REVIEWER FOR ETHICSK

FINALS

1. TOPIC: MORAL CHARACTER

Moral character is an evaluation of an individual’s stable moral qualities. The concept of

character can imply a variety of attributes including the existence of or lack of virtues such as
empathy, courage, fortitude, honesty and loyalty or of good behaviors or habits.

To say that a person has a good moral character means that he/ she is a good person and a
good citizen with a sound moral compass.

Moral character is formed by one’s actions. the habits, actions, and emotional responses of
the person of good character all are united and directed toward the moral and the good.

Those possess a strong moral character find both happiness and success in their life and are
clear about their goals. People with strong moral character are able to gain trust of others and their
relationship is bases on transparency, honesty, and mutual respect.

Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was a psychologist who proposed a theory of moral development that
focuses on the moral reasoning of individuals. His theory, often referred to as Kohlberg's stages of
moral development, is based on the idea that people progress through distinct stages of moral
reasoning as they grow and mature. Kohlberg identified six stages of moral development, grouped
into three levels. Here is an overview of the stages:

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: At this stage, individuals focus on avoiding
punishment. They obey rules to avoid negative consequences.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Individuals in this stage recognize that there is not just
one right view, and different individuals have different perspectives. They follow rules only when it
serves their immediate interests.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships: This stage is characterized by a desire to please others

and to maintain positive relationships. Individuals at this stage seek approval and conform to social
expectations.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: In this stage, individuals focus on maintaining social order.
They obey laws and follow rules to uphold the functioning of society.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: At this stage, individuals begin to recognize the
importance of social contracts and individual rights. They understand that rules are social
agreements that can be changed for the greater good.

Stage 6: Universal Principles: The final stage is characterized by adherence to universal

ethical principles. Individuals at this stage have a strong sense of justice and moral values, and they
act in accordance with these principles even if it goes against societal norms or laws.
It's important to note that not everyone reaches the highest stages of moral development, and
progression through the stages is not always linear. Kohlberg's theory has been influential, but it has
also faced criticism for its cultural bias and gender-related limitations. Additionally, some argue that
the theory does not adequately account for situational factors that may influence moral decision-
making.

2. TOPIC: REASON, EMOTION AND FEELINGS

Reason, emotion, and feelings are interconnected aspects of human cognition and
experience, each playing a crucial role in shaping our thoughts, behaviors, and decision-making
processes.

Reason. Reason refers to the cognitive ability to think logically, analyze information, and make
rational decisions. It involves using evidence, facts, and critical thinking to reach conclusions.

Role: Reason is instrumental in problem-solving, planning, and decision-making. It allows

individuals to weigh options, consider consequences, and make choices based on a logical evaluation
of available information.

Example: When deciding on a course of action, individuals may use reason to evaluate the
pros and cons, consider potential outcomes, and make a choice based on a logical assessment of the
situation.

Emotion. Emotion refers to subjective, often complex, states of feeling that are usually linked to
specific stimuli or events. Emotions encompass a wide range of feelings such as joy, sadness, anger,
fear, and love.

Role: Emotions provide a rapid, automatic response to stimuli and play a significant role in
motivation, social interaction, and decision-making. Emotions can influence behavior, perception,
and memory.

Example: Feeling fear in response to a perceived threat can trigger a "fight or flight"
response, leading to rapid decision-making aimed at ensuring survival.

Feelings. Feelings are conscious experiences that arise from emotions. While emotions are often
automatic and subconscious responses to stimuli, feelings involve the conscious awareness and
interpretation of those emotional experiences.

Role: Feelings contribute to self-awareness and personal meaning. They can influence the
interpretation of events and contribute to one's overall emotional state.

Example: Experiencing the emotion of happiness may lead to positive feelings, contributing
to an overall sense of well-being and contentment.

Interplay between Reason, Emotion, and Feelings:

Dual-Process Theory: Some psychological theories, such as the dual-process theory, suggest that
human cognition involves both intuitive, emotion-driven processes and more deliberate, reason-
based processes. The interplay between these processes is dynamic and context-dependent.

Decision-Making: In decision-making, individuals often experience a tension between reason and

emotion. Some decisions may be driven by logical analysis, while others may be influenced by
emotional responses and gut feelings.
Personal Variation: The balance between reason and emotion can vary among individuals. Some
people may rely more on logical reasoning, while others may be more influenced by emotional
responses.

3. TOPIC: SCOTT RAE’S 7-STEP MORAL REASONING MODEL

Scott Rae’s model for moral reasoning presents a 7-step approach to moral analyses and evaluation.
It is oriented towards virtues and principles with consideration of consequences as a supporting role
(Rae 2018). This model is free from cultural, ethnic and religious background and biases, though it is
consistent/uses biblical principles. The 7-step model is as follows:

1.Gather the Facts

➢It is essential that in moral decision- making, one has to know the general facts of the
moral situation, before coming up with a moral analysis, more so, a decision or an evaluation.

➢The simplest way of clarifying an ethical dilemma is to make sure the facts are clear. Ask:
Do you have all the facts that are necessary to make a good decision? What do we know? What do
we need to know? In this light it might become clear that the dilemma is not ethical but about
communication or strategy (Rae, 2018).

2.Determine the ethical issues

➢After having identified the facts and overall context of the moral situation, the ethical
issue/s involved in the situation, must be clearly stated in order to specify what issue one has to
make a decision to. This section must likewise clearly state the major moral dilemma involved in the
case.

➢Ethical interests are stated in terms of legitimate competing interests or goods. The
competing interests are what create the dilemma. Moral values and virtues must support the
competing interests in order for an ethical dilemma to exist. If you cannot identify the underlying
values/virtues then you do not have an ethical dilemma. Often people hold these positions strongly
and with passion because of the value / virtue beneath them (Rae 2018). 3.Determine what virtues /
principles have a bearing on the case.

➢Applicable ethical values and principles relevant to the case must be identified and briefly
explained in order to justify how such principles could be used in coming up with a decision
concerning the moral dilemma later on.In addition, the sources of these principles must be
acknowledged likewise. These values, principles could come from: (1) established philosophical
ethical principles; (2) socio-cultural norms; (3) socio-political norms and laws; (4) religious traditions;
and others.

➢In an ethical dilemma certain values and principles are central to the competing positions.
Identify these. Determine if some should be given more weight than others. Ask what the source for
the principle is - constitution, culture, natural law, religious tradition... These supplement biblical
principles (Rae 2018).

4. List the alternatives

➢After having identified relevant values, virtues, and principles involving the mora situation,
possible alternative courses of actions must then be proposed and briefly explained. These suggested
courses of actions must then be evaluated based on its applicability, sensibility, practicality before
selecting one as the course of action or decision to be made regarding the moral situation.
 ➢Creatively determine possible courses of action for your dilemma. Some will almost
immediately be discarded but generally the more you list the greater potential for coming up with a
really good one. It will also help you come up with a broader selection of ideas (Rae 2018).

5. Compare the alternatives with the virtues / principles

➢The initial list of suggested courses of actions must then be evaluated from the vantage
point of the identified ethical values and principles.

➢This step eliminates alternatives as they are weighed by the moral principles which have a
bearing on the case. Potentially the issue will be resolved here as all alternatives except one are
eliminated. Here you must satisfy all the relevant virtues and values - so at least some of the
alternatives will be eliminated (even if you still have to go on to step 6). Often here you have to
weight principles and virtues - make sure you have a good reason for each weighting (Rae 2018).

6. Consider the consequences

➢If principles have not yielded a clear decision consider the consequences of your
alternatives. Take the alternatives and work out the positive and negative consequences of each.
Estimate how beneficial each positive and negative consequences are–some might have greater
weight than others (Rae 2018).

7. Make a decision (including one’s justification for the decision)

➢After having analyzed the moral dilemma situation (from steps 1 thru 6), one must now
make a decision based on what has been previously discussed and must clearly justify the decision
that has been made.

➢Ethical decisions rarely have pain-free solutions - it might be you have to choose the
solution with the least number of problems / painful consequences (Rae 2018)

4. TOPIC: MORAL THEORIES AND MENTAL FRAMES

Moral theories and mental frames are concepts that play essential roles in shaping our
understanding of ethical issues and influencing our decision-making processes. Let's explore each of
these concepts and their relationship:

Moral Theories

1. Deontological Ethics: This moral theory, associated with philosophers like Immanuel Kant,
emphasizes the importance of duty and adherence to moral rules or principles. It posits that
certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences.
2. Consequentialism: This moral theory, exemplified by utilitarianism, evaluates the morality of
an action based on its consequences. Actions are deemed morally right if they lead to the
greatest overall happiness or utility.
3. Virtue Ethics: Rooted in the works of Aristotle, virtue ethics focuses on the development of
moral character. It suggests that ethical behavior arises from cultivating virtuous traits and
habits.

Mental Frames
Cognitive Frames. Mental frames are cognitive structures that shape the way we perceive and
interpret information. They influence how we process and categorize experiences, events, and moral
dilemmas. Frames can be shaped by cultural, social, and personal factors.

Confirmation Bias. People often interpret information in a way that confirms their existing beliefs and
values. This bias can influence moral judgments and decision-making by reinforcing pre-existing
mental frames.

Moral Intuition. Mental frames can influence moral intuitions, the rapid and automatic judgments we
make about right and wrong. These intuitions are often influenced by underlying moral frameworks
and cultural norms.

Relationship between Moral Theories and Mental Frames

1. Lens for Interpretation. Moral theories provide frameworks for evaluating ethical situations,
offering lenses through which individuals view and interpret moral issues. Different moral
theories may lead to distinct mental frames when considering ethical dilemmas.
2. Cultural and Personal Influences. Cultural and personal factors contribute to the
development of mental frames. These frames are often shaped by the dominant moral
theories within a culture or the individual's philosophical outlook.
3. Conflict and Resolution. Individuals may experience internal conflicts when their mental
frames, influenced by various moral theories, clash. Resolving such conflicts may involve a
deeper exploration of one's moral principles and a potential shift in mental frames.

Implications for Decision-Making

1. Ethical Decision-Making: The interplay between moral theories and mental frames can
significantly impact ethical decision-making. Individuals may prioritize certain ethical
principles or consequences based on their mental frames, which, in turn, align with specific
moral theories.
2. Reflective Decision-Making: Reflecting on one's mental frames and understanding the
influence of underlying moral theories can contribute to more thoughtful and informed
ethical decision-making. It allows individuals to critically examine their values and
perspectives.

4. TOPIC: ARISTOTLE AND THOMAS AQUINAS

Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas are prominent figures in the history of ethics, and both have
made significant contributions to moral philosophy. While there are differences in their perspectives,
there are also notable similarities, particularly in their emphasis on virtue ethics and the pursuit of
the highest good. Here's a brief overview of their ethical views:

Aristotle's Ethics

Teleological Ethics. Aristotle's ethics is teleological, meaning it is concerned with the ultimate
purpose or end (telos) of human life. He argues that the ultimate end for humans is eudaimonia,
often translated as "flourishing" or "well-being."

Virtue Ethics. Aristotle's ethical framework is primarily virtue-based. He emphasizes the development
of virtuous character traits as the key to leading a morally good life. Virtues, according to Aristotle,
are habits that lead to eudaimonia.
Golden Mean. Aristotle introduces the concept of the "golden mean," which suggests that virtue lies
between extremes. Virtue is the balance between deficiency and excess. For example, courage is the
mean between recklessness and cowardice.

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis):

Aristotle highlights the importance of practical wisdom (phronesis) in making ethical decisions. This
involves the ability to discern the right course of action in particular situations, considering the
context and the particulars of the case.

Aquinas' Ethics (Thomistic Ethics)

Teleological Ethics. Like Aristotle, Aquinas adopts a teleological approach to ethics. He believes that
human actions are directed toward an ultimate end, which he calls the "beatific vision" – the direct
knowledge of God.

Natural Law. Aquinas builds on the concept of natural law, arguing that humans have an innate sense
of what is right and wrong. Natural law is derived from the rational nature of humans and provides a
basis for moral reasoning.

Virtue Ethics. Aquinas incorporates virtue ethics into his ethical framework. He identifies cardinal
virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance) that guide moral behavior, along with
theological virtues (faith, hope, and charity) that have a divine origin.

Human Reason and Divine Revelation. Aquinas believes that human reason is capable of discovering
moral truths, but he also acknowledges the importance of divine revelation. He sees a harmonious
relationship between reason and faith in understanding morality.

5. TOPIC: UTILITARIANISM

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that was developed by philosophers such as

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The core principle of utilitarianism is to maximize overall
happiness or pleasure and minimize suffering or pain. According to utilitarianism, the morally right
action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest
number of people.

Key features of utilitarianism include:

1. Consequentialism. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory, meaning it focuses on the

outcomes or consequences of actions. The moral value of an action is determined by its
overall impact on happiness and suffering.
2. Hedonistic Calculus. Bentham, one of the founders of utilitarianism, introduced the concept
of the "hedonistic calculus." This involves quantifying pleasure and pain to determine the net
happiness produced by a particular action. Factors to consider include intensity, duration,
certainty, proximity, and the extent of pleasure or pain.
3. Greatest Happiness Principle. The fundamental principle of utilitarianism is often expressed
as the "greatest happiness for the greatest number." This means that ethical decisions should
be made with the goal of maximizing overall well-being and minimizing overall suffering.
4. Universalism. Utilitarianism is often associated with a universal approach to ethics. It implies
that the same moral principles apply to everyone, and the interests and well-being of all
individuals are considered equally.
5. Act Utilitarianism vs. Rule Utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action
based on the principle of maximizing happiness. Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand,
 focuses on adopting rules or policies that, when consistently followed, lead to the greatest
overall happiness.

Critique and Challenges

Utilitarianism has faced criticism for potential issues such as the challenge of measuring
happiness quantitatively, the problem of predicting consequences accurately, and concerns about
justice and individual rights being sacrificed for the greater good.

Higher and Lower Pleasures (Mill's Modification)

John Stuart Mill, another influential utilitarian philosopher, introduced the idea of
distinguishing between "higher" and "lower" pleasures. He argued that intellectual, moral, and
aesthetic pleasures have a higher quality than mere physical pleasures.

Utilitarian Calculations in Everyday Decision-Making

In practical terms, a utilitarian might consider the consequences of an action by weighing the
happiness and suffering it produces for all affected parties. This approach is used to guide decision-
making in various fields, including ethics, law, public policy, and economics.

While utilitarianism provides a straightforward and consequentialist approach to ethics, it

has been subject to various critiques and modifications over time. Philosophers continue to explore
and refine utilitarian principles to address these challenges and to better understand the
complexities of moral decision-making.

6. TOPIC: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

Justice and fairness are related concepts that are often used interchangeably, but they can have
distinct nuances depending on the context. These terms are fundamental in ethical and philosophical
discussions, as well as in discussions about law, politics, and social systems.

Justice. Justice is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses the fair and equitable
distribution of resources, opportunities, and rights within a society. It involves ensuring that
individuals are treated with fairness, dignity, and respect. Justice is often considered a moral
principle that guides the establishment of laws, policies, and social structures.

There are several dimensions of justice, including:

1. Distributive Justice: Concerns the fair allocation of resources and benefits in society,
addressing issues of economic inequality and social welfare.
2. Retributive Justice: Focuses on fair punishment for wrongdoing and ensuring that individuals
receive their due for their actions.
3. Procedural Justice: Pertains to the fairness of the processes and procedures used in legal and
administrative systems. It emphasizes fair treatment, impartiality, and due process.
4. Restorative Justice: Aims at repairing harm caused by criminal behavior by emphasizing
reconciliation between offenders and victims, as well as the restoration of relationships
within the community.

Fairness. Fairness, on the other hand, is often seen as a specific aspect of justice. It involves the
consistent and impartial treatment of individuals, taking into account their rights, needs, and
perspectives. Fairness is associated with the idea of treating people equitably and without bias,
regardless of their background, characteristics, or circumstances.
Key aspects of fairness include:

1. Impartiality: Treating individuals without favoritism or discrimination based on irrelevant

factors such as race, gender, or socioeconomic status.
2. Consistency: Applying rules, policies, and decisions consistently across different situations
and individuals.
3. Transparency: Ensuring that the processes and criteria used for decision-making are clear
and understandable to all involved parties.
4. Access to Opportunities: Providing equal opportunities for individuals to succeed, regardless
of their background or starting point.

Relationship Between Justice and Fairness

Justice and fairness are closely linked, with fairness often seen as a fundamental component of
achieving justice. A just society is one that is inherently fair, where individuals are treated with
dignity, have equal access to opportunities, and receive fair treatment within legal and social
systems.