Cell theory-

Cell theory principles:

1. Living organism is composed of one or more cells
2. Cells are the smallest units of life
3. Every cell comes from pre-existing cell (All cells have common ancestors)
4.* All metabolic functions happen in the cells
5.* Inside the cell is the genetic blueprint (genes) for metabolic reactions

Exceptions of the Cell Theory:

1. Viruses- they are not built from cells, and thus, cannot be considered living.
2. Fungi- their structure consists of long threads called hyphae, which have many nuclei but
are not divided into separate cells by cell walls
3. Skeletal muscle- it’s composed of muscle fibres that are larger than a single cell and
contain several hundred nuclei
4. Algae- large algae’s cells are anomalous because their single cells are undifferentiated but
are attached to chains of identical cells or surrounded by a matrix of extra cellular material
so they built large structures
5. Mammalian erythrocytes (red blood cells)- do not contain nuclei once they are matured
and released into bloodstream, which means they cannot carry out all the functions of life

Evidence for the Cell Theory:

1. Robert Hooke first noticed in his home-built microscope numerous cells, each scientist
later on confirmed that every living being is composed of the cells
2. No smaller unit of life was ever recorded, as all living organisms are comprised OF cells
3. Louis Pasteur experiment (evidence for lack of spontaneous creation); genetic material in
form of chromosomes, inherited by every cell, all living organisms have the same genetic
code, it’s universal, with minor variations explained by mutation, all live depends on the 64
codons; The genetic code created from the 64 possible codon of 4 bases (Adenine,Thymine,
Cytosine, Guanine) is universal for all living beings, along with molecular processes, which
proves that we have a common origin from billions of years ago.

Organisms-
Functions of life:
1. Metabolism- processing organic materials into their simpler forms in order to make them
usable for the body
2. Growth- increasing the size, amount of cells in the organism
3. Response to stimulus- detecting changes in the environment and reacting to them
4. Homeostasis- keeping a stable internal environment in the body of an organism
5. Nutrition- obtaining complex organic materials and later ingesting them and metabolising
or producing simple inorganic substances by means of photosynthesis
6. Reproduction- either by mitosis and meiosis (eukaryotes) or by binary fission
(prokaryotes)
7. Excretion- releasing waste material from the body produced during metabolism

Unicellular organisms
1. One cell carries out all functions
2. They don’t experience cell differentiation
3. They don’t experience cell compartmentalization
4. All prokaryotes are unicellular, but some eukaryotes can also be unicellular
5. Examples:
Paramecium:

-Unicellular organism
-Has all functions of life
-Is transparent
Chlorella:
-Is a photosynthetic organism
-Has a rapid growth rate
-It is small and only visible under a microscope, but can turn the water green if allowed to
spread, which it does quickly
-Was used for several experiments

Cell size:

-Most cells aren’t visible to human eye

-One of the visible ones is mature human ovum, with diameter of 150μm
Microscopes:

The resolution-

Resolving power- microscope’s ability to separate objects that are close together so the
details can be seen

Light microscope- can see living materials through it

TEM/SEM-can see only the only non-living materials and the specimens must be prepared
with heavy metals or coated with carbon or gold; it makes black and white images, later
artificially coloured; even they cannot distinguish individual molecules, 100x better
resolution than light microscope
To see individual molecules, techniques such as X-ray crystallography are required
Magnification-
-Magnificantion- ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object

Centemeters Cm 0,01m 10^-2m/10000qm

Milimeters Mm 0,001m 10^-3m/1000qm
Micrometers qm 0,000001m 10^-6m/1qm
Nanometers nm 0,000000001m 10^-9m

Light microscope^

Surface area to volume ratio

-The best SA:V ratio is 1:6. The grow of SA:V is not in the same proportion.
-The surface are to volume ratio decreases with an increase in cell size
-Volume of a cell determines the level of metabolic activity within it.
-Surface area of a cell determines the rate of exchange of materials with the outside
environment
-Some cells have specialised structures such as fold or microvilli to provide a larger surface
area relative to their volume
-Cells have limited growing ability, after which they divide and become multicellular.
-Ratio gets worse with increase in size of the cell vvv

Multicellular organisms
-Differentiation- expression of some genes from the organism’s genome in the cell but not
others, it results in taking on specific functions by the cells
-They are more complex than unicellular organisms
-They are in result bigger than unicellular organisms
-Differentiation allows for new emergent properties to appear in multicellular organisms
-Emergent properties- when interaction of individual components (cells) produce new
functions (nucleic acids -> chromosomes, nerve cells with muscle cells -> movement)
-The cells can have different functions and do not carry out every single function
-2 or more cells

