from scratch rather than being born with inbuilt knowledge, we can adapt to different
circumstances. Put humans in the Arctic, and they will invent the igloo. Put them in southern Africa, and they will invent
the rondavel. Put them anywhere on Earth, and wait a little while, and in time they will invent the Apollo rocket and the
Lunar Excursion Module, or the Apple Macintosh, or other new things equally unexpected and marvellous. 3
Human language, for the nativists, is a sort of biologically inherited coding system for our biologically inherited knowledge
base. 4
They argue that small children are too good at learning language to begin it from scratch - it must be that they know a lot
about it before they start. They say that the various languages of the world are too similar to be freely developed cultural
constructs: their structural framework must be fixed by our biologically inherited knowledge of language. 4
…nativism is a point of view with very deep roots in Western thought. The first nativist was Plato; and in the field of
intellectual name-dropping, no name resounds with a louder clang than his. 5
…Plato was quite clear that knowledge is innate in children born into this imperfect world. Not some knowledge: all our
knowledge. There is no true learning; 'what we call learning is really just recollection'. 5
…(Plato and Descartes) were using highly untypical, relatively digestible examples to smuggle ino our thinking a far more
general and less plausible account of human nature…we do not have to believe this stuff, just because it was said centuries
or millennia ago by immensely famous men. 6
Empiricism and liberal politics are linked by the idea that freedom to experiment is needed in situations where
authoritative knowledge is not given in advance. 7
No one would read Chomsky out of fascination with the data he quotes: the data are banal; the point of Chomsky's writing
is the conclusions he purports to draw from them. 12
Chomsky would not be the first intellectual guru to have profited fom obscurity 13
…sometimes it becomes easier to understand a case where a writer argues with intelligence and skill in favour of
conclusions which are radically misguided, if one grasps the motive which causes him to hope that those conclusions might
be true.
Over the last thirty years or so, radical feminists and other highly politicized academics working at the 'softer' end of social
studies faculties have been coming up with really zany ideas about the lack of any fixed human nature. 15
The truth is that humans have many natural proclivities; and it is important that we should understand this, because any
human culture has a ubtle and vital task to do in fostering those of our naural impulses which have beneficial outcomes,
while taming and channelling in suitable directions the many impulses that, untamed, would destroy civilisation. 16
Linguistic nativism, on the other hand, is a doctrine not about appetites or motives but about abstract structural properties
connected with knowledge and reasoning. There is nothing illogical in suggesting that these things too might be innate - it
is a meaningful hypothesis, there is nothing self-contradictory about the idea; but it is a separate idea. appetites being
innate does not particularly imply that the grammatical structure of language is likely to be innate. 17
Our ancestors were given no knowledge prior to what they could learn from experience; but, having intelligence, they
could use experience to gain knowledge. 22
The observed rate of language acquisition does nothing to support either theory against the other, unless the theories are
made precise enough to yield concrete figures for predicted rate of acquisition; and Chomsky has never attempted to do
this. 37
Why is it appropriate to regard a learning period of two years or so as 'remarkably fast' rather than 'remarkably
slow'?...Unless some particular figure for predicted acquisition-time without innate knowledge can be specified, variant (i)
of the speed-of-acquisition argument is wholly vacuous. 37
I do not believe in Chomsky's distinction. It underestimates the logical problem of learning to perform physical activities, in
much the same way that (he complains) others have underestimated the logical problem of language acquisition. 38
In order to use this contrast…one would need to show that the degree of complexity of the two bodies of knowledge, and
the accessibility of the respective bodies of relevant data, are equal or close to equal. 38
Later though, Chomsky changed his tune about physics. He began to suggest that anything which can be learned by humans
is learnable only because it happens to fall within the biologically determined range of humanly accessible subjects -
remember the quotation on p. 10 above: 'an intelligible explanatory theory...can be developed by humans in case
something close to the true theory in a certain domain happens to fall within human "science-forming" capacities'. 39
But this means that any differential in speed of learning, as between language and physics (or between language and
anything else that is learnable), can no onger be an argument that knowledge of language is innate, because in Chomsky's
later view that would not distinguish language from other intellectual domains. 39
The trouble is, if you innately know that (Sampson's previously cited examples) cannot be relevant, you will be innately
incapable of growing up as a speaker of Japanese or Hebrew… 114
…second language learning is neither here nor there as far as the nativist issue is concerned. 40
What Lenneberg did convincingly demonstrate is that first-language acquisition regularly occurs in a biologically
determined period ending in the early teens… Lenneberg's evidence seems to be perfectly compatible with the view that
learning as a general process is for biological reasons far more rapid before puberty than later. 41
...Genie did acquire nontrivial language abilities, and Susan Curtiss herself regarded Genie as refuting the strong version of
Lenneberg's claim, that 'natural language acquisition cannot ocur after puberty'. 41
…examples of language available to the child are quantitatively meagre and qualitatively degenerate. 43
..the point Hornstein and Lightfoot want to make is that a child lacking innate linguistic knowledge would find it difficult
to work out the grammar of his elders' language if his data included 'defective sentences': 'if only 5 per cent of the
sentences that the child hears are of this type, the problem will be significant because the sentences do not come labelled
as ungrammatical'. 43
Newport et al do not support Chomsky's idea that the child's data are grammatically defective. 43
Quite the reverse: 'the speech of mothers to children is unswervingly well formed. Only one utterance out of 1500 spoken
to the children was a disfluency'. 43
An adult scientist faced with two sources of data, the more accessible of which proved much more amenable to analysis
that the other, would surely concentrate his analytic efforts on the former: why should one not expect a child to act in the
same way? Indeed, Steven Pinker quotes evidence that 'when given a choice, babies prefer to listen to motherese than to
speech intended for adults'... 43
…it is trivially true that any finite sample of utterances is small relative to the totality of possibilities. But the set of
utterances encountered by a child in the language learning years can hardly be called 'small' in any absolute sense. 44
Indeed, it seems that Chomsky's point cannot be a numerical one… Rather, we must interpret Chomsky as saying that a
child's sample will typically lack any evidence bearing on some particular properties of the language being learned, and
that the system ultimately acquired by the child nevertheless incorporates these properties. 44
Surely it is not very interesting what Chomsky finds easy or difficult to believe, in an area where the facts are readily
available to observation. (One wonders how Chomsky would react to an intellectual opponent who argued in a similar
style.) When Chomsky's claims are subjected to empirical testing, they fail. 45
Chomsky is not saying that there is something special about Motherese that makes it particularly deviod of relevant
evidence. He is claiming that English usage in general is deviod of such evidence; and plainly he is wildly mistaken. 47
...'how could a linguist ever say that some sequesnce of words was ungrammatical if all he ever encountered were the
utternaces that do occur in the language?'. 49
This is indeed all a physicist ever encounters, and it is evidently all he needs in prder to predict that many unobserved
events are physically impossible. 49
At the 1975 Royaumont Symposium, Chomsky admitted that it isboth a priori plausible and empirically confirmed that
individuals who are more intelligent and/or educated than others have a higher degree of mastery of their mother tongue. 50
Individuals of very low intelligence do acquire quite a lot of of language skill. The motive for learning to participate in a
society's chief communicative activity is so strong that we would surely expect the least intelligent individuals to make this
a high priority for whatever learning abilities they possess. 50
To claim that it is harmless to pretend that language acquisition is instantaneous is, in effect, to assume that language
does not work in a Popperian fashion,without going to the trouble of proving the point. 56
…I do not believe that I ceased to deepen my knowledge of English after the 1950s. But the relevant point here is that by
asserting his steady state postulate without quoting evidence for it, Chomsky is choosing to make an assumption that is
incompatible with the Popperian account of language acquisition: hence he is ruling out the rival view by fiat. 57
What the language learner is trying to bring his tacit knowledge into correspondence with is not some single, consistent
grammar inhering in a collective national psyche, the sort of mystic entity that a sociologist like Emile Durkheim would call
a 'social fact'. Rather, he is trying to reconstruct a system underlying the usage of the various speakers to whom he is
exposed; and these speakers will almost certainly be working at any given time with non-identical tacit theories of their
own - so that there will not be any wholly coherent and unrefutable grammar available to be formulated, quite apart from
the fact that the language learner would be extraordinarily fortunate to hit on the 'correct' grammar even if there were
one correct grammar to be discovered. 58
Popperian learning is not an algorithm which, if followed without deviation, leads to a successful conclusion. 58
This argument was knocked very effectively on the head by P.K. Kuhl and J.D. Miller, who looked at how voice-onset timing
is perceived by another species. They used the chinchilla, a rabbit-like rodent. In brief, Kuhl and Miller found that artificial
stimuli placed along the da-ta dimension are perceived just as catagorically by chinchillas as they are by human beings.
Indeed, the chinchilla discrimination function, plotted as a graph, is near-identical to that of an English speaker. 63
Now, I do not know (and not does anyone else) why chinchillas perceive voice-onset timing catagorically; but it is certainly
not because they need to distinguish words beginning with D from words beginning with T. 63
There is no reason not to suppose that Man acquired catagorical perception in the same way as the chinchilla; then, when
eventually we developed language, naturally we exploited this pre-existing perceptual mechanism to choose distinctive
speech sounds. 63
With the British National Corpus, on the other hand, there is no room for seeds of doubt. If the speakers in this sample
regularly use English in ways that the (nativist) theory says no one uses English, then the theory is wrong. And, as we shall
see, they do. 74
…linguistically deprived three-year-olds from 'families on welfare' should have encountered 145 instances of the relevant
construction - about one a week on average. 78
So far as I know, it is uncontroversial that people often begin to use a new word after encountering it just once or a
handful of times; and this must be based on experience… Is there some reason why learning a new grammatical
construction from experience should require far greater exposure than learning a new word? If so, I have never seen a
nativist spell such an argument out. 78
We should expect a child, like an adult scientist, to go for the simplest generalisation consistent with the available data. 78
Even if…they would succeed, because they will hear plenty of instances. The linguistic data available to a young child are
not poor. They are very rich. 79
The children did not hear questions like this from their parents, Jackendoff points out, so they must be using a general rule
- an incorrect one. Who doubts it? The child is a little scientist, formulating hypotheses about regularities in his data; like
an adult scientist's, his initial hypotheses will often be wrong. 109
The report notes that six of the affected individuals - just under half of them - obtained perfromance IQ scores below 85.
Standardly, scores this low are taken to rule out a diagnosis of Specific Language Impairment, because perfromance on all
sorts of intellectual tasks can be impaired. 123
When the Vargha-Khadem team tested the affected individuals on verbs, therefore, it came as an 'unexpected feature' (as
their report politely puts it) that many of the errors were overgeneralisations…An overgeneralisation is a type of error that
can only be produced by applying a general rule (in this case where it should not be applied). If the KE subjects have no
ability to operate with general rules for verb tenses, as Gopik claimed, then this is one kind of mistake they should be quite
safe from making. Yet almost half (41 per cent, to be precise) of the affected individual's errors on the test were
overgeneralisations. 123
The FOXP2 mutation gives those who bear it low general intelligence relative to their unaffected kin; and among other
things, it damages their ability to execute simple sequences of actions. Language is heavily dependent on the ability to
execute complex sequences of actions rapidly and accurately, so there is little wonder that the affected KE family
members have a wide range of problems with language. 'Language mutants', however, they are not. 124
Responsible linguistics scholars, in a situation like this, do not ask themselves what they would say: they check what other
people have said or written when using the language in natural, real-life situations rather than responding to linguistic
research questionnaires. They search for examples in a corpus. 126
Yes, there are universal features in human languages, but what they mainly show is that human beings have to learn their
mother tongues from scratch rather than having knowledge of language innate in their minds. 166
Grammatical structure is cliamed to be in large part innate; on the other hand, even Chomsky recognises that vocabulary
differs massively from language to language. Presumably, then, children should acquire the grammar of their mother
tongue quickly, but learn new words ploddingly. yet Pinker stresses that they are fast at learning vocabulary as well as
grammar. 113
Children never make mistakes that Pinker says we would expect them to makeif they had to learn from scratch…On the
other hand, that does not mean that children never make mistakes in learning grammar… So what is Pinker saying…?...All
we are really able to conclude is that children find some aspects of grammar easier to learn than others, and that it is not
always obvious what distinguishes the easy bits from the harder bits. 114-115
Avoiding fires and dangerous animals is one advantage a child can get from language and cannot get from an ability to sort
beads… If that advantage is the reason why language precedes bead sorting, it does require language to be innate…unless
the contrary assumption..permits no explanation for the differential timing. It permits an obvious explanation: differential
motivation. 116
My Notes
Essay Leitmotif
P. Postal's quote in foreward. Pretty damning on face value.
NOTE: C here dismisses as significant processing power of

the brain, environment, pragmatics, as well as
bootstrapping saussure into agreeing with him when this is
debatable. He later cuts loose from S and ships in with
Humboldt.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1975): Learning How to Mean -

explorations in the development of language, Edward
arnold, London
Tinbergen, N (1951): The study of Instinct, Clarendon Press,

Oxford
Link to Rawls and Pinker's neice. Contrast with ape

experiments. What about the middle-eastern cultures which
ignore children until they have something worthwhile to say?
Clear statement of empiricist position
Convincing?
note zany
NOTE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS IN SENTENCES FOLLOWING
My Pinker p. 284
relates to Chomsky Reflections on Language p. 119
This is very persuasive and highlights why Chomskyan

theories of Competence fail to convince me.
Cite Liebermann 1975/2000
relate to Pullam and Scholz 2002 'Empirical assessment of

stimulus poverty arguments', in The Linguistic Review, 19, 9-
50 2002
REFER TO JOHN LOCKE "Why do infants begin to talk?"
Author Year Article Title Editors
Dirven, René 1990 State of the art: pedagogical

grammar
Swan, Michael 1994 Design Criteria for Pedagogic Bygate M, Tonkyn A,

Language Rules Williams E.
Book/Journal Title Publisher/ Keywords
Journal Volume
Language Teaching Jan '90 Vol 23 No. pedagogical

1 grammar;
definition
Grammar and the Language Teacher Prentice Hall pedagogical

International grammar; design
rules
Pedagogic rules
and relationship
to linguistic
description
truth
Truth and
prescription
Demarcation
Demarcation and
lexis
Teachers and
clarity
Simplicity
Simple for who?
Conceptual
parsimony
Compromising the
truth
Relevance
Grammar snobs
Quotes Page.
As a working definition we can understand pedagogical grammar (PG) as a cover term for any 1
learner- or teacher-oriented description or presentation of foreign language rule complexes
with the aim of promoting and guiding learning processes in the acquisition of that language.
By incorporating the notion of a learning grammar, the term PG may also refer to the 1
grammar within a given text-book or syllabus.
Transformational exercises…have never been far away from traditional language teaching 7
practice, and in the literature one finds numerous pleas for transformational exercises and a
rethinking of language pedagogy along transformational-generative lines.
The most important requirement of formal grammar teaching and of rule presentations is
that they should promote cognitive insight into a given rule and the internalisation of the
rule.
Most pedagogical work centres on the verb phrase, which may be a sound reflection of the
real learning difficulties in English
by 'pedagogic rules' I mean rules which are designed to help foreign-language learners 45
understand particular aspects of the languages they are studying (whether these rules are
addressed directly to learners, or to the teachers and materials writers who are expected to
pass on the rules to the learners in one form or another, is immaterial).
Pedagogic' rules can be more or less peadagogic. 45
I believe that one can identify at least six 'design criteria' for pedagogic language rules: 45
truth, demarcation, clarity, simplicity, conceptual parsimony, and relevance. … Not all of
them are compatible. Indeed, I shall argue that some of the criteria necessarily conflict.
Rules should be true. …one will often need to compromise with truth for the sake of 46
clarity, simplicity, conceptual parsimony or relevance.
If educated native-speaker usage is divided, the grammarian's job is to discribe and account 47
for the division, not to attempt to adjudicate.
A pedagogic rule should show clearly what are the limits on the use of a given form. … 47
Telling the truth involves not only saying what things are, but also saying what they are
not.
The demarcation criterion is particularly important, and notoriously difficult to satisfy, in 47

pedagogic lexical definition.
Rules should be clear. … Teachers tend to be good at making things clear. … Modern 48
pedagogic grammars, which are often written by people with teaching experience, do
generally put things clearly, and it is much easier to find rules that are clear but untrue
than rules that are true but unclear.
A pedagogic rule should be simple. There is inevitably some trade-off with truth and/or 48
clarity. How much does this matter?
Simplifying a description involves trimming it to make it more manageable, for example by 49

reducing the number of catagories or subdivisions or by leaving out unessential details.
One person's skilful simplification is another person's irresponsible travesty. 49
Whether or not a particular simplification is valid depends ultimately on who it is addressed 50

to, how much they already know, how much they are capable of taking in, and what value
they and their teachers place on complete accuracy.
An explanation must make use of the conceptual famework availabke to the learner. It may 50
be necessary to add to this. If so, one should aim for minimum intervention.
If the way in which one analyses a topic is too far removed from the analysis which ones 50
audience initially brings to it, communication is likely to break down.
A pedagogic grammarian or a teacher giving learners a rule can usually assume very little 50
conceptual sophistication on the part of his/her listeners. He must try to get things across
using the simplest possible grammatical notions. Terminology will be chosen for its
familiarity rather than for its precision. It will sometimes be necessary to provide students
with new concepts to get a point across, but one must aim for minimum intervention. This
will mean compromising - perhaps quite seriously - with the truth.
a rule should answer the question (and only the question) that the student's question is 51
asking.
Pedagogic grammar is not just about language; it is about the interaction between language 51
and language learners.
Because it is important to focus closely on a learner's point of difficulty and to exclude 52

information that is irrelevant to this, it can sometimes be useful to present what is,
objectively speaking, a thoroughly bad rule.
Effective grammar teaching, then, focuses on the specific problems (real and potential) of 53
specific learners. This will necessarily mean giving a somewhat fragmentary and partial
account of the grammar of the target language.
There is nothing wrong at all wrong with this, though the approach may look messy and 53
unsystematic: the grammar classroom is no place for people with completion neuroses.
People who are inclined to be dismissive of popular pedagogic grammars might usefully 54
consider in what form they themselves would like to be given information about quantum
mechanics…
This is art, not science, and there is a great deal of such art in the production of successful 55
pedagogic grammar rules.
These rules may on accasion be very different from those found in a standard reference 55
grammar; but it may be this very difference… that makes them succeed where more
descriptively 'respectable' rules would fail.
My Notes
My italics
Note following discussion which points out difference

between descriptive grammar rules and broad/narrow
spectrum pedagogic rules.
Swan's italics, my highlighting.
Swan's italics.
Swan's italics.
Key section.
Simplification may involve conflating otherwise

grammatically distinct areas (central thesis).
One could add "what value they and their teachers place
on complete accuracy of declarative knowledge".
YES!!! Key support for me!
strong words. But apart from the tone of caution, Swan

apparently assumes that there is a single "truth" when it
comes to grammatical analysis.
credo for trainees!

Author Year Article Title Editors
Allwright, R. L. 1984 The importance of interaction in
classroom language learning































Brandt, Caroline 2006 Allowing for practice: a critical issue in T E

S O L teacher preparation





















Cadorath, Jill & Harris, 1998 Unplanned classroom language and

Simon teacher training
Cameron, Lynne 2007 The Task as a unit for teacher

development
Davies, Alun 2006 What do learners really want from their
EFL course?

EFL course?

EFL course?
Ellis, Nick & Larsen- 2006 Language Emergence: Implications for

Freeman, Diane Applied Linguistics - Introduction
to the Special Issue
Ellis, Rod 1986 Activities and procedures for teacher

training

training

training

training
training

training

training

training

training
Activities and procedures for teacher

Ellis, Rod 1986 training


Garton, Sue 2002 Learner initiative in the language
classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom

classroom
classroom

classroom
Greer, Leslie 1977 Teacher training projects
Harmer, Jeremy 1984 Balancing activities: a unit-planning game

Hawkey, Roger 2006 Teacher and learner perceptions of

language learning activity
Hawkey, Roger 2006 Teacher and learner perceptions of

language learning activity
Ho, Belinda 1995 Using lesson plans as a means of reflection
Hockly, Nicky 2000 Modelling and 'cognitive apprenticeship'

in teacher education










Jarvis, Jennifer 1992 Using diaries for teacher reflection on in-

service courses
Kennedy, Judith 1993 Meeting the needs of teacher trainees on

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice
teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice

teaching practice
Leshem, Shosh and Bar- 2008 Evaluating teaching practice

Hama, Rivka

Hama, Rivka
Hama, Rivka

Hama, Rivka

Hama, Rivka

Hama, Rivka

Hama, Rivka
Hama, Rivka
Macclellen, Susan 1987 Integrating lesson planning and class

management

management

management

management

management

management
Murrell, Martin 1973 The planning stage: preliminaries to

selection
Murrell, Martin 1973 The planning stage: preliminaries to

selection
Smith, Joye 2001 Modelling the social construction of

knowledge in ELT teacher education

Book/Journal Title Journal volume Publisher Keywords
Applied Linguistics Oxford University Press, interaction
Vol. 5, No. 2 classroom
learning

learning

learning
learning

learning

learning

learning

learning

learning

learning
learning

learning

learning

learning
learning

learning

learning
learning

learning

learning

learning

learning
learning
learning

learning

learning
learning

learning

learning

learning

learning

learning
learning

learning
learning

learning
English Language Teaching Journal 60/04 Oxford University Press teaching practice
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
intensive courses
English Language Teaching Journal 52/3 July Oxford University Press teacher talk
conversation-driven
emergence vs. prescription
lesson planning
English Language Teaching Journal 51/4 October Oxford University Press tasks
teacher development
English Language Teaching Journal 60/1 January Oxford University Press learners
content
syllabus
method
content
syllabus
method
content
syllabus
method
Applied Linguistics 27/4 Oxford University Press emergence
English Language Teaching Journal 40/2 April Oxford University Press teacher training
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
course design
methodology
teacher training
course design
English Language Teaching Journal 4/2/1940 Oxford University Press methodology
teacher training
course design
teacher training
course design
teacher training
course design
English Language Teaching Journal 56/1 January Oxford University Press learner initiative
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
teacher control
English Language Teaching Journal CHECK!!! Oxford University Press teacher training course
design methodology
design methodology
design methodology
English Language Teaching Journal 38/2 April Oxford University Press course planning
course books
course books
course books
course books
course books
course books
course books
English Language Teaching Journal 60/3 July Oxford University Press perceptions
learning outcomes
English Language Teaching Journal 60/3 July Oxford University Press perceptions
learning outcomes
English Language Teaching Journal 49/1 January Oxford University Press lesson plans
reflection
teacher development
reflection
teacher development
reflection
reflection
teacher development
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
apprenticeship
English Language Teaching Journal
English Language Teaching Journal 47/2 April Oxford University Press

English Language Teaching Journal 62/3 July Oxford University Press evaluation
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
teaching practice
English Language Teaching Journal 41/3 July Oxford University Press lesson planning
class management
class management
class management
class management
class management
class management
English Language Teaching Journal Oxford University Press lesson planning
English Language Teaching Journal Oxford University Press lesson planning
English Language Teaching Journal 55/3 July Oxford University Press teacher education
models
models
models
Quotes
I hope to go well beyond' get them communicating' to consider interaction in the classroom notjust as an aspect of'modern' language teaching methods,
but as the fundamental fact of classroom pedagogy—the fact that everything that happens in the classroom happens through a process of live person-to-
person interaction.
in order for in order for lessons to take place at all, classroom interaction has to be managed, and by all present, not just by the teacher. This in turn leads
to the central point that it is through this joint management of interaction in the classroom that language learning itself is jointly managed. The
importance of interaction in classroom language learning is precisely that it entails this joint management of learning. We can no longer see teachers
simply as teachers, and learners simply as learners, because both are, for good or ill, 'managers of learning'.
Following Savignon (1972), it is easy to see that we should not expect our learners to be able to use their classroom learning outside the classroom if
they have never really had much opportunity to practise in circumstances at all similar to 'real life'.
the process of communication is, in an important sense, a learning process. We leam by communicating, especially in language learning, where (the
argument runs) it is by using the means of communication, in solving communication problems, that we not merely practise communicating but also
extend our command of the means of communication, the language itself.
An important aspect of this position is that 'communication', to be linguistically productive, does not need to be interactive in the sense of involving live
person-to- person, face-to-face, talk It can involve the learners, as in the Bangalore/Madras experiment, working individually and silently at their desks,
trying to solve the communication problems that arise as they puzzle out the meaning of written instructions. The term 'interacting with text* has been
coined to describe such activities, but clearly this term implies a different interpretation of'interaction' from the one I am using in this paper.
The third reason for advocating'communication' in the classroom is perhaps best expressed in terms of involvement" or'investment1 (Curran 1972).
Stevick has argued convincingly (1976:33-44) that we may expect learning to be more effective the more deeply it involves the learner. Moskowitz has
developed this point into a whole range of activities (1978) aimed at helping learners leam through interaction with their fellow-learners, interaction
that involves bringing personal value systems to the surface in the classroom. There are difficulties with this position in its extreme form (difficulties that
are challengingly set out by Brumfit, 1981), but in general the central point is well established that the communication of ideas that matter to the learner
is
likely to aid learning through getting learners more deeply involved in what they are doing.
better understanding is likely to result if learners discuss their learning, and share their various understandings (see Barnes and Todd 1977). They may
learn directly from each other, or, more likely, they will learn from the very act of attempting to articulate their own understanding. Such ideas apply
most obviously to content learning, where what is to be learned can itself be the topic of peer group discussion. In language work, group problem-solving
discussions may be advocated, but most often the topic for discussion will not be the language itself, but some carrier topic of probable interest to the
learners. Often, of course, discussions may be used for the precise purpose (as in some English for Academic Purposes courses) of practising
discussion skills, rather than for deepening the understanding of a discussion topic. In general it seems fair to suggest that language teachers have not
fully exploited the potential of group discussions of language itself, possibly because of the influence of the very persistent idea, recently reinforced with
new arguments by Krashen (1981), that conscious attention to the language is likely to be at best useless and at worst actually harmful.
We have a curious situation then, where it seems that the major arguments in
support of'getting them communicating' should not, in spite of popular opinion to the contrary, be taken as conclusive arguments in support of'getting
them talking to each other", since they may equally well be used as support for activities that do not depend on direct interaction between learners at all.
We will need to stop thinking of interaction as an aspect of teaching method that we may or may not wish to adopt in our classes, as a weapon in our
pedagogical armoury to be used only when appropriate, and to start thinking of it as something inherent in the very notion of classroom pedagogy itself.
Bluntly, classroom interaction is important because interaction is the sine qua non of classroom pedagogy. Interaction is the process whereby lessons
are 'accomplished', to use Mehan's (1974) very apt term. If no person-to-person interaction had occurred in a classroom, we would probably be
unwilling to accept that a lesson had taken place at alL From this point of view, then, there is no point in being 'for* or 'against* interaction, since it is an
inescapable and inescapably crucial aspect of classroom life.
successful pedagogy, in any subject, necessarily involves the successful management of classroom interaction. The successful management of classroom
interaction, as I will argue in the next section, necessarily involves the learners just as it does the teachers, since the management of interaction, in any
useful sense of the term, cannot be considered unilateral It is necessarily a social matter, a co-production of all the participants (not all of whom need be
physically present, even). We assume, typically, that the teacher should'manage', in the sense of playing a strong leadership role in the classroom, but we
should not let that obscure the social fact that 'no teacher teaches except by consent" (Cortis 1977:66), and that the learners' role, however compliant
they may be, is still crucial.
It is logically redundant to claim that interaction is a social matter, and so it really ought to be quite unnecessary to argue the point here, but the history
of research on language teaching suggests that the teaching profession tends to see classroom interaction as something unilaterally in the hands of the
teacher. The problem is that official responsibility for classroom interaction may be given to the teacher, and the teacher may take that responsibility
very seriously, but nothing will alter the fact that interaction, by definition and in practice, is a 'co-production'. It is the product of the action (but the
term 'action' will need to be re-examined) of all the participants. From
this point of view, classroom lessons are socially constructed events, no matter how strongly any one participant may dominate, nor how compliantly
other participants may react.
Negotiation refers, as it does outside the classroom, to any attempts to reach decisions by consensus rather than by unilateral decision-making...Navigation
is slightly different It refers to attempts to steer a course between, round, or over the obstacles that the lesson represents for the participants.
T OK, lef s get back to this.

Lu Oh, please. At the second line, on second sentence it is, says: 'Which word means
"hatred"?' (Pause.) What is 'hatred'?
T That1 s what we were just talking about When you don't like something. When
you don't like it very, very much. I hate it
Da How do you spell it?
T Huh?
Da How do vou spell it?
T What?
Da The word.
T 'Hate'? If s right there in your book, uh.
Si I hate celery. Celery?
T OK.
Lu What is the pronunciation?
T Hatred.
Si Hatred.
T 'Hatred' is the noun, OK? (Writes on board.) The verb is 'hate'. 'I hate. I hate
something", OK? Do you have a question ... Au.?
Au What is 'xenophobia'?
The teacher is trying to get on with the lesson plan (' OK, lef s get back to this'), but the learners want to clear up some problems first They are not
negotiating for a different lesson plan, only doing their best to steer a productive course through the lexical and other obstacles that the sample
sentences represent for them. I would argue that they are being intelligent learners, learners who want to understand fully as they go along, unwilling
just to sit back and comply without understanding.
In the data so far studied (approximately six hours) negotiation, as one might
expect, occurs very rarely. It represents a level of initiative-taking that many learners would find unacceptably 'risky and many teachers unacceptably
challenging. Navigation, on the other hand, is relatively frequent, accounting for up to approximately 20 per cent of learners' turns in some classes. It is,
however, a much more significant phenomenon than such raw figures might suggest, since any act of navigation, as we have seen in the sample data,
produces a minor diversion from the main lesson topic to something of more direct and immediate interest to at least one learner. These minor
diversions all take time—an average of twenty seconds in the one hour of data studied in sufficient detail so far—and can add up, as in one lesson, to a
total of almost twenty-five of the lesson's fifty minutes. In this way navigation can constitute a major contribution to the management of the whole
interactive event we call a lesson, a contribution composed of many individual contributions that, as we shall see later, allow us to observe the learners
individualizing the instruction they are receiving, making it relevant to their own particular needs.
All these contributions to the management of classroom interaction, if the target language is used for them (as in the sample data), offer genuine
communication practice. Even acts of compliance, in a sense, represent successful attempts to follow instructions, even if the instructions are to do
something 'non-communicative' like repeat a word just spoken by the teacher. So, learner involvement in interaction management offers communication
practice, practice in using the language communicatively (if only receptively) in the classroom. This is not simply 'language practice of a communicative
kind', however. It is also interaction management practice. By their necessary involvement, the learners are in a position to develop their interaction
management skills, to become more effective contributors to interaction management This remains true even if the language of instruction is not the
target language, but clearly only weakly true—an excellent and sufficient argument for the use of the target language as the medium of instruction.
In co-producing the lesson in the classroom, teacher and learners have to cope, simultaneously, with all five aspects of interaction: management of turn,
topic, task, tone, and code.
Tarn-management and /op/c-management are probably familiar, with turn

referring to each individual contribution, and topic referring to the content of each contribution. Tasfc-management refers to the demands any one
contributor may make on other participants, in terms of the mental operations required of them.
The teacher will probably be seen as the key source of language learning tasks, but we should note that all the learners' navigating moves, as we have
seen, pose tasks for the teacher, tasks that have to be dealt with if the lesson is to proceed.
Tone-management refers to the important business of establishing the

appropriate socio-emotional atmosphere for the interaction. In the above example, the learner apologizes for his inability to perform the task set This
might be a positive attempt on his part to keep the tone one in which he is unlikely to get blamed for his ignorance of the meaning of'angry", to disarm a
teacher who might otherwise express strong dissatisfaction and possibly even set extra homework! Much more dramatic examples of tone-management
are likely to occur, but such a weak one will probably suffice to reinforce the central point that tone is an aspect of all contributions (spoken or unspoken,
since learners are not supposed to allow themselves even to look bored!).
Code-management, the fifth and last aspect to be dealt with here, refers to the management of the basic means of deliberate communication—most
obviously, but not exclusively, the language itself. In designing their verbal contributions, participants have to make decisions about which language to
use (if more than one is generally available), about which register to use, which regional accent, etc. In language classrooms this can even mean, for
particularly sensitive learners, having to decide how hard to try to emulate the teacher's accent, since there may be social pressures against appearing
too
concerned to adopt a really good accent.
These five aspects of interaction management are complicated enough just as a set of five, but we have also to take account of the fact that any one
ofthem may be used to manage any other.
It has always seemed necessary to create special communication exercises, as if communication was not already taking place in any form.
Classroom interaction is not normally a sufficient end in itself. It is usually managed for a purpose outside itself—the advancement of learning. Just as we
typically expect the teacher to accept responsibility for successful classroom interaction, so we also expect the teacher to accept responsibility for
advancing learning, for so organizing things in the classroom that learning takes place there. But what was true of interaction management—that it
cannot be anything but a co-production—has to be true of the management of learning as welL Learners, willingly or not, consciously or not, are
contributors to the management of their own learning. Just as every act can be seen as a contribution to the management of interaction, so it can be seen
also as a contribution to the management of learning in the classroom, regardless of intentions, because all social behaviour can make a difference to the
learning opportunities that become available to all the participants.
It is nevertheless true in most cases that the teacher in a language class unilaterally (possibly with the support or direction of a whole national education
policy, of course) brings specific learning management plans to the classroom each lesson, while the learners, however well motivated they may be,
come with no specific plans of their own. The learners' contributions to the management of their learning tend therefore to be reactive. They' navigate'
rather than' negotiate', because they have no specific (and certainly no commonly agreed) negotiating position already prepared, and it is in any case
probably too late and futile generally, since the teacher will no doubt feel obliged to push through the authoritative 'official' plans. Nevertheless, as we
have seen, even 'navigation' can make a very significant contribution to a lesson, and possibly even determine the way half of the class time is spent To
explore this point further, we need to consider the teaching plans themselves in greater detail.
It is one thing to have plans, of course, and quite another to be able to implement them.3 The language teacher has to interact with the learners to
implement any plans, as we have seen, and this inevitably means that we must expect even the most detailed and carefully prepared plans to be
modified, through the interaction process. The end result is not just that a syllabus is taught, a method is used, and a certain socio-emotional climate is
established. The end result has to be the outcome of the necessary process of interaction, and cannot be expected to be identical, therefore, to the three
inputs from the teaching side.
the teacher's plans for teaching method do not fully determine the practice opportunities learners get, since they can, every time they contribute in any
way, construct practice opportunities for themselves and each other that go well beyond the planned method.
The third type of guidance consists of simple feedback. Learners need to know whether or not the' samples' they produce (or the explanations on
occasion) are good ones. Quite obviously the feedback they get depends on the interaction they are involved in. In this connection it may be interesting
to note that very preliminary data analysis suggests that university-level ESL learners may tend spontaneously to put forward hypotheses for their
teacher to evaluate in the area of syntax, but ask for guidance in the form of a direct explanation in the area of word meanings. They may also tend, it
seems, to ask for help with word meanings much more frequently than for help with syntax. Notice also that feedback given to any one learner can be
attended
to, and possibly learned from, by any other learner willing to take the trouble to listen.
These three forms of guidance, if made available in the target language, will also provide further samples of that language, of course (and of what
constitutes an acceptable way of constructing an explanation, or of telling someone they are wrong, for example). The guidance and the samples that
occur in the course of classroom interaction constitute the 'input", then, and are very definitely the outcome of the interactive process. No matter how
well planned they are in advance, they are finally determined by classroom interaction not by the original pre-class decision making.
Classroom pedagogy, I have argued, can proceed only via interaction,

that interaction can be managed only jointly, and the management of that interaction, in the classroom, necessarily also constitutes the management of
language learning itself. We are no longer talking of teachers teaching and learners learning, but of everyone contributing to the management of
everyone's learning (including their own, and including the teacher's, of course). All this, I have argued, is descriptively true. It does not represent the
studied reaction to a pedagogic injunction to' get them talking to each other", or to'get them communicating". It represents the normal state of affairs.
As such it is not a perspective that necessarily leads to value judgements, since there is little point in trying to decide whether you like something that is
inevitably the case.
learners' involvement in the management of their own learning, through the inevitable interactive process, is a way for them to get better instruction, to
get instruction that is more finely tuned( Krashen' s phrase, 1981) than it would otherwise be, better adapted to each learner's personal learning needs.
As things are, learners already get feedback (my third form of guidance) depending on the mistakes they make, without having to ask for it, but that
may be relatively trivial compared to the constant opportunity they get, through the interactive process, to influence the outcome of the lesson in terms
of the Receptivity dimension, in terms of the sorts of Practice Opportunities that arise, and in terms of Input in all its forms. This first implication is
therefore that, even as things are, learners are potentially getting instruction that is better adjusted and more personal than we
might expect, and certainly than we tend actually to plan for as teachers.
What are the potential benefits, though, if teachers (at least) become aware of the contribution that learners may be making to the management of their
own learning? Firstly I would hope that this awareness would help teachers have more respect for their learners. Very many teachers seem to find it
difficult to accept their learners as people with a positive contribution to make to the instructional process. Many teachers, in my experience, are very
happy to avoid asking learners to articulate their learning needs, on the grounds that learners never know what they want anyway. If such teachers
could see that their learners are already articulating their needs in the only way currently open to them, through the everyday interactive process, they
might emerge with enhanced respect for their learners. Enhanced respect for learners, from teachers, could lead to enhanced self-respect for the
learners themselves, since any individual's self-esteem is at least partly dependent on his or her perception of the esteem of others.
What can we teachers do to help learners become better managers of their learning? The least we might do, to start with, would be to try to make sure
we are not getting in the learners' way. We might be leaving very little space for them to develop their learning management skills. But merely getting
out of the way, difficult as it may be, is not helpful if it leaves the learners in a vacuum.
The next thought that comes to mind when we imagine ourselves as learner-trainers is that we may not be well equipped for the job. We may know a lot
about teaching, but that does not automatically qualify us as experts on the learner's role.
learners who become conscious of themselves as managers of their own learning are very likely simultaneously to become aware of themselves as
learners with personal learning purposes that need to be pursued even if they do not coincide with the ostensible aims of a particular course. It makes
little sense to help learners to be better managers if ' better1 does not somehow take account of individual purposes. The thought of a whole class of
learners conscious of their individual learning needs and keen to pursue them
may not be at all attractive, at first sight, to many teachers, just because they would feel professionally threatened by such a situation, threatened
because they have grown accustomed to being the inheritors of a tradition that takes for granted a unilateral managerial role for the teacher. Even
teachers who do not feel threatened in this way may well feel anxious, simply because they cannot imagine how to make it possible for so many different
purposes to be pursued in the same class.
The central fact is that interaction is the process whereby everything that happens in the classroom gets to happen the way it does. Let us make the most
of it
the (teaching practice) component is used by tutors primarily for assessment purposes while practice and feedback take on a secondary function, leading
to an emphasis on assessable performance at the expense of developmental practice.
The syllabus of such courses is typically objectives-driven and encompasses both teaching skills and language awareness development. These are normally
specified in the form of course components, topics or units, syllabus content descriptors, and course objectives or learning outcomes. Courses are usually
delivered through a combination of input, tutorials, feedback, supervised teaching practice, and guided observation of experienced teachers.
Trainees were arranged into TP groups of 4 or 5, and expected to collaborate to design cohesive and coherent lessons for their students.
The research identified a number of problems related to such TP arrangements. In particular, given the limited available time, trainees felt compelled to perform
key techniques according to their tutors’ expectations and preferences. They felt that they had insufficient opportunity in which to experiment and make mistakes
without being judged. They also experienced difficulty finding opportunities to reflect upon their performance, and to identify and address the real needs of
learners. It is suggested that some of these problems arose because assessment was a priority for tutors in TP. In this context, developmental practice and
feedback tended to acquire a secondary function. Tutors also experienced a dual, conflicting, role: that of guide (to the practising, developing teacher) and that of
assessor (of the trainee’s performance).
a number of questions emerged that led to a focus on trainees’ learning-related concerns, with ‘concern’ being defined in this context as ‘a matter that was
problematic, or of particular interest or importance, for a trainee or a tutor, that applied specifically to trainees’ learning’. Such research may be timely. Ferguson
and Donno (2003: 26), in a discussion of these training courses, observed: Considering, then, the relatively large scale of this training activity, the dearth of
published research into the phenomenon is curious.
Trainees seemed to believe that there was a correlation between final grades and the frequency with which they could demonstrate their tutor’s favoured skills.
Trainees needed to feel secure in TP. Consequently they experienced anxiety

and frustration when asked to demonstrate techniques they did not agree with, see the relevance of, feel confident performing, or understand. Wendy,
a trainee, described this as ‘having to live in this state of suspended belief’
I was never comfortable with ritualized techniques for drilling and eliciting, nor with the use of flashcards in any form. Some of these things had, for me, an
element of a ‘performing monkey’ to them. (Brenda, case study centre)
“We were all frightened to deviate from our lesson plans and deal with any real issues that came up. There was also little continuity between one session and
another. Everyone was very time-focused and worried about running over, achieving aims, etc., so interruptions of students ‘not getting it’ really panicked us.”
(Georgina, Bahrain)
“I think I know best and I like them to follow my model, but I would
love them to surprise me. [. . .] Experimentation is dangerous, if it
goes wrong they could fail the TP.”
(Louise, case study centre)
Many trainees were surprised to find as the course progressed that language learners were not the main focus of their work. In particular, trainees felt
overwhelmingly unable to take their needs into account. Language learners were described variously as being there ‘to use’; as a ‘means to an end’; and as
‘guinea pigs solely for us to practise on’. For example, this graduate wrote: For the duration of the course I must say I viewed [language learners] as tools for me
to use to improve my teaching technique. I was also extremely conscious [. . .] that they were not really getting value for money.
(Jim, case study centre)
While another graduate observed that:
It was more about us than them, the exact opposite of how it should be.
(Anna, UK)
The purpose of TP is stated as being ‘so that opportunities are provided for trainees to show that they can apply theory to practice in their classroom teaching’
(Cambridge E S O L ‘Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults (C E LTA)’: Syllabus, 2004)
Yet, when asked about the purpose of TP from the perspective of the trainee, tutors expressed the view that it exists in order to: ‘give [trainees] the chance to
develop the skills they need’ (Mary, UK). This is in accord with a craft or apprenticeship view of learning teaching (Wallace 1991: 6)
This situation bestows upon tutors dual, conflicting, roles: to provide formative guidance and support to the practising trainee on the one hand, while
simultaneously being required to make a summative assessment of the performing trainee on the other.
While this situation might be understandable in the context of short courses

where tutors are keen to make accurate judgements based on evidence, and
where there is a perceived need to standardize a course offered in many
countries but validated by one institution, it cannot be justified when it encourages a mechanistic, compliant response that limits opportunities for insight and
stifles initiative, when it prevents genuine practice taking place, or when it disrupts trainees’ ability to attend to their learners.
Reducing learning to how to teach to a set of demonstrable techniques which may be expert-judged fails to take account of the richness, uniqueness, diversity and
opportunity of each language learning classroom. It also fails to account for the distinct contexts in which the course is offered around the world, encouraging
instead a decontextualized ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach which restricts the opportunities for trainees to develop the skills needed to meet the challenges inherent in
their local environment, and promotes a view of teachers as contextually-isolated technicians.
What message are we giving new teachers regarding the status of the language learner in our profession? How morally and ethically responsible is it to ignore our
language learners and reduce a complex social, cultural, and linguistic environment to a set of hoops to be jumped through for our own convenience? What
signals are we giving when TP, ostensibly for trainees, actually means Teaching Assessment carried out by tutors, and in reality is a misnomer as little or no
opportunity for genuine practice normally exists? What are we saying about learning and teaching when trainees’ needs develop and change, but significant
aspects of the course remain static and fail to accommodate them?
To address these issues, drawing on the extensive literature in adult education, it is suggested that conceptions of learning how to teach need to move away from a
‘being told’ transfer approach, which is expert-directed, subordinating, replicating, dependent, and rational, towards an exploratory ‘finding out’ or transformative
approach, which includes the following characteristics: it builds on existing knowledge, allows for different learning styles, provides opportunities for problem-
solving, encourages autonomy, and is reflective (Tusting and Barton 2003: 36).
The notions of questioning assumptions, taking action, and reflecting on those actions would form the centrepiece of a learning process that focuses on
questioning rather than accepting knowledge. The creation of professional competence would be seen less as the replicating of technical expertise, or training,
and more as the development of artistry (Scho¨n 1987)
With such understandings, the foregrounding of language learners’ problems and issues for dialogue and critical reflection naturally becomes the central activity
for tutors and trainees. In such a context,trainees’ own needs as learner-teachers may be more readily recognized,ensuring the provision of genuine practice
opportunities, with assessment being achieved through other, distinct, means.
Many would argue that such considerations are beyond the scope of short introductory courses. It may also be argued that such courses fulfil a useful function,
and that they carry this out with considerable success from many perspectives. Such courses furthermore do not pretend to be anything more than they are: the
delivery of a range of classroom survival techniques enabling the novice to approach the E LT classroom with a degree of confidence and the capacity to develop
and experiment from that point forward.
Finally, there was the benevolent dictatorship of a teacher training course. Although far from daily realities, the weight given to lesson-planning sessions on our
course, the presence of a practical teaching component, and the requirement that a plan be given to observing tutors, with aims, background information, main
steps, timing, and organization, meant that lesson plans tended to be viewed by teachers rather like strong medicine
Firstly, it can promote authentic teacher-student and student-student

interaction.
Secondly, this form of talk can be valuable as a context for student
language learning and teacher language development. Everything that
we know from second language acquisition research suggests that both
outside and inside the classroom, negotiated interaction between native
and non-native speakers, or between more or less advanced non-native
speakers, is an important part of the learning process (Long 1983, Ellis
1990).
Thirdly, unplanned teacher-student interaction allows for the introduc-
tion of locally relevant topics and news, with greater immediacy and
flexibility than the coursebook can offer. This helps to develop group
rapport, and also provides teachers and students with ideas for
interesting topics in planned activities.
a concentrated observation programme, where trainees view the classroom as a place for planned learning activities, runs a danger of overlooking the linguistic,
learning, and social possibilities of unplanned classroom
interaction. In this last respect, it might be said that a classroom without chat is a classroom without social organization (see, for example, Boden and Zimmerman
1991).
The active role played by learners in such classroom tasks is a key feature in their identification. If learners are not required to play an active role in a particular
part of a lesson then we do not have a task, merely a 'segment' of a lesson (Mitchell and Parkinson 1979)
Extract 1
[After taking the register the teacher starts chatting to students]
T: well then, Jorge . . . did you have a good weekend?
S: yes
T: what did you do?
S: I got married.
T: [smiling] you got married. (0.7) you certainly had a good weekend
then. (5.0) [laughter and buzz of conversation]
T: now turn to page 56 in your books. (1.6) you remember last time we
were talking about biographies . . . [T checks book and lesson plan
while other students talk to Jorge in Spanish about his nuptials.]
Would the teacher, Jorge, and the class have spent time talking about his wedding in English if the observer hadn't been there?
the task can capture aspects of classroom reality at a central level

of description, enabling generalization upwards into lesson and course planning, and more detailed analysis downwards into language learning processes, and
their interrelation with teaching. Such analysis and generalization based on classroom practice can yield relevant and negotiable objectives for teacher
development workshops and courses, and the tasks recorded in classrooms can become data to be used in those contexts. Secondly, in addition to the use of
classroom tasks as resources for training, the training itself can be task-based, making use of similar stages and components as classroom tasks, and thus
modelling task-based methodology and thinking for trainees.
Despite the best of intentions, it seems that teacher intuition (Tarone and
Yule 1989, cited in West 1994) often plays a greater role in planning and
teaching decisions than informed assessment of learners’ actual needs
and wishes. The resulting divergence of teacher and learner beliefs and
expectations can spell trouble for language courses as the teacher–learner
gap widens and becomes increasingly difficult to close as the course
progresses.
Hutchinson reminds us that, ‘... the selection of materials probably represents the single most important decision that the language teacher has to make’ (1987:
37). However, decisions regarding materials are often based on either administrative convenience or teacher intuition (Spratt 1999) rather than on a principled
analysis of the needs of the teaching/learning situation. And yet, as Vincent observes, ‘... we need to find topics and tasks that will engage learners physically,
emotionally, socially and intellectually in learning the new language’ (1984: 40). If this is the case, then logic suggests that we first of all need to discover far
more about our learners than we might assume we
already know and to set about actively involving them in decisions regarding the materials, content and tasks that are selected or designed for them.
Referring to textbook selection and use, O’Neill points out that however unique learners may be, almost always suitable core content can be found somewhere in
‘the immense variety of text-books to draw upon’ (1982: 106). O’Neill’s reference to matching textbook core language to apparently unique learner needs
suggests that however diverse the teaching/learning context a ‘core’ content is available somewhere that will be suitable to some degree. O’Neill’s textbook core
constitutes an external source of ideas for syllabus content, but I believe that these ideas can be more useful and relevant if derived internally, from sources closer
to the context of use—via the data obtained from class-specific questionnaire surveys.
Scientific studies of language representation and competence and of language acquisition and use are complementary. Yet these two theoretical enterprises have
traditionally been kept distinct, with models of representation (property theories) focusing on static competence, and models of acquisition (transition theories)
and use focusing on dynamic process and performance. This Special Issue is motivated by the belief that our interests in language can better be furthered when it
is conceived of as the emergent properties of a multi-agent, complex, dynamic, adaptive system, a conception that usefully conflates a property theory with a
transition theory.
Teacher-training practices, in the first instance, can be divided into those that arc experiential and those that are awareness raising. Experiential practices involve
the trainee in actual teaching. This can occur through 'teaching practice', where the trainees are required to teach actual students in real classrooms, or it can occur
in 'simulated' practice, as, for instance, when the trainees engage in peer teaching. Awareness-reusing practices are intended to develop the trainees' conscious
understanding of the principles underlying EFL teaching and/or the practical techniques that teachers can use in different kinds of lessons.
Teacher training will often involve both kinds, although it is

probably true to say that experiential practices are more common in pre-
service training, while awareness-raising practices predominate in
in-service teacher training. This, however, is perhaps more the result of
convenience and tradition than principled decision-making.
experiential and awareness-raising practices do not need to be

separated; they can be combined in a single activity. This occurs, for
instance, when teaching practice is used not only to develop the trainees'
practical classroom know-how, but also to develop understanding of par-
ticular issues through reflection and evaluation.
The assumption that underlies the use of awareness-raising practices, however, is that the practice of actual teaching can be improved by making teachers aware
of the options open to them and the principles by which they can evaluate the alternatives. We do not know to what extent this assumption is justified. Do trainers,
in fact, really influence what teachers do in the classroom by making them think about the principles and practice of teaching in training sessions remote from the
classroom? It is all too easy to assume that a better-informed teacher will become a better teacher. It would be comforting if there were some clear evidence to
support this assumption.
The focus of this article is on awareness-raising practices. These involve the use of training activities and training procedures. Training activities consist of the
materials that the trainer uses in his or her training; they correspond to ELT materials for use in classroom teaching. Each activity will set the trainee a number of
tasks to perform. These tasks are likely to be based on some data, which constitute the raw material of the activities. It follows that training activities can be
described by specifying the different ways in which data can be provided and the different kinds of operations that the trainee is required to carry out in the tasks
based on the data. Training procedures constitute the trainer's methodology for using activities in training sessions. Just as the teacher needs to draw up a lesson
plan for exploiting teaching materials, so the trainer needs to draw up a training plan incorporating appropriate procedures for exploiting different training
activities.
It should be emphasized, however, that the framework is descriptive. If we are to develop our understanding of teacher-training practices further, we will need
also to decide upon evaluative criteria for making principled selections from the range of options, both in devising training activities and drawing up training
plans.
Each variable is but a small part of a complex picture. The notion of interlanguage has, from its very beginnings (Corder 1967; Selinker 1972), been
characterized as reflecting the interactions of many sources of different types of knowledge of the L1 and the L2.
Language is complex. Learners are complex. These variables interact over time in a nonlinear fashion, modulating and mediating each other, sometimes
attenuating each other, sometimes amplifying each other in positive feedback relationships to the point where their combined weight exceeds the tipping point
(Gladwell 2000)
Learning is ever thus. It takes place in a social context, involving action,
reaction, collaborative interaction, intersubjectivity, and mutually assisted
performance (Donato 1994; Lantolf 2006; Lantolf and Appel 1994; Lantolf
and Pavlenko 1995; Lantolf and Thorne 2006; Ricento 1995; van Geert
1994).
Each of the morals above is a characteristic of an emergent system. As such,

each phenomenon is dynamic, complex, nonlinear, chaotic (at times),
unpredictable, sensitive to initial conditions, open, self-organizing, feedback
sensitive, adaptive, characterized by strange attractors, which are fractal in
shape (Larsen-Freeman 1997). In short, language is a complex adaptive
system.
...it is generally the teacher who initiates the interaction, introduces the topic, and decides who can talk and when. As van Lier 1996: 184-5) points out,
while this may have advantages of control and efficiency, the consequences are that: “...this efficiency comes at the cost of reduced student participation,
less expressive language use, a loss of contingency, and severe limitations on the students' employment of initiative and self-determination.”
This...reflects recent theories of vocabulary learning (see, for example, Nattinger and DeCarrico 1992) as, by taking up learner initiatives, teachers
frequently produce lexis that is in some way related to those utterances, and therefore provide the learners with a context for those vocabulary items, as
well as examples of collocations and lexical phrases.
However, evidence shows (Musumeci 1996) that teachers rarely insist that learners make their messages comprehensible They usually either do their
best to understand or abandon the interaction..
In turn 8, Claudio takes the initiative, but the meaning of his utterance is not clear. When I spoke to the teacher about this episode after the leson, she
admitted that she had no idea what Claudio meant, but had wanted to get on with the lesson.
So how can learners be encouraged to to create their own learning opportunities, and how can the teacher utilize them?And how can negotiated
interaction be facilitated? I would identify two main principles:
1) give learners space
2) give learners time
Teachers should therefore use learning opportunities created by the learners themselves, or allowing them to decide how to develop a particular activity
and manage their own learning.
If learners are to be given more space and time in the classroom, there are clearly direct implications for teacher training courses too. The general
emphasis on the importance of good lesson planning and teacher control in many teacher training courses tends to put pressure on trainees to follow
lesson plans as closely as possible, and to and avoid (sic) any unplanned learning opportunities (Cadorath and Harris 1998).
Moreover, they (transcripts) can be used to raise the whole issue of teacher control and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom.
The 'apprentice' system, though invaluable, is not without weaknesses: it is rarely possible for the trainee to teach many practice classes, since the regular teacher
often hesitates to hand over 'her' students to an untried stranger for any considerable time; the supply of excellent and experienced teachers is limited, and when
such an excellent model is available, the trainee may be discouraged from developing her own style of teaching.
In practice it is found that inexperienced or timid teachers may need guidance as to the type of subject they might tackle, and complete beginners usually need to
be directed towards helpful books or articles.
Another trainee, critical of the contents of textbooks and supplementary readers, wrote an essay arguing that learners would read English more readily if the
matter available were closer to their normal reading preferences, which, he suggested, leaned towards sex and violence. A glance at publishers' catalogues will
show that moderate violence has indeed already found its way into supplementary readers, but his advocacy of 'read about sex in English' is not widely supported.
This trainee, who subsequently became a successful teacher in the Cultura, did not then take his own advice on the choice of reading matter, but the point that
learners will read only what interests them was well worth making.
Each lesson, in other words, should probably not seem die same as any odier, but in thematic terms lessons should probably not seem wildly different, either!
A balanced activities approach includes, clearly, both 'input' and 'output'. On die input side, emphasis is laid not just on 'finely-tuned input',2 where language is
adjusted to fit exacdy the students' level of proficiency (e.g. during 'presentadon' stages), but also 'roughly-tuned input'—in odier words, listening and reading
material where language is above die students' productive levels but is still comprehensible to them. Output is divided into two types: practice and
communicative. The former is characterized by teacher and language control. The latter implies an emphasis on communication, with choices about language left
to the student (see Harmer 1982a).
Planning is intimately related to motivational concerns. Students must, as far as possible, be encouraged to feel positive about language learning. What happens in
the classroom may provide this encouragement, and good planning can ensure that it does.
it is relatively easy to ensure a varied and amusing sixty-minute session. Sustaining motivation over such a short time should be within the grasp of most teachers
in most normal situations. Sustaining motivation over two, four, or eight weeks is, however, a different matter.
When planning, teachers should first decide what activities (in the very
broadest sense) will be appropriate for dieir students, based to a large
extent on what they have been doing recently. The art of balancing
activities in this way is the fundamental skill of planning.
The suggestion, in other words, is that language

concerns should not predominate unreasonably. Teachers should ask
themselves what activities, and what subject and content are likely to
motivate the students with whom they will have to spend time in the
classroom.
Planning is of vital importance in successful language teaching, but over-
worked teachers are often unable to give it die attention it deserves.
Nunan (1989) identifies a ‘hidden agenda’ which may lead learners to concentrate on formal language points rather than the communicative purpose of a lesson.
He also cites research indicating that learners prefer pronunciation practice and error correction to more communicatively-intended activities such as pair work
and the self-discovery of errors, which teachers value more highly.
A reflective lesson plan is a lesson plan on which reflective diary entries or notes are made; a lesson series is a number of lessons arranged so that the same lesson
is taught to more than one class in the same week.
I prepared a lesson plan before the first lesson in the series and reflected on my teaching immediately after Lesson A, writing diary entries or reflective notes on
any areas that needed improvement. Changes were then made to'>the first lesson plan, based on what had been learnt from the notes or diary entries. The same
procedures were repeated after each lesson in the series.
Analysis of the changes made in the lesson plans, diary entries, and notes showed that this reflective practice had helped me to make better decisions with regards
to timing, ways of dealing with the students' problems, visual presentation, the design of the activities, and how I record information on the lesson plans.
teaching (is) a process of making decisions and judgements in order to carry out intentions in a classroom (see, for example, Freeman 1990)
The notion of 'apprenticeship' in teacher training is currently out of

favour, associated as it is with reactionary models of training that
foreground the acquisition of techniques at the expense of
reflection and discovery (e.g. Zeichnher 1981). Moreover, it is often considered to be part of a conservative backlash in mainstream education, in which
progressive, child-centred views of education are coming under attack from more traditional quarters (e.g. Darling 1994). Despite its bad press, however,
apprenticeship-as-training is gaining recognition in the light of
recent developments in cognitive psychology.
It should be emphasized that in the case of EFL teaching there is no one 'correct' model shown by the trainer, but rather a range of model lessons, or 'blueprints',
or 'lesson images' (Thornbury 1999: 4), which are realized by means of a range of classroom techniques. Trainees are then given the opportunity to try out these
basic models and techniques in small teaching practice groups.
Trainees typically observe between six and eight hours of 'expert' teaching behaviour, and this is usually a formal requirement of the course1. Unfortunately, due
to pressures of time, trainees are very often unable to discuss in any depth what they may have learnt through these observations of 'expert' teaching, and 'the
knowledge accumulated in this component tends not to be integrated into the course in any kind of formal way' (Gray 1999: 9).
Input of this type can be characterized as comprising a 'linear' syllabus, in which aspects of classroom practice (both technique
and content) are dealt with as discrete items which trainees then
'accumulate' until a certain level of proficiency in teaching is reached. The linear syllabus is 'based on an assumption that through mastery of discrete aspects of
skills and knowledge, teachers will improve their effectiveness in the classroom' (Freeman, 1989: 39). The major short-coming of this view, as Freeman points
out, is 'the fragmented view it takes of teaching' (ibid.).
Hunt makes the case for using what he calls a 'cyclic, holistic' syllabus (1996: 35) on pre-service training courses. This involves 'starting with a holistic, whole
lesson approach and working down to a more atomistic, discrete item approach later in the course' (ibid.). Trainees are exposed to models of teaching, as learners,
from the very beginning of the course. In other words, the tutor teaches the trainees as if they were EFL students.
Following the 'lesson' I ask trainees to analyse what we did and why
we did it. This is followed by a tutor-led discussion (to ensure trainee
perceptions are reasonably accurate) and note-making. I encourage
the trainees to compare notes with each other, then amend or add to
their own as they see appropriate, (ibid.)
Thus trainees are exposed to models of an overall lesson (e.g. a listening

lesson) and important basic classroom techniques, such as how the board
can be used, how instructions can be given, how meaning can be
clarified, or checked, etc. Importantly, the classroom techniques are in
the context of a lesson. Trainees are exposed to many of these
techniques and overall lesson structures many times, because they watch
many lessons. Hunt calls this type of input syllabus 'cyclic', because of
the way in which trainees are repeatedly exposed to all of the elements
that make up 'good' teaching.
Hunt points to some of the advantages of this cyclic, model-based
approach:
1 Learning is not a step-by-step building block activity—it is organic,
a process that requires time for recycling and assimilation.
2 A holistic, cyclic approach in [input] mirrors the reality of the ELT
classroom.
3 Trainees do not become fixated in 'drilling' or whatever. They learn
to see lessons as units in a series within which a particular technique
may, or may not, be appropriate.
4 Regardless of what the trainee is doing next in TP [teaching
practice] he/she gains something of relevance from each input
session ... (ibid.).
No timetable was given for the first week of the course, the underlying rationale being that trainees would be freer to notice a greater variety of teaching
principles and/or techniques if their preconceptions were not bound by labels such as 'A listening lesson' or 'A vocabulary lesson'. For inexperienced trainees, the
first week is often that with the greatest learning curve. A homework task for the end of the first week of each course consisted of trainees filling in a blank
timetable with two things
they felt they had learned on each day of the previous week, an activity which Hunt calls 'a retrospective timetable' (1996: 37).
What we see here is that trainees are able to focus on elements of the modelled lessons which go beyond the level of technique; most of the comments above
show an awareness of lesson principles or design at a very early stage in the course.
The benefits for trainees of relating observed techniques to a prior

need is obvious. This is not what tends to happen on linear syllabus courses, where there might be an input session called 'Checking Meaning' early on, which
comes long before trainees are 'ready' to experiment with such techniques.
Even more revealing is that over the course it became apparent that
certain skills and techniques (such as checking meaning) were generally 'late acquired'.
Modelling in Atkinson's sense can be taken to refer to model-based input by trainers, and coaching refers to trainees' experiences of teaching practice, where
'active mentoring' is provided by the trainer in the form of feedback on teaching practice. Fading reflects the process whereby overt modelling is replaced by
analysis of the perceived needs of increasingly independent trainees in their teaching practice.
The format of the

lesson plan
As trainers, we would probably consider the content of a lesson plan to be of more importance than the way in which it was set out. Yet these trainees'
overwhelming concern was in fact with the form of the plan rather than its substance.
In many cases, trainees would work backwards, choosing what they thought would be a 'good' interactive activity and then see what kind of aims and objectives
they could derive from it. In other cases, they said they used textbook chapter headings, or specified such a vague objective that it would fit every occasion (e.g.
Obj: 'To be able to read a text').
As trainers, we need to create a delicate balance between taking minor decisions out of the trainees' hands—by, for example, setting out explicitly a pro-forma
lesson plan, giving clearly written objectives for tasks, and so on—and yet allowing trainees to develop their own strategies which harmonize with their teaching
situation.
many trainees chose activities not from a position of conviction concerning their efficacy but rather because they wanted to 'please the supervisor'. Training
courses may claim to want to encourage trainees to develop their own theories of professional action through, for example, experiental learning, but for young
trainees it may be preferable if, as trainers, we make explicit our own philosophies and beliefs.
Thornbury (1991) discusses the keeping of structured logs as a

means of developing 'craft knowledge'. However, these trainees were universal in their dislike of such 'forms', seeing them as yet another thing to be 'done'. What
they did find valuable, however, was the opportunity to express their feelings in an unstructured way. When they did this, their evaluations were more descriptive
and affective than analytic, and concerned more with the failings of the pupils than pedagogic aspects. they revealed the often defensive feelings of young teacher
trainees
Some trainees seemed to feel that analysis of their own performance required a kind of self-denigration
I must follow my plan next time. I spent too much time on comparatives. There must not be any activity out of lesson plans. Must allocate time for every section
skill so that the lesson will go as planned.
young inexperienced trainees are often defensive and feel under threat from supervisors. It may be that in the early stages of learning to teach, trainees need to
concentrate on acquiring a confident grasp of classroom routines and that critical analysis develops at a much later stage.
research shows that traditional supervision seemed to have little direct effect on trainees' performance.
...many problems present themselves for which trainees require prescriptive advice delivered in the right way. At times, they seemed to want quick answers from
someone who was strongly
supportive and confident on their behalf, who could reassure them and say 'It's alright—I know where you want to go and I can help you get there'.
However much we tell the students that it is their lesson, their pupils, their agenda, we, the tutors, usually have clear ideas about what we want.
We should avoid making too complex the tasks trainee teachers have to undertake on their practices.
So-called traditional supervision does not exclude argument and debate, nor does it necessarily mean that the supervisor always has the answers. But it does mean
that the relationship is an honest one, with supervisors accepting that they are in reality the more powerful partners because they have the sanction to pass or fail
trainees.
In the literature, the practicum has been viewed as critical to the

development of trainees. It is their first hands-on experience with their
chosen career. It creates opportunities for trainees to develop their
pedagogical skills and ‘it is the best way to acquire professional knowledge
and competences as a teacher’ (Hascher, Cocard, and Moser 2004: 626).
During the practicum trainees can put into practice their beliefs based on
language learning theories they acquired in the course of their studies. It
also serves as a ‘protected field for experimentation’ and ‘socialization
within the profession’ (Hascher et al. ibid.)
This process can be regarded as formative assessment, since the focus is more on development and progress than on the final product itself. The second purpose,
which pertains to accountability, is to determine the trainee’s suitability for entry to the educational system.
This in itself creates conflicting perspectives concerning observation and

role identity. The message that is conveyed to trainees during the practicum
is that it represents a trial and error phase which is integral to their learning
and professional development. This is intended to foster an element of
trust and openness in the trainee–observer relationship. However, this trust
can be impeded by the observer having to act as an inspector and final
assessor. Trainees may put on an act in order to satisfy the observer’s
expectations and gain a higher grade for their conduct. If this happens,
then they may sacrifice their own development and rapport with their
observer. These contradicting roles of the observer constitute potential
problems not only for the trainee but for the observer as well.
discontent about the way that trainees’ performance was assessed during
the observation lesson. The feeling that prevailed among us was that, as
experienced observers and assessors, we were able to provide an
impressionistic value judgement of the trainee’s performance. However,
when we assessed the lesson according to the benchmarks on the
assessment form, we realized that quite often there was a gap between the
two results.
Another problem is that despite each assessor having similar criteria against
which to assess the lesson, their interpretation of those criteria is not always
identical. Each lesson is assessed by three people: the cooperating teacher,
the pedagogical counsellor, and the trainees themselves. However, the
weight and the importance allotted by the college to the various assessors are
not evenly distributed.
The observation lesson is considered a high stake test by the trainees

and at times puts them under the tremendous pressure of a major test. It
also entails conflicting decisions concerning whose theories to implement,
their pedagogical counsellor’s, their cooperating teacher’s, or their own.
This led us to investigate the following issues:
1 To what extent are we actually assessing quality of teaching through
observation?
2 What are the perceptions of our trainees regarding the way of
assessment?
There is a general consensus about the

importance of observation in the development and assessment of a teacher.
This notion is also supported by O’Leary (2004: 14) who claims that
‘Traditionally, classroom observation has occupied a prominent role in
terms of its use as a tool by which to judge and subsequently promote good
practice’. He also advocates a holistic way of assessing. He contends that
‘although it would be naı
¨ve to discount classroom observation per se as
a useful learning tool for teacher development . . . the existing assessment
approach contains a number of inadequacies that directly conflict with the
fundamental aims of genuine teacher development’. One of his objections
is to the assessment of a teacher’s ability by using a checklist of subjective
criteria. He supports his contention by claiming that:
1 a lesson is a complete entity and cannot be dissected into separate parts;
2 criteria for effective teaching differ for every instructional situation;
3 checklists measure low inference skills and these are limited because
they tell us very little about teacher behaviour and the learning process
itself;
4 effective teaching manifests itself in high inference skills, which are
fundamentally qualitative;
5 adopting a quantitative approach is discouraging and undermining to
teachers.
To attain objectivity it is argued that we have to develop systematic observation tools. Acheson and Gall (1997) reflect students’ feeling of being threatened when
they are unaware of the criteria by which they will be judged, thus defined criteria should be provided to lower the level of anxiety among students. In the same
vein, Brooker, Muller, Mylonas, and Hansford (1998) claim that an increased demand for quality and accountability in teacher education programmes requires a
criterion-based standard reference framework for assessment.
Leung and Lewkowicz (2006: 27) highlight the point of subjective
interpretation and contend that due to the fact that ‘teachers can interpret
assessment criteria differently, the idea that teachers should observe what
learners say and do, interpret their work, and then provide guidance for
improvement is an uncertain business’. Moreover, they claim that ‘teachers’
judgements are influenced by wider social and community practices and
values’ and therefore might lead to different perspectives.
1 Classroom management is not only a matter of sensitive instant decision making or of adequate organizational forethought. It is also very much a matter of
advance planning in terms of content selection.
2 This advance planning of lesson content in terms of management is an
integral part of overall pedagogic judgement. It is part of, not just sup-
plementary to, our assessment of the value and potential effectiveness of
certain activities.
We need to remind ourselves that a 'good' lesson format or a 'good' activity in terms of the linguistic pedagogy can actually represent poor teaching. This is not
because it is poorly handled, but because it is inappropriate in terms of the practical pedagogy.
If we have a quiet and unresponsive class we will probably want to stir them up, preferably early in the lesson and probably at the end too, so that they leave
feeling stimulated. If on the other hand our class is wearingly exuberant, we may want to find some way of calming them down. The skill comes in the selection
and sequencing of activities in such a way that they contribute to, rather than work against, these aims.
The argument of this article is that we can and should reduce the need for on-the-spot management skills by exercising our management skills in advance, just as
we do when we select lesson content.
It is almost an axiom of present-day language teaching that we must involve our students as much as possible. For example, with those activities that can be called
'communicative', there has been a massive and productive focus, in the affective tradition, on mental/personal involvement of the learners. But with our attention
thus focused we have tended to forget the more traditional involvement in the sense of being occupied.
Management considerations should be part of our criteria for planning the content and format of lessons. When selecting an activity we need to know more than
what language learning it will encourage. We must also think what general behaviour it is likely to encourage. Only then can we judge if the activity or sequence
of activities is a good choice for that particular lesson.
One of the many things we have to do to facilitate the learner's task in acquiring command of a new item is to try at each stage to reduce to the barest minimum
the large number of formal and conceptual contrasts this item regularly carries, revealing for him just the number necessary to make it as distinctive and as
'leamable' as possible on the occasion in question.
Of course, the task of providing explicit descriptions falls rather to the applied linguist, textbook-writer, and course-designer than to the classroom teacher.
Many pre-service and some in-service ESOL teachers are novices at learning and teaching language as a social entity.Frequently, the dominant learning
experience – the one which shapes their most powerful unconscious paradigm – has been one of receiving and regurgitating information. And it is this
paradigm which many pre-service teachers will rely upon when they encounter the pressures of the classroom for the first time, 'teaching as they were
taught, not as they were taught to teach'.
While cognitively mature learners have more resources for abstraction than children, novices of any age and of any subject matter benefit from direct,
concrete experience.
QUOTE BOTTOM SECTION OF PAGE 223

Page. My Notes
156
156
157
157
158
SPOT ON!
Allwrights 4 Modes of participation in Interaction

management:
1) compliance
2) negotiation
3) navigation
4) direction
Lovely example of learners snatching learning out of the

jaws of teaching
The potential contribution of navigation to learning and
lesson construction.
Role of L2 as instructiona medium
161 5 aspects of interactional management
Heh heh!
Types of guidance:
1) explanations (can be student prompted/navigation)
2) cues (eg. colour choices on WB; underlining)
3) feedback
The fear of the self-directed learner
Amen.
355-356 summary of course characteristics
356
356 conflicts of interest on short courses
358 The perceived need to “jump through hoops”
358 Pressure to comply without conviction
The ritualised nature of some teaching techniques, seen

as good in themselves by tutors.
Key quote from trainee about fear of deviation from plan
Experimentation is dangerous?!
The teacher at the centre of learning – if this occurs
during training, does this continue through to post-
training?
The relationship of TP to the course requirements.
tutors view TP as serving trainee's developmental needs,

independent of syllabus requirements.
Practice versus performance
right on
Teacher as “context-independent” technician
Strong points of criticism – attack on the reductionist

danger of criterion referencing.
Move from transmission to transformation – dogme!
Link to Schö n
learner's observed needs as starting point for teaching

decisions and therefore teacher skills development
Are such concerns beyond the scope of short courses?

The impact of training and lesson planning
3 benefits of unplanned talk

point two is insupportable though!
346 nature of tasks entails learner active role.
188 The pressure a lesson plan and observer can exert to

make people operate insensitively.
345 more applicable to in-service development

3 learner as influence on course content
4 the course planning paradox: learners are usually not

part of the content selection process, yet they and their
needs are the reason for a course being in existence in
the first place, one would assume?
9 Use of surveys as principled, student-focused way of

approaching coursebook selection (global and selective)
558 emergence and complexity theory unifying competence

and acquisition approaches to language study
91-92 experiential = TP based learning; AW = input style

activities
Does training (in this case, awareness raising) make a

difference?
activities = coursebook material; procedures = lesson
plan. In this sense, Ellis' view od teacer training is
modelled on standard approaches to classroom
pedagogy. Can it accommodate more dogme like
approaches?
Ellis's ways of providing data for activities include:

recording
transcripts
classroom teaching
peer teaching
micro-teaching
readings
textbook materials
lesson plans and outlines
case studies
samples of students' work
Ellis's ideas for “operations” on the data which can occur

within tasks include:
comparing
preparing
evaluating
improving
adapting
listing
selecting
ranking
adding/completing
rearranging
Ellis's ideas for training procedures include:

lecture
group/pair discussion
workshop
individual work/assignments
demonstration
elicitation
plenary discussion
panel discussion
complexity and the tipping point

the social context of learning
van Lier's first two points are key for my argument: loss
of reduced participation and impoverished language use
in comparison to the possible range.
the richness of input prompted by student initiative
Garton also uses comprehensible input and modification

arguments to suggest that increased initiative leads to
increased modification, which leads to increased
potential for uptake.
Garton also refers to Swain's (1985) comprehensible

output hypothesis and Ellis's 1993) assertion that when
pushed to modify their output to be more
comprehensible, learners develop their interlanguage
Musumeci, D. (1996) 'Teacher-learner negotiation in

content-based instruction: communication at cross-
purposes?' Applied Linguistics 17/3: 286-324
The pressure to make progress with a pre-determined

lesson plan takes priority over the immediate needs of
the learners or emergent learning affordances.
Rock on! Don't just do something, stand there1
In essence this means responding to students enquiries

and allowing peers to enter into the discourse
construction.
Garton refers to Thornbury (1996) and his timing

experiments in teacher training to illustrate the positive
impact of teacher wait time on learner involvement.
Here 'good' lesson planning seems to be taken to mean
thorough and detailed, with success measured by how
closely the lesson rolls out in accordance with the
dictates of the plan.
limitations of tp – echoes Rob Haines' point about

mimickry
The assumption is that external resources (i.e.

coursebooks) are a support to new teachers as they
reduce the need to rely on internal resources (which are
assumed to be inadequate or inaccessible for the
neophyte).
Two points here: the early notice that real topics were
being censored out of teaching material,and the fact that,
one tenured, teachers lose their principles!
the balance to be struck in planning strings of lessons

(unit coherence without homogeneity)
VERY strong statement about not only the potential for

planning to support motivation, but also the need for
planning for motivation to be supported – write to
Harmer and ask him for clarification.
It is interesting that Harmer uses the words “varied” and

“amusing” to characterise acceptable performance here,
but not words such as “effective”, “learningful”,
developmental” etc.
Lesson planning proceeds from decisions about

activities, seen through the filter of the syllabus and
teacher knowledge of students.
Teachers should not focus too much on language

selection when planning lessons – might this allow space
for emergence?
In what sense is planning of vital importance? And what
kind of planning?
Implication in this section is that the researchers feel

learner conceptions are negative in comparison to
teachers (more communicatively oriented) views of
learning.
This text is interesting but mostly only useful to highlight

the fact that teachers and learners often have wildly
different ideas about what has gone on during a lesson
or a course.
definition
Procedure – benefits of repeating the same experience

and refining each time. How practical is this in short
pre-service courses?
Interesting process definition of teaching
What Ho's article (annoyingly) does not do is discuss

how such a practice could be used with or would benefit
inexperienced or pre-service teachers – which is what its
abstract claims it will do!
Setting modelling in the current political context
Lack of integration of observation into other aspects of

course
FIND GRAY REFERENCE
additive linear approach to teacher training – mirror of

this in teaching or cause?
Demo lessons and discussion as organising principle.
Note Hunt's insistence on making sure trainees'

perceptions “are reasonably accurate” (meaning,
presumably, that they broadly accord with Hunt's own).
The benefits of a “holistic-cyclical” approach
I like this idea – write down what you got out of each
day.
It is likely that pre-service, non-experienced teachers are

more able than may generally be supposed to
conceptualise teaching at great orders of abstraction as
well as focus on very specific and concrete teaching
actions.
121 This seems very “Dogme”, with input as a repsonse to

emergent needs.
122 notion of teaching order of acquisition is interesting.

Does this mean that they should be “late-treated”? Or
does this mean that their assessment should be more
forgiving early on in the course?
Hockly suggests futher reseach is needed relating to how
effectively modelling is being transferred into uptake.
interesting but nothing meaty for this work.
Interesting finding that trainees fixate on the form and

not the content of lesson plans. NOTE: the key word in
the prompt question behind this finding was “How much
CONCERN did the following aspects of your lesson plans
give you?”
This is reflected in my anecdotal experience.
Interesting that setting objectives for trainees to work

towards is seen as a "minor decision"!
This tendency in trainees to seek to “please the teacher”

by adopting approaches intuited as being likely to be
positively received by the observing trainer is well
documented in the literature (see The Experience of
Language Teaching)
It is noteworthy that trainees do not wish to be forced to

explore their experiences in a prescribed direction or
manner; however, when left to their own devices, they
tend to seek explanations for issues in the externals (the
students are lazy; the institution is unsupportive) rather
than in the internals (their own beliefs and actions).
There is a tendency to equate analysis with negative

appraisal and exhortations to greater efforts in future to
remedy “poor” behaviour.
This quote from a trainee is very worrying. They clearly

equate successful teaching as not deviating from a plan
and planning in such detail as not to allow any such
deviations to occur.
There is a need to finds ways of reducing the feeling of
being “under attack”. The second point echoes Hockly's
assertion that “Even more revealing is that over the
course it became apparent that certain skills and
techniques (such as checking meaning) were generally
'late acquired'.” (Hockly 2000)
This assertion, if true, places in question the whole

validity of assessed teaching practice within an initial
teacher training course.
The need for positive support rather than assessment is

of great importance for trainees.
It is not honest to suggest that observing tutors can put

aside their own evaluative position while observing a
trainee at work.
Is this a realistic and supportive statement or an

expression of pessimism and lack of faith in the ability of
people?
Echoes other comments on the conflict of interest which

occurs when assessment and development are mixed.
The challenge of reconciling impressionistic judgements
with discrete assessment criteria
cf Thaine's investigation of interpretation of criteria by

trainers
Interesting questions.
FIND THE O'LEARY ARTICLE “Inspecting the observation

process: classroom observations under the spotlight”
IATEFL Teacher Development SIG 1-4 p. 14-16
Does having clear criteria for assessment really lower

anxiety in trainees?
Criteria are reflections of a belief system which may not
have been empirically tested.
Macclellen clearly views predetermination of language

content as a priori good.
In other words, no one approach to lesson organisation

will work all of the time in all contexts.
It seems that Macclellan is primarily interested in ways

for teachers to manipulate the mood of a group of
learners; to find ways of making class behaviour and
atmosphere conform to a preferred state.
Two points are of interest here: first, the writer feels it is

good to find ways through advance planning of making a
group of students respond in certain predictable and
controllable ways; second, that she sees this as equally
good when applied to linguistic content.
Again,the writer clearly values “keeping all students

busy” (as a class management instrument) as much as
“keeping them communicating (with linguistic benefits).
Whether her proposals here amount to “busy work” or
whether they have more developmental value is not
clear.
Within the context of young learner teaching this

assertion clearly has resonance; however, the emphasis
on control and teacher steering, rather than teacher
response, is perhaps less valid in adult education.
The role of the teacher as a filter through which learners

can drink refined language information.
Does it? And does it necessarily?

This article is interesting in that it suggests our approach
to unplugging our course is in fact a move towards a
constructivist pedagogy.

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