Joints/ Articulations- connections between bones
They are characterized by the
in the human body, and they play a crucial role in
enabling movement.
Types/Structures of Joints
1. Fibrous Joints- These joints are held together
by fibrous connective tissue, such as collagen
fibers. They allow for minimal to no movement
and provide stability. Examples include the
sutures in the skull and the syndesmosis joints in
the forearm and leg.
● Sutures- immovable joints found only in
the skull. They are formed by dense
fibrous connective tissue that holds the
cranial bones together. In the skull of an
adult, these joints are relatively rigid and
do not allow for any noticeable
movement. Sutures serve to protect the
brain and provide structural stability to
the skull.
● Syndesmosis- Syndesmoses are fibrous
joints where the bones are connected by
a ligament or an interosseous membrane.
Unlike sutures, syndesmoses allow for
limited mobility. The degree of movement
depends on the length and flexibility of
the connecting ligament or membrane.
An example of a syndesmosis is the
distal tibiofibular joint, where the tibia and
fibula are connected by a syndesmotic
ligament, allowing for some rotational
movement between the two bones.
● Gomphoses- Gomphoses are
specialized fibrous joints that anchor
teeth in their sockets in the maxillary and
mandibular bones of the skull. Each tooth
is secured in its bony socket by
periodontal ligaments, which are strong
fibrous connective tissues. Gomphoses
provide stability to the teeth while
allowing some slight movement, such as
during chewing and tooth eruption
2. Cartilaginous Joints- Cartilaginous joints are
connected by cartilage and allow for limited
movement. There are two main types:
● Synchondroses: These are connected
by hyaline cartilage and are found in
growing bones (e.g., epiphyseal plates in
long bones).
● Symphyses: These are connected by
fibrocartilage and can be found in places
like the pubic symphysis or the
intervertebral discs.
3. Synovial Joints- These are the most common
type of joints in the body and provide the greatest
range of motion.
presence of a synovial cavity, which is filled with
synovial fluid. Examples of synovial joints include
the knee, elbow, shoulder, and hip joints.
● Synarthroses- Non movable joints
● Amphiarthroses- Slightly movable
● Diarthroses- Freely movable
Articular Cartilage- often simply referred to as
"cartilage," is a specialized type of connective tissue that
covers the surfaces of bones at synovial joints in the
human body. It serves several important functions in joint
health and movement:
Articular Disk- is a type of fibrocartilage structure found
in certain joints of the human body, primarily in the knee
and temporomandibular joints (TMJ).
Joint Cavity- space around the articular surfaces of the
bones in a synovial joint
Joint Capsule- also known as the articular capsule, is a
fibrous structure that surrounds and encloses a synovial
joint in the human body. Synovial joints are the most
common type of joints and are characterized by their
ability to allow significant movement. The joint capsule
typically consists of two layers:
● Fibrous Capsule- The outer layer is made of
dense irregular connective tissue, which provides
strength and protection to the joint. It is
responsible for the structural integrity of the joint.
● Synovial Membrane- The inner layer, known as
the synovial membrane, lines the joint capsule
and secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity. It
is responsible for the production of synovial fluid
and plays a crucial role in joint lubrication.
Bursa- is a small, fluid-filled sac found in various parts of
the human body, typically near joints where friction and
movement occur. Bursae act as cushions or lubricating
structures to reduce friction and aid in the smooth
movement of tendons, ligaments, and muscles over
bones or other structures.
Plane Joint- also known as a gliding joint or a planar
joint, is a type of synovial joint found in the human body.
Plane joints are characterized by their relatively flat,
articular surfaces that allow for limited gliding or sliding
movements between the bones that make up the joint.
These joints primarily permit translational motion, where
one bone moves in a linear direction over the surface of
the other bone.
Saddle Joint- also known as a saddle-shaped joint, is a
type of synovial joint found in the human body. Saddle
joints are characterized by their unique structure, which
resembles two saddles joined together. They allow a wide
range of movement, similar to condyloid joints, and are
known for their versatility. These joints are typically found
in areas where a bone can move in multiple directions.
Hinge Joint- also known as a ginglymus joint, is a type of
synovial joint found in the human body. Hinge joints are
characterized by their structure, which allows movement
in primarily one plane, like the hinge of a door. They
enable flexion and extension movements along a single
axis, and they are crucial for various types of linear
movements.
Pivot Joint- A pivot joint, also known as a trochoid joint,
is a type of synovial joint found in the human body. Pivot
joints allow rotational movement around a single axis.
These joints are essential for various forms of rotation
and are found in specific areas where rotational
movements are required.
Ball and Socket Joint- also known as a spheroidal joint,
is a type of synovial joint in the human body. This type of
joint allows for a wide range of motion in multiple
directions and is characterized by its spherical or
ball-shaped end of one bone fitting into a socket or
concave cavity on another bone. Ball and socket joints
are among the most versatile and mobile joints in the
body.
Ellipsoid Joint- also known as a condyloid joint, is a type
of synovial joint found in the human body. Ellipsoid joints
allow for a variety of movements, similar to ball and
socket joints, but with more limited rotation. They are
characterized by an oval-shaped, convex surface of one
bone fitting into an elliptical, concave depression on
another bone.
Shoulder Joint- also known as the glenohumeral joint, is
a ball and socket joint in the human body. It is one of the
most mobile and complex joints, allowing for a wide range
of movements in the upper limb. The shoulder joint is
formed by the articulation of the rounded head of the
humerus (the upper arm bone) and the shallow,
cup-shaped glenoid cavity of the scapula (shoulder
blade). There are two main bursae associated with the
shoulder joint:
● Subacromial Bursa- The subacromial bursa is
located in the subacromial space, which is a
small area beneath the acromion process of the
scapula and above the rotator cuff tendons and
the humeral head (the upper arm bone). This
bursa serves as a cushion and reduces friction
between the acromion and the rotator cuff
tendons during shoulder movements. It helps
facilitate smooth gliding of the tendons beneath
the acromion during arm elevation and rotation.
Inflammation of the subacromial bursa, known as
subacromial bursitis, can lead to shoulder pain
and reduced range of motion.
● Subscapular Bursa- The subscapular bursa is
situated between the subscapularis muscle,
which is one of the rotator cuff muscles, and the
neck of the scapula. This bursa acts as a
lubricating structure to reduce friction between
the subscapularis muscle and the underlying
scapula. It contributes to the smooth gliding of the
muscle during shoulder movements, such as
internal rotation. Inflammation of the subscapular
bursa can result in subscapular bursitis, which
may cause pain and discomfort in the shoulder
joint.
Glenoid Labrum- is a fibrocartilaginous structure that
lines the rim of the shallow, cup-shaped glenoid cavity
(glenoid fossa) of the scapula, which is part of the
shoulder joint. The term "labrum" refers to a type of
cartilage that is found in the form of a ring or lip around
the edge of the joint socket.
Rotator Cuff- tendons of these muscles form a "cuff" that
surrounds the head of the humerus and helps hold it
securely within the shallow glenoid cavity of the scapula.
The rotator cuff provides stability to the shoulder joint,
assists in arm movements, and helps control and
fine-tune shoulder motions. In addition to these primary
functions, the rotator cuff is involved in activities such as
lifting, reaching, and throwing.
Elbow Joint- is a complex synovial joint in the human
body that allows for the flexion and extension of the
forearm. It consists of three main bones and several key
structures. The primary function of the elbow joint is to
provide stability and control for the movements of the
forearm, allowing us to bend and straighten the arm.
Hip Joint- is a ball-and-socket joint located in the pelvic
region of the human body. It is one of the largest and
most stable joints in the body, allowing for a wide range of
movements. The hip joint plays a fundamental role in
supporting body weight, walking, running, and numerous
other activities.
Knee Joint- is one of the largest and most complex joints
in the human body. It plays a crucial role in supporting
body weight, walking, running, and other weight-bearing
activities. The knee joint allows for flexion (bending) and
extension (straightening) of the leg and some degree of
rotational movement. The knee joint is stabilized by
several ligaments, with the four major ones being:
● Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL): The ACL is
located inside the knee joint and runs diagonally
from the anterior (front) of the tibia to the
posterior (back) of the femur. It helps prevent the
tibia from moving too far forward in relation to the
femur and provides stability during movements
like pivoting, deceleration, and sudden stops.
ACL injuries are common, often occurring in
sports that involve cutting, twisting, or direct
impact to the knee.
● Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL): The PCL is
also located inside the knee joint, but it runs
diagonally in the opposite direction of the ACL,
from the posterior of the tibia to the anterior of the
femur. It prevents the tibia from moving too far
backward in relation to the femur and provides
stability during activities that involve landing on
the knee or applying force while the knee is bent.
PCL injuries are less common but can result from
traumatic events.
● Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL): The MCL is
located on the inner side of the knee and extends
from the medial (inner) condyle of the femur to
the proximal (upper) part of the tibia. It provides
stability against forces that try to push the knee
joint inward. MCL injuries often occur due to
direct blows to the outer part of the knee, such as
in contact sports.
● Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL): The LCL is
located on the outer side of the knee and
connects the lateral (outer) condyle of the femur
to the head of the fibula (a bone in the lower leg).
It provides stability against forces that try to push
the knee joint outward. LCL injuries are less
common but can result from direct blows to the
inner part of the knee.
Ankle Joint- also known as the talocrural joint, is a
synovial joint that connects the lower leg (tibia and fibula)
to the foot (talus bone). It is a hinge joint, primarily
responsible for the dorsiflexion (raising the foot upward)
and plantarflexion (pointing the foot downward) of the
foot. The ankle joint is essential for activities such as
walking, running, jumping, and maintaining balance.
The Muscular System- is one of the major organ
systems in the human body, responsible for enabling
movement, maintaining posture, generating heat, and
facilitating various physiological functions. Muscles are
composed of specialized tissues that contract and relax to
produce force and movement. Here are the key
components and functions of the muscular system:
1. Muscles- are the primary components of the
muscular system. There are over 600 muscles in
the human body, and they are divided into three
main types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
muscles.
● Skeletal Muscles: These are the
muscles attached to the bones and are
responsible for voluntary movements.
Skeletal muscles allow you to walk, run,
lift objects, and perform various actions
under your conscious control.
● Smooth Muscles: Smooth muscles are
found in the walls of internal organs and
blood vessels. They perform involuntary
functions, such as controlling the
movement of food through the digestive
system, regulating blood flow, and
managing other internal processes.
● Cardiac Muscles: Cardiac muscles are
specific to the heart and are also
involuntary. They contract rhythmically to
pump blood throughout the circulatory
system.
2. Tendons- are tough, fibrous connective tissues
that attach muscles to bones. They transmit the
force generated by muscles to the bones,
allowing movement at the joints.
3. Muscles- are composed of smaller units known
as muscle fibers or myofibers. These muscle
fibers contain myofibrils, which are the contractile
structures of the muscle cells.
4. Nerves- are responsible for transmitting signals
from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles,
initiating muscle contractions. The nervous
system and muscular system work closely
together to control movement and maintain
homeostasis.
The muscular system possesses several important
functional properties that enable it to perform various
tasks and functions in the body. Four major functional
properties of muscles are:
1. Contractility: Contractility is the fundamental
property of muscles that allows them to contract
or shorten when activated. Muscle contraction
generates tension and force, which can be
harnessed for various activities. Whether it's
lifting a weight, bending a joint, or generating the
force required for body movements, muscles
contract to produce these actions.
2. Excitability (Irritability): Muscles have the ability
to respond to electrical and chemical signals from
the nervous system. Nerve impulses and
neurotransmitters can stimulate muscle fibers,
leading to contraction. This excitability allows
muscles to respond to commands from the brain
and spinal cord, as well as to reflex actions that
occur without conscious control.
3. Extensibility: Extensibility refers to the ability of
muscles to stretch and lengthen. This property is
crucial for the full range of motion at joints.
Muscles can extend and relax when opposing
muscles contract, allowing for coordinated and
controlled movements. For example, the biceps
and triceps in the upper arm work together
through their extensibility to facilitate the flexion
and extension of the elbow joint.
4. Elasticity: Elasticity is the ability of muscles to
return to their original shape and length after
being stretched or contracted. This property is
essential for maintaining posture and stability.
When a muscle contracts, it can later relax and
return to its resting length. This property also
allows muscles to store and release energy
during movement, such as in activities like
running and jumping.
Muscle Fibers- also known as muscle cells or myofibers,
are the individual, elongated cells that make up skeletal
muscles in the human body.
Skeletal muscles consist of multiple layers or connective
tissues that provide structural support, help transmit
forces, and allow for smooth muscle function. The three
primary layers in skeletal muscle are:
1. Epimysium: The epimysium is the outermost
layer of connective tissue surrounding a skeletal
muscle. It is a dense layer of collagen fibers that
encases the entire muscle, giving it a protective
sheath. The epimysium connects the muscle to
the surrounding tissues and structures, allowing it
to move and function within the body.
2. Perimysium: The perimysium is the middle layer
of connective tissue within a skeletal muscle. It
divides the muscle into bundles called fascicles.
These fascicles contain groups of muscle fibers
(muscle cells) that work together to contract. The
perimysium contains blood vessels and nerves
that supply the muscle fibers within each fascicle.
3. Endomysium: The endomysium is the innermost
layer of connective tissue in a skeletal muscle. It
surrounds each individual muscle fiber (muscle
cell) within a fascicle. The endomysium provides
a fine network of connective tissue that supports
and protects each muscle fiber, as well as
facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste
products between the muscle fibers and their
surrounding environment.
Muscular Fascia- also known as myofascia, is a dense,
tough, and fibrous connective tissue that surrounds and
penetrates skeletal muscles, helping to provide structure
and support to the muscular system.
Perimysium- is one of the three primary layers of
connective tissue that make up the structure of skeletal
muscles. It is situated between the outermost layer, the
epimysium, and the innermost layer, the endomysium.
Fascicles- are bundles or groups of muscle fibers within
a skeletal muscle. These muscle fibers work together to
perform coordinated contractions and movements.
Fascicles are organized and surrounded by the
perimysium, a connective tissue layer within the muscle.
Endomysium- is the innermost layer of connective tissue
in skeletal muscles, and it plays a vital role in the
structural integrity and function of muscles.
Myoblasts- are embryonic cells that give rise to muscle
cells or muscle fibers. These precursor cells play a crucial
role in the development and regeneration of skeletal
muscle tissue.
Striated- is a term used to describe a specific
appearance or texture in muscle tissue, particularly in
skeletal and cardiac muscles. It refers to the presence of
alternating dark and light bands, or stripes, within the
muscle tissue when viewed under a microscope. These
bands are a result of the arrangement of contractile
proteins within the muscle cells and are responsible for
the striated appearance.
Hypertrophy- is a physiological process in which the size
or volume of an organ or tissue increases due to the
enlargement of individual cells. In the context of the
muscular system, hypertrophy commonly refers to the
growth and increase in the size of skeletal muscle fibers
(muscle cells).
Actin- is a globular protein that plays a fundamental role
in muscle contraction, cell structure, cell motility, and
various cellular processes.
The transmission of electrical signals in muscle fibers
involves several components that work together to enable
the excitation-contraction coupling process. Three key
muscle fiber components that respond to the
transmission of electrical signals are:
1. Sarcolemma: The sarcolemma is the cell
membrane of a muscle fiber (muscle cell). It is
responsible for transmitting electrical signals,
known as action potentials, from the
neuromuscular junction (where the motor neuron
meets the muscle fiber) to the interior of the
muscle fiber. The sarcolemma contains
specialized receptors for neurotransmitters
released by the motor neuron, which initiate the
electrical signal. These receptors open ion
channels, allowing the influx of sodium ions and
the generation of an action potential that travels
along the sarcolemma and into the muscle fiber.
2. Transverse (T) Tubules: T-tubules are
invaginations of the sarcolemma that penetrate
deep into the interior of the muscle fiber. These
structures are essential for rapidly transmitting
the action potential from the sarcolemma to the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialized organelle
involved in calcium ion storage and release.
T-tubules ensure that the entire muscle fiber is
depolarized, which is a key step in initiating
muscle contraction.
3. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): The
sarcoplasmic reticulum is an extensive network of
membranous sacs and tubules within the muscle
fiber. It functions as a calcium ion reservoir. When
the action potential reaches the T-tubules, it
triggers the release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm (the
cytoplasm of the muscle cell). The presence of
calcium ions in the sarcoplasm is essential for
muscle contraction, as they play a central role in
the interaction between actin and myosin
filaments, which drives muscle contraction.
Muscle fibers, also known as muscle cells or myofibers,
are the individual cells that make up skeletal muscles.
They are highly specialized for contraction and are
composed of several structures, but two of the main
structures in muscle fibers are:
1. Myofibrils: Myofibrils are long, thread-like
structures that run parallel to the length of the
muscle fiber. They are the primary contractile
elements within muscle fibers and are
responsible for muscle contraction. Myofibrils
contain the contractile proteins actin and myosin,
which interact to generate force and cause
muscle shortening. Myofibrils are organized into
repeating units called sarcomeres, which are the
basic functional units of muscle contraction.
Sarcomeres are delimited by Z-lines and contain
thick myosin filaments and thin actin filaments.
During muscle contraction, myosin heads from
the myosin filaments form cross-bridges with
actin filaments, leading to the sliding of actin and
myosin filaments past each other and shortening
of the sarcomere.
2. Myofilaments are the filaments or protein
structures found within the sarcomeres of muscle
cells that play a central role in muscle
contraction.
● Thick Myofilaments (Myosin
Filaments): Thick myofilaments are
primarily composed of a protein called
myosin. Myosin is a motor protein that
has a unique structure with a long tail and
a globular head region. These myosin
heads are often referred to as
cross-bridges. The myosin filaments are
arranged in a way that the myosin heads
project outward and interact with the thin
myofilaments (actin filaments) during
muscle contraction. Myosin plays a
critical role in generating force by forming
cross-bridges with actin and undergoing
a series of conformational changes to
slide the actin filaments, leading to
muscle shortening.
● Thin Myofilaments (Actin Filaments):
Thin myofilaments are primarily
composed of a protein called actin. Actin
is a globular protein that, together with
other associated proteins, forms the actin
filament. These actin filaments are
interspersed among the myosin filaments
in a repeating pattern within the
sarcomere. Actin serves as the binding
site for myosin cross-bridges during
muscle contraction. When calcium ions
 are released from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, they bind to regulatory proteins
on the actin filament, allowing myosin
cross-bridges to attach and initiate the
sliding of actin and myosin filaments,
resulting in muscle contraction.
Sarcomeres- the fundamental contractile units of muscle
fibers, and they are responsible for muscle contraction.
They are highly organized structures within muscle cells,
and when they contract, they result in the shortening of
the muscle fiber, leading to overall muscle movement.
Z-Lines (Z-Discs): Sarcomeres are delimited by Z-lines,
also known as Z-discs, at each end. Z-lines are dense
protein structures that anchor the thin actin filaments.
They define the boundaries of the sarcomere.
A-Band and I-Band: The sarcomere has distinct regions:
● The A-band is the dark region in the
center of the sarcomere, where thick
myosin filaments overlap with thin actin
filaments.
● The I-band is the lighter region on either
side of the A-band, containing only thin
actin filaments and extending to the
Z-lines.
H-Zone: The H-zone is the central region of the A-band
where only thick myosin filaments are present, without
overlapping actin filaments.
M-Line: The M-line is a dark, narrow line at the center of
the sarcomere, running through the H-zone, and it helps
to stabilize the thick myosin filaments.
Actin Myofilaments: Actin, one of the key proteins in
muscle cells, is made up of three parts: G-actin,
tropomyosin, and troponin. G-actin looks like tiny beads
that join together to form a chain. Think of these beads as
having special spots where myosin (another protein) can
attach, like pieces in a puzzle.
Tropomyosin acts like a cover, hiding these special
spots when our muscles are relaxed. Troponin is like a
supervisor that decides when our muscles should
contract. It does this by moving the cover (tropomyosin)
to reveal the special spots, allowing myosin to connect
and make our muscles contract.
Myosin Myofilaments: Myosin is another essential
protein in muscles, shaped like golf clubs. Myosin has two
long parts wound together to form a rod and two heads
that stick out sideways. These heads are like the
business end of a golf club. There are about 300 myosin
molecules in each myosin myofilament. Half of them have
heads pointing in one direction, and the other half point in
the opposite direction. These heads attach to the special
spots on actin to create a connection, like when a key fits
into a lock. The heads can also move because they act
like little machines that use energy (like batteries) to
make the connection and then release it, making our
muscles contract.
Neuromuscular Junction: this is how our brain and
nerves connect to our muscles through something called
the neuromuscular junction. This is like a meeting point
where signals from our brain tell our muscles to move.
When the signals arrive, they make our muscles start the
process of connecting actin and myosin, leading to
muscle contractions.
Sliding Filament Model: When our muscles contract,
they get shorter. This happens because the actin and
myosin components slide past each other, like when you
pull the drawstrings on a hoodie to make it tighter. This
shortening of the muscle fibers is what allows us to move
our bodies. When our muscles relax, the actin and
myosin slide back to their original positions.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers- Muscle contraction
involves two main components: the electrical aspect and
the mechanical aspect. Here, we'll focus on the electrical
part. Muscle fibers, like other cells in our body, are
capable of responding to electrical signals. This electrical
property is vital for muscle contraction. When our brain or
spinal cord sends signals, known as action potentials, to
muscle fibers, it triggers muscle contractions.
Polarization: Just like other cells, muscle fibers have a
difference in electrical charge between the inside and
outside of their cell membranes. This difference in charge
is called the resting membrane potential. Think of it as a
type of battery waiting to be used. It's the starting point for
muscle contractions.
Ion Channels: To understand muscle fiber's electrical
properties, we need to know about ion channels – tiny
gateways in the cell membrane that allow ions (charged
particles) to move in and out. There are two main types:
1. Leak Channels: These are like small openings
that allow ions to slowly pass through, even when
the cell is at rest.
2. Gated Channels: These channels respond to
specific signals. There are two subtypes:
● Ligand-gated channels: They open when
a chemical signal (like a
neurotransmitter) binds to a receptor on
the channel. For example, acetylcholine
is released at the neuromuscular junction
and triggers ligand-gated channels.
 ● Voltage-gated channels: These respond
to changes in the cell's electrical charge.
When the cell is stimulated, these
channels open or close. Sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+), and calcium (Ca2+)
channels are examples. They play a
crucial role in action potentials.
Resting Membrane Potential: Muscle cells, when at
rest, have an electrical charge difference across their cell
membranes. This is called the resting membrane
potential. It's like a charged battery waiting to be used.
Three factors contribute to this:
1. More potassium (K+) is inside the cell than
outside.
2. More sodium (Na+) is outside the cell than inside.
3. The cell membrane is more permeable to
potassium than to sodium. This means that
potassium can move more freely.
Action Potentials- When an excitable cell, like a muscle
fiber or neuron, is stimulated, it undergoes an action
potential, an electrical event where the charge inside the
cell's membrane reverses, becoming more positive
compared to the outside. This happens due to the
opening of ion channels in response to the stimulus,
allowing ions to move across the cell membrane and
changing its charge. The action potential consists of two
phases:
1. Depolarization: When the cell is stimulated,
depolarization occurs. The inside of the cell
becomes more positively charged, and if it
reaches a certain level called the threshold, it
triggers an action potential. During this phase, the
cell becomes even more positively charged.
2. Repolarization: After depolarization, the cell
returns to its resting state. This phase involves
the restoration of the original charge difference
across the membrane.
Acetylcholinesterase, often abbreviated as AChE, is an
enzyme that plays a crucial role in the nervous system. It
is primarily found at neuromuscular junctions, synapses,
and other cholinergic nerve endings, where it acts to
terminate the transmission of nerve impulses.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling is a vital process in
muscle contraction, where the electrical aspect (action
potential) connects to the mechanical aspect (muscle
fiber contraction). This process ensures that muscle fibers
contract in response to nerve signals. Here's a
breakdown of how it works:
● Action Potential Initiation: It all begins at the
neuromuscular junction, where a motor neuron
releases a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine
(ACh) into the synaptic cleft. This
neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the
sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane), initiating an
action potential.
● Propagation of Action Potential: The action
potential travels along the sarcolemma and
enters a network of tubular structures called
T-tubules, which penetrate the muscle fiber.
These T-tubules carry the action potential deep
into the muscle fiber.
● Release of Calcium (Ca2+): Inside the muscle
fiber, the action potential reaches the terminal
cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (a
specialized organelle). Voltage-gated Ca2+
channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum open in
response to the action potential. This allows a
rapid release of calcium ions (Ca2+) from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm, the
fluid within the muscle cell.
● Activation of Troponin: The released calcium ions
bind to troponin, a protein associated with the
actin myofilaments in the muscle. This binding
causes a conformational change in troponin,
which, in turn, moves the tropomyosin strands
away from the active sites on the actin
myofilaments.
● Formation of Cross-Bridges: With the active sites
on actin exposed, myosin heads on the thick
myofilaments can now bind to these active sites,
creating cross-bridges between actin and myosin.
● Muscle Contraction: When the myosin heads
attach to the active sites on actin, they can
generate force and movement. This movement of
the cross-bridges is the basis of muscle
contraction. As long as calcium is present and
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is available for
energy, these cross-bridges will continue to cycle,
leading to muscle contraction.
Muscle Relaxation is a crucial phase that occurs when
the signal for muscle contraction is no longer being sent.
This process is highly coordinated and requires energy.
Here's how it works:
● Cessation of Nerve Signals: Muscle relaxation
begins when the nerve signals from motor
neurons cease. These signals, in the form of
action potentials, trigger muscle contractions.
When these signals stop, the muscle receives the
message to relax.
● Calcium Ion Reuptake: During muscle
contraction, calcium ions (Ca2+) are released
from a structure called the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. These ions are essential for muscle
contraction as they bind to troponin, allowing the
myosin heads to interact with actin filaments. In
 muscle relaxation, active transport mechanisms
pump calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, reducing the intracellular calcium
concentration.
● Tropomyosin Re-Coverage: As calcium levels
drop in the muscle cell, the calcium ions detach
from troponin. This allows tropomyosin to
re-cover the active sites on actin filaments.
Tropomyosin is a protein that, in its resting
position, blocks the myosin binding sites on actin.
● Loss of Cross-Bridges: With the active sites on
actin covered by tropomyosin, the myosin heads
can no longer bind to actin, and cross-bridges
cannot form. This prevents the sliding of actin
and myosin filaments, which is the basis of
muscle contraction.
● Muscle Relaxation: As a result, the muscle
returns to its elongated and relaxed state. It's
ready for another contraction if stimulated again,
or it can remain at rest until needed.
● Energy Expenditure: The process of actively
pumping calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum and maintaining ion gradients across
the cell membrane (sodium-potassium pump)
requires energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). This is necessary for the proper
functioning of muscle relaxation.
contraction. In other words, the muscle generates
tension, but it does not produce a visible movement or
change in the angle of the joints it spans.
Isotonic contractions are a type of muscle contraction
where the muscle changes length as it contracts,
resulting in visible movement of the involved body parts.
Summation (Temporal and Spatial Summation):
Summation refers to the process by which a muscle fiber
or motor unit generates a stronger muscle contraction by
increasing the frequency or number of motor neuron
impulses (action potentials).
Recruitment: is the process by which the nervous
system activates more motor units to increase muscle
force. When the demand for muscle force exceeds what a
single motor unit can generate, additional motor units are
recruited in a graded fashion. Smaller motor units, which
contain fewer muscle fibers, are recruited first for tasks
requiring minimal force. As the force requirement
increases, larger motor units with more muscle fibers are
activated. This is known as the size principle of motor unit
recruitment.

A muscle twitch is the response of a muscle fiber to a

single, brief stimulus or action potential along its motor
neuron. It represents the simplest and smallest contractile
unit of muscle activity and typically occurs under artificial
or laboratory conditions. The response of a muscle twitch
can be recorded using specialized equipment, resulting in
a myogram, which is a graphical representation of the
muscle's activity over time. A muscle twitch consists of
three main phases:
● Lag Phase (Latent Phase): This is the initial
phase of a muscle twitch. It is the time delay
between the application of the stimulus (action
potential) to the motor neuron and the actual
onset of muscle contraction.
● Contraction Phase: Once the stimulus reaches
the muscle fiber and the necessary events are
set in motion, the muscle enters the contraction
phase.
● Relaxation Phase: The final phase of a muscle
twitch is the relaxation phase. It follows the
contraction phase and involves the muscle
returning to its resting state.

Isometric contractions, often referred to as isometric

exercises, are a type of muscle contraction in which the
length of the muscle remains constant, meaning there is
no significant change in the muscle's length during the
1. The primary function of the muscular system is: 7. Muscles that have a striped appearance are
described as being ________.
● Maintaining body temperature
● Providing support for the body ● Elastic
● Protecting internal organs ● Nonstriated
● Facilitating movement ● Excitable
● All of the above ● Striated
● Smooth
2. Which of the following is the functional unit of a
muscle fiber? 8. Which of the following is responsible for the
transmission of nerve impulses away from the cell
● Myofibril body?
● Sarcomere
● Myosin ● Dendrite
● Actin ● Axon
● Z-line ● Synapse
● Neurotransmitter
3. Which of the following terms refers to the muscle's
ability to return to its original length after contraction 9. The peripheral nervous system is composed of
or extension?
● spinal and cranial nerves
● Tonus ● sensory receptors and nerves
● Contractility ● brain and spinal cord
● Excitability ● spinal cord and sensory receptors
● Elasticity ● brain and nerves
● Irritability
10. Which of the following cranial nerves is related to
4. The diagnostic test used to assess the electrical the sense of smell?
activity of muscles is called:
● Abducens
● Electrocardiogram (ECG) ● Hypoglossal
● Electroencephalogram (EEG) ● Olfactory
● Electromyography (EMG) ● Trochlear
● Echocardiogram ● Vagus
● Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
11. Which of the following is the point at which an
5. The tube-like invaginations of the sarcolemma impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another
responsible for conducted impulses into the muscle neuron?
fiber are called:
● Dendrite
● Motor end plates
● Glial cell
● Synaptic vesicles
● Nerve center
● Transverse clefts
● Synapse
● T-tubules
● Terminal plate
● Synaptic knobs
12. The myelin sheath is mainly composed of:
6. An impulse carried along the sarcolemma would
travel down the T-tubules, causing the release of
CA++ ions from: ● Schwann cells
● Astrocytes
● The lateral sacs ● Microglia
● The myofibril ● Oligodendrocytes
● The sarcomere ● Neurons
● The myofilaments
● B&C
13. Depolarization of the sarcolemma means
________.
● the inside of the membrane has become less
negative as sodium ions accumulate
● the outside of the membrane has become less
negative as sodium ions accumulate
● the inside of the membrane has become more
negative as sodium ions accumulate
● the sarcolemma has completely lost any electrical
charge
● both the inside and outside of the membrane has
negative charge
14. Which of the following controls body temperature,
sleep and appetite?
● Adrenal glands
● Hypothalamus
● Pancreas
● Thalamus
● Thyroid gland
15. One of the functions of the cerebellum is to
● maintain balance and muscle tone
● produce hormones
● serve as a center for hearing
● serve as a center for speech
● serve as center for taste
16. All of the following are types of neuroglia,
EXCEPT
● Microglia
● Lymphocytes
● Astrocytes
● Oligodendrocytes
● ependymal cells
17. The ventricles of the brain are interconnected.
Which of these ventricles are not correctly matched
with the structures that connect them?
● left lateral ventricle to right lateral
ventricle—central canal
● lateral ventricle to the third ventricle—
interventricular foramina
● lateral ventricle to the left ventricle— septum
pellucidum
● third ventricle to fourth ventricle—cerebral
aqueduct
● fourth ventricle to subarachnoid space— median
and lateral apertures
18. _____________ is a genetically acquired
neurologic disease with a sign of severe headache
associated with sensory symptoms with an unknown
cause. Consequently, it involves the trigeminal nerve
and could be triggered by environmental factors.
● Meningitis
● Cerebral Aneurysm
● Alzheimer Disease
● Brain tumor
● Migraine
19. Effects of aging in the nervous system: a general
decline in the number of motor neurons. Thus, an
aged person’s brain will eventually experience a/an
___________________.
● Decrease in size
● Inflammation
● Increase in weight
● Extreme water loss
● Extreme blood loss
20. The gland responsible for the production of
melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles, is the:
● Pineal gland
● Thymus gland
● Adrenal gland
● Thyroid gland
● Parathyroid gland
21. Which hormone, released by posterior pituitary, is
accountable for inducing uterine contractions?
● GH
● MSH
● Follicle stimulating hormone
● Oxytocin
22. Which of the following is TRUE about the
transport of water-soluble hormones?
● Water-soluble hormones have modifications that
protect them from degradation.
● Water-soluble hormones have cell membrane
receptors that they interact with.
● Water-soluble hormones diffuse slowly through
capillary walls due to their large size.
● Many water-soluble hormones dissolve directly
into the blood and are delivered to their target
tissue without attaching to a binding protein.
● Water-soluble hormones attach to binding
proteins to avoid filtration by the kidneys.
23. Which of the following is responsible for 29. It is a white blood cell that has a round nucleus
maintaining the balance of fluids in the body? and produces antibodies and other chemicals
responsible for destroying bacteria.
● Pituitary gland
● Thyroid gland ● Basophil
● Adrenal gland ● Eosinophil
● Kidneys ● Erythrocytes
● Parathyroid gland ● Lymphocytes
● Neutrophil
24. The hormone responsible for the development of
secondary sexual characteristics in females is: 30. It is the formation of blood cellular components?

● Estrogen ● Agglutination
● Progesterone ● Erythropoietin
● Testosterone ● Hemolytic
● Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ● Hematopoiesis
● Luteinizing hormone (LH) ● Leukocytosis

25. All are characteristics of lipid soluble hormone, 31. Which of the following is FALSE about
EXCEPT? Erythrocytes?

● They are made of proteins ● Contains hemoglobin

● They are mostly steroids ● Disk-shaped with thick edges
● They are nonpolar ● Larger in size
● They degrade slowly ● Live for 120 days
● all are characteristics of a lipid soluble hormone ● Transport O2 to tissues

26. Which hormone is produced by your pancreas to 32. Which blood type has specific no antigens?
increase glycogen breakdown when you are hungry?
● Blood Type A
● Insulin ● Blood Type AB
● Glucagon ● Blood Type B
● Thymosin ● Blood Type O
● Erythropoietin ● Both A and C
● Adrenaline
33. They are ductless glands that secretes their
27. The gland that is responsible for the regulation of products into the bloodstream.
the body's circadian rhythm is the:
● Compound glands
● Pineal gland ● Endocrine glands
● Thymus gland ● Exocrine glands
● Pituitary gland ● Simple glands
● Adrenal gland ● Lymphatic glands
● Hypothalamus
34. Which cells in the blood do not have a nucleus?
28. The main regulatory functions of the endocrine
system are the following, EXCEPT: ● Lymphocyte
● Monocyte
● Control of food intake and digestion ● Erythrocyte
● Metabolism, Ion regulation, water balance ● Basophil
● Heart rate and blood pressure regulation ● Neutrophil
● Uterine contractions and milk release.
● Receiving sensory input, integrating information,
controlling muscles and glands
35. It takes place from the heart to the lungs and then 40. The primary function of the cardiovascular
back to the heart. This process is called _________. system is to:

● Aortic circulation ● Regulate body temperature

● Pulmonary circulation. ● Facilitate digestion
● Respiratory circulation ● Control voluntary movements
● Systemic circulation ● Transport oxygen and nutrients throughout
● Ventricle circulation the body
● All of the above
36. What are these muscles called that are attached
by strong, connective tissue strings to the free 41. The blood vessels that carry blood away from the
margins of the cusps of the atrioventricular valves? heart are known as:

● Chordae tendineae ● Arteries

● Coronary sulcus ● Veins
● Interatrial septum I ● Capillaries
● interventricular septum ● Venules
● Papillary Muscles ● Atria

37. Which of the following allows air to pass into the 42. The component of blood responsible for carrying
lungs? oxygen to the body's tissues is:

● Aorta ● Platelets
● Esophagus ● Red blood cells
● Heart ● White blood cells
● Pancreas ● Plasma
● Trachea ● Hemoglobin

38. Where is the sinoatrial node located?
● Between the left atrium and the left
ventricle
● Between the right atrium and the right
ventricle
● In the interventricular septum
● In the upper wall of the left ventricle
● In the upper wall of the right atrium
43. The heart's electrical system is primarily
controlled by which structure?
● Atrioventricular node (AV node)
● Sinoatrial node (SA node)
● Bundle of His
● Purkinje fibers
● Ventricles

39. Blood flows from the right ventricle of the heart

into which of the following structures?

● Inferior vena cava

● Left ventricle
● Pulmonary arteries
● Pulmonary veins
● Right atrium