System approach-
-Considering the holistic view of something
-Studying the groups of cells, an organ, or organism as a whole, in a way that the part and
the interactions between them can be viewed as a complete functioning entity
-Emerging properties can be only studied by the means of systems approach

Differentiation-
-expression of some genes from organism’s genome in the cell, but not others
-cells develop specialised functions
- it is allowed by cell division
-example- pancreatic cell will express the genes for production of digestive enzymes or
insulin, but a skin cell will not

Compartmentalisation-
-cells use membranes to divide specific organelles from others
-creates mini-environment for organelles

Stem cells
-body’s raw materials
-cells from which all other cells with specialised functions are created
-under right conditions they divide to form more daughter cells
-they are unspecialised
-they can divide repeatedly to make large number of new cells
-can differentiate into several types of cells
-have a large nucleus relative to the volume of the cytoplasm
-Bone marrow stem cell -> lymphocytes, erythrocytes, neutrophils, macrophages
-Plants also contain stem cells in meristems behind the tips of growing stems and roots. They
can differentiate to become various tissues of the stem and roots.

Ethical issues of Stem Cells

-The stem cells can be used to repair damaged tissue or replace it. However, the adult stem
cells have the limited ability to differentiate only into cells associated with that tissue. The
embryonic stem cells have the widest ability of differentiation- they are pluripotent and they
are unmatched in this, but they can only be obtained from discarded embryos from in vitro
fertilisation, which sparks the same debate as abortion. Adult stem cells are gained from the
bone marrow or other tissues, so they are less controversial. The permission of usages of
human embryos is varied from country to country. Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and
Austria make it illegal.

Use of stem cells

-Stem cells can also be sourced from the blood in the umbilical cord of a newborn baby, and
they can become any type of blood cell. It can be used to treat certain types of leukaemia, a
cancer causing overproduction of white blood cells in the bone marrow. Although it’s
effective, there are not enough cells for the adult patient, so therapeutic cloning of the stem
cells in a way so that they won’t lose their properties was created. It’s not in a wide use yet.
-Stargardt’s disease- condition leading to macular degeneration (gradual destruction of cell
in the centre of the retina) causing blindness. Retinal cells are created from the embryonic
stem cells and inserted directly into retina where they increase the number of cells repairing
eyesight.
-Osteopetrosis- condition causing overly dense bones throughout the body, causing
fractures, low blood cell production and the loss of the cranial nerve function (blindness,
deafness, facial nerve paralysis). To cure it, the hematopoietic stem cell transplantation was
required, which allows to the restoration of bone resorption by donor-derived osteoclasts.
-Acute Myeloid Leukemia- stem cell transplant replaces cancer-damaged cells in the bone
marrow by injecting the stem cells into the blood, where they travel to the bone marrow,
helping to rebuild the immune system and blood production

Theory-well-established and widely accepted principle that arises from extensive

observation of trends and discrepancies, and includes facts, laws, predictions and
hypotheses
Hypothesis- speculative, specific and testable prediction about will happen in an
investigation.

Ultrastructure of cells
Ribosomes- they are synthesise the proteins in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In
Prokaryotic cells there are 70S ribosomes, and in eukaryotic- 80S. It’s a measure of
ribosomes in Svedberg units. It measures behaviour of particles during sedimentation. They
are different sizes and they take different time to sediment when they are centrifuged, as
well as have different sedimentation coefficients.

Prokaryotic cells-
-small, simple, first cells to have evolved
-bacteria
-no nucleus or organelles
-they don’t compartmentalise or differentiate
-they multiply by binary fussion

Elements-
Flagellum- in some of the prokaryotes, it allows the cells to move
Capsule- protects the cell from outside environment and from drying out
Cell wall- protects the cell from bursting, is composed of peptidoglycan (carbohydrates +
nucleic acids)
Plasma membrane- controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell
Plasmid- small circles of DNA, contain genetic material, can be passed down by cells and
replicates by itself
Nucleoid, naked DNA- unseparated, naked DNA containing genetic material, it’s not
associated with any proteins, contains chromosomes
70S ribosomes- prokaryotic cells have 70S ribosomes, which synthesise proteins
Cytoplasm- site for reactions, contains genetic material and enzymes for reactions
Pili- in some cells, allows the cell to connect to another, drawing them together and
exchanging the genetic information between them
Eukaryotic cells-
-nucleus, organelles
-animals, plants, fungi, protoctista
-complex
-best viewed under the electron microscope
-they undergo compartmentalisation and differentiation

Elements-
Organelles- structures in cells, which form compartment in which specific function takes
place, allowing the cells to carry out various chemical reactions in separate parts of the cell
Nucleus- largest organelle, it contains cell’s chromosomes- genetic material, is a site of
reactions of replication and transcription of the cell
Chromosomes- composed of DNA and histone protein, forming chromatin
Nuclear envelope- double-layered membrane, which surrounds nucleus, isolates nucleus
from the rest of the cell
Nuclear pores- allow for passage of materials in and out of the nucleus
Nucleolus-site of ribosome production
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- series of membranes, transports materials inside the cell
a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)- ER with attached ribosomes, it is the site of
protein synthesis
b) Smooth endoplasmic reiticulum (sER)- ER without ribosomes, it has many enzymes
on it surface, depending on the type of cell, it has different roles- it can break down toxins
(liver cells), it can be a site of estrogen production (ovaries), it can produce phospholipids for
the construction of membranes and lipids for use in cell (breaking down toxins, production
nof estrogen, phospholipids, lipids)
Cisternae- temporary place where the proteins are collected after the production, they are
later transported to other parts by vesicles
Golgi apparatus-stacked, folded membranes; it processes proteins from rER- collecting,
packaging, modifying and releasing them in vesicles to other parts of the cell
Secretory cells- place where synthesis and secretion of proterins occurs
Vesicles- it encloses substances for the exocytosis, they transfer and organise substances in
the cell, they are also involved in metabolism, transport and enzyme storage, and are sit of
some chemical reactions
Mitochondrion-it has a double membrane; sites of aerobic respiration; it’s inner membrane
forms cristae; production of energy (ATP) for the cell
Cristae-increases the surface area for the production of ATP in the cell, occurs in
mitochondrion
Lysosomes- made by Golgi apparatus, they have hydrolytic enzymes they use for breaking
down components of cells; important in cell death, as they break down old organelles; in
white blood cells they digest bacteria from phagocytosis, transport enzymes plant cells do
not have lysosomes
Cytoplasm-gel-like, it fills majority of the volume of the cell, is a site for metabolic reactions,
keeps organelles of the cell secure, involved in transport (passive- osmosis diffusion,
facilitated diffusion; active- bulk transport, sodium-pump)
Ribosomes- site of protein synthesis, (free or attached to rER), made of RNA and protein,
without membrane, eukaryotes- 80S
Plasma membrane- controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell
Chloroplasts- site for photosynthesis, they have a double membrane like mitochondrion, and
they both have their own DNA and ribosomes, and are able to reproduce independently,
unique to plant cells
Vacuole- large, central vacuole, allows for water uptake and makes the cell firm by putting
pressure on other organelles, unique to plant cells to have a big, central vacuole and such
function
Cell wall- made of cellulose and other carbohydrates (lignin, pectin), supports the plant cell
structure, allows for the tissue to hold in optimum position for the catching of energy for
photosynthesis, unique to plant cells
Starch granules- stores carbohydrates (starch), unique to plant cells
Centrioles- assembly of microtubules
Cholesterol- makes plasma membrane of the cell rigid and firm unique to the animal cells
Plant cells vs animal cells-

Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cells

History of the cells-

-Robert Hooke- first scientist to see and describe cells
-Anton van Leeuvenhoek- one of the first microscopes in 1674
-Schleiden, Schwann- propose the cell theory in 1838
-First staining techniques- end of 19th century
-Early 1940’s- first electron microscopes
-Light microscope- objects 0,2qm apart
-Electron microscope- 0,002qm apart

Membrane structure
Amphiphatic compounds-posses both hydrophilic and lipophilic (fat-loving) properties.
Plasma membrane’s phospholipids are amphiphatic, which allows for the structure of the
membrane. Phospholipids arrange themselves in bilayers, polar groups facing the aqueous
medium and their hydrophobic chains facing inside of the bilayer, creating a non-polar
region between two polar ones. Cholesterol, glycolipids and glycoproteins are amphiphatic
and their presence in bilayer allows for different properties.

Functions of membrane- provide shape for a cell and enclose its contents, activity at
membrane surface, site for hormone binding, enzymatic action, cell adhesion, cell-to-cell
communication, channels for passive transport, pumps for active transport

Fluid mosaic model-

-7-10 nm thick.
-they are composed of bilayer of phospholipids
-phospholipids- amphipathic; one side, phosphate group bonded to glycerol, is polar and
hydrophilic, and the other are fatty acids, non-polar, lipophilic

-mosaic model- created out of many separate heads of phospholipids’ molecules

-fluid model- the membrane is flexible, because phospholipids can float into a position
anywhere in the membrane, even between the two layers
-heads (hydrophilic)- point outwards of the membrane, tails (lipophilic, hydrophobic)- point
inwards
-cholesterol- often present in animal cells, commonly found in the plasma membrane, one
end of the cholesterol associates with the polar head of phospholipid molecules, and other
parts associate with the non-polar fatty acid chains. It allows for more rigid, less permeable
membrane to water-soluble molecules
-proteins-
integral proteins- embedded in the bilayer, some of them are enzymes immbobilised
in the membrane structure and placed to carry out metabolic reactions, and there are some
that that span the bilayer acting as a channel for ions and molecules to pass by passive
transport or forming pumps that use active transport
peripheral proteins- attached to the surface; many are glycoproteins, they have
carbohydrates attached to them, and some of them serve as a hormone binding site, with
specific shape for a specific hormone to bind, other allow for cell-to-cell communication and
adhesion

(old) Hugh Dawson’s and James Danielli’s (new) Singer’s and Nicholson’s model “fluid
model “fat sandwich” mosaic model”
1935, improved after Gortel and Grendel 1972
Phospholipid bilayer between two layers of No sandwich-like globular protein layer, just
globular protein the phospholipid bilayers
Trying to explain the surface tension of lipid Integral proteins are embedded into the
bilayers structure
All the membranes are alike Usage of freeze-etching
No special proteins Continuous movement
No movement Different membranes have different
functions

Freeze-etching- preparing membranes to give three-dimensional view of the surface and

detail of the membranes’ structure. Cells are frozen and fractured by breaking them in liquid
nitrogen, later fractured surface is shadowed with evaporated heavy metal under vacuum
and stabilised. Replicated surface is floated onto fine metal grids for view in the electron
microscope to reveal 3D arrangement of lipids and proteins

Membrane Transport
Passive transport- movement of substances down the concentration gradient (from high to
love concentration) without the use of the energy, ex. Osmosis, diffusion, facilitated
diffusion
Diffusion- passive transport, molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide or glucose pass
through the cell by diffusion; it will occur until equilibrium is reached, ex. In cellular
respiration the oxygen will diffuse outside until the cell’s respiration, when the oxygen
concentration will get lower on the inside than outside, making the oxygen diffuse in, and
the opposite with carbon ; it occurs when the membrane is fully permeable to the substance
or the channel proteins in the membrane are large enough for the substance to pass through
(too large- Chloride ions (Cl-), potassium ions (K+), the proteins then form channels for them
to pass through)
Facilitated diffusion- also a passive movement, carrier protein first combines with the
diffusing molecules on one side of the membrane, carries them through the channel protein,
and the releases them on the other side, it allows for faster diffusion rate for specific
molecules that cells need; used for, for example, polar molecules or big molecules
Osmosis- passive transport of water through semi-permeable membrane from low to high
solute concentration
Active transport-movement of substances against he concentration gradient, with the usage
of energy in the form of ATP

Concentration gradient-difference in concentration of a substance between two regions

Channel proteins-
-their interior is hydrophilic, so the water-soluble materials can pass through
-they are specific, so only particular substance can move through it
-some of them are permanently open
-some are gated, and open only when stimulated to do so, ex. Gated channels in axon of
nerve cells open when there is a change in the voltage (potential difference) across the
membrane, and gated potassium channels allow K+ ions to pass through after a nerve
impulse along the axon;
-channels also allow the movement of polar substances (glucose, amino acids) through the
membrane as they cannot diffuse through the lipid layer
-polar substances are moved across the membrane by facilitated diffusion- carrier protein
first combines with the diffusing molecules on one side of the membrane, carries them
through the channel protein, and the releases them on the other side, it allows for faster
diffusion rate

Osmosis- special case of diffusion, passive movement of water cross the semi-permeable
membrane from regions of low solute concentration and high water potential, to high solute
concentration and low water potential. When the solute concentration is the same, the
diffusion won’t stop, but the amount of molecules that leave and enter the cell will be equal.
Animal cell placed in water will take in water until it bursts, and placed in high solute
concentration, it will shrink as water leaves the cell.

For some medial procedures, tissues and organs are bathed in a solution of normal saline
with the same osmolarity (measure of the solute concentration) as human cell cytoplasm,
isotonic with the cytoplasm, making the osmosis stop

Normal saline- 0.90% w/v of sodium chloride, isotonic with human cells, used in IVs to
prevent dehydration

Isotonic- equal concentration

Hypotonic- lower concentration
Hypertonic-higher concentration

Water potential- tendency of water molecules to move from an area of higher concentration
to lower concentration

Active transport- used to move substances against the concentration gradient. It uses
metabolic energy released from the breakdown of ATP to ADP and P1. Proteins in the
plasma membrane act as transporters (carriers) to move these substances through. Many of
carrier proteins are specific to particular molecules or ions.
One of the most important examples of active transport is sodium-potassium pump. It
maintains the concentration of these ions in the cells and extracellular fluid. When one ions
is pumped out of the cell, the other is pumped into the cell.

Exocytosis and endocytosis-

Endocytosis- uptake of large chemical molecules, or large amounts of materials across the
membrane, requires energy from ATP; the plasma membrane is pulled inward and surrounds
the molecules that are to e moved from the extracellular space into the cell, it encloses it in
vesicle, which pinches off the plasma membrane, and is drawn into the cell (ex. How white
blood cells take in bacteria)
a) phagocytosis- the substances taken in are particles, such as bacteria
b) pinocytosis- substances are in solution, such as the end products of digestion
Exocytosis - export of large amount of molecules, or large molecules across the membrane;
requires energy from ATP; materials are made in rER, transported to Golgi apparatus, where
they are enclosed in a vesicle, and moved to plasma membrane along microtubules. When
vesicle approaches the plasma membrane, it fuses with it and releases the contents on the
outside.

Nerve impulses are able to pass across synapses (gaps between one nerve cell and another)
due to exocytosis and endocytosis. Neurotransmitters are secreted at the end of a nerve cell
fibre by exocytosis. They stimulate another nerve and are then reabsorbed by endocytosis to
be recycled and reused.

Membrane protein functions-

1. Sites for hormone binding
2. Enzymatic action
3. Cell adhesion
4. Cell-to-cell communication
5. Channels for passive transport
6. Pumps for active transport

Origin of cells
Origin of first cells
1. Formation of simple organic molecules (amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, bases) by
high temperatures, UV lights, boiling water and radiation (from magnetic fields)
2. Single molecules combine together to create more complex molecules (triglycerides,
phospholipids, polypeptides, nucleic acids)
3. Molecules formed, which gained ability to replicate themselves and control other
chemical reactions (basis of inheritance)
4. Molecules are enclosed within membrane-bound vesicles

Endosymbiotic theory-
1. How eukaryotes developed from simple cell or prokaryotes
2. How organelles in eukaryotes were once free-living prokaryotes
3. Organelles are modified bacteria that were taken in by phagocytosis

Evidence for endosymbiotic theory

1. Chloroplasts and mitochondria derive from bacteria- chloroplast from photosensitive
bacteria, and mitochondria from purple bacteria
a) they are both the size of the bacteria
b) they both contain pieces of DNA resembling bacterial plasmids
c) they contain ribosomes in similar size to those in bacteria
d) they are able to replicate themselves by binary fussion
e) they have their own inner membrane
f) they have their own envelope

Critics of the theory-

1. There is no certainty that prokaryotes engulfed by larger cells would be passed on after
the division, but binary fusion makes it more possible that at least one of the cells contain
prokaryotes
2. Mitochondria and chloroplasts wouldn’t be able to survive on their own, but maybe they
lost ability to synthesise molecules overtime

Endosymbiosis- describes a relationship taking place inside a cell, coexistence

Gene a length of DNA at a specific location on a chromosome that controls a specific
heritable characteristic

Cell division-
Mitosis- division of the nucleus in a cell into two genetically identical daughter nuclei; during
mitosis chromosomes condense by supercoiling
Cytokinesis- division of duplicated cells, in different ways plant vs animal cells
Cyclins- involved in controlling the cell cycle

Cell cycle-
1. Interphase
a) G1 Phase (cell grows, DNA is transcribed, protein is synthesised)
b) S Phase (DNA is replicated)
c) G2 Phase (cell prepares for division)
2. Mitosis (division of the nucleus)
3. Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)
4. Apoptosis (programmed death of the cell)
5. Necrosis (premature death of the cell)
Interphase-
1. Most of the cell’s life; it performs a task it was pre-programmed for during differentiation
2. G2 Phase- preparation for the cell division; organelles duplicate, developing organelles to
divide
3. G1 Phase- period after division; growth of the cell, DNA is transcribed, protein is
synthesised, duplication of organelles
4. S Phase- DNA in the chromosomes is replicated, replication of genetic material
5. Many proteins are necessary for the interphase, and they are synthesised in the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
6. Number of mitochondria increases so respiratory rate can be rapid enough to provide
energy for the cell division/ number of chloroplasts (photosynthesis; in case of plant cells)
Mitosis-

1. Allows for the organism to grow more cells; to repair injured tissue by replacing damaged
cells
2. Embryo grows from fertilised egg to human in mitosis
3. Amoeba, Paramecium, yeast all reproduce by mitosis (asexual reproduction, no gametes,
offspring is identical genetically to a parent)
4. Four stages are present:
a) Prophase-
1. chromosomes condense (supercoil), they are visible as threads
2. centrioles move apart and are at poles
3. a spindle begins to be formed (but not visible)
4. microtubules forming part of the spindle
5. nucleolus disappears,
6. Nuclear membrane disintegrates

b) Metaphase-
1. microtubules attached to each centromere move the chromosomes
2. chromatids line up on the equator

c) Anaphase-
1. centromeres have separated
2. microtubule pulls on the centromere, moving the chromatids to the pole
3. Chromosomes

d) Telophase-
1. chromosome unravels
2. nuclear envelope is formed around each group of chromosomes
3. Nuclei forms
4. Cytokinesis begins
Supercoil- condensation
-DNA double helix -> histone proteins wrapped in nucleosomes -> cylindrical coil ->
chromatin fibre -> sister chromatids

Cytokinesis-
a) animal cell- plasma membrane pinches in and two new nuclei become sperated; two sides
of the plasma membrane meet and cell are formed (set of chromosomes, cytoplasm,
organelles, centriole)
b) plant cell-cell plate forms along the centre of the cell, separating cytoplasm into two.
Vesicles accumulate at the edges of the cell plate and release cellulose and pectins, needed
for new all. Cell wall builds up separating nuclei and dividing cytoplasm forming new cells

Mitotic index- ratio of numbers of cells undergoing mitosis to total number of cells in view;
involved in prediction the response of cancer cells to therapy; low mitotic index- longer
survival time, working treatment; less accurate with elderly

Cyclins-
-compounds involved in the control of the cell cycle
-proteins
-interact with other proteins called CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases) to form enzymes
directing cells through the cell cycle and control specific events (microtubule formation,
chromatid alignment)

G1 cyclin- coordinate cell growth, start of a new cell cycle

G1/S cyclins- start of DNA replication, centrosome duplication in vertebrates
S cyclins- induce DNA replication, promotes early events in mitosis
M cyclins- influences the formation of mitotic spindles, alignment of sister chromatids
G0- cells are in differentiation stage (neurons)

Tumour- continued, unchecked cell division producing excess of cells, that clump together.
It allowed to grow without treatment, they can cause obstruction in organs or tissues and
destroy their functions
a) benign- restricted to specific tissue or organ where it started
b) malignant- migration to other tissue or organs, and continue growing more
tumours;

Cancer- primary tumour which migrated to other tissues and creates secondary tumours in
metastasis
Metastasis- movement of primary tumour to another tissue/organ and creation of secondary
tumour

Causes of cancer-
1. damage to the genetic material
2. Producing cell that undergo uncontrolled
3. Abnormal mitosis
4. Mutagens- physical, chemical and biological agents that modify DNA (ionising radiation [x-
rays, gamma rays, UV], chemical compounds [tobacco smoke, aflatoxins in fungi])
5. Mistakes in copying DNA
6. Genetic predisposition in inheritance
7. Smoking (85% lung cancers are related to smoking)

Mutations- changes in DNA by mutagens; not all are harmful; some cause cancer so they are
carcinogens
Carcinogens- cancer causing
Oncogens- genes with potential to cause cancer, either normal that were altered, or genes
expressed at abnormally high levels; activated oncogens cause cells that should’ve died
during apoptosis to live. They become active in mutation of another gene, direct exposure to
mutagen, environmental factors (viral infection); targeted by cancer treatments
Serendipity- role of chance in science; how unexpected discoveries are sometimes made
“happy accidents”; discovery of cyclins