Major Paper - IV

PHYSICS PRACTICAL -II

Prepared by

Dr.S.Kumararaman,
Associate Professor, Depