INVESTRIGATORY PROJECT

BIOLOGY

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA
SHALIMAR BAGH
NAME- ANAND SHANKAR
CLASS- XII B
TOPIC- VACCINE-HOW ARE
THEY MADE
 CERTIFICATE
This is to clarify that ANAND SHANKAR of class
XII B has successfully completed the project work
of Biology, titled as “VACCINE-HOW ARE THEY
MADE”, for class XII practical examination of
Central Board of Secondary Education in the year
2023-2024. It is further certified that this project
is the individual work of the candidate

TEACHERS SIGNATURE

ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I place my sincere thanks to my biology
teacher Mrs. MAHIMA VERMA For her
guidance and advise to complete my work
successfully. I also take this opportunity
to thank my parents for the countless
blessings showered on me while doing
the work and for encouragement and
support in my humble venture.

INDEX
 INTRODUCTION
  WHAT IS VACCINE
 WHY VACCINE
 TYPES OF VACCINE
 VACCINATION SCHEDULE
 HOW VACCINES WORK
 VACCINATION
INGREIDENTS
 DISADVANTAGES
 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine)
to stimulate adaptive immunity to a disease. Vaccines can
prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by many
pathogens. There is strong evidence for the efficacy of many
vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine the HPV vaccine and the
chicken pox vaccine among others. Vaccination is generally
considered to be the most effective method of preventing
infectious diseases. The material administered can either be live
but weakened forms of pathogens (bacteria or viruses), killed or
inactivated forms of these pathogens, or purified material such
as proteins. The word vaccination was first used by Edward
Jenner in 1796. Louis Pasteur furthered the concept through his
pioneering work in microbiology. Vaccination is so named
because the first vaccine was derived from a virus affecting cows
—the relatively benign cowpox virus—which provides a degree of
immunity to smallpox, a contagious and deadly disease. In
common speech, ‘vaccination’ and ‘immunization’ generally have
the same colloquial meaning. This distinguishes it from
inoculation which uses unweakened live pathogens, although in
common usage either is used to refer to an immunization. The
word “vaccination” was originally used specifically to describe
the injection of smallpox vaccine

WHAT IS A VACCINE?
Vaccines are injections (shots), liquids, pills, or
nasal sprays that you take to teach your body's
immune system to recognize and defend against
harmful germs. For example, there are vaccines
to protect against diseases caused by:
 Viruses, like the ones that cause the flu and
COVID-19
 Bacteria, including tetanus, diphtheria, and
pertussis

WHY VACCINE?
Vaccination is the most important thing we
can do to protect ourselves and our children
against ill health. They prevent millions of
deaths worldwide every year. Since vaccines
were introduced in the UK, diseases like
smallpox, polio and tetanus that used to kill
or disable millions of people are either gone
or are now very rarely seen. Other diseases
like measles and diphtheria have reduced to
a very low number of cases each year since
vaccines were introduced. These cases are
often related to travel. However, if people
stop having vaccines, it's possible for
infectious diseases to quickly spread again.

TYPES OF VACCINE
All vaccinations work by presenting a foreign antigen to the immune
system in order to evoke an immune response, but there are several
ways to do this. The four main types that are currently in clinical use are
as follows:

 An inactivated vaccine consists of virus particles which are grown

in culture and then killed using a method such as heat or
formaldehyde. The virus particles are destroyed and cannot
replicate, but the virus capsid proteins are intact enough to be
recognized and remembered by the immune system and evoke a
response. When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not
infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and
infectious particles. Since the properly produced vaccine does not
reproduce, booster shots are required periodically to reinforce the
immune response.
 Virus-like particle vaccines consist of viral protein(s) derived from
the structural proteins of a virus. These proteins can self-assemble
into particles that resemble the virus from which they were
derived but lack viral nucleic acid, meaning that they are not
infectious. Because of their highly repetitive, multivalent
structure, virus-like particles are typically more immunogenic than
subunit vaccines (described below). The human papillomavirus
and Hepatitis B virus vaccines are two virus-like particle-based
vaccines currently in clinical use.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE
AGE VACCINE
AT BCG,OPV(0DOSE),HEPATITIS B (1st
BIRTH DOSE)
6 DPT(1STDOSE),OPV(1STDOSE),HEPATI
WEEKS TIS B(2ND DOSE)
10 DPT(2ND DOSE),OPV (2ND
WEEKS DOSE) ,HEPATITIS B(2ND DOSE)
14 DPT(3RDDOSE),OPV(3RDDOSE),HEPATI
WEEKS TIS B(3RD DOSE)
9-12 MEASELS VACCINE
MONTHS
15-18 DPT(4TH DOSE),OVP(4THDOSE),
MONTHS MMR VACCINE
5 YEARS DT

