information
Article
Image Geo-Site Estimation Using Convolutional Auto-Encoder
and Multi-Label Support Vector Machine
Arpit Jain 1 , Chaman Verma 2, * , Neerendra Kumar 3, * , Maria Simona Raboaca 4,5,6, * ,
Jyoti Narayan Baliya 7 and George Suciu 8
Citation: Jain, A.; Verma, C.; Kumar,
N.; Raboaca, M.S.; Baliya, J.N.; Suciu,
G. Image Geo-Site Estimation Using
Convolutional Auto-Encoder and
Multi-Label Support Vector Machine.
Information 2023, 14, 29. https://
doi.org/10.3390/info14010029
Academic Editor: Heming Jia
Received: 3 November 2022
Revised: 26 December 2022
Accepted: 29 December 2022
Published: 3 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Information 2023, 14, 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/info14010029
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation,
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh 515001, India
2 Department of Media and Educational Informatics, Faculty of Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University,
1053 Budapest, Hungary
3 Department of Computer Science & IT, Central University of Jammu, Jammu 181143, India
4 Doctoral School, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei Street No. 313,
060042 Bucharest, Romania
5 Faculty of Building Services Engineering, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, C-tin Daicoviciu Street,
No. 15, 400020 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
6 ICSI Energy National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenic and Isotopic Technologies,
240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania
7 Department of Educational Studies, Central University of Jammu, Jammu 181143, India
8 R&D Department Beia Consult International Bucharest, 041386 Bucharest, Romania
* Correspondence: chaman@inf.elte.hu (C.V.); neerendra.csit@cujammu.ac.in (N.K.);
simona.raboaca@icsi.ro (M.S.R.)
Abstract: The estimation of an image geo-site solely based on its contents is a promising task.
Compelling image labelling relies heavily on contextual information, which is not as simple as
recognizing a single object in an image. An Auto-Encode-based support vector machine approach
is proposed in this work to estimate the image geo-site to address the issue of misclassifying the
estimations. The proposed method for geo-site estimation is conducted using a dataset consisting of
125 classes of various images captured within 125 countries. The proposed work uses a convolutional
Auto-Encode for training and dimensionality reduction. After that, the acquired preprocessed input
dataset is further processed by a multi-label support vector machine. The performance assessment of
the proposed approach has been accomplished using accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and F1-score as
evaluation parameters. Eventually, the proposed approach for image geo-site estimation presented
in this article outperforms Auto-Encode-based K-Nearest Neighbor and Auto-Encode-Random
Forest methods.
Keywords: SVM classification; convolutional Auto-Encoder; Auto-Encoder-KNN algorithm; random
forest algorithm
1. Introduction
The concept of estimating geo-location is an intrinsically rich and yet astonishingly
under-explored topic that has received little attention to date [1]. In the standard domain of
computer vision or recognition, it continues to be a topic distinct from many others because
it requires the identification of more key, abstract features that remain constant across large
spatial and temporal scales—making it an inherently subtle yet novel task to be undertaken
by researchers. The capacity to extract contextual information from our environment and
make inferences about our current position and surroundings is also a fundamental element
of the human experience since we have the intrinsic ability to gather contextual information
from our environment [2]. It is consequently essential to comprehend and achieve visual
geo-recognition to construct a more refined and sensitive Artificial Intelligence framework.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/information
Information 2023, 14, 29 2 of 13

In computing, geo-site refers to any sort of technology that may be used to identify a
geographic position, whether it is a large expanse of land or something as little as a needle
in a haystack. You can find a critical asset, like a trailer, a container, a pallet, or any other
similar item, by identifying a linked device in real time. Frequently, the gadget is a mobile
phone or a device that can connect to the internet [3].

1.1. Bluetooth Low Energy

Bluetooth is a technical standard for wireless short-range communication that was
created in the 1990s [4]. It is primarily intended for short-distance communication, meaning
the signals do not propagate very far; thus, the connecting devices must be in the range of
around ten meters of one another.
Although Bluetooth has been available to us for more than twenty years, its latest
advancement, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), is leading to compelling advances in geo-site
and positioning technology. Bluetooth functionality is already available on the majority
of smartphones and other gadgets [5]. As a result, when you place Bluetooth Low Energy
beacons in well-known areas, the beacons will broadcast their unique identification to any
Bluetooth-enabled devices that are nearby.

1.2. Network-Based Geo-Site

To determine the location of a user the network architecture of a service provider
can also be utilized. The correctness of network-based approaches may differ depending
on the methodology. This is reliant on the count of ground stations and the network’s
implementation using the recently updated timing algorithms. Network triangulation is a
method that is utilized by a variety of different network providers [6]. As indicated in the
picture, you may identify the location of a position by drawing triangles pointing to it from
coordinates. The service provider’s network infrastructure will equip a module that will be
used by your tracking device.
Network-based geo-site is the least energy-intensive of all the geo-site technologies
that have been considered. The precision of this locating approach is dependent on the
density of accessible base stations and networks and may vary significantly from one
location to another.

1.3. Wi-Fi
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) fall under the category of networks that link
to a certain radio frequency, generally 2.4 GHz or 5.0 GHz, for Wi-Fi positioning [7], to
provide location services. Once the data has been sent, the gadget transmits it with the help
of radio waves up to a range of hundred meters, making Wi-Fi suitable for both indoor and
outdoor use.
Wi-Fi uses very little energy and may work precisely to a range of ten meters, relying
on the accessibility of Wi-Fi networks. Aside from that, there are no more infrastructures
required. As previously indicated, your Wi-Fi gadget is capable of receiving data from
other nearby networks. Please remember that this could necessitate the usage of a paid
service or knowledge about the regional infrastructure network.

1.4. GPS
In brief, the Global Positional System (GPS), is a well-known satellite-based radio
navigation system which consists of around thirty satellites orbiting the Earth and deliv-
ering positioning data. At one time, it was only available to military personnel, but now,
anybody with a GPS gadget may accept radio signals emitted by these satellites [8].
If there are no obstructions and at least three GPS satellites accessible, when there is
no interference, this worldwide satellite system can provide timely data and geo-site to a
GPS module everywhere on or near the ground surface.
There are different types of geo-site as mentioned in Table 1 [9]. They include:
Information 2023, 14, 29 3 of 13

Table 1. Comparisons of different types of geo-locations.

Network-Based
Bluetooth Low Energy Wi-Fi GPS
Location
Accuracy Indoor/outdoor Indoor/outdoor Indoor/outdoor Outdoor only
Accuracy dependency infrastructure Everywhere Availability of network Up to five meters
Infrastructure required Not required Not required Not required
Accuracy in positioning Less than 25 m Up to 5 km Less than 25 m 5m

Data can be created and retrieved in a variety of ways using any of these types. Geo-site
is evolving with time in such a way that it is making everyday life more comfortable. Many
applications make use of this geo-site to identify the location of customers or users [10].
• Travelling applications [11] like Uber, and Airbnb [12] are using this location feature
to detect the location of the user and provide the service.
• Facebook makes use of the geo-location feature to provide relevant information ac-
cording to their place which will be more exciting and interesting to the users [13].
• Delivery applications Zomato, Swiggy, Amazon [14], and Flipkart also use this geo-site
to deliver products to the right place on time.
• Dating apps like tinder also use the geo-location feature to show nearby people
• Fitness apps like Nike Running Club make use of GPS route tracking for estimating
the distance covered by the user [15,16].
These geo-site tags would be a real-time opportunity for effectively exploring many
issues. Many researchers had explored geo-site and expanded its application in different
fields. The usefulness of integrating geographical information in IR information, such as
latitude and longitude, as well as the installation of a U-Net-based convolutional neural
network for boosting the efficiency of retrieval algorithms, were investigated in [15] to improve
the accuracy of retrieval methodologies. According to the findings of this study, applying
a suitable CNN architecture to geographical and infrared information gives a chance to
increase the quality of satellite-derived precipitation products. The authors in [16] suggested
developing an indoor positioning estimation system based on the unique and quasi-stationary
magnetic field of the rooms. This method was used to examine the spectrum development
of magnetic field data, reducing temporal dependencies. In [17], the Fourier transform, a
convolutional neural network (CNN) predicts the user’s location within a building using
bi-dimensional magnetic field data. When installing an indoor locating system, the ROC curve
is utilized to assess the CNN model’s sensitivity and specificity (ILS).
Using UAV multispectral images, a convolutional neural network (CNN) approach
was technologically advanced to estimate the number of citrus plants in dense orchards.
Each pixel is assigned a chance of containing a plant [18]. To test the approach’s resilience,
the author used two modern object detection CNN methods [19]. In [20], the authors
proposed using representation learning and label propagation to infer Twitter user location.
First, the heterogeneous connection relation graph is formed using connections between
Twitter users and location-specific phrases, and non-geographic interactions are filtered.
Then the user vectors are learned from the connection relation graph [19]. Finally, using
vector representations, iterative label propagation predicts the positions of unknown users.
The proposed technique can properly compute label propagation possibilities built on
vector illustrations and increase location inference accuracy on two samples of Twitter
datasets. In [20], a review of existing research on microblog user geo-site. We provide a
system for geo-locating microblog users. This framework presents location-related data
and an overview of microblogging services. The framework’s essential phases are also
explained in depth [21]. Modern geo-site techniques fall into three categories: network-
based, text-based, and multiview-based. Results proved that multi-view-based approaches
outperform text-based and network-based methods.
Information 2023, 14, 29 4 of 13

In this research, an Auto-Encoder-based multi-class classification algorithm is pro-

posed to detect the geo-site of the images. A dataset of around 125 countries is considered,
consisting of pictures captured within the respective countries. To reduce the dimensional-
ity of the images Auto-Encoder is used and a multi-class SVM classification algorithm [22]
classifies the images according to their labelled classes. This algorithm is proposed will be
compared with KNN [23] and the random forest algorithm [24] to validate the efficiency of
the proposed algorithm.
This paper has been written such that Section 2 deals with the literature review,
Section 3 deals with the methodology used, and Section 4 depicts the results interpreted.
At the end, Section 3 will conclude the work.
1. Literature Review:
Ref. [25] proposes an Ultra Wide Band (UWB) multi-antenna array Step Frequency
Radar (SFR) system and signal processing was constructed for subterranean utility network
identification, localization, and classification. Linear antenna arrays will cover the road
or survey channel at ideal high speed for highways and small urban roads. It will also
produce several parallel B-scans (radar image representation). The thesis was driven by
government requirements requiring geomatics databases of subsurface utility networks and
placement guidelines to minimize damage during excavations. In France’s NF-S70-003-2
standard, class A sensitive subterranean networks’ three-dimensional position is 11.25 cm.
This application requires a strong solution in a highly dynamic, complicated, unpredictable,
dispersive subsurface environment. We divided the large objective into two subtasks:
SFR system prototype with data collection software development and signal processing
algorithms for automated pipe identification, depth, and diameter estimation with Class A
localization accuracy. Thus, future signal processing approaches focus on machine learning
and computer vision-based AI algorithms and other physical signal processing techniques.
Ref. [26] proposes a hyperspectral image categorization algorithm. The method first
extracts neighboring spatial regions using a suitable statistical support vector machine
(SVM-Linear) architecture, SVM-RBF, and Deep Learning (DL) architecture that includes
principal component analysis (PCA) and convolutional neural networks (CNN), then
applies a softmax classifier. PCA reduces input picture noise, high spectral dimensionality,
and redundant information. The SVM-Linear, SVM-RBF, and CNN models automatically
extract high-level features for hyperspectral image categorization. However, because the
CNN and SVM models alone may fail to extract features with different scales and tolerate
the large-scale variance of image objects, the presented methodology uses PCA optimization
for spatial regions to construct features that the SVM and CNN model can use to classify
hyperspectral images. The Hyperspec-VNIR Chikusei dataset classification results reveal
that the provided model performs comparably to other DL and classic ma-chine-learning
approaches. The SVM-RBF model has the greatest accuracy for Hyper-spec-VNIR Chikusei
datasets at 98.84%.
Ref. [27] proposes during the COVID-19 epidemic, cyber assaults on the healthcare,
education, and financial sectors increased, drawing attention to distributed denial of service
(DDoS) attacks. Virtualization, softwarization, and IoT devices enhance network attack
surface and effect. This work introduces an Auto-Encoder-based time-based anomaly de-
tection method. We investigate how various time windows affect the flow-based detection
of numerous DDoS assaults. Our Auto-Encoder gets an anomaly detection F1-score of over
99% for most assaults and over 95% for all attacks on the latest CICDDoS2019 dataset.
Ref. [28] proposes due to its potential for future epidemics and worldwide concerns,
the new coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak, which was found in late 2019, demands par-
ticular attention. Since Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers a new paradigm for healthcare, a
variety of AI tools built upon Machine Learning (ML) algorithms are used for data analysis
and deci-sion-making processes, in addition to clinical procedures and treatments. This
implies that AI-driven techniques assist in both forecasting the global spread of COVID-19
outbreaks and identifying them when they occur. Contrary to other healthcare challenges,
COVID-19 detection requires AI-driven tools to use cross-population train/test models
Information 2023, 14, 29 5 of 13

based on active learning that uses multitudinal and multimodal data, which is the main
goal of the article.
Integrating several data sources could provide researchers with additional information
for spotting anomalous COVID-19 trends. Therefore, in this research, [29] developed a
Deep Neural Network (DNN) adapted to Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) that can
jointly train and assess CXRs and CT scans. Overall accuracy in our studies was 96.28%
(AUC = 0.9808, false negative rate = 0.0208). To identify COVID-19-positive patients, major
current DNNs also integrated CT scans and CXRs and produced coherent findings.
Table 2 summarizes the previous related works.

Table 2. A summary of the most relevant related work.

Author Features Database Findings Observations Shortcomings

To present a primary outcome
of a method centered around
approximating the GPS position Large training data sets may be
Recursive neural Washington RGBD
[15] of a drone with the use of High Accuracy required, resulting in a protracted
network dataset
Convolutional Neural training procedure.
Networks (CNN) and a
learning-based strategy [28].
Enhancing fitness in the blind test
To present the implementation conducted without jeopardizing
of an indoor location estimator overfitting, as well as evaluating a
system, where the data is lengthier training to update
Convolutional Magnetic field generated by the magnetic field neural network weights. In
[16] Better accuracy
neural network dataset of the rooms, which has been addition to this, it is considered
exhibited and is appropriate to test the model in
quasi-stationary and various situations with varying
unique. [29] setups to visualize the behavior of
the acquired findings.
To propose a convolutional
By expanding the count of stages,
neural network (CNN)
Unmanned aerial the cost of computation leads to
approach to resolve the issue of
Convolutional vehicle the increase in the
[30] approximating the count of Better accuracy
neural network multispectral speed/accuracy trade-off can be
citrus trees in highly packed
images examined in the choice of the
orchards from UAV
number of stages [30]
multispectral images.
The method often predicts the
To present a Twitter user
Twitter user coordinates of the users based on
location inference methodology
[18] location inference Twitter datasets More Accurate only the particular single social
reliant on label propagation
method network data rather than different
representation learning.
social network data.
The Geo-localization model was
To provide information related
not dynamically updated and is
Geo localization to location in addition to an
[20] Real-world dataset Good results unable to capture the change in
methods analysis of the micro-blogging
the user’s home location change
platforms [31].
and update it.
One-dimensional
convolutional
Auto-Encoder (1D NSL-KDD and To propose intrusion detection
Prolonged time for training
[22] CAE) and a UNSW-NB15 using an unsupervised deep Potential results
compared to other ablations.
one-class support datasets learning method.
vector machine
(OCSVM)

2. Methods
In this research, the Python-3 programming language is used for implementation [32].
A dataset containing 125 classes is considered for estimating the geo-site. These classes are
the countries, and the data present in these classes are the images of objects, monuments,
roads, etc. [33] which are captured within the country. Auto-Encoder with a binary classifier
algorithm is proposed to estimate the location. As the dataset consists of high-dimensional
images, these dimensions will be reduced using an Auto-Encoder. The filtered images will
Information 2023, 14, 29 6 of 13

be trained to a multi-label SVM classifier [31] to identify the geo-location of the images. The
proposed multi-label SVM classifier will be compared with another classification algorithm
like KNN, and Random Forest to prove the strength and validity of the
Information 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
algorithm proposed,
7 of 15
depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic Representation of the Auto-Encoder.

Figure 1. Schematic Representation of the Auto-Encoder.
Because the data in this dataset is sparse and simple to categorize, SVM operates
more Because
quickly and the data inbetter
produces this results.
datasetHowever,
is sparse and simple
although Random toForest
categorize,
and KVM SVM operates more
quickly andstrong
also produce produces
results,better results.
it falls short However,
of SVM although
for this specific Random
dataset. Forest and KVM also
The intended
result determines
produce strongthe algorithm
results, to use.short of SVM for this specific dataset. The intended result
it falls
The Materials and Methods should be described with sufficient details to allow oth-
determines the algorithm to use.
ers to replicate and build on the published results. Please note that the publication of your
The Materials
manuscript implies that and
youMethods
must makeshould be described
all materials, with code,
data, computer sufficient details to allow others to
and protocols
replicate
associatedandwithbuild on the published
the publication available results. Please
to readers. Pleasenote that the
disclose publication
at the submissionof your manuscript
stage anythat
implies restrictions
you must on the
makeavailability of materials
all materials, data,or computer
information.code,
New andmethods and
protocols associated with
protocols should be described in detail while well-established methods
the publication available to readers. Please disclose at the submission stage can be briefly de-any restrictions on
scribed and appropriately cited.
the availability of materials or information. New methods and protocols should be described in
Research manuscripts reporting large datasets that are deposited in a publicly avail-
detail
able database should specify wheremethods
while well-established canbeen
the data have be briefly
depositeddescribed
and provideandtheappropriately
relevant cited.
Research
accession numbers. manuscripts reporting
If the accession numberslarge
have datasets thatobtained
not yet been are deposited in of
at the time a publicly available
submission,should
database please state that they
specify will bethe
where provided
dataduring
have review. They must beand
been deposited provided
provide the relevant
before publication.
accession numbers. If the accession numbers have not yet been obtained at the time of
Interventional studies involving animals or humans, and other studies that require
submission,
ethical approval, please state
must list thethat they that
authority willprovided
be provided
approvalduring
and thereview. They must be provided
corresponding
before publication.
ethical approval code.
Interventional studies involving animals or humans, and other studies that require
Convolutional Auto-Encoder (CAE)
ethical approval, must list the authority that provided approval and the corresponding
Auto-Encoder is an unsupervised Neural Network that is used to compress the data
ethical approval code.
into smaller dimensions (bottleneck layer or code) and hence decode the data to regain
the actual original input. The compressed data given as input is stored in the bottleneck
Convolutional
layer. Because we Auto-Encoder
are aiming to (CAE)
recreate the input data, the number of output units in
Auto-Encoder must
Auto-Encoder be is
identical to the numberNeural
an unsupervised of inputNetwork
units. An encoder and a decoder
that is used to compress the data into
are commonly seen in Auto-Encoders [32]. The encoder
smaller dimensions (bottleneck layer or code) and hence decode the compresses the data delivered
data to regain the actual
into a reduced dimension equal to the size of the bottleneck layer, while the decoder re-
original input. The
stores the original data.
compressed data given as input is stored in the bottleneck layer. Because
we are aiming to recreate the input data, the number of output
As we add more layers to the encoder, the number of neurons in the layers will de- units in Auto-Encoder must
be identical
crease, to the
whilst the number
number of input
of neurons in theunits.
layersAn encoder
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dimensions when weinto
data delivered employ Auto- dimension equal
a reduced
Encoders for dimensionality reduction. This is referred to as feature extraction [33].
to the size of the bottleneck layer, while the decoder restores the original data.
Dimensionality reduction is a concept of lowering and reducing the number of di-
As in
mensions wedataadd more layers
by removing to the encoder,
fewer valuable elements [34] theor number
transforming of the
neurons
data intoin the layers will
decrease, whilst Overfitting
smaller dimensions. the number of neurons
is avoided when the indimensionality
the layers of the decoder
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and utilizeandit tomake
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Auto-Encoders for dimensionality reduction. This is referred to as feature extraction [33].
Dimensionality reduction is a concept of lowering and reducing the number of di-
mensions in data by removing fewer valuable elements [34] or transforming the data into
smaller dimensions. Overfitting is avoided when the dimensionality is reduced. As a result,
the data is depersonalized to prevent overfitting and make the procedure easier [35]. These
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FOR PEER REVIEW
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dimensionally reduced images

These dimensionally reduced will be trained
images will beto a multi-label
trained SVM classifier
to a multi-label to detect
SVM classifier to de-the
classestect
of the
These
the
These pictures
dimensionally
classes of with
the their
reduced
pictures geo-location.
images
with will
their be trained
geo-location. to a multi-label SVM classifier to de-
These dimensionally
dimensionally reduced
reduced images
images willwill be
be trained
trained to to aa multi-label
multi-label SVM SVM classifier
classifier to
to de-
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their geo-location.
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are predicted.
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anticipate
numerous
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numerous
mutually
multi-label classifica-
classifica-
tions
mutually
non-exclusive
tions need
tions need
need specialized
non-exclusive
classes.
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specialized machine
classes.
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is one of
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3. Results and
3. Results and Discussion Discussion
3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussion
and Discussion
To perform the tests using the Geoguessr dataset, we made use of Jupyter–a free
To 3. Results
perform the Discussion
tests using the Geoguessr dataset, we made use of Jupyter–a free online
onlineToTo perform
cloud-based
perform
perform the the tests
notebook
tests using the
which
using the Geoguessr
helped dataset,
in training
Geoguessr our
dataset, we
we made
deep
made use
learning
use of Jupyter–a
as free
well as ma-
cloud-based
online
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cloud-based
the testshelped
which
notebook
using the
which
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inhelped
trainingin
dataset,
our deep
training
we
our
made
learning
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asof
use
learning
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Jupyter–a
well
as
free
free
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well as ma-
chine
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onlinelearning methods
cloud-based
cloud-based on
notebook
notebookCPUs, GPUs,
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helped TPUs,
in
in which
training
training our
ourholds
deep
deepvarious
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CPUs, TPUs,andwhichTPUs, holds
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learning methods
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on CPUs,
CPUs, GPUs,
GPUs, andand TPUs,
TPUs, which
which holds
holds various
various street
street view
view map
map
aroundimages
the globe.
around the globe.
images
images around
around thethe globe.
globe.
3.1. Dataset Description
3.1. Dataset
3.1. Description
Dataset Description
3.1.
3.1. Dataset
The Description
Geoguessr
Dataset Descriptiondataset contains overall 126 subfolders and each one of them contains
The
theGeoguessr
The
street dataset
Geoguessr contains
dataset overall
contains 126126
overall subfolders
126 them areand
subfolders and each
each one
one of them
of them contains
contains
The views
The of itsdataset
Geoguessr
Geoguessr respective
dataset country.
contains
contains Some
overall
overall 126ofsubfolders
subfolders visualized
and
and each in Table
each one
one of 3. contains
of them
them contains
the street
the
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street
the street of its
views
street views respective
of
views of its
of its country.
respective
its respective Some
country.
respective country. of
Some
country. Some them
of
Some of are
them
of them visualized
are
them are visualized
are visualized in
in
visualized in Table
Table
in Table 3.
Table 3.
3.
Table 3. Samples of the dataset.
Table
Table 3.Table
Table 3.
Samples
3. Samples
3. Samples
Samples of
of the
of the dataset.
of the dataset.
the dataset.
dataset.

Sample street map

Sample
images street map
streetofstreet
Sample
Sample
Sample Aland
street
map map
map
images
images
images
images of
of Aland
of Aland
of Aland Aland

SampleStreet map
SampleStreet
images ofmap
SampleStreet
SampleStreet
SampleStreet map
Canada
map
map
images
images
images
images of
of Canada
of Canada
of Canada
Canada

SampleStreet map
SampleStreet
images ofmap
SampleStreet map
the map
SampleStreet
SampleStreet map
imagesUnited
of the States
images United
of the
images
images ofof the
the
States States
United
United
United States
States

Information
Sample
Sample 2023, 14,
StreetStreet
map mapx FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
Sample
images
imagesof Street
India
SampleofStreet
Sample map
Indiamap
Street map
images
images
images ofof India
of India
India

Sample
Sample street street
map map
images of Thailand
images of Thailand

3.2. Preprocessing
3.2.1. Scaling of the Image
Practically, the data is acquired from various sources to overcome the case of image
dimensionality dispute all the images are reshaped as a 224 × 224 × 3 array.
Information 2023, 14, 29 8 of 13

3.2. Preprocessing
3.2.1. Scaling of the Image
Practically, the data is acquired from various sources to overcome the case of image
dimensionality dispute all the images are reshaped as a 224 × 224 × 3 array.

3.2.2. Dimensionality Reduction

Dimensionality reduction [35–37] is a method for shrinking the feature space to build
a stable [34] and statistically sound machine learning model while avoiding the dimen-
sionality constraint. The Auto-Encoder is utilized to decrease the data’s dimensionality
in this study. The SVM classifier uses the data produced after dimensionality reduction
as features.

3.2.3. Label Binarization

They consider data are associated with 126 classes whose labels are binarized i.e.,
converted into 1’s and 0’s to train the classifier.

3.2.4. Train Test Split

To train, validate and test the classifier the data set is divided into the ratio 7:2:1.
This data set is used to train the model multi-label SVM classifier and its performance
is compared with the KNN and random forest classifiers using accuracy, specificity, and
sensitivity and F1 score as metrics.

3.3.x FOR
Information 2023, 14, Evaluation of the
PEER REVIEW Proposed Algorithm 10 of

Figure 2 represents the performance parameter analysis of three chosen algorithms.

The first group of bars depicts the accuracy of the algorithms.

Input Input Input

Auto-Encoder Auto-Encoder Auto-Encoder

Encoded Feature Encoded Feature Encoded Feature

Neighbor Neighbor Neighbor

K – Nearest Support Vector Machines Random Forest with

Neighbor with with ‘Radial Basic estimator = 1050
100 Neighbors Function’

Classification Classification Classification

Results Results Results

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Flow chart of the proposed algorithm. (a) Autoencoder and KNN. (b) Autoencoder and
SVM. (c) Autoencoder and RF.
Figure 2. Flow chart of the proposed algorithm. (a) Autoencoder and KNN. (b) Autoencoder and
SVM. (c) Autoencoder and RF.

In this, Auto-Encoder-SVM has an accuracy of 95.46%, Auto-Encoder-KNN is wi

an accuracy of 89.07% and Auto-Encoder-RF has an accuracy of 84.71%. From Figure 2
it can be depicted that the proposed algorithm is more precise and accurate when com
Information 2023, 14, 29 9 of 13

In this, Auto-Encoder-SVM has an accuracy of 95.46%, Auto-Encoder-KNN is with an

accuracy of 89.07% and Auto-Encoder-RF has an accuracy of 84.71%. From Figure 2a it can
be depicted that the proposed algorithm is more precise and accurate when compared with
other algorithms. It can also be observed that the proposed algorithm is 6.39% more accurate
than the Auto-Encoder-KNN algorithm and Auto-Encoder-RF is 4.36% less accurate than
Auto-Encoder-KNN.
The second group Figure 2b of bars depicts the sensitivity values of three algorithms.
The sensitivity value of the proposed algorithm is 91.72%, the value of KNN is 74.79%, and
Random Forest is 71.61%. From these values of sensitivity, it has been observed that the
algorithm being proposed has more sensitivity than other algorithms. Auto-Encoder-KNN
has 16.93% less sensitivity than the proposed algorithm and Auto-Encoder-RF has 3.18%
less sensitivity when compared with Auto-Encoder-KNN.
The third group of Figure 2c bars demonstrates the specificity values of the three algo-
rithms. The specificity should be equal to one, to prove the effectiveness of the algorithm.
In the above graph, the specificity value of the Auto-Encoder-SVM algorithm is 81.67%,
the Auto-Encoder-KNN algorithm is 79.02% and the Auto-Encoder-RF algorithm is 65.09%.
In these algorithms, the specificity value of the proposed algorithm is closer to one when
compared with the three algorithms. The specificity value of Auto-Encoder-KNN is 2.65%
less than the proposed algorithm and Auto-Encoder-RF has 13.93% less specificity than
Auto-Encoder-KNN.
From all these evaluations of performance parameters on three algorithms, it can be
depicted that the proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM is a more accurate and effective
algorithm than the other two Auto-Encoder-KNN, and Auto-Encoder-RF algorithms.
The numerical values of the performance metrics of the three algorithms are demon-
strated in following Table 4.

Table 4. Performance parameters of algorithms.

Models Accuracy (%) Sensitivity (%) Specificity (%) F1-Score

Auto-Encoder-SVM 95.46 91.72 81.67 0.9693
Auto-Encoder-KNN 89.07 74.79 79.02 0.8934
Auto-Encoder-RF 84.71 71.61 65.09 0.8276

Table 4 presents the F1-score of the three algorithms. The F1-measure value of Auto-
Encoder-SVM is 0.9693, Auto-Encoder-KNN value is 0.8934, and Auto-Encoder-RF value
is 0.8276. It has been ascertained that the proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM has
more F1-score than other algorithms. The comparisons of this F1-score can be checked
in Figure 3.
The comparison of the selected algorithms’ performance metrics with the suggested
algorithm is shown in Figure 4. The improvement in accuracy for the SVM with KNN
is shown to be smaller, at 7.17413, than for the SVM plus RF, at 12.6904. As a result, in
terms of accuracy, the KNN method is more similar to the suggested approach. In terms
of sensitivity, KNN is 22.6367 and RF is 28.0827; as a result, KNN differs more from the
suggested method in terms of improvement. In terms of specificity, KNN and the proposed
algorithm are very similar (3.35358), whereas there are significant differences (25.4724 and
23.0287, respectively) between the RF algorithm and the proposed algorithm in terms of
specificity. Lastly, KNN and the proposed algorithm differ less in terms of the F1-score
(18.4245 vs. 23.0287).
 Auto-Encoder-RF 84.71 71.61 65.09 0.8276

Table 4 presents the F1-score of the three algorithms. The F1-measure value of Auto-
Encoder-SVM is 0.9693, Auto-Encoder-KNN value is 0.8934, and Auto-Encoder-RF value
is 0.8276. It has been ascertained that the proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM has
Information 2023, 14, 29 10 of 13
more F1-score than other algorithms. The comparisons of this F1-score can be checked in
Figure 3.

Information 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Performance
Performance parameters
parameters of
of the
the algorithms.
algorithms.

The comparison of the selected algorithms’ performance metrics with the suggested
algorithm is shown in Figure 4. The improvement in accuracy for the SVM with KNN is
shown to be smaller, at 7.17413, than for the SVM plus RF, at 12.6904. As a result, in terms
of accuracy, the KNN method is more similar to the suggested approach. In terms of sen-
sitivity, KNN is 22.6367 and RF is 28.0827; as a result, KNN differs more from the sug-
gested method in terms of improvement. In terms of specificity, KNN and the proposed
algorithm are very similar (3.35358), whereas there are significant differences (25.4724 and
23.0287, respectively) between the RF algorithm and the proposed algorithm in terms of
specificity. Lastly, KNN and the proposed algorithm differ less in terms of the F1-score
(18.4245 vs. 23.0287).

Figure4.4.Improvement
Figure Improvementin
inperformance
performanceparameters
parametersbetween
betweenalgorithms.
algorithms.

The numerical
The numerical values ofof improvements
improvementsofofchosen
chosenalgorithms with
algorithms thethe
with proposed al-
proposed
gorithm are
algorithm aredepicted
depictedininTable
Table5.5.

Table5.5.Accuracy,
Table Accuracy,sensitivity,
sensitivity,and
andspecificity
specificityImprovement
Improvementininpercentage.
percentage.

Models
Models Accuracy
Accuracy (%)
(%) Sensitivity (%) Specificity
Sensitivity (%) (%)
Specificity (%)
Auto-Encoder
Auto-Encoder SVM
SVM 7.17413
7.17413 22.6367
22.6367 3.35358
3.35358
Auto-Encoder
Auto-Encoder KNN
KNN
Auto-Encoder SVM
Auto-Encoder SVM Auto
Auto Encoder
Encoder RF RF 12.6904
12.6904 28.0827
28.0827 25.4724
25.4724

Table 5 depicts improvement in the percentage of performance parameters by com-

paring the proposed algorithm with other chosen algorithms. It is observable that the pro-
posed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM is 7.17413% more accurate than Auto-Encoder-
KNN, and 12.6904% more accurate than Auto-Encoder-RF. When compared with the sen-
Information 2023, 14, 29 11 of 13

Table 5 depicts improvement in the percentage of performance parameters by com-

paring the proposed algorithm with other chosen algorithms. It is observable that the
proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM is 7.17413% more accurate than Auto-Encoder-
KNN, and 12.6904% more accurate than Auto-Encoder-RF. When compared with the
sensitivity proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM has 22.6367% more sensitivity than
Auto-Encoder-KNN and 28.0827 more accuracies than Auto-Encoder-RF. It is also observed
from the last column, a specificity that the proposed algorithm has 3.35358% less speci-
ficity than the proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM, and 25.4724% less specificity than
the proposed Auto-Encoder-SVM algorithm. From all the above evaluations, it has been
determined that the algorithm being proposed, Auto-Encoder-SVM is more accurate and
effective than other algorithms.

4. Conclusions
In this work, the Jupyter Notebook is used for the implementation of estimating the
geo-site of images. For this, the image dataset of 125 different countries is considered. In
total, 125 countries are taken as 125 classes and images which were captured within the
country are in their respective classes. The Auto-Encoder-SVM classification is proposed
to classify the geo-site images. The Auto-Encoder is trained with the images to reduce
dimensionality. The filtered images will be trained to a Multi-label SVM classification
algorithm to classify the images according to their classes. This proposed algorithm is
compared with the Multi-label KNN classification algorithm and Multi-label Random
Forest classification algorithm and evaluated the performance of the three algorithms.
Evaluation metrics like accuracy are evaluated and it depicted that Auto-Encoder-SVM
Hassan accuracy of 95.46%, Auto-Encoder-KNN is with an accuracy of 89.07% and Auto-
Encoder-RF Hassan accuracy of 84.71%. From this, it is observable that the proposed
algorithm is highly precise. Other performance metrics like specificity, sensitivity, and
F1-score are evaluated to demonstrate the effectiveness of the algorithms. From all the
evaluations, it can be inferred that the proposed algorithm Auto-Encoder-SVM is highly
accurate and potent compared to other chosen algorithms.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.J., C.V. and N.K.; methodology, A.J., C.V. and N.K.;
software, M.S.R., J.N.B. and G.S.; validation, M.S.R., J.N.B. and G.S.; formal analysis, M.S.R., J.N.B.
and G.S.; investigation, A.J., C.V. and N.K.; resources, A.J., C.V. and N.K.; data curation, A.J., C.V. and
N.K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.J., C.V., N.K., M.S.R., J.N.B. and G.S.; writing—review
and editing, A.J., C.V., N.K., M.S.R., J.N.B. and G.S.; visualization, M.S.R., J.N.B. and G.S.; supervision,
C.V. and J.N.B.; project administration, M.S.R. and G.S.; funding acquisition, M.S.R. and G.S. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this study.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This paper was partially supported by UEFISCDI Romania and MCI through
BEIA projects AutoDecS, SOLID-B5G, T4ME2, DISAVIT, PIMEO-AI, AISTOR, MULTI-AI, ADRIATIC,
Hydro3D, PREVENTION, DAFCC, EREMI, ADCATER, MUSEION, FinSESCo, iPREMAS, IPSUS,
U-GARDEN, CREATE and by European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program
under grant agreements No. 101073932 (RITHMS). The results were obtained with the support of
the Ministry of Investments and European Projects through the Human Capital Sectoral Operational
Program 2014-2020, Contract no. 62461/03.06.2022, SMIS code 153735. This work is supported
by Ministry of Research, Innovation, Digitization from Romania by the National Plan of R & D,
Project PN 19 11, Subprogram 1.1. Institutional performance-Projects to finance excellence in RDI,
Contract No. 19PFE/30.12.2021 and a grant of the National Center for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
(CNHPC)—Installations and Special Objectives of National In-terest (IOSIN).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest to report regarding
the present study.
Information 2023, 14, 29 12 of 13

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