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INDEX
S.No TOPICS P.No
01 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH 01
02 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH & ASSOCIATED FACTORS 04
03 ROCKS 08
04 GEOMORPHOLOGY 09
05 VOLCANOES 13
06 EARTHQUAKES 14
07 LANDFORMS 19
08 SOILS 25
09 OCEANOGRAPHY 27
10 CLIMATOLOGY 31
11 WORLD CLIMATE 43

1. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH  A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen

gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula.
The Universe, solar system, origin and evolution of the  Nebula -> localised clumps of gas
earth, earth movements and related aspects, geological
That led to formation of gaseous bodies -> formation of
time scale, interior of the earth, formation of earth’s crust,
stars.
oceans and atmosphere
Formation of Planets:
Origin of earth:
Nebular hypothesis by Immanuel kant Stages in the Development of Planets:
 The stars are localized lumps of gas within a nebula,
Later revised by Laplace gravitational force within the lumps lead to formation
 The planets were formed out of a cloud material of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of
associated with a youthful sun which was slowly gas and dust developed around the gas core.
rotating.  Gas cloud ->condenses->matter around the core
 Later revised by Carl Weizascar and Otto Schmidt. develops into small- round objects by the process of
 Sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing cohesion->planetesimals.
mostly hydrogen, helium and other dust particles. The  These large number of small planetesimals accrete to
friction and collision of particles led to formation of form a fewer large bodies in the form of planets.
disk shaped cloud.
 Planets are formed through accretion(growth by Solar System:
gradual accumulation of matter)
 Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8
Origin of Universe: planets, more than 200 moons, millions of smaller
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge quantity of
 Big bang theory/expanding universe hypothesis: by dust-grains and gases.
Edwin Hubble. Stages –  Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called as the
 As the time passes galaxies further move apart. Inner planets/Terrestrial planets, as they lie between
 Though space between the galaxies is increasing there the sun and the belt of asteroids the other four
is no expansion of galaxies. planets are called the outer planets/ Jovian planets.
Stages in development of universe  Sun–The solar atmosphere consists of
 All the matter was a tiny ball of unimaginably small the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona.
volume, with infinite temperature and infinite density.  Photosphere is the bright outer layer of the Sun that
 At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently emits most of the radiation.
which led to huge expansion.  Just above the photosphere is the Chromosphere. It is
 Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature relatively a thin layer of burning gases.
dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) and gave rise to atomic  Corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that
matter. The universe became transparent. surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies.
 The corona is usually hidden by the bright light of the
Star Formation: Sun's surface. That makes it difficult to see without
 Due to uneven distribution of matter and energy in using special instruments. However, the corona can
the early universe led to initial density differences in be seen during a total solar eclipse.
gravitational forces and it caused the matter to get  The corona’s high temperatures are a bit of a mystery.
drawn together bases for development of galaxies. Imagine that you’re sitting next to a campfire. It’s nice
and warm. But when you walk away from the fire, you
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feel cooler. This is the opposite of what seems to  Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and
happen on the Sun. is the third brightest object visible from earth after
 Astronomers have been trying to solve this mystery the sun and the moon.
for a long time. The corona is in the outer layer of the  Venus is sometimes called Earth’s sister planet or
Sun’s atmosphere—far from its surface. Yet the Earth’s twin because of their similar size, mass,
corona is hundreds of times hotter than the Sun’s proximity to the Sun, bulk composition and presence
surface. of similar physical features such as high plateaus,
 A NASA mission called IRIS may have provided one folded mountain belts, numerous volcanoes, etc.
possible answer. The mission discovered packets of  In the ancient literature, Venus was often referred to
very hot material called "heat bombs" that travel as the morning star and evening star.
from the Sun into the corona. In the corona, the heat  Earth – Discussed in detail in later part. satellite moon
bombs explode and release their energy as heat. But (revolves eastward once in 27 days)
astronomers think that this is only one of many ways  Moon - only natural satellite of the earth.
in which the corona is heated.  Darwin suggested that the earth and moon formed
 A dark patch on the surface of the Sun is known as a single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
Sunspot. became a dumbbell shaped body and later it broke.
 Solar Wind is a stream of energized, charged particles,  Present scientists believed that formation of moon
primarily electrons and protons, flowing outward is an outcome of “the big splat” which blasted a
from the Sun. large part of earth into space.
 Solar flares are a magnetic storm on the Sun which  This blasted material continued to orbit the earth
appears to be a very bright spot and is a gaseous and formed into moon.
surface eruption.  Mars – dark patches, it possesses an atmosphere of
 Mercury–Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar mostly carbon dioxide. Mars is often referred to as
system the “Red Planet” because of the reddish iron oxide
 It is the closest planet to the Sun at a distance of prevalent on its surface.
about 36 million miles  Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and
 One day on Mercury (the time it takes for Mercury to Deimos, which are thought to be captured asteroids.
rotate or spin once with respect to the stars) takes 59  Martian year is of 687 days and Martian day is 24h
Earth days. 37m.
 Mercury makes a complete orbit around the Sun (a  Jupiter – Largest outer planet; composed of hydrogen,
year in Mercury time) in just 88 Earth days helium and methane. It has circular light and dark
 Mercury has no moons. band with outer rings, very cold (-130℃). Jupiter
 The two spacecraft of ESA-JAXA's BepiColombo are en rotates once about every 10 hours (a Jovian day), but
route to Mercury. NASA's Mariner 10 was the first takes about 12 Earth years to complete one orbit of
mission to explore Mercury. NASA's MESSENGER was the Sun (a Jovian year).
the first to orbit the innermost planet.  In 1979 the Voyager mission discovered Jupiter’s faint
 Venus– Venus is the second closest planet to the sun ring system. All four giant planets in our solar system
at a distance of about 67 million miles have ring systems.
 One day on Venus lasts 243 Earth days because Venus  Jupiter has 53 named moons and another 26 awaiting
spins backwards, with its sun rising in the west and official names.
setting in the east.  Saturn–It is composed mostly of hydrogen, and
 Venus has no moons and no rings. helium. Saturn takes about 10.7 hours (no one knows
precisely) to rotate on its axis once—a Saturn “day”—
and 29 Earth years to orbit the sun.

 Saturn has 53 known moons with an additional 29

moons awaiting confirmation of their discovery—that
is a total of 82 moons.
 Saturn has the most spectacular ring system, with
seven rings and several gaps and divisions between
them.
 Few missions have visited Saturn: Pioneer 11 and
Voyagers 1 and 2 flew by; But Cassini orbited Saturn
294 times from 2004 to 2017.
 Celestial bodies: Any natural body outside of the
 Uranus – Uranus orbits our Sun, a star, and is the
Earth's atmosphere.
seventh planet from the Sun at a distance of about
 Asteroids: Small rocky body orbiting the sun. Large
1.8 billion miles
numbers of these, ranging enormously in size, are
 Uranus takes about 17 hours to rotate once (a
found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Uranian day), and about 84 Earth years to complete
 Dwarf Planet: Dwarf planets are heavenly bodies that
an orbit of the Sun (a Uranian year).
are too small to be considered a planet but too large
 Uranus is an ice giant. Most of its mass is a hot, dense
to fall under smaller categories. The International
fluid of "icy" materials – water, methane and
Astronomical Unit defines a planet as something that
ammonia – above a small rocky core.
obeys the following criteria:
 ranus has 27 known moons, and they are named after
 To be in orbit around the Sun
characters from the works of William Shakespeare
 Has enough gravity to pull its own mass into a
and Alexander Pope.
round shape
 Uranus has 13 known rings. The inner rings are
 Has cleared its orbit of smaller objects
narrow and dark and the outer rings are brightly
 Comets: a celestial object consisting of a nucleus of
colored.
ice and dust and, when near the sun, a ‘tail’ of gas and
 Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to fly by Uranus.
dust particles pointing away from the sun.
 Like Venus, Uranus rotates east to west
 Meteors/Meteoroids: A meteor is an asteroid or
 Neptune –Neptune orbits our Sun, a star, and is the
other object that burns and vaporizes upon entry into
eighth planet from the Sun at a distance of about 2.8
the Earth's atmosphere; meteors are commonly
billion miles
known as "shooting stars." If a meteor survives the
 Neptune takes about 16 hours to rotate once (a
plunge through the atmosphere and lands on the
Neptunian day), and about 165 Earth years to orbit
surface, it's known as a meteorite.
the sun (a Neptunian year)
 Neptune is an ice giant. Most of its mass is a hot, Geological Time Scale:
dense fluid of "icy" materials – water, methane and
ammonia – above a small rocky core.
 Neptune has 14 known moons which are named after
sea gods and nymphs in Greek mythology.
 Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited
Neptune.
 The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the
asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects
composed primarily of ice.
 Inner versus outer planets

2. INTERIOR OF THE EARTH AND  The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in
rainwater and the temperature further decreased
ASSOCIATED FACTORS causing more condensation and more rains.
 The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in
Evolution of Earth: the depressions to give rise to oceans.
Evolution of Lithosphere:  The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million
 The earth was mostly in a volatile state during its years from the formation of the earth.
primordial stage.  However, around 2,500-3,000 million years before
 Due to gradual increase in density the temperature the present, the process of photosynthesis got
inside has increased. evolved. Life was confined to the oceans for a long
 As a result the material inside started getting time.
separated depending on their densities.  Oceans began to have the contribution of oxygen
 This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink through the process of photosynthesis. Eventually,
towards the centre of the Earth and the lighter ones oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million
to move towards the surface. With passage of time it years ago, oxygen began to flood the atmosphere.
cooled further and solidified and condensed into a
smaller size. Structure of Earth:
 This later led to the development of the outer surface The structure of the earth’s interior is made up of
in the form of a crust. several concentric layers. Broadly three layers can be
identified—Crust, Mantle and the Core.
Evolution of Atmosphere:
Crust:
 There are three stages in the evolution of the present
atmosphere.  Crust is the outer thin layer with a total thickness
normally between 30-50 km. The thickness of the
 First stage is marked by the loss of primordial
crust varies under the oceanic -thinner (5-30 Km) and
atmosphere.
continental areas- thick (50-70 Km).
 Second stage, the hot interior of the earth
 The mean density of oceanic crust is 2.7g/cm3
contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
 Basalt is found in oceanic crust.
 Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was
 The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major
modified by the living world through the process of
mountain systems.
photosynthesis.
 It forms 5-10 per cent of the earth’s volume.
 The early atmosphere largely contained water vapor,  Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms the
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and boundary between crust and outer –outer mantle.
very little of free oxygen.  The continents are composed of sial while the oceans
 The process through which the gases were outpoured are composed of sima
from the interior is called degassing.
 Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water Mantle:
vapor and gases to the atmosphere.  The mantle extends to a depth of 2,900 km.The crust
and the uppermost part of the mantle are
Evolution of Hydrosphere: called lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200
 As the earth cooled, the water vapour released km.
started getting condensed.  The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere.
It is in solid state.

 The density of mantle varies between 2.9 and 3.3. 1. Direct sources- surface rock obtained by Ocean
 It is composed of solid rock and magma. drilling, mining and volcanic eruptions.
 It forms 83 per cent of the earth’s volume 2. Indirect sources-
 Analysis of properties of matter like
Asthenosphere: temperaturewhich increase with the increasing
 The upper portion of the mantle is called distance from the surface towardsinterior in deeper
asthenosphere. depths, pressure and density of material also
 Asthenosphere is a plastic zone in mantle
increases with depth.
 It is considered to be extending up to 400 km.
 Meteors these solid bodies structure and material is
 It is the main source of magma and is more fluidic in
nature similar to earth.
Core:  Gravity anomaly which gives us the information
 Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the earth’s about distribution of mass of material in the crust of
surface. earth.
 Accounts for 16 per cent of the earth’s volume.  It is greater near the poles and less at equator.
 Core has the heaviest mineral materials of highest  Magnetic surveys gives information about magnetic
density. material distribution in crustal portion.
 It is composed of nickel and iron [Nife].  Seismic activity important source about interiors of
 The outer core is liquid while the inner core is solid. earth.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity lies between the mantle and Chemical composition of the Earth
the outer core.
Composition of Earth Crust:

Sl. Motions of Earth:
Elements By Weight(%)
No. Rotation of Earth:
1. Oxygen 46.60  Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.
2. Silicon 27.72
 It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation.
3. Aluminium 8.13
 Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth.
4. Iron 5.00
5. Calcium 3.63
 The circle that divides the day from night on the globe
6. Sodium 2.83 is called the circle of illumination.
7. Potassium 2.59  Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis
8. Magnesium 2.09 makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e. it makes
9. Others 1.41 an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital plane
is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.
Sources of information about earth interior,  Rotation Movement of earth on its axis – 24 hours –
Earth day.

Winter Solistice:
 On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives
direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts towards it.
As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of
Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the southern
hemisphere gets light.
 Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere
with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse
happens in the northern hemisphere and it
experiences winter. This position of the earth is called
Revolution of Earth: the winter solstice.
 The motion of the earth around the sunwhich spins in
an elliptical orbit is called revolution. It takes 365¼ Equinox:
days (one year) to revolve around the sun. Six hours
 On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of
saved every year are added to make one day (24
the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of
hours) over a span of four years. This surplus day is
the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole
added to the month of February. Thus every fourth
earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is
year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a
called an equinox.
year with 366 days is called a leap year.
 On 23rd September, it is autumn season [season
 Revolution leads
I to change in Seasons. after summer and before the beginning of winter] in
the northern hemisphere and spring season [season
Seasons after winter and before the beginning of summer] in
 Summer Solistice the southern hemisphere.
 On 21st June, the Northern hemisphere is tilted  The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is
towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive southern hemisphere.
more heat.  Rotation Days and Nights.
 The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays  Revolution  Seasons.
of the sun are slanting.
 The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the
places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous
daylight for about six months.
 Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is
getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions
north of the equator. The longest day and the
shortest night at these places occur on 21st June.
 At this time in the southern hemisphere all these
conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
nights are longer than the days. This position of the
earth is called the summer solstice.

Latitudes and longitudes:  Latitude varies from 00 to 900 north and south.
Latitude Longitude  Longitude: Angular distance between the meridian
 The angular distance of a  The angular distance passing through a given point and the prime meridian.
place north or south of the of a place east or  A longitude varies from 00 to 1800 east or west.
earth's equator west of the
 Equator = 0° Latitude Greenwich
 Latitudes are named south meridian,
and north of equator  Prime meridian =
 Their length decreases from longitude
equator to poles  Longitudes are
 Equator has the maximum named east or west
length also called as great of prime meridian
circle  All longitudes are
 Equator, Tropic of Cancer equal in length
23.5° N, Tropic of Capricorn  Prime meridian 0°
23.5° S, Arctic circle 66.5° N, and International
Antarctic circle 66.5° S, Date Line 180° E or
180° W are
Greenwich Meridian Time:
North Pole 90° N and South
Pole 90° S are important important longitudes  Equator is centrally placed between the poles, any
latitudes  Used to determine meridian could be taken to begin the numbering of
 They help in determining time and dateat a longitude. It was finally decided in 1884, by
the intensity of sunlight location international agreement, to choose as the zero
received at a point meridian the one which passes through the Royal
 They divide earth into Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near
torrid, temperate and frigid London.
zones
• This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other
Both are used to determine the location of a point on earth.
meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to
The location is identified with Co-ordinates
180°.
• They help to determine local time.
• One revolution of 360° earth takes 24hours, therefore
in 1hour it traverse 15° or in 4 mins 1°
• Places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain
time
(EAST-GAIN-ADD), whereas places west of Greenwich see
the sun later and lose time (WEST-LOSE-SUBSTRACT).
International Date Line
 Latitude: Angular distance measured north or south

of the equator. Project a line from a given point ‘p’ on
the earth’s surface to the centre of the earth. Angle
between this line and the equatorial plane is the
measure of latitude of point ‘p’.

 The International Date Line serves as the "line of Classification of Rocks:

demarcation" between two consecutive calendar
 Igneous rocks
dates. It passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and
roughly follows a 180 degrees at the Bering Strait, Fiji,  Sedimentary rocks
Tonga and other islands longitude, north-south line  Metamorphic rocks
on the Earth. It is located halfway round the world
Types of
from the prime meridian. Features of the rocks
rocks
 International Date Line is where the date changes by  These are primarily formed out of
exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveller magma and lava and are known as
crossing the date line from east to west loses a day primary rocks.
and while crossing the dateline from west to east he  Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt,
etcare some of the examples of igneous
gains a day. rocks.
Indian Standard Time:  Igneousrocks are crystalline in
structure.
The standard meridian of India is the 82.5º east 1.Igneous  Extrusive rocks: These are formed by
longitude which passes through Allahabad. This is five and rocks rapid cooling of the lava thrown
a half hours ahead of 0º meridian (Greenwich). outduring volcanic eruptions. Ex: Basalt -
The Deccan traps.
Day Light Saving:
 Intrusiverocks: Sometimes, the molten
 Many parts of North America and Europe follow what matter is not able to reach the surface
is called Daylight Saving Time (DST). and instead cools down very slowly at
 It’s a practice by which all the clocks in these places great depths. Slow cooling allows big-
sized crystals (large grains) to be formed.
are moved forward by an hour during the summer Granite is a typical example.
months and brought back during the winter to utilise  Formed as a result of denudation
the long-lasting sunlight in summer and save energy. (weathering and erosion).
 India follows a single time zone of 82.5°E, Northeast  These deposits through compaction turn
into rocks. This process is called
region are demanding for a separate time zone as the lithification.
sun rises as early as four in the morning and in winter  Cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust
it sets by four in the evening. but volumetrically occupy only5 per
cent.
 These rocks consist of layers in which
3. ROCKS fossils of plants and animals are
present.
 Different varieties of sandstone are
They are aggregates or a physical mixture of one or spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern
2.Sediment
More minerals. Feldspar and quartz are the most common ary rocks Rajasthan, parts of Himalayas, Andhra
minerals found in all type of rocks. Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
The Rock Cycle Depending upon the mode of formation,
they are classified into
1. Mechanically formed — sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess
etc.
2. Organically formed — coal, some
dolomites, and some limestones, form
from the accumulation of plant or animal
debris 3.Chemicallyformed — such as
rock salt, iron ore, chert, flint, some
dolomites, and some limestones.

 Form under the action of pressure, Based on the above diagram we can see earth
volume and temperature (PVT) changes. movements can be majorly classified into,
 Metamorphism occurs when rocks are
forced down to lower levels by tectonic 1. Endogenetic movement
or recrystallisation and reorganization
2. Exogenetic movement
of materials.
 In the process of metamorphism in some 1. EndogeneticMovements:
3.Metamor rocks grains or minerals get arranged in
phic rocks layers or lines called as foliation or  Movements inside the earth’s crust or interaction of
lineation.
matter and temperature generates these forces. The
 Banding: minerals of different groups
arranged into alternating thin and earth movements are mainly of two
thick layers appearing in light and types: diastrophism/ slow and the sudden
dark shades. movements.
Some Examples of Metamorphism:  The energy emanating within the earth
by radioactivity, rotational and tidal forces , friction
and primordial heat from early earth are the main
4. GEOMORPHOLOGY force behind these movements.
 This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat
 Geomorphology is the study of the physical features flow from within induces diastrophism (slow
of the surface of the earth and their relation to its movements) and volcanism(sudden movements) in
geological structures. the lithosphere, thereby causing PVT (pressure,
 Geomorphic Process - The formation and volume and temperature) changes.
deformation of landforms on the surface of the earth
are a continuous process which is due to the Diastrophism/ Slow Movements:
continuous influence of external and internal forces.  Diastrophic forces refer to forces generated by the
movement of the solid material of the earth’s crust.
Earth Movements and Landforms:  All processes like plate tectonics, orogenisis,
Earth is undergoing deformations due to, epirogenisis, earth quake etc that move, elevate or
build up portions of the earth’s crust crust come
1. The heat generated by the radioactive elements in
under diastrophism.
earth’s interior.
EpirogenicOr Continent Forming Movements:
2. Movement of the crustal plates due to tectogenesis.  Epirogenic movement is vertical movement of the
earth along the radius of earth crust.
3. Forces generated by rotation of the earth.
 It is continental building process which involves uplift
4. Climatic factors like winds, precipitation, pressure or warping/subsidence of large parts of the earth’s
belts etc. crust.
Uplift:
 Due to vertical movement of the earth some earth
crust emerges there by leading to elevations
/upliftment.
 Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves
and fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidences
of uplift.

Ex: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest

Mountains in Germany are examples of uplift 2. Forces of tension:
mountains. Raised beaches along the Kathiawar,  Work horizontally, but in opposite directions. Under
Nellore, and Thirunelveli coasts. intense tensional forces, the rock stratum gets broken
or fractured which results in the formation of cracks
Subsidence: and fractures in the crust. The displacement of rock
 Due to vertical movement of the earth some earth upward or downward from their original position
crust submerges there by leading subsidence. along such a fracture is termed as faulting. Faulting
results in rift valleys and Block Mountains.
Ex: 1. Mammoth cave system in Kentucky, Karst
Note: The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts and
topography in southern china, Andes of South
the lowered blocks are called graben.
America.
2. Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea

level in Thirunelveli and the Sunderbans is an
example of subsidence.
3. The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated

from the Arakan coast by submergence of the
intervening land.
Ex: Vindhya and Satpura Mountains, rift valleys of Nile,

Narmada and Tapi etc.
Note: Earthquake and volcanoes are covered in detail

Orogenicor the Mountain-Building Movements: later chapters.
 Orogenic movements are horizontal movements
Theories of EndogeneticForces:
which involvesmountain building through severe
Continental Drift Theory:
folding and faulting, act tangentially to the earth
 This theory was suggested by Alfred Wegener in
surface.
1920’s.
 These horizontal movements can be through forces of
 According to Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory,
compression and forces of tension.
there existed one biglandmass which he called
1. Forces of Compression:
Pangaea which was covered by one big ocean called
 Are the forces which push rock strata against a hard
Panthalassa.
plane from one side or from both sides. These
 A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two
compressional forces lead to the bending of rock
huge landmasses: Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north
layers and thus lead to the formation of Fold
and Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
Mountains.
Ex: Himalayas, the Rockies (N. America), the Andes (S.
America), the Alps (Europe) etc.

 Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic  These currents are generated due to radioactive
Era), and the continents began to break up and drift elements causing thermal differences in mantle.
away from one another.  According to this theory, the intense heat generated
by radioactive substances in the mantle seeks a path
Force for Continental Drift: to escape, and gives rise to the formation of
The drift was in two directions, convention currents in the mantle.
1. Equator wards due to the interaction of forces of  Wherever rising limbs of these currents
gravity, pole-fleeing force (earth has bulge at the meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea floor and
equator due to rotation of earth) and buoyancy. wherever the falling limbs meet, trenches are formed.
2. Westwards due to tidal currents because of the
Sea Floor Spreading:
earth’s motion.
 The idea that the seafloor itself moves as it expands
Tidal force is due to the attraction of the moon and
from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess.
the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters.
 Continued with convectional theory ie., intense heat
Evidence in support of Continental Drift: tries to escape leads to convectional current meeting
of rising limbs causes ridges and falling limbs trenches.
 South America and Africa seem to fit in with each
 Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-
other, especially, the bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf
ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed
of Guinea.
through volcanic activity and then gradually moves
 Greenland seems to fit in well with Ellesmere and
away from the ridge.
Baffin islands.
 Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in
 The west coast of India, Madagascar and Africa seem
the theory of plate tectonics.
to have been joined i.e identical species of plants and
 When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes
animals are found on either side.
fractures to occur in the lithosphere,basaltic magma
 North and South America on one side and Africa and
rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to
Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
form new sea floor.
 The Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of Europe
 Older rocks will be found farther away from the
and the Appalachians of USA seem to be one
spreading zone while younger rocks will be found
continuous series.
nearer to the spreading zone.
Criticism:
Plate Tectonic Theory:
 Coastlines are a temporary feature and are liable to
change.  In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested the theory of
 Continental Drift Theory shifts India’s position too plate tectonics.
much to the south, distorting its relation with the  According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s
Mediterranean Sea and the Alps. lithosphere is broken into distinct plates which are
 The mountains do not always exhibit geological floating on asthenosphere (upper mantle). Plates
affinity. move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid
units.
Convectional Theory:  The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle
 Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km in
convection currents in the mantle. oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental
areas.

 Lithospheric plates (crustal plates, tectonic plates) Boundary

Features of the interaction
vary from minor plates to major plates, continental interaction
plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate),  In plate tectonics, a divergent
sometime a combination of both continental and boundary or divergent plate
oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate). boundary (also known as a
constructive boundary or an
Rates of Plate Movement 1.Divergence forming
extensional boundary) is a
linear feature that exists
 The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 Divergent Edge or the
between two tectonic plates
Constructive Edge
cm/yr.), and the East Pacific Rise in the South Pacific that are moving away from
[about 3,400 km west of Chile], has the fastest rate each other. Interaction of this
(more than 15 cm/yr.). type leads to formation of
 Indian plate’s movement during its journey from mid-oceanic trenches and rift
valleys.
south to equator was one of the fastest plate
 Earthquakes are common
movements.
along divergent edges.
 In this kind of interaction, two
lithospheric plates collide
against each other.
The zone of collision may
undergo crumpling and
folding and folded mountains
may emerge.
2.Convergence
forming Convergent  This is an orogenic collision.
Edge or Destructive Himalayan Boundary Fault is
Edge one such example.
 When one of the plates is an
oceanic plate, it gets
embedded in the softer
asthenosphere of the
continental plate and as a
Types of plate boundaries: result, trenches are formed
Plate Boundaries are of three types, based on the nature  Formed when two plates
of interaction. move past each other.
 In this kind of interaction, two
plates grind against each
3. Transform fault other and there is no creation
or destruction of landform but
only deformation of the
existing landform.
Example: San Andreas Fault (USA)
Convergent boundaries are of 3 types,

1. Ocean-Ocean Convergent Plate Boundary
When two oceanic plates meet and collide against
each other, the denser of the two plates is pulled

under the other and is subducted. It descends into the Pyroclastic-adjective of or denoting rock fragments or
asthenosphere leading to generation of new magma. ash erupted by a volcano, especially as a hot, dense,
destructive flow
The resulting body of many volcanoes and volcanic
Classification of Volcanoes –
rocks is called an island volcanic arc.
Examples of such arcs are Japan, the Philippines, the

Tonga Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the West
Indies Islands etc.
2. Ocean-Continental Convergent Boundary:

When an oceanic plate collides with a continental
plate, the oceanic plate is always pulled under and
subducted because it is denser than the continental
plate. When the oceanic plate is subducted under the
Types of Lava:
continental plate, it leads to the generation of new
magma, which upwells and forms volcanoes on the 1. Acidic – light coloured, highly viscous, flow slowly,
non-subducting plate, or the continental plate. The steep-sided, lead to explosion throwing out pyroclasts
resulting body of such an interaction leads to the or bombs, forming spine or plug at craters
formation of continental volcanic arcs. 2. Basic– hottest, highly fluid, rich in iron and
magnesium, lack silica, dark colour, highly fluid, flow
The most visible example is Andes Mountains off the quietly, forms thin sheets and spread over large area
west coast of the U.S. forming shield or dome.
3. Continent-Continent convergent Boundary Volcanoes are also classified as Intrusive and

When the continent and continent converge, the Extrusive landforms
crust at both the sides is too light and buoyant to be
subducted, so neither plate is subducted in continent-
continent convergent boundary. Both continental
masses press against the other, and both become
compressed and ultimately fused into a single block
with a folded mountain belt forming between them.
Example: Himalayas
5. VOLCANOES
Intrusive Landforms:
Sometimes, the molten matter is not able to reach the
 Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock
surface and instead cools down very slowly at great
(magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface
depths. Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals (large grains)
 A volcano is formed when the molten magma in the
to be formed. Granite is a typical example. These rocks
earth’s interior escapes through the crust by vents
appear on the surface only after being uplifted and
and fissures in the crust, accompanied by steam,
denuded.
gases (hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen
chloride, carbon dioxide) and pyroclastic material.

 Molten magma intrusion horizontally along the bed of  Mt. Etna (Sicily, Italy) best example of parasitic cone.
sedimentary planes is called sills.  Interesting composite volcano-Mt. Stromboli
 Molten magma intrusion vertically along the walls of (Lighthouse of Mediterranean)
igneous rocks are called as dykes.
Distribution of Volcanoes:
Types of igneous intrusions,
 Circum-Pacific ring of fire or Pacific ring of fire
1. Laccolith- igneous mound with a doem shaped upper includes2/3rd of world volcanoes. Although there are
surface a few active volcanoes found along the Atlantic,
2. Lopolith- saucer shaped Mediterranean costs
3. Phacolith-lens shaped mass of igneous rock
4. Batholith- huge mass of igneous rock
Extrusive Landforms:
hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes)
onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the
atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics .This is as opposed
to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not
reach the earth surface.
Various extrusive landforms are,
 Lava Plains and Basalt Plateaux fluid – Snake basin,
USA; Deccan; Iceland Geyser and Hot Springs:
 Lava domes or shield volcanoes – volcanic cones –  Geyser – fountain of hot water and superheated
Mauna Loa and Kilauea. steam from earth beneath in which water is heated
 Ash and cinder cones – less fluid – large crater and beyond boiling point with explosion.
steep slope – small volcano in groups – Mt. Nauvoo  World major geyser are concentrated in Iceland,
(Naples) and Mt. Paricutin (Mexico) Lava tongues and Rotorua (N. Island, New Zealand), Yellowstone
lava dammed lakes – confined in valleys Lava bridges . National Park (USA) – Old Faithful world’s best known
 Lava tunnels geyser.
 Volcanic dust – fine particles.  Hot Springs or thermal springs – water rises to the
 Dust and Ash – black snow surface without any explosion and consist of dissolved
Composite Cones are most commonly called as minerals . Ex: Hawaii and Japan.
Stratocones with main conduit and subsidiary dykes and
pipes 6. EARTHQUAKES
 An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the

earth’s surface, caused by the sudden movement of a
part of the earth’s crust resulting in release of energy
that creates seismic waves.
 It occurs when the surplus accumulated stress in rocks
in the earth’s interior is relieved through the weak
zones over the earth’s surface in form of kinetic
energy of wave motion causing vibrations (at times
devastating) on the earth’s surface.

 Focus - The place of origin of an earthquake inside the  Body waves interact with the surface rocks and
earth. generate new set of waves called surface waves,
 Epicentre - Point on the earth’s surface vertically these waves move along the surface and are also
above the focus. Maximum damage is caused at the more destructive (Rayleigh) than body waves
epicentre.
 Wave Velocity - 5 to 8 km per second through the Body Waves:
outer part of the crust but travel faster with depth. There are two types of body waves -
 Isoseismic Line - A line connecting all points on the
1. Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal)
surface of the earth where the intensity is the same.
 Earth quake magnitude is measured by Richter scale,  Also called as the longitudinal or compressional waves.
intensity is measured by Mercalli.  Analogous to sound waves.
 Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of
Causes: propagation of the wave.
1. Compressional or tensional stresses built up at the  P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the
margins of the huge moving lithospheric plates. surface.
2. Sudden release of stress along a fault, or fracture in  These waves are of high frequency.
the earth’s crust.  They can travel in all mediums.
3. Constant change in volume and density of rocks due  Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.
to intense temperature and pressure in the earth’s  Their velocity depends on shear strength or elasticity
interior. of the material.
4. Human induced earth quake
2. Secondary waves or S waves (transverse)(least
Earthquake Waves: destructive)
 Seismic waves are produced when some form of  Also called as transverse or distortional waves.
energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released,  Analogous to water ripples or light waves.
due to slipping of land, these waves will travel in all  S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.
directions.  A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or
gases.
Types of Seismic Waves  These waves are of high frequency waves.
 Earthquake waves are of two types — Body waves  Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear
and Surface waves. strength) through the solid part of the Earth’s crust,
mantle.
Surface Waves:
1. L waves:
 Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves

produce entirely horizontal motion. They are much
slower than body waves but are faster than Rayleigh.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of
energy at the focus and move in all directions 2. Rayleigh waves:
travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the
 These waves follow an elliptical motion.
name body waves.
 A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a  P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the
wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, wave.As a result, it creates density differences in the
it moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
the same direction that the wave is moving. material.
 Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to  The direction of vibrations of S-waves is
the Rayleigh wave. perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical
plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the
material through which they pass.
Emergence of Shadow Zone:

The seismic shadows are the effect of seismic waves
striking the core-mantle boundary. P and S waves
radiate spherically away from an earthquake's
hypocenter (or focus) in all directions and return to
the surface by many paths. S waves, however, don't
reappear beyond an angular distance of ~103° (as
they are don’t pass through liquid material) and P
waves don't arrive between ~103° and 140° due to
refraction at the mantle-core boundary.
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics:
 As per Plate tectonics earthquakes are a consequence

of inter-plate interaction, along the convergent
boundary. Compressive forces crush and cause
earthquakes, while along divergent boundary tensile
forces stretch and snap the earth creating
earthquakes.
 Earthquakes can also be due to plate motions and the
friction of lithospheric plates while they drift along Distribution of Earthquakes:
asthenosphere.
 Divergent boundaries and convergent boundaries Exogenic Movements:
between two continental plates will only have
 Exogenic processes are a direct result of stress
shallow focus earthquake.
induced in earth materials due to various forces that
 Intermediate and deep focus earthquakes are almost come into existence due to sun’s heat.
entirely limited to ocean floor subduction.
 Earth materials become subjected to molecular
Propagation of Earthquake Waves in Earth’s Interiors: stresses caused due to temperature changes.
 Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of
 The velocity of waves changes as they travel through bonds between grains.
materials with different elasticity. The more elastic
 Temperature and precipitation are the two important
the material is the higher is the velocity. Their
climatic elements that control various processes by
direction also changes as they reflect or refract when
inducing stress in earth materials.
coming across materials with different densities.

 Geomorphic agent: An exogenic element of  Ex: rocks contain certain amount of iron, which in
nature(like water, ice, wind, etc) capable of acquiring contact with air changes into iron oxide leading to
and transporting earth materials can be called a rust.
geomorphic agent.
3. Decomposition by Organic Acids
 Denudation- the process of wearing away the earth  Soils consist of certain bacterias which thrive on the
that causes general lowering and levelling out of the rock surface, they produce acids when dissolved in
surface. water.
Denudation Involves 4 Processes: Ex: Microoragnisms, mosses or lichens
4. Carbonation
1. Weathering- gradual disintegration of rocks by  Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals
atmospheric or weather forces. which helps in breaking down of feldspars and
2. Erosion – active wearing of earth surface by agents carbonate minerals.
like water, wind,ice etc.
5. Hydration
3. Transportation- removal of eroded debris to new
positions.  Chemical addition of water. Minerals absorb water
4. Deposition – dumping of debris in certain parts of and expand which causes an increase in volume of
earth. material itself or rock.
 Warm wet climate promotes rapid chemical
weathering while dry climate provide good conditions Physical Weathering:
for physical weathering  Also known as Mechanical Weathering , it is physical
Disintegration of rocks
Chemical Weathering: Types of physical weathering,
 Extremely slow and gradual decomposition of rocks 1. Temperature changes
due to exposure to air and water
 Mainly in dry desert areas, hot at day and cold by
 Regolith - mineral remains of decomposed rocks. night, Leads to expansion and contraction of rock
 When a soil cover on the rock exists, chemical setting up stresses in the rock. Finally leading to its
weathering of the rock enhances because the soil disintegration
absorbs rain water and keeps the underlying rock in
2. Repeated wetting and drying
contact with this moisture.
 Stresses are naturally greatest near the surface and
Types of Chemical weathering: where there are sharp angles in the rock, finally it
1. Solution leads to peeling off of rock’s outer layer called as
 Many minerals are dissolved by water especially with exfoliation.
rain water which contains enough carbon dioxide to
 Exfoliation also takes place by repeated wetting and
make it a weak acid.
drying of rocks surface as during wetting its outer
Ex: in limestone region, rocks made of calcium carbonate layer absorbs moisture and expand; when they dry
get dissolved in rain water, widening joints resulting this moisture evaporates and they quickly shrinks,
in crumbling of rocks. finally leading to peeling of outer layer of the rock
2. Oxidation: 3. Frost
 Weathering by reaction of oxygen in presence of air  At high altitudes and cold climates where during day
and water with minerals present in the rock cracks and joints inside rock fill with water and during

night they get frozen. With repeated freeze /thaw  Occur on steep slopes, slope undercut by river or sea
cycles, rock breaks into pieces or by lubricating action of rain water.
 Slumping is permeable layer overlie over
4. Biotic factors
impermeable clay, which acts as a slippery surface.
 vegetation grows into crevices of rock cracks or in
courtyards as plant grows roots penentrate weaken GroundWater:
the rock.  Hydrological cycle is process of circulation of water
5. Salt weathering between land, sea and atmosphere.
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration  Ground water plays major role in weathering and
and crystallisation. mass movement.
Mass Movement: Volume of ground water depends on climate,

 Movement of weathered material down the slope  Dry climate – precipitation is evaporated quickly and
due to gravitational forces little moisture percolate into ground.
 Movement can be slow or sudden, depending on the  Humid areas – most water runs off and sinks into
slope gradient, weight of debris and lubricating ground
moisture supplied by rainwater  Porous Rocks – sandstone – many pore spaces exists
(water is absorbed and stored)
Types of mass movements are,  Permeable or pervious rocks - allow water to pass
A. Slow movement through them
1. Soil creep  Impermeable – Clay is highly porous as made of many
 Slow and gradual process continuous movement of fine particles but spaces are very small and particle
downhill slopes cannot move.
 Common in damp soils where water act as lubricant
Water Table:
2. Soil Flow:  Water moves down by gravity and reach impermeable
 Soil is saturated with water and individual particles layer through which it cannot pass. If no outlet is
are suspended in water, they start moving like a liquid. there, water accumulates above impermeable rocks
The gradual movement of wet soil or other material and saturates the rocks. Water store in the permeable
down a slope, especially where frozen subsoil acts as rock is known as aquifer. Surface of saturated area is
a barrier to the percolation of water. called water table.
 Water table is far below surface in hill tops but close
B. Rapid movements to surface in valleys and flat low lying areas causing
water logging.
1. Earthflow:
 Movement of water saturated clayey or silty earth
materials down low angle terraces.flow of water that Springs
contains large amounts of suspended particles and silt.  A spring is a point at which water flows from an
2. Mudflow: aquifer to the Earth's surface. It is a component of the
hydrosphere.
 Flow of water that contains large amounts of
suspended particles and silt.
 Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves
through the underground rocks. This is why spring
3. Landslides (Slumping and Sliding):
water is often bottled and sold as mineral water.

Wells 3.Barrier Reefs: Separated by wider and deeper channel –

 Hole is bored until it reaches water table of partially submerged has narrow gaps at several places to
permanent depth with continuous flow of water allow water. Great Barrier Reef off the coast of
Queensland.
 Aquifer is saturated to the brim of the basin. Water is
trapped in the aquifer under pressure and when well 4.Atolls: Circular and enclose shallow lagoon without any
is bored, pressure of water downwards forces the land in centre.
water up the bore hole to gush as fountain. After
7. LANDFORMS
sometime pressure decreases and pumping is not
required. Landforms Created by Running Water:
 This water is unsuitable for agriculture as it is hot and Course of a river
contains lots of mineral salts.
 Predominant action is vertical corrosion
Islands and Coral Reefs (corrosion- it is the gradual destruction
• Land surrounded by water on all sides, may occur of materials by chemical and/or
individually or in group. electrochemical reaction with their
environment)
Coral Reefs
 Gorges and canyons are formed during
 Coral Polyps – calcareous algae, shell forming this stage (A canyonorgorge is a deep
creatures and lime secreting plants live in large cleft between escarpments or cliffs
colonies. When polyp die, skeleton are cemented into resulting from weathering and the
coralline limestone. erosive activity of a river )
 Non reef building species – precious coral of Pacific  River capture- river capture is natural
Ocean & Red coral of Mediterranean Sea. The young diversion of the headwaters of one
stage stream into the channel of another,
Conditions for coral formation- typically resulting from rapid headward
erosion by the latter stream)
 Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls- Rapids
1. Survive best in warmer tropical seas.
are stream sections with extremely
2. Water temperature must not be below 20 C. strong currents, numerous obstacles, and
3. Not flourish in cold currents due to upwelling of steps in their streambeds. A waterfall is a
cold waters from depth that cools the warm water vertical drop in a streambed. Both are
surface. sites of vigorous erosion. Rapids often
4. Depth of water should not exceed 30 fathoms or form where resistant bedrock confines a
180 feet as beyond it sunlight is too faint. stream to a narrow channel, and forces
5. Shallow water of less than 100 feet is ideal. an increase in water velocity.
6. Water should be saltish and free from sediments -
corals are best developed on seaward side of Middle or  Meanders -a winding curve or bend of a
reef – abundant supply of clear oxygenated water. valley river
course  River cliffs and slip-off slopes
Types of Coral Reefs
 Flood plains- An area of low-lying ground
1.Fringing Reefs: Lies close to coast and extend outwards adjacent to a river, formed mainly of
from mainland separated by shallow lagoon – widestwhen river sediments and subject to flooding.
fringing protruding headland but absent when facing  Ox-bow lakes- it is a U-shaped lake that
mouth of stream. Lower or forms when a wide meander from the
plain course main stem of a river is cut off, creating a
2.Patch Reef: Patch Reefs are isolated outcroppings free-standing body of water.
(patches) of coral that are in close proximity to each other  Delta- a triangular tract of sediment
but are physically separated by sand rings. deposited at the mouth of a river,
typically where it diverges into several
outlets.

Erosional land forms of running water: Braided patterns

potholes Circular depressions on rocky beds of hills. Landforms of glaciations
They are formed because of steam erosion Glaciers
aided by abrasion of rock fragments.  A glacier is a large, perennial accumulation of
Plunge Large and deep holes at the base of crystalline ice, snow, rock, sediment, and often liquid
pools waterfalls are called plunge pools. water that originates on land and moves down slope
River They result due to vertical erosion by under the influence of its own weight and gravity.
terraces the stream into its own depositional  Only two major ice caps are present today- Antarctica
floodplain. and Greenland
Paired River terraces which occur at same  At the foot of the mountain glacier, several glaciers
terraces elevation on either side of rivers. may converge to form an extensive ice-mass called
Unpaired River terraces which occur at different piedmont glacier
terraces Elevation.
Landforms of Glaciations:
1. Corrie, cirque It is a depression where snow
accumulates
When two corries cut back on each
2. Aretes and
other, knife-edged ridges are formed
pyramidal peaks
called aretes
At the head of a glacier when snow
begins to leave the corrie, a deep
3. Bergschrund
vertical crack opens up called
bergschrund
A U-shaped valley is a geological
Depositional land forms of running water: formation characterized by high and
steep sides and a rounded or flat valley
Alluvial They are formed when streams flowing bottom.
fans from higher levels break into foot slope
plains of low gradient. 4. U-shaped U-shaped valleys are located all over the
glacial trough world, particularly in areas with high
The load gets dumped as a broad low
mountains, as this is where glaciers were
to high cone shaped deposit called able to form. Some examples of U-
alluvial fan. shaped valleys include Zezere Valley in
Natural They are low,linear and parallel ridges of Portugal, Leh Valley in India, and Nant
levees coarse deposits along the banks of rivers. Francon Valley in Wales.
Point They are sediments deposited in a linear Hanging valleys- it is a characteristic U-
bars fashion by flowing waters along the bank. shape valley above their respective main
They are found on convex side of meanders valleys, and have a steep wall at the
Of large rivers. point where the two valleys meet.
These valleys are found in regions of
Braided The threadlike streams of water rejoin and 5. Hanging
high altitude, particularly in
channels subdivide repeatedly to give a braided valleys
mountainous regions. The valleys are
pattern. natural crevices through which rivers
flow, and at the cliff meeting point
where the two valleys meet the rivers
dramatically drop to form waterfalls.
Moraines are formed from debris
previously carried along by a glacier.
Lateral moraines are formed at the side
6. Moraines
of the ice flow and terminal moraines at
the foot, marking the maximum advance
of the glacier.

Distinct Desert Types:

It is a type of desert landscape consisting
1. Hamada or of high, largely barren, hard rocky
rocky desert plateaus, where most of the sand has been
removed by deflation.
Desert surface covered with closely
2. Reg or stony
packed, interlocking angular or rounded
desert
rock fragments of pebble and cobble size
An erg desert is a broad, flat area of desert
3. Erg or sandy
covered with wind-swept sand with little
desert
or no vegetative cover.
Badlands are a type of dry terrain where
Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands: softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils
4. Badlands
have been extensively eroded by wind and
1. Roche It is glaciated bedrock surface, usually in water.
mountains the form of rounded knobs. Found on plateaus and mountain ranges.
2. Craig and Craigis a rocky hill or mountain, generally 5. Mountain
Steepslopes, sharp and irregularpeaks
tail isolated from other high ground. deserts
are common
Boulder clay containing many large stones
3. Boulder clay
and boulders, formed by deposition from
or glacial till Landforms of Wind Erosion in Deserts:
melting glaciers and ice sheets.
An erratic is a piece of rock that has been 1. Rock A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal,
4. Erratic eroded and transported by a glacier to a pedestals or is a naturally occurring rock whose shape, as
different area. mushroom its name implies, resembles a mushroom, by
Drumlins are elongated, teardrop-shaped rocks or gour erosion and weathering.
5. Drumlins hills of rock, sand, and gravel that formed A Zeugen is formed in desert area where
under moving glacierice. 2. Zeugen alternating horizontal layers of hard and soft
Eskeris a long, winding ridge of stratified rocks occur.
6. Eskers a sharp irregular ridge of sand lying in the
sand and gravel.
It is a plain formed of glacial sediments direction of the prevailing wind in exposed
7. Outwash 3. Yardangs
deposited by melt water outwash at the desert regions, formed by the wind erosion of
plains adjacent material which is less resistant.
terminus of a glacier.
A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped hill or
mountain with steep sides that is smaller in
4. Mesas and area than a plateau. A butte is also a flat-
buttes topped hill with steep sides, though smaller in
area than a mesa.
An inselberg or monadnock is an isolated

rock hill, knob, ridge, or small mountain that
5. Inselberg
rises abruptly from a gently sloping or
virtually level surrounding plain.
a stone shaped by the erosive action of wind-
Arid or Desert Landforms: 6. Ventifacts
blown sand.
Dune deflation hollows are where wind has
 Almost all deserts lie between 15 to 30 degree north
removed sand down to a level where a layer
and south of the equator 7. Deflation
of particles too heavy for the wind to move
 They lie in trade wind belt on the western part of the hollows
stabilizes the sand and prevents the surface
continents where trade winds are off-shore. They are being lowered further.
bathed by cold currents. These currents are devoid of
any moisture

Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts:

barchans Crescent shaped dunes.
Seif Long narrow sand dune or chain of dunes
extending in a direction parallel to that of
the wind responsible for its construction.
Parabolic Reversed barchans with wind direction

dunes being the same.
Longitudinal They appear as long ridges of considerable
dunes length but low in height.
Transverse These are aligned perpendicular to the
dunes Wind direction.
Loess The surface covered by deposits of wind
Transported silt that has settled out from
Dust storms over many thousands of years.
These depositions are called as loess.
Limestone and Chalk Landform:

 Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks of organic
origin derived from the accumulation of corals and
shells in the sea. In its pure state, limestone is made
up of calcite or calcium carbonate, but where
magnesium is also present it is termed dolomite.
 Chalk is a very pure form of limestone, white, and
rather soft.
 Limestone is soluble in rain-water, which, with carbon
dioxide from the air, forms a weak acid. A region with
a large stretch of limestone therefore possesses a
very distinct type of topography. It is then termed a
karst region.
Karst Region Characteristics:
 Karst regions have a bleak landscape There is general

absence of surface drainage as most of the surface
water has gone underground. For the greater part of
their course, they cut their way along the joints and
fissures of the rock wearing out a system of
underground channels.

A limestone pavement is a flat expanse of Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by

1. Limestone
exposed limestone formed by a combination the processes of weathering and erosion.
pavement
of chemical weathering and erosion Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is
Pavements are made up of two separate but resistant to weathering and erosion.
integral parts known as clints and grykes.
2. Grikes and 2. Cliffs and
Clints are the blocks of limestone that Wave-cut platforms form when
clints wave cut
constitute the paving. Grykes are the destructive waves hit against the cliff
platforms
fissures that isolate the individual clints. face, causing an undercut between the
They are small depressions carved out by high and low water marks, mainly as a
3. Swallow solution where rain water sinks into the result of abrasion, corrosion and
holes limestone at the zone of weakness. It is also hydraulic action, creating a wave-cut
known as sinkholes notch.
These are created where the roof of a large Caves occur when waves force their way
4. Limestone underground cavern collapses, to create a into cracks in the cliff face. The water
gorges steep sided gorge with a river running in the contains sand and other materials that
bottom. grind away at the rock until the cracks
When water flows down a swallow hole it become a cave.
5. Resurgence flows underground along bedding planes and If the cave is formed in a headland, it may
down joints. eventually break through to the other
a closed karst depression, a terrain form side forming an arch.
3. Cave, arch,
6. Uvala usually of elongated or compound structure stack and
and of larger size than that of sinkholes. The arch will gradually become bigger
stump
It is an elongated basin having a flat floor until it can no longer support the top of
7. Polje the arch. When the arch collapses, it
and steep walls
A stalactite is a type of formation that hangs leaves the headland on one side and a
8. Stalacites stack.
from the ceiling of caves.
A stalagmite is a type of rock formation that The stack will be attacked at the base in
9. Stalagmites rises from the floor of a cave due to the the same way that a wave-cut notch is
accumulation of material deposited on the formed. This weakens the structure and it
floor from ceiling drippings. will eventually collapse to form a stump.
Geous is an inlet, a gully or a narrow and
deep cleft in the face of a cliff.
4. Geous and
Gloupsa blow hole, where a chimney has
gloups
developed behind the cliff face, often
above a cave, and spray is blasted out
during high seas.
Coastal Features of Deposition:

A beach is a landform alongside a body of
1. Beaches water which consists of loose particles of
Coastal landforms: rock, sand etc
A spit is an extended stretch of beach
Coastal landforms, any relief features present along the material that projects out to sea and is joined
coast. to the mainland at one end.
2. Bars and
Coastal features of Erosion: spits When the ridge of shingle beach which is
Cape is a piece or point of land, extending armoured with pebbles is formed across the
beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or mouth of a river or the entrance to a bay it is
lake. called as bar
1. Capes and With the force of on-shore winds, a large
bays 3. Marine
Bay is a body of water (especially the sea) amount of coastal sand is driven landwards
dunes and
more or less three-quarters surrounded forming extensive marine dunes that stretch
dunes belt
by land. into dune belts

Types of Coasts:
Submergent Coasts are those that

1. Coastlines of have been flooded by ocean waters
submergence because of a relative rise in the
elevation of sea level at that location.
Emergent coasts are a result of local
tectonic uplift of the land surface or a
fall in the elevation of sea level
because of a reduction in the water
volume of ocean basins. Quite often,
2. Coastlines of emergent coasts have rocky
emergence coastlines with cliffs and nearly flat
platforms that extend inland where
older coastal plains have been
tectonically raised and are now
elevated above the modern land and
water interface.
Coastlines of Submergence:
Ria is a coastal formation that was once a

1. Ria coasts river valley. It is found along an un-
glaciated land.
Fiords are submerged U-shaped glacial
2. Fiord coasts troughs. They mark the paths of glaciers
that plunged down from the highlands
It a type of coastline formed when a
3. Dalamation continental fold region is submerged but its
coasts terrain basically preserves its
correspondence to the tectonic structures..
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal
4. Estuarine body of brackish water with one or more
coasts rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a
free connection to the open sea
Coastlines of Emergence:
The uplift of the continental shelf produces

1. Uplifted smooth, gently slopingcoastallowland. The
lowland coast offshore waters are shallow with lagoons,
salt-marshes and mud-flats
Faulting and earth movement may thrust up
2. Emergent coastal plateau so that the whole region is
upland coast raised with consequent emergent features. A
raised beach is the most significant example.

when fringing protruding headland but absent when

facing mouth of stream.
Patch Reef: Patch Reefs are isolated outcroppings
(patches) of coral that are in close proximity to each other
but are physically separated by sand rings
Barrier Reefs: Separated by wider and deeper channel –
partially submerged has narrow gapsat several places to
allow water. Great Barrier Reef off the coast
ofQueensland
Atolls: Circular and enclose shallow lagoon without any
land in center
8. SOILS
Coral Reefs:
• Coral Polyps – calcareous algae, shell forming Soil Formation:
creatures and lime secreting plants live in large
 Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases,
colonies. When polyp die, skeleton are cemented into
liquids, and organisms that together support life.
coralline limestone
 It is usually formed from weathered rock or regolith
• Non reef building species – precious coral of Pacific
changed by chemical, physical and biological process.
Ocean & Red coral of Mediterranean Sea.
• Conditions for coral formation-
1. Survive best in warmer tropical seas
2. Water temperature must not be below 68℉.
3. Not flourish in cold currents due to upwelling of cold
waters from depth that cools the warm water surface
4. Depth of water should not exceed 30 fathoms or 180 Soils Main Constituents:
feet as beyond it sunlight is too faint.  Mineral Material – It includes all minerals inherited
5. Shallow water of less than 100 feet is ideal. from the parent material as well as those formed by
6. Water should be saltish and free from sediments - recombination from substances in the soil solution.
corals are best developed on seaward side ofreef –  Organic Matter – It is derived mostly from decaying
abundant supply of clear oxygenated water. plant material broken down and decomposed by the
Types of Coral Reefs: actions of animals and microorganisms living in the
Fringing Reefs: Lies close to coast and extend outwards soil. (Note: The end product of breakdown of dead
from mainland separated by shallow lagoon – widest organic material is called humus.)

 Air and Water: They fill the voids in soil. Hence have 1. Parent Material
reciprocal relationship since both compete for the  In most of the cases, the parent material determines
same pore spaces. the colouration, mineral composition and texture of
the soil.
Soil formation Process:
2. Climate
It involves 5 main processes:
1. Additions: Most additions occur at the surface. The  Temperature and rainfall are the most important
obvious ones include solar energy, water controlled factors in soil formation. They determine the
by climate, and organic material derived principally effectiveness of weathering of the parent material.
from the vegetation.
3. Topography
2. Losses: Losses occur both from the surface and from
the deep subsoil. Materials suspended or dissolved in  The relief is the most important factor for soil
water are the main forms of losses from the subsoil formation.
e.g. leaching.  Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it
3. Translocation: It refers to the physical movement of hinders soil formation. Example: Chambal ravines,
material within the soil. The material can be in the higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal
solid, liquid or gaseous form or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes)
For instance: etc.
 Clay, organic matter and iron and aluminium  The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally
hydrous oxides are commonly moved from the experience deposition and have deep soils. Example:
surface horizon to a subsurface horizon. Indo-Gangetic plain.
 Very dry climates salts are moved upwards in  The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where
solution by capillarity. the soil layers are sufficiently deep.
 Very cold climates solid mineral fragments are
moved upwards by frost action. Marbut’s Soil classification:
4. Transformation: Involves the change of soil
constituent without any physical displacement. Pedacals: It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid
Chemical and physical weathering and the
and arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and
decomposition of organic matter are included here.
has low soil organic matter.
5. Organisms: Organism, both plant and animal, play an
Example : Prairie, Chernozem ,Chestnut , Rendzina,
important role in the development and composition
of soil. Organisms add organic matter, aid Terra Rosa
decomposition, weathering and nutrient cycling.
Factors Controlling Soil Formation:
Pedalfer is composed of aluminum and iron oxides,
sesquioxides increase relative to silica during soil
formation. Pedalfers usually occur in humid areas.
Examples: Podzols, Latosols ( Laterite)
Azonal Soil – It is that soil which has been developed

by the process of deposition by the agents of erosion.
It means that it has been made by the fine rocky

particles transported from the far-off regions. These

are immature soils and lack well-developed soil Deep Sea Plain (abyssal plain)
profiles.  Undulating plain lies 2-3 miles below sea level and
Example: Alluvial and Mountain soils. cover 2/3rd of ocean floor. Ithas plateau, ridges,
trenches and basins in midst of oceans
9. OCEANOGRAPHY Deeps / Trenches:

 Trenches are narrow and steep sides depressions
Oceans:  Trenches are formed when two plates of the Earth
 Oceans: 70% or 140 million square miles area is crust are moving together and one is being pushed
comprised by oceans down below the other.
 Oceanography: Science of oceans and deep seas. Ex: Marina trench (challenger deep) is the deepest trench
in the world situated in the North West pacific ocean
Relief of Oceans: near Philippines, is more than 11 km deep.
Figure
Oceanic Ridges:
 Oceanic ridges are formed by the volcanic activity
along the spreading boundary of plates.
Sea Mounts and Guyots:
 A ridge rising more than 1000 m above the ocean
floor is called sea mount. Flat topped sea mounts are
called Guyots.
Submarine Canyons:
Continental Shelf:
 Submarine canyons are the deep gorges on the ocean
 Seaward extension of continent from shoreline
floor and are restricted to the continental shelves,
marked by 100 fathom. [1 fathom =1.829 meters]
slopes, and rises.
 Shallowness enables sunlight to penetrate through
the water and encourage growth of plants –rich in
Ocean Deposits:
plankton and arerichest fishing grounds in world –
 Muds: Terrigenous deposits from land deposited on
Grand banks off Newfoundland, North Sea and Sunda
continental shelf – blue, green or red muddepending
Shelf.
on chemical content
 Limited depth and gentle slope keep out cold under
current and increase height of tides. Greatest
 Oozes: Pelagic deposits form oceans – shelly and
seaports like Southampton, London, Hamburg,
skeletal remains of marine micro organisms with
Rotterdam, Hong Kong are on continental shelves.
calcium or silica – have fine flour like texture.
Continental Slope:
 Clays: Mainly as red clay in deeper oceans due to
 At the edge of continental shelf, abrupt gradient
accumulation of volcanic dust.
change 1 in 20.
Continental rise  Polymetallic nodules, also called manganese
 sediment deposition underwater feature found
between the continental slope and the abyssal plain nodules, are rock concretions on the sea bottom

formed of concentric layers of iron and

manganese hydroxides around a core. As nodules
can be found in vast quantities, and contain
valuable metals, deposits have been identified as
having economic interest
Salinity
 Degree of saltness in water
 NaCl or common salt form 77% of dissolved mineral
Temperature of Oceans:
matter. Other salts include magnesium, calcium,
 Annual range of temperature is much smaller – less
potassium.
than 15 C for open seas.
 Due to free movement, salts remain remarkably
constant in all oceans and even at great depths– but
 Cold current as Labrador currentreduces surface
degree of concentration varies
water temperature. Warm current like North Atlantic
 Average salinity is 35.2 parts per thousand.
Drift raises the temperature making Norwegian coast
 Baltic Sea (dilution of fresh water) – salinity is 7 parts
ice free year round.
per thousand.
 Red Sea – much surface evaporation and fewer rivers
 Highest water temperature are seen in tropics – Red
draining into it – salinity is 39 parts per thousand
Sea with 30 degree c to 38 degree c.
 Caspian Sea – enclosed sea with salinity at 180
 Dead Sea it is around 250.
 Temperature varies vertically with increasing depth
 Lake Van (Asia Minor) at 330 highest salinity.
80% ocean waters have temperature 35℉ to 40℉.
 With high density in Lake Van and Dead Sea it is
impossible to sink (beginner swimmers find it easier
to float).
Salinity is Affected by:

1. Rate of evaporation: water fringing the High pressure
belts of trade wind desertshave Highsalinity caused by
high temperature and low humidity.
Temperate oceans have low salinity due to lower
evaporation & temperature. Movements of Ocean Currents:
2. Fresh water is added by precipitation, streams and
 Circulate in regular pattern. Warm current flow from
icebergs – salinity is low in equatorial region due to
equatorial region to poles. Cold Currents flow from
heavy rainfall and high relative humidity.
Polar Regions to equator and have low surface
temperature.
Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters have lowsalinity
due to colder climate and little evaporation – as water
is added by melting of icebergs and rivers. Underlying factors
3. Degree of water mixing by currents: Water does not 1. Planetary Winds:
mix freely with ocean waters in enclosed seas and  Trade winds which move equatorial waters pole ward
salinity is high. and westwards and warm eastern coast of continents.

Ex: South Equatorial Current warms eastern coast of hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher
Brazil as warm Brazilian current. latitudes in the northern hemisphere.
 Westerlies in temperate are less reliable than trade 2. Warm currents:
Winds – result in north-easterly flow of water in north Bring warm water into cold water areas.
hemisphere, so Gulf Stream is driven to Western
 Usually observed on east coast of continents in the
Europe.
low and middle latitudes(in both hemispheres).
 In northern hemisphere they are found on west
2. Temperature: coasts of continents in high latitudes.
 warm water are lighter and rises while cold water is
denser and sinks
3. Salinity:
 Water of high salinity are denser than water of low
salinity. Low salinity water flow on surface of waters.
High salinity water flows at the bottom.
4. Earth’s Rotation:
 It deflects freely moving objects including ocean
currents to right. In northhemisphere it is clockwise Major ocean currents of the world:
(Gulf Stream and Canaries Current) while in south Warm currents
hemisphere it isanti-clockwise (Brazilian current and Name Ocean Description
West Wind drift) The Agulhas Current is the
Agulhas
western boundary current of the
Current Indian
5. Land: southwest Indian Ocean. It flows
down the east coast of Africa.
 Landmass obstructs and diverts a current .
Alaska North Southwestern warm water
Ex: tip of south Chile diverts West wind Drift
Current pacific current off the coast of Alaska
northward as Peruvian current.
ocean and west coast of Canada.
Types of ocean currents: Brazil South Flows south along the Brazilian
Current Atlantic south coast to the mouth of the
Based on depth
ocean Río de la Plata.
1.surface currents: The East Australian Current
(EAC) is the southward western
Upper 400m of the ocean->constitute about 10% of water East
South boundary current that is formed
in the ocean. Australian
pacific from the South Equatorial
Current
2.deep water currents: ocean Current (SEC) crossing the Coral
Sea and reaching the eastern
Constitute 90% of ocean waters.
coast of Australia.
Based on temperature Equatorial current, ocean
Equatorial
Pacific current flowing westward near
1. Cold currents: Current
ocean the equator, predominantly
Bring cold water into warm water areas. controlled by the winds.
North Warm ocean current originating
 These currents are usually found on west coast of the Gulf Stream
Atlantic in Gulf of Mexico along the east
continents in the low and middle latitudes(in both
ocean coast of the United States

Kuroshio North North-flowing warm current off

Current pacific the coast of Japan in the Pacific Potassium:
ocean Ocean Potassium is also one of the most abundant minerals like
The North Atlantic Current salt. Although Potassium cannot be directly extracted as
North
North (NAC) warm western boundary
Atlantic salt.
Atlantic current within the Atlantic
Drift Sand
ocean Ocean that extends the Gulf
Stream north-eastward.
 The sea beaches can be understood as the residual
North deposits of sand.
North The North Pacific Current is a
pacific
Pacific Drift slow warm water current
ocean Manganese Nodules:
These nodules contain enormous amount of metal wealth.
Cold Currents: They can be looked upon as a huge potential to be used
Name Ocean Description by human beings as a resource as and when technology is
Southward flowing current developed for harnessing these valuable metals.
California North Pacific
off the west coast of the
Current Ocean
United States in the Pacific
Ocean Gold and Diamonds:
The Canary Current is a Limestone and Gypsum
Canaries North
wind-driven surface current Oil and Gas
Current Atlantic
that is part of the North Tides
ocean
Atlantic Gyre.
The Humboldt Current, also
Humboldt called the Peru Current,
South pacific
(Peru) Current flows north along the
ocean
western coast of South
America
Labrador North Flowing from the Arctic
Current Atlantic Ocean south along the east
ocean coast of Canada
Oyashio or the Kurile current,
Oyashio is a cold subarctic ocean
North Pacific
(Kamchatka) current that flows south in
ocean
Current the western North Pacific
Ocean.
West It is a cool surface current of
Note: Spring tide and Neap tide comes twice a month
Australian Indian ocean the Southern Ocean and
Current Southern Indian Ocean. Spring tide comes at Full and New moon.
West Wind Surface oceanic current Neap tides come in 1st and 3rd quarter of the moon.
South pacific
Drift encircling Antarctica and
ocean
flowing from west to east.  Tides are periodical rise and fall of sea levels caused
by the combined effects of the gravitational forces
Ocean Resources: exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of
Salt the Earth and associated centripetal and
Salt is chemically known as sodium chloride. It is one of centrifugal forces.
the most abundant minerals found in the ocean water.  Surges are movement of water caused by
Salt can be either directly extracted or could be mines, meteorological effects.
depending upon different regions.

 A spring tide when sun, moon and earth are in

straight line occurs on full moon day and new moon
day. Highest height tide.
 Neap tide refers to a period of moderate tides when
the sun and moon are at right angles to each other.
 Ebb is the time between the high tide and low tide 10. CLIMATOLOGY
when the water level is falling.
 Flow or flood is the time between low tide and the Weather: pertains to condition of atmosphere in any
high tide when the tide is rising. place or any time.
Tides helps in navigation, desilting, fishing, generation of Climate: Average weather conditions of a specified area
electrical power for a considerable time
Waves: Elements of Weather and Climate:

 Waves are oscillatory movements that result in the  Rainfall: Form of precipitation (snow, sleet and hail)
rise and fall of water surface. They are actually the measured by rain gauge.
energy, not the water as such, which moves across  Humidity: Dampness of the atmosphere. Measured
the ocean surface. using hygrometer.
Figure: Waves  Absolute humidity: Amount of water vapour present
in air.
 Relative humidity: the ratio between actual amount
of water vapour and maximum amount the air can
hold at that temperature.
When relative humidity is 100% then air is said to be
saturated and air temperature is at dew point.
 Wind: Air in motion with direction and speed.
 Wind direction is measured by wind vane or weather.
 Winds are named from direction where they blow as
east wind blows from east to west.
 Anemometer is used to measure speed of wind
 Clouds: After dew point cooling leads to condensation

Note: waves and ocean currents are horizontal movement of water vapour in atmosphere – tiny drops will
of ocean water, tides are vertical movement of ocean suspend as clouds – form, shape, height and
water. movement tell us about the sky conditions
 Cloud cover is expressed in eights or oktas.
Wave amplitude: One half of the wave height.
Wave speed: Rate at which wave moves->measured in Classification of Clouds:

knots. High Middle Clouds with
clouds clouds Low clouds great Vertical
Wave frequency: Number of waves passing a given point 6000- 2100- Below 2100 m Extent
during 1 second time. 1200m 6000m 1500-9000m
CIRRUS Alto- Strato-Cumulus Cumulus

Composed cumulus Large globular Round topped Other Elements Pertaining to Visibility
of small Compose masses, bumpy, and flat based
ice crystal, d of looking, soft and forming a
 Haze: visibility is 2 KM to 5 KM, due to smoke and
white, water grey in appearance whitish grey
wispy and droplets regular and globular dust in industrial area which causes unequal
fibrous in in layers sometimes wavy mass, consists refraction of light.
appearanc and pattern of individual  Mist: visibility greater than 1km less than 2km.
e patches cloud units
Condensation of water vapour in air, forms drops of
Cumulonimb
us They have water to float above clouds at ground level .
great vertical  Fog: visibility less than 1 km. Water condensing on
Alto- extent, white dust and other particles forming dense cloud near the
Cirro- stratus or black
Cumulus compose globular ground surface.
Composed d of Nimbo-stratus masses, Fogs are more common over sea than land and most
of ice water Dark grey and rainy whose prevalent over coastal areas. Dense fogs are more in
crystals, droplets, looking, dense and rounded tops high and mid latitude rather than tropics.
but forming shapeless, often often spread
globular or sheets of gives continues out in the
rippled in grey or rains form of anvil. Dry interiors witness mist or haze.
appearanc watery It is  Smog: Fog and smoke together is called as smog.
e looking characterized
clouds by
 Frost: Forms on cold surfaces when condensation
conventional takes place below freezing point (0° C).
rain, lighting
and thunder Atmosphere:
Cirro-
Stratus  Atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and
Looks like Stratus These are dust particles.
a thin low, grey and  Gases: carbon dioxide is transparent to incoming solar
white, layered, almost fog
radiation and opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation.
almost like
transpare appearance ,bringi It absorbs part of terrestrial radiation and reflects
nt sheet, ng dull weather back the rest. Nitrogen is present highest by volume.
which and often
causes the accompanied by
Sun and drizzle
Moon to
have halos
 Water vapour:
 Decreases with altitude. In warm and wet tropics it
account for 4 %, in dry and cold areas less than 1%.
 It decreases from equator to poles.
 It acts as a blanket for earth by absorbing some
incoming radiation and preserves earth radiated heat.
 It contributes to stability and instability of air.

Dust particles:  This layer is almost free from clouds and associated
 It includes sea salts, fine soil, ash, pollen, smoke soot weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal
etc. for flying aeroplanes. So aeroplanes fly in lower
 Higher concentration of dust particles are found in stratosphere, sometimes in upper troposphere where
subtropical and temperate regions. weather is calm.
 These act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water
vapour condenses to from clouds. Mesosphere
 This is an intermediate layer beyond the ozone layer
Structure of the atmosphere and continues up to an altitude of 80 km from the
earth’s surface.
 The temperature gradually falls to -100°C at 80 km
altitude.
 Upper layer of Mesosphere is Meso pause.
Thermosphere
 In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly with
increasing height.
 Ionosphere- It contains electrically charged particles
called as ions, which make short wave radio
transmission possible over long distances. It extends
between 80-400 km.
 Meteors burn in this region, thereby increasing the
temperature.
Exosphere
Troposphere:
 This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere
 Lower most layer of the atmosphere, with average
extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of
height of 13km.
about 400 km.
 Its thickness is greater at the equator (18km), because
 The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature
the heated air rises to greater heights by strong
gradually increases through the layer.
convectional currents. Whereas at the poles it is at
 Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the
8km.
space from here. This layer coincides with space.
 It is associated with climatic and weather phenomena.
 The troposphere ends with the Tropopause. Insolation
 Insolation is the incoming solar radiation (short
Stratosphere: wavelength- visible and UV radiations).
 Found above troposphere, it is cloudless, thin air,  The earth absorbs short wave radiation during
without dust and vapour. daytime and reflects back the heat received into
 The temperature in this layer remains constant for space as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared
some distance but then rises, due to the presence of radiation) during night.
ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by  The maximum insolation is received over subtropical
ozone). deserts, where the cloudiness is least.

 Equator receives comparatively less insolation than

the tropics. Note:Insolation received at the surface- Tropics> equator,
 Aphelion: on 4th July earth is farthest from sun. continents > oceans, desert > other areas.
 Perihelion: On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to
Heating and cooling of Atmosphere:
the sun.
Three different ways,
Variability of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth 1. Conduction: when two bodies of unequal temperature
 The factors that cause these variations in insolation are in contact with one another, there is flow of
are: energy from warm body to cooler body.
(i) Rotation of earth on its axis-earth makes an angle of Earth after being heated by insolation transmits heat
66.5 degree with the plane of it orbit around the sun. to the lower layers of atmosphere in long wave form.
(ii) Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays-The higher the 2. Convection: Vertical heating of the atmosphere. Air in
latitude, the less is the angle they make with the contact with the earth rises vertically on heating, in
surface of the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The the form of currents and further transmits heat to the
area covered by the vertical rays is always less than atmosphere.
the slant rays. 3. Advection: transfer of heat through horizontal
(iii) Duration of the day-The longer the duration of the movement of the air.
day, the greater is the amount of insolation received.
Conversely shorter the duration of the day leads to 4. Terrestrial radiation: Earth heats up with incoming
receipt of less insolation. short waves solar radiation, and becomes a radiating
(iv) Transparency of the atmosphere -The transparency body. It radiates energy to the atmosphere in the long
of the atmosphere depends upon the cloud cover and wave form.
its thickness, dust particles, water vapour, etc. They Heat Budget of the Earth:
reflect, absorb or transmit insolation.
 Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation to reach the  The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose
earth’s surface. Similarly, water vapour absorbs solar heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen
radiation resulting in less amount of insolation only if,insolation=terrestrial radiation. Balance
reaching the surface. between the two is called heat budget.
 When the solar radiation passes through the  This is why the earth neither warms up nor cools
atmosphere, water vapour, ozone and other gases down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes
absorb much of the near infrared radiation (mainly in place.
the troposphere).
 Very small suspended particles in the troposphere
scatter visible spectrum both to space and towards
the earth’s surface. This process adds colour to the
sky. The red colour of the rising and the setting sun
and the blue colour of the sky are the results of
scattering of the light within the atmosphere.
(v) Configuration of land in terms of its aspects- sun

facing slopes receive more vertical rays of sun, other
side receives less insolation.

Albedo: 5. Slope, Shelter and Aspect: Steep slope experiences a

 Reflected amount of radiation from the earth surface. rapid change in temperature. Mountain ranges having
 The value of albedo will be different for different East west alignment have higher temperature on
surfaces. south facing sunny slope (good for vine cultivation)
 Because of the effect of albedo, highly developed than thenorth facing sheltered slope.
areas such as urban cities can experience higher  Hot day followed by calm night ,air cools more rapidly
average temperatures than the surrounding suburban over higher grounds and may induce cold heavy air to
or rural areas, a phenomenon known as the “Urban flow down the slope and accumulate in valley bottom
Heat Island Effect”. pushing warm air upwards(temperature would be
 Highest albedo- snow > clouds> sand> grass> crops> lower in valley than above this reversal of lapse rate is
forest called as Temperature Inversion)
Elements of Climate and Factors Affecting Them 6. Distance from the Sea: Compared to land, the sea
The temperature of air at any place is influenced by gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats
up and cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in
1. Latitude: The temperature of a place depends on the temperature over the sea is less compared to land.
insolation received. Where ever there is vertical rays The places situated near the sea come under the
of sun, intense heating happens. Slant rays causes less moderating influence of the sea and land breezes
heating and temperature also less. which moderate the temperature.
2. Altitude: The atmosphere is indirectly heated by 7. Natural Vegetation and Soil –Thick foliage of Amazon
terrestrial radiation from below through conduction. cuts incoming insolation and sunlight does not reach
The temperature generally decreases with increasing ground.
height. The rate of decrease of temperature with  In day trees loose water by evapo-transpiration so the
height is termed as the Normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C air above is cooled.
per 1,000 m.  Light soil reflects more heat than darker soil which is
better absorbers.
3. Continentality: Land is heated more quickly than  Dry soil like sand are more sensitive to temperature
water , because of higher specific heat of water. changes while wet soil retain moisture and warm up
There by causing warm summers, cool winters and and cool down more slowly.
great temperature range for continental interiors.
Inversion of Temperature:
4. Ocean Currents and Air Mass: Like the land and sea
breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the  Normally, temperature decreases with increase in
temperature. The places, which come under the elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At times, the
influence of warm air-masses experience higher situations is reversed and the normal lapse rate is
temperature and the places that come under the inverted. It is called Inversion of temperature.
influence of cold air masses experience low
temperature.  A long winter night with clear skies and still air is ideal
situation for inversion. The heat of the day is radiated
Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm off during the night, and by early morning hours, the
ocean currents flow record higher temperature than the earth is cooler than the air above. Over polar areas,
places located on the coast where the cold currents flow. temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.

On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three

 Surface inversion : promotes stability in the lower main types,
layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and dust particles 1. Convectional rainfall: The, air on being heated,
get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As
horizontally to fill the lower strata of the atmosphere. it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently,
Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are
especially during winter season. This inversion formed. With thunder and lightning, heavy rainfall
commonly lasts for few hours until the sun comes up takes place.
and begins to warm the earth.  Common in summer/ hot days/ equatorial regions/
earth’s interiors.
 The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due
to air drainage. Cold air at the hills and mountains, 2. Orographic rainfall or relief rain: When the saturated
produced during night, flows under the influence of air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to
gravity. Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature
almost like water and moves down the slope to pile falls, and the moisture is condensed.
up deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm
air above. This is called air drainage. It protects plants After giving rain on the windward side, when these
from frost damages. winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises, leeward slopes remain rainless and
Precipitation: dry. Leeward side also called as rain shadow region.
 The process of continuous condensation in free air
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rain: purely associated with
helps the condensed particles to grow in size. When
cyclonic activity. Tropicl regions with cyclones and
the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the
temperate regions with depressions. When two air
force of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface. So
masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent
after the condensation of water vapour, the release of
conditions are produced. Along the front convection
moisture is known as precipitation.
occurs and causes precipitation. This is called Frontal
 In simple terms we can summarise precipitation as
rainfall.
the following
 Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm.
Polar Vortex:
 Virga: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.
 The Earth's atmosphere has two polar vortices which
 Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm. are overlying the North and South Poles. Each polar
 Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching the ground vortex is a persistent, large-scale, low-pressure zone,
leading to foggy weather. that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole
 Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the (called a cyclone) and clockwise at the South Pole, i.e.,
temperature is less than 0°C. both polar vortices rotate eastward around the poles.
 These cold blasts of arctic air are bottled up by the
 Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow;
strong jet stream or polar jet stream which is
mixture of snow and rain or merely partially melted
circulated at the high latitudes.
snow.
 Even though research claims that there is no direct
 Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets
relation between the Polar Vortex and Indian weather
is known as hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.
but the Arctic winds influence atmospheric circula -
tions, weather systems, including the western
Types of Rainfall:
disturbance.

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes:

Thunderstorms and Tornadoes are severe local storms.  Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of
They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but latitude. It is maximum at the poles and absent at the
are violent. equator.
Thunderstorms:  Since Coriolis force is zero winds blows perpendicular

Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the to the isobars. Low pressure gets filled instead of
temperature is high with thunder and lightning. getting instensified because of which tropical
Thunderstorms are less frequent on water bodies due to cyclones does not originate near equator.
low temperature.
Note: over low pressure area air will converge and rise
Tornadoes: and at the high pressure area air will subside from above
From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind and diverge at the surface.
descends like a trunk of an elephant with great force, with
very low pressure at the centre, causing massive General circulation of the atmosphere:
destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is called a
tornado.
Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The
tornado over the sea is called water sprouts.
Atmospheric circulation and weather systems
 Air expands when heated and gets compressed when

cooled.
 The pressure decreases with height.
Factors affecting wind velocity and direction
 Air in motion is called as wind. As wind blows from  The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
high pressure to low pressure it experiences rises because of convection caused by high insolation
combined effect of 3 forces, in addition to and a low pressure. The winds from the tropics
gravitational forces. converge at this low pressure zone.
 The converged air rises along with the convective cell.
1. Pressure gradient force: Rate of change of pressure It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude
with respect to distance is PGF. Higher the PGF, more of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes
is the velocity of the wind and larger is deflection in accumulation of air at about 30° N and S. Part of the
direction of the wind. accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a
2. Frictional forces: wind at the surface experiences subtropical high.
friction. It affects the speed of the wind.  Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it
reaches 30° N and S latitudes. Down below near the
1. Coriolis force: rotation of earth about its axis affects land surface the air flows towards the equator as the
wind direction. It deflects the wind to right in easterlies. The easterlies from either side of the
northern hemisphere and left in southern hemisphere.

equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence vertically upward movement of air, the region at the
Zone (ITCZ). surface will be at low pressure. Thus the belt along
 Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice- the equator is called equatorial low pressure belt.
versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called  Climate: This belt is characterized by extremely low
Hadley Cell. pressure with calm conditions. Vertical winds
 In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus
sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the clouds and lead to thunderstorms (convectional
rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. rainfall).
At the surface these winds are called westerlies and
the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes
 At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the  The corresponding latitudes of sub-tropical high
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar pressure belt are called horse latitudes.
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.  After saturation (complete loss of moisture) at the
 These three cells set the pattern for the general Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the air
circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat moving away from equatorial low pressure belt in the
energy form lower latitudes to higher latitudes upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. This dry
maintains the general circulation. and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S.
 So the high pressure along this belt is due to
Pressure Belts subsidence of air coming from the equatorial region
There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous which descends after becoming heavy. The high
horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’. On the pressure is also due to the blocking effect of air at
earth’s surface, the following are the various pressure upper levels because of the Coriolis force.
belts
1. Equatorial low. The subsiding air is warm and dry; therefore, most of the
2. The sub-tropical highs. deserts are present along this belt, in both hemispheres.
3. The sub-polar lows. This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-
4. The polar highs. tropical disturbances.
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’ Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt

 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.  Located between 45°N and S latitudes and the Arctic
 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes)
20°S.  These are dynamically produced due to
 This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of 1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of the earth on its
trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-tropical axis,
high pressure belts. 2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence of Westerlies
 This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the and polar easterlies.
extremely calm air movements.  Due to a great contrast between the temperatures of
 The position of the belt varies with the apparent the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,
movement of the Sun. extra tropical cyclonic storms or lows’ (temperate
 Formation: As this region lies along the equator, it cyclones or frontal cyclones) are produced in this
receives highest amount of insolation. Due to intense region
heating, air gets warmed up and rises over the
equatorial region (convection).Whenever there is

Polar High Pressure Belt:  The Westerlies blow from sub tropical
high pressure belts towards sub-polar low
 The polar highs are small in area and extend around
pressure belts.
the poles. They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N  The Westerlies of Southern Hemisphere
and S latitudes. blow with great strength and constant in
 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts after direction than Northern Hemisphere.
 Under the Coriolis force effect, the
saturation becomes dry. This dry air becomes cold Westerlies
Westerlies become the South-Westerlies
while moving towards poles through upper in the northern hemisphere and the
troposphere. North-Westerlies in the southern
 The lowest temperatures are found over the poles. hemisphere.
 Westerlies winds are named as roaring
Planetary Winds: forties, furious fifties, screaming sixties
The winds blowing throughout the year from high based on the speed of the wind
pressure belts to low pressure belts in the same direction  The Polar easterlies are dry, cold
are called “planetary or prevailing winds”. prevailing winds that blow from the Polar
high pressure belts to the Temperature
low pressure belts
Due to the effect of the rotation of the earth, the  They are extremely cold winds as they
Polar
direction of the winds tends to deflect, instead of blowing blow from the Tundra and Icecap regions.
easterlies
directly from one pressure belt to another. These winds The Polar Easterlies are more regular in
the southern hemisphere than in the
blow throughout the year and are controlled by the
northern hemisphere.
latitudinal pressure belts. They blow over vast area of  Unlike the Westerlies, the polar easterlies
continents and oceans. are often weak and irregular.
The main planetary winds are: Local Winds:

1. Trade winds  Local winds occur on a small spatial scale. The main
2. Westerlies types of local winds are: Sea breezes and land
3. Polar Easterlies breezes, Anabatic and katabatic winds, and other
local winds.
Planetary  Due to differential heating of land surface.
Features
wind
 Sea Breeze: Day time – land gets heated - warm air
 Trade winds blow in a belt lying between
5°N-30°N in the northern hemisphere and rises up – Low pressure develops – sea being less
5°S-30°S in the southern hemisphere warm, develops high pressure there by winds blow
 There is low pressure on the equator, from sea to land causing sea breeze
while high pressure at the sub tropics. So,
air moves from tropics toward equator.
 Land Breeze: Night – land cools faster than sea, high
 The trade winds in the Northern- pressure over land, low pressure over ocean – winds
Trade
Hemisphere blow from the north-east blow from land towards sea.
direction due to the deflection of the
winds
wind caused by the rotation of the Earth
and so are called North-East Trades. Katabatic Wind: It is the generic term for down slope
 Similarly, the trade winds in the Southern- winds flowing from high elevations of mountains,
Hemisphere blow from the South-East plateaus, and hills down their slopes to the valleys or
direction and thus called south-East planes below. It is adiabatically warmed.
Trades.
 They are also known as Tropical
easterlies. Anabatic Wind: Air flow travelling up a facing slope of an
orographic surface.

Wind Nature Region masses)and around the poles (the source for polar air
masses).
Blows From Land to
Land Breeze Warm Sea  Areas with high pressure but little pressure
difference or pressure gradient are ideal source
Rockies (USA And regions for development of Air masses
Chinook Warm
 Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are
Canada)
cold.
Fohn Warm Alps/Europe Air Masses and Source Region:

There are five major source regions. These are:
Khamsin Hot Egypt 1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
Harmatta Sahara to Guinea 2. The subtropical hot deserts;
n Hot Coast 3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high
(Ghana, Nigeria etc.)
latitudes;
Brick 5. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Felder Hot Australia Antarctica.
Norwester Hot New Zealand
Influence of Air mass and World Weather:
Black
Roller Hot North America
 The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from
Kalbaisakh oceans to continents and cause precipitation over
i Hot North India landmasses
 They transport latent heat, thus removing the
Sirocco Hot North Africa
latitudinal heat balance.
France to  Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such
Mistral Cold Mediterranean as cyclones and storms originate at the contact zone
(Rhine valley) between different air masses and the weather
associated with these disturbances is determined by
Levanter Cold Spain
characteristics of the air masses involved.
Blizzard Cold Siberia, Canada, USA  Fronts: When two different air masses meet the
boundary zone between them is called front.
 Frontogenesis: The process of formation of fronts.
Air Masses:
 When the air remains over a homogenous area for a 4 types of fronts:
sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics  Cold front: The contact zone when the cold air
of the area. moves towards the warm air mass.
 The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of  Warm front: The contact zone where the warm
temperature and humidity is called an air mass. It is a air mass moves towards the cold air mass.
large body of air having little horizontal variation in  Occluded front: If an air mass is fully lifted above
temperature and moisture. the land surface.
 The main source regions are the high pressure belts  Stationary front: When the front remains
stationary.
in the sub tropics (giving rise to tropical air

Jet stream  Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the
 Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong Earth except the equatorial belt
wind in the upper levels of the atmosphere. The  Anticyclones, wind systems that rotate about a high-
winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the pressure centre. Anticyclones are so called because
flow often shifts to the north and south. Jet streams they have a flow opposite to that of cyclones—i.e., an
follow the boundaries between hot and cold air. outward-spiralling motion, with the winds rotating
 Since these hot and cold air boundaries are most clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
pronounced in winter, jet streams are the strongest clockwise in the Southern.
for both the northern and southern hemisphere
winters. Energy source of Cyclones
 The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, weaker is  The fuel for a tropical cyclone is provided by a
subtropical jets transfer of water vapour and heat from the warm
ocean to the overlying air, primarily by evaporation
Jet Streams and its Influence on Indian Monsoons: from the sea surface.
Somali Jet:  The temperature difference between the warm rising
 The progress of the southwest monsoon towards air and the cooler environment causes the rising air to
India is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet that become buoyant, further enhancing its upward
transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel. movement.
 It strengthens permanent high near Madagascar and
also helps to drive S-W monsoons towards India at a Conditions ideal for the formation of cyclones
greater pace and intensity.  Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures higher
 The peculiar feature of Somali Current is reversal in than 27 degree
direction with the onset of the summer monsoon.  Atmospheric instability
Tropical easterly jet stream  High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the
 There are major high velocity winds in the lower troposphere
troposphere called low-level jets (LLJs).  Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure
 In the tropics, the most prominent of these are the centre
Somali Jet and the African Easterly Jet [Tropical  A pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance
Easterly Jet].  Low vertical wind shear
 The formation of TEJ results in the reversal of upper  Upper divergence above the sea level system
air circulation patterns [High pressure switches to
low pressure] and leads to the quick onset of Anticyclones:
monsoons.  An anti-cyclone, as a high pressure area is a large
 The easterly jet does not come into existence if the atmospheric circulation system with the wind flowing
snow over the Tibet Plateau does not melt. This clockwise around it in the Northern Hemisphere, and
hampers the occurrence of rainfall in India. counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Anticyclones form from air masses cooler than their
Cyclone: surrounding, leads to contraction of air making it
Features of a Cyclone: denser, thereby increasing surface air pressure.
 It is large system of winds that circulates about a  Calm settled weather is usually synonymous with
centre of low atmospheric pressure in a counter- anticyclones in temperate latitudes. Anticyclones are
clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a typically relatively slow moving features
clockwise direction to the south.

El Nino Southern-Oscillation (ENSO):
El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is known

as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The
ENSO cycle is a scientific term that describes the
fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and
atmosphere in the east-central Equatorial Pacific.
 It refers to a periodic warming in sea

surface temperatures across the central and
east-central Equatorial Pacific, with increase
in temperature of more than 0.5°Cfor at
least five successive overlapping three-
month seasons.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
 El Nino events occur irregularly at two- to  The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), also known as the
seven-year intervals Indian Nino, is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface
 The warm ocean conditions in the temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean
El Nino equatorial Pacific induce large-scale becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the
anomalies in the atmosphere. Rainfall eastern part of the ocean.
increases many fold in Ecuador and  The IOD involves an aperiodic oscillation of sea-
northern Peru, causing coastal flooding and
surface temperatures (SST), between "positive",
erosion.
"neutral" and "negative" phases.
 Strong El Nino events are associated with
 A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-
droughts in Indonesia, Australia, and north-
eastern South America and with altered surface temperatures and greater precipitation in the
patterns of tropical storms in the tropical western Indian Ocean region, with a corresponding
belt cooling of waters in the eastern Indian Ocean,which
 It is a cyclic counterpart to El Nino, tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas of
consisting of a cooling of surface waters of Indonesia and Australia.
the Pacific Ocean along the western coast of  The negative phase of the IOD brings about the
South America. opposite conditions, with warmer water and greater
 La Nina has less effect in Europe but it does precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and cooler
tend to lead to milder winters in Northern
and drier conditions in the west.
La Nina Europeand colder winters in
 The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over
southern/western Europe, leading to snow
in the Mediterranean region. Elsewhere in
the Indian subcontinent.
the world, areas that are affected by La Nina  The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global
experience the opposite of the effects they climate, interacting with similar phenomena like the
experience with El Nino El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific
 It does not occur as often as El Nino Ocean.
Madden-Julian Oscillation:
 The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the largest
element of the intra-seasonal (30- to 90-day)
variability in the tropical atmosphere

 Unlike a standing pattern like the El Nino–Southern Climate – Tropical Monsoon. Landmass is
Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden–Julian oscillation is a heated in summer in Northern Hemisphere,
Low pressure develops in Indian mainland
travelling pattern that propagates eastward, through & High Pressure in Australia. Leading to
the atmosphere above the warm parts of the Indian Seasonal reversal of winds.
and Pacific oceans. This overall circulation pattern Seasons – 1.Tropical Monsoon•Cool Dry
Climate (Oct to Feb), Hot Dry (March to June), Rainy
manifests itself most clearly as anomalous rainfall.
(June to Sept),2. Retreating Monsoon –
 Heavy tropical rainfall associated with the MJO shifts after mid Sept (North East monsoon)
eastward from the eastern Indian Ocean to the Climate – Tropical Marine
western tropical Pacific. •On east coast of tropical lands, Receive
rain from trade winds all time .Favourable
for habitation. Has severe tropical cyclones
11. WORLD CLIMATE •Deciduous – dry period and shed leaves
•In regions of heavy rainfall – forest – open
Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate: between 5-10 degree Vegetation
and less luxuriant than equatorial forest
North and South of Equatorial regions: •Summer – thorny scrub or savanna –
Factors scattered tree & tall grass
Life & •Timber: durable hardwood – teak – Burma
Rainfall Vegetation Affecting
Development
Development (3/4th of world production)
Variety: •Monsoon: India, Burma, Vietnam,
•Climate: high
Evergreen Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, South China,
heat &
hardwoods like North Australia
humidity; sun- Locations
mahogany,
stroke; •Maritime: C. America, West Indies, NE
ebony; small
•Amazon: perspire and Australia, Philippines, E. Africa,
palm trees;
•Convectional Indian Tribes lose energy; Madagascar, Guinea & East Brazil
climbing lianas –
Rainfall – gather wild malaria &
epiphytic or
mostly in rubber yellow fever
parasitic; ferns, Savanna or Sudan Climate:
Afternoon •Congo: •Bacteria &
orchids and
(one Pygmies insect pests: 1.Transitional type of climate found
Lalangs.
afternoon is gather nuts injurious to between Equatorial forest and Hot deserts
•Distinct Layer:
equal to •Malaysia: crops, 2.Distinct Dry and wet season Transition,
thick canopy,
entire year Orang Asli diseases; hot rainy and cold dry. Extreme diurnal
struggle for
rainfall in (Orang plague
sunlight Characteristics temperature. Experiencing local hot wind-
desert) Asliare the •Jungle
Orographic or
•Multiple
indigenous hinders
Harmattan
Species: No 3. Trade winds bring rain to coastal area –
relief rainfall people and development:
pure strand; strong in summer and dry in continental
•Cyclonic the oldest Lalang (tall
commercial interior (scattered tree and short grass)
rainfall – inhabitants grass) & thick
exploitation is
convergence of Peninsular undergrowth •Tall grass – 6 to 12 ft. – elephant grass –
hard; hardwood
of air in Malaysia) – choke long roots,Short trees, Parkland or
don’t float on
Doldrums cane crops •Deterio bushveld.
water and Vegetation
products. ration of •Deciduous – acacia, Rain decreases –
haulage
tropical soil
expensive (so thorny scrub (Australia)- mallee, mulga,
•Difficult
tropical nations spinifex
lumbering &
are timber Tribes – Masai – E. Africa, Nomadic –
livestock
importers) Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda
farming.
•Kikiyu of Kenya – millet, banana, Hausa –
N. Nigeria, Settled cultivators in Bauchi
Human Life
Tropical Monsoon & Tropical Marine Climate: plateau
•Seasonal Winds • Distinctive seasons • groundnut, banana, cotton, tobacco –
Characteristics
1. On shore wet monsoon – summer leave it fallow Rotate crop in different
2. Off shore dry monsoon –winter fields,

Hot Desert & Mid-latitude Desert Cold Winds:

 Temperate desert,Scanty Rainfall, Hot •Mistral – Cold wind from north – down to
Climate. Rhone valley (40-80 miles/hr) – funnelling
Characteristics effect (b/w Alps & Central Massif)
 Cause of aridity- Offshore trade winds
•Bora – cold north-easterly wind along
(trade wind desert) and located in interior
Adriatic coast – difference in pressure b/w
region
continental Europe and Mediterranean –
•Scrub and herbs, Dormant
occur in winter
vegetation,Xerophytic or drought –resistant
•Tramontana – cold wind• Gregale – cold
scrub cactus, thorns, trees are rare and date
wind
palms
Vegetation •Trees with small broad leaves, no
•Leaves are waxy and leathery, needle shaped –
shade •Growth restricted to autumn and
reduce transpiration
spring – good moisture and high
•Cactus – thick succulent stems
temperature.
•Seeds have thick and tough skin
•Mediterranean evergreen–open
•Salinity of soil – salt accumulates – hard pans
Natural Vegetation woodlands – evergreen oaks
•Deficient in humus
•Evergreen coniferous trees – pines, firs,
•Gold – Great Australian Desert• Diamond and
cedar and cypress
copper – Kalahari Desert
•Mediterranean bushes – low bush in
•Caliche (sodium nitrate) – Atacama•Copper –
Mines scattered clump – laurel, lavender, rosemary
Chuquicamata, Antofagasta, Iquique, Nevada
and scrubs.
•Silver –Mexico•Uranium – Utah•Oil- Sahara &
Arab desert
•Mediterranean shorelands – cradle of
Bedouin of Arab: - Best nomadic herdsman,
civilization
Trade- Caravan merchants, Oases people-
•Orchard framing – citrus fruits – orange,
Wander for water and pastures.
lime, lemon, citron, grapefruit – long roots to
Bushmen of Kalahari (Nomadic Hunters and
draw water in summer droughts
Food Gatherers): skill to obtain water in desert –
•Olives – Hardy and long rooted – survive on
Life of Human store in ostrich shell suck water from ground by
poor limestone with scanty rainfall –
hollow reed travel in family groups (sherms)
versatile, species, oil, cooking, soap etc.
Bindibu of Australia (Nomadic Hunters and Food Economic
•Nuts – chestnut, almond, walnut, hazelnut
Gatherers): Wooden stick – boomerangs, Development
•Fruits – Peach, apricot, pear, plum, cherry,
Women gather grass and roots, Lives in groups,
fig
Close to water supply, Houses called wurlies.
•Wheat – hard winter wheat – macaroni,
Sahara Desert -largest desert > Great Australian
spaghetti, vermicelli •Barley – important
Desert.
cereal.
Locations Atacama/Peruvian Desert – Driest desert
Viticulture – wine production – 3/4th from
Patagonian Desert – rain shadow position on
Mediterranean region
leeward side of Andes.
Also known for fruit canning, flour milling &
food processing
Warm Temperate Western Mediterranean Climate
Region: Western area between30 degrees to
45 degrees N and S.
Warm Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
•Shifting of wind belts Border desert and lie in interior of
•Winter rain with on shore westerlies continents: Temperate Grasslands Lie on
(cyclonic, orographic rainfall),Dry Warm Westerly belt
Characteristics •Away from maritime influence and are
Summer with offshore trades (no rain, dry Characteristics
air, intense heat, low relative humidity). treeless
•Climate is transition between Trade wind •South Hemisphere: Moderate
hot desert (S) and Cool temperate maritime climate•North hemisphere: extensive and
(N) continental
Hot Winds: Steppes: Black Sea to Altai
•Sirocco- Hot, dry dusty wind – from •Prairies: Rockies and Great Lakes
•Pampas: Argentina & Uruguay
Sahara – most frequent in spring – Locations
accompanied by depressions. •S. Africa: b/w Drakensburg & Kalahari
Local Winds (Bushveld in north & Highveld in south)
•Chili – Tunisia•Ghibli – Libya•Leveche –
Spain•Khamsin – Egypt & Malta •Downs: Australia (Murray Darling Basin)
•Gharbi – Adriatic & Aegean Sea – cause fog
& rain – blood rain (red dust)

•Continental, Temperature extremes- China Type: •Central and North China including
Summers are warm, Winters are cold,snow South Japan. Continental in nature.
covered. Rainfall due to Convection and •Intense heat in Heart of Asia creates low
westerlies depression pressure in summer and brings SE monsoon ,
Climate •Mildura: fringe of Mallee scrub of Great causing heavy rain
Australian Desert •Winter – pressure gradient between cold
•local Winds: Chinook (USA)hot wind, melt Mongolia , Siberia and warm Pacific , there is
snow covered areas around rockies outflow of air as NW monsoon (cold and dry)
•Fohn (Switzerland) •Has great annual range of temperature
•Scanty vegetation •Occurrence of Typhoons – intense tropical
Natural •Grass covered with differences in density cyclone in Pacific Ocean and move westward bor-
Vegetation and quality of grass Treeless with short dering South China Sea duringJuly to September.
grasses Gulf Type
•SE USA – similar to China type – with less
•Prairies- most sparsely populated area of monsoonal characteristics
world, extensive mechanized wheat •No complete seasonal reversal of wind as
cultivation and granaries of world (wheat pressure gradient between America and Atlantic
and maize) is less marked
•Pampas: leading ranching region of world •Narrow range of temperature
Extensive wheat cultivation: •Cool moist •Heavy rainfall with no distinct dry period –
spring – early growth and light showers for 3 Types of abundant moisture & excess cultivation of cotton
ripening yield•Warm & sunny summer: Regions (cotton belts) and maize (corn belts)
harvesting and straw to be dried•Levelness– •Thunderstorms in summer and hurricanes in
ploughing and harvesting easy September and October
•Greatest quantity of wheat per capita Natal Type
Economic
amongst world’s wheat growing nations – •Includes Natal, Eastern Australia , Brazil-
Development
greatest exporter of wheat Paraguay-Uruguay and Northern Argentina , all
Pastoral Farming: warm temperate eastern climate in southern
•Dairy products: milk, butter and hemisphere
cheese•Tuft grass ploughed up and replaced •No monsoonal characteristics – narrowness of
by sown alfalfa continent and dominance of maritime influence
•Pampas: lead world in export of beef, •South East Trade winds bring even distribution
estancias (ranches) were established and of rainfall –•Depression along southern edges
linked to frigorific (meat processing lead to autumn or winter maximum (wettest
factories) in coastal ports month from March to July)
•Australia: world’s leading wool exporter •Small annual temperature range
(one third of total production) •Violent local storms-Southerly Buster (Cold
•Steppes: ranching for meat production wind along coast of New South Wales), Pampero
(cold wind along Argentina and Uruguay), Berg
(hot, dry wind in eastern Africa) – comparable to
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China) Climate: Fohn or Chinook – bring unpleasant high
•Modified monsoonal climate – Temperate temperature and oppressive weather
monsoon or China type Also known as Gulf •Eastern margins have more rainfall .
climate •Home to timber species, with broad leaved and
•Seen in SE USA, New South Wales (Eucalyptus), Natural
Characteristics deciduous forest at lowlands and conifers at
Natal (cane sugar), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay Vegetation
highlands.
(maize) Palm trees, chestnut, ironwood, blackwood and
•Onshore trade winds year round – without wattle trees,Eucalyptus,walnut, oak, pines, used
monsoonal variation – Natal type Climate •Most productive and intensively tilled parts of
•Warm moist summer and cool dry winters, with earth.
strong maritime influence. •World’s greatest rice growing areas, warm wet
•Uniform rainfall throughout the year (except and lowland favours rice cultivation.
Central China with distinct dry season) due to Agriculture in Gulf (USA):Export crops (rice in
Climate Economic
convection, orographic and occasional Mississippi delta), Corn (half of world’s corn
depressions. Development
production, used to fattened animals)or Maize,
•Rain by convectional source or orographic rain cotton, cane sugar, market gardening. Gulf –
in summer & by depressions in prolonged tobacco is native crop.
showers in winter Cropping/ pastoral in Southern Hemisphere: cane
sugar, cotton, tobacco, maize, produce from
cattle and sheep. Famous for dairy products.

Warm Temperate Western Margin (British) Climate: •Greatest softwood production – USSR, USA<
Canada &Fennoscandia (Finland, Norway,
 Under permanent influence of Westerlies, Sweden)
Cyclonic activity, Oceanic influence •Taiga (Siberia) – richest source of temperate
 Also called North-West European Maritime softwood Occur in pure strands – good for
Characteristics
Climate commercial exploitation. 4 main species – Pine,
 N. America ,S. hemisphere – New Zealand, Vegetation Fir, Spruce & Larch
Tasmania and Chile Coniferous:
•Uniform, straight, tall•No annual replacement of
 Ideal climate for maximum comfort and
new leaves .Food stored in trunks and bark is thick
mental alertness , equable climate with
to protect trunk from cold
warm summers and mild winters
•Conical in shape to prevent snow accumulation
 Warming effect of warm North Atlantic
•Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-
Drift and South Westerlies
shaped
Climate  Precipitation: Rainfall throughout the
•Many areas are untouched in Canada, E. Europe
year.Western margins have highest rainfall Economic
and Asiatic Russia. Lumbering – transported to
(as rain bearing winds come from west), Development
saw mills. Fur farms, paper making, matches,
there by western slopes of Southern Alps
newsprint firms are well established.
have more rainfall compared to Canterbury
plains (rain shadow area) .
•Deciduous forest -Shed leaves in winters – to Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian):
protect against snow and frost. •Intermediate between British and Siberian
Natural
•Valuable temperate hardwood: Oak, elm, birch, climate•Both maritime and continental
Vegetation
beech, poplar, Willows, Alder, Aspen Only in 2 regions: 1.NE USA, E. Canada or America
•Other species – elsewhere – chestnut, maple, Region and 2. E. Asia, E. Siberia, N. China, Manchuria,
lime, eucalyptus, conifers. Characteri
Korea & N. Japan – Asiatic Region. •Absent in SH –
•NW Europe: Little surplus for export and a net stics
small section of continents, oceanic influence and
importer of food crop mainly wheat climate is equable•Only exception could be E.
•Fishing: Britain, Norway & British Columbia Patagonia- Westerlies don’t reach causing aridity
•Netherlands: horticultural and Dairy Industry (rain shadow desert)
Economic (Britain, Denmark) •Cold dry winters – temperature below freezing
Development •Australia: High speed boats ply across Bass point, winds are dry westerlies from continental
Strait and Tasmania named as garden state interior
Mixed Farming Climate
•Warm wet summers (has cooling effect of offshore
•Both arable farming(potato, wheat , barley, cold currents)
beet sugar, cash crop and fodder crop etc) and •Rainfall – year-round
pastoral framing(pigs, poultry, sheep rearing) •Cool temperate forest. Coniferous trees north of
latitude .Lumbering is main activity – timber as
Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate: Natural export item
Vegetatio •Fir,spruce and larch ,oak, beech, maple, birch are
Due to extreme climatic condition- cold pole of n the trees found.
earth •Trees occur in pure stands – easy commercial
Broad E-W spread- Merge with Arctic tundra in exploitation Canada – greater reserve of coniferous
north and Steppes in south. Also called sub artic. softwoods
• evergreen coniferous – continuous belt in north •Lumbering – timber, paper and pulp industries
Called Taiga – Siberia Agriculture – potatoes on podzolized soil, oats and
Characteristics
•Absent in South Hemisphere – narrowness of barley
southern continents in high latitude and strong •Asiatic region –Soyabeans (N. China, Manchuria &
oceanic influence•Coniferous (S. Hemisphere) Korea), groundnut, sesame, rapeseed, tung oil and
only in mountain uplands mulberry
•Cold long winters and cool brief summers, with Economic •Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia – world’s most
rainfalls throughout the year. Developm renowned region of apples
•Winds – Blizzards of Canada and Buran of Europe ent  Fishing- major activity in this region- as warm
•Conifers – require little moisture and transpire and cold current mixes.World’s largest fishing
less are best suited ground on Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Sea
Climate •Low temperature, low evaporation & high weed cultivation, oyster cultivation etc is most
relative humidity common specifically in Japan (with rich plankton
•Permanent snowfields are absent (as in Alps & growth on continental shelves, upwelling of
Himalayas) due to melting in spring & summer waters)
Frozen rivers are thawed causing rise in water
level & floods.

Arctic or Polar Climate: Sweden

North of Arctic Circle: Ice-Caps – •Trying to grow hardy cereals for local
Greenland and highland of high latitude needs in Arctic lowlands with warm
Characteri regions – permanent snow cover currents and higher temperatures.
stics •Tundra climate – lowlands with few ice Deepest Point on the Ocean:
free months – coastal Greenland, North
Canada, Alaska and Arctic seaboard of Ocean Deepest point
Eurasia Pacific Mariana Trench
•Very low temperature •Winters – long
and severe (weeks of continuous Atlantic Puerto Rio Trench
darkness)
•Summers – cool and brief, Sun rays Indian Java Trench
occur as faint rays – reflected by ground Arctic Eurasian Basin
snow or ice melting
•Soil water is frozen and summer heat Important Canals of the World:
Climate can thaw for 6 inch of soil
•Frost and blizzards are commonly seen Canal Connects
•Coastal Areas – Warm water meets
cold land then thick fog develops Panama Pacific Ocean with Atlantic Ocean
•Precipitation as snow in winters and
varies from ice crystals to snowflakes Suez Mediterranean Sea to Red sea
•Anticyclones over ice caps• Coastal
areas – cyclones Erie Atlantic Ocean to Great Lakes
•Tundra type – few plants can survive – North sea to Baltic
deficiency in heat, frozen soil. Kein Sea
•No trees, Mosses, lichens and sedges
are present.
Vegetation Major lakes of the World
•Drainage is poor – subsoil is
permanently frozen Lakes Location
 Birch, willow and alder, reindeer
moss, arctic flowers as arctic prairies Caspian Asia
are commonly found
Confined to coasts: Plateaus and Canada and
mountains are inhabitable and snow Superior USA
covered Victoria Africa
•Semi-nomadic life : Eskimos – around
28,000 – hunters, fishers, food gatherers Huron Canada and USA
Nomads of Eurasia:•Lapps – N. Finland
and Scandinavia•Samoyeds in Tanganyika Africa
Human Siberia•Yakuts in Lena Baikal Russia
Activities Basin•Koryak&Chuckchi in NE Asia
Discovery of minerals: •Gold – Great Bear Canada
Alaska, •Nickel – Petsamo,
USSR, •Petroleum – Kenai Peninsula, Aral Kazakhstan
Alaska, •Copper – Rankin Inlet,
Canada, •Coal – Spitsbergen and Great Slave Canada
Alaska, •Iron Ore – Lake Superior & now
Labrador (railway line to bring ores to St.
Lawrence River); Kiruna and Gallivare in

Highest /Lowest Point of Various Continents: Lake Superior, between

Canada
Highest point Lowest point Largest fresh water lake
Continent (m) (m)
and the USA
Mt Everest
Asia Caspian Sea, bounded by
(8850) Dead Sea(-396)
Iran,
Africa Lake Assal(- Russia, Kazhakistan,
MTKilimanjaro 151) Largest lake in the world Azerbaijan
(5951)
Death Valley and Turkmenistan.
North America
Mt Mckinley (-87) Dead Sea bounded by
(6252) Israel,
Saltiest lake in the world
South America
MtAconcagua Valdes Penins+ Jordan and west bank
(7026) ula(40)
Dead Sea between Israel
Bentley and
Subglacial Lowest lake in the world
Antarctica
VinsonMassif Jordan
(5189) Trench (-2538)
Mt EI’s Caspian Sea(- Largest lake in India Sambhar lake in Rajasthan
Europe
Brus(5687) 28)
Australian
Koscuisko Lake Eyre(-16) Kolleru lake in Andhra
Largest fresh-water lake
argest Geographical Features in the World: in India Pradesh
Feature Name Largest coastal lagoon in

India Chilka lake in Orissa
Largest Continent Asia
Sriharikota island is Pulicat lake in Andhra
Largest Ocean Pacific Ocean located in Pradesh
Largest Bay Bay of Bengal Country known as land of thousand lakes – Finland
Largest Gulf Gulf of Mexico Canals and Straits:
Largest Peninsula Arabian Peninsula Strait / Land Masses Water Bodies
Largest Island Greenland Canal Divided Joined
Runs through Egypt Mediterranean
Great Barrier Reef and Red Sea
Suez Canal
Largest Coral Reef (Australi)
Largest and Highest Runs through North Sea and

Kiel Canal
Plateau Pamir (Tibet, China)
Germany Baltic Sea
Related Fact Name of the Lake Bering Strait Alaska and Siberia Pacific and Arctic
Baikal (fresh water)in Bay of Bengal and

Deepest lake in the world Russia
Palk Strait India and Sri Lanka Gulf of Mannar

Name of the
Desert Extends into Countries
Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mail,

Sahara desert Mauritania, Morocco, Niger,
Sudan,
Tunisia
Atacama Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
Botswana, Namibia, South

Kalahari Desert Africa
Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman,

Arabian Desert
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE,
Yemen
Gobi Desert Mongolia, China
Great Victoria
Desert Australia
Patagonian Desert Argentina, Chile
India,
Thar Desert Pakistan
TaklaMakan Desert China
Syrian Desert Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Iraq
Chihuahuan Desert Mexico, United States
Great Basin Desert United States
Mojave Desert United States
Karakum Desert Turkmenistan



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READY RECKONER OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY

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S.No TOPICS P.No

01 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH 01

02 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH & ASSOCIATED FACTORS 04

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1. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH  A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen

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 Saturn has 53 known moons with an additional 29

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Composition of Earth Crust:

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 Latitude: Angular distance measured north or south

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 The International Date Line serves as the "line of Classification of Rocks:

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Ex: The Sierra Nevada in North America, Black Forest

2. Presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea

3. The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated

Ex: Vindhya and Satpura Mountains, rift valleys of Nile,

Note: Earthquake and volcanoes are covered in detail

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 Lithospheric plates (crustal plates, tectonic plates) Boundary

Convergent boundaries are of 3 types,

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Examples of such arcs are Japan, the Philippines, the

2. Ocean-Continental Convergent Boundary:

3. Continent-Continent convergent Boundary Volcanoes are also classified as Intrusive and

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 An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the

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 Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves

Emergence of Shadow Zone:

Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics:

 As per Plate tectonics earthquakes are a consequence

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Mass Movement: Volume of ground water depends on climate,

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Wells 3.Barrier Reefs: Separated by wider and deeper channel –

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Erosional land forms of running water: Braided patterns

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Distinct Desert Types:

An inselberg or monadnock is an isolated

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Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts:

Parabolic Reversed barchans with wind direction

Limestone and Chalk Landform:

Karst Region Characteristics:

 Karst regions have a bleak landscape There is general

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A limestone pavement is a flat expanse of Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by

Coastal Features of Deposition:

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Submergent Coasts are those that

Ria is a coastal formation that was once a