HOW VACCINE WORKS?

Vaccines contain weakened or inactive parts of a
particular organism (antigen) that triggers an
immune response within the body. Newer
vaccines contain the blueprint for producing
antigens rather than the antigen itself.
Regardless of whether the vaccine is made up of
the antigen itself or the blueprint so that the body
will produce the antigen, this weakened version
will not cause the disease in the person receiving
the vaccine, but it will prompt their immune
system to respond much as it would have on its
first reaction to the actual pathogen. Some
vaccines require multiple doses, given weeks or
months apart. This is sometimes needed to allow
for the production of long-lived antibodies and
development of memory cells. In this way, the
body is trained to fight the specific disease-
causing organism, building up memory of the
pathogen so as to rapidly fight it if and when
exposed in the future.

VACCINATION INGREIDENTS
This list of vaccine ingredients indicates the culture media
used in the production of common vaccines and the
excipients they contain:
Vaccine Culture media Excipients

Anthrax vaccine Puziss-Wright Aluminum Hydroxide,

(BioThrax) medium 1095, Amino Acids,
synthetic or Benzethonium Chloride,
semisynthetic Formaldehyde
or Formalin, Inorganic
Salts and Sugars, Vitamins

BCG (Bacillus Synthetic or Asparagine, Citric Acid,

Calmette-Guérin) semisynthetic Lactose, Glycerin, Iron
(Tice) Ammonium Citrate,
Magnesium Sulfate,
Potassium Phosphate

DTaP (Daptacel) Cohen-Wheeler or Aluminum Phosphate,

Stainer-Scholte Ammonium Sulfate,
media, synthetic or Casamino Acid, Dimethyl-
semisynthetic betacyclodextrin,
Formaldehyde or
Formalin, Glutaraldehyde,
2-Phenoxyethanol

DISADVANTAGES
No vaccine offers 100% protection and vaccine efficacy
meaning how well a vaccine prevents illness among those
vaccinated varies from one type of vaccine to the next and
how well a vaccine works also depends on the health status
of the person vaccinated. For example, the flu vaccine does
not protect the elderly against catching the flu as well as it
does in younger people. But very importantly, several
studies suggest that elderly people vaccinated against the
flu have less severe disease, are less likely to be
hospitalized and are less likely to die. We continue to see
preventable illness, hospitalizations and unfortunately
deaths in South Carolina from influenza, whooping cough,
meningitis, hepatitis B, and other diseases. We also
continue to see travelers import diseases like measles that
are no longer common here but that cause outbreaks in
communities with low vaccination rates. Vaccines do have
some risk for adverse reaction, the most common being
redness and soreness at the injection site or fever and
allergic reactions. More serious complications like seizures
and the neurologic condition Guillian-Barre are also
reported but occur very rarely and far less commonly than
the complications and deaths from vaccine preventable
diseases.

CONCLUSIONS
The introduction of new vaccines in
the coming decades will impose
additional and sometimes unexpected
financial burdens on public and private
health care plans, providers, and
consumers. These burdens are offset
by the value of these new vaccines,
including financial savings that result
from decreased medical expenditures,
enhanced quality of life, reduced care-
giving burdens, and gains in
productivity associated with the
prevention of infectious disease.

REFERENCES
 abcofbiology.wordpress.com
 www.who.int
 scdhec.gov
 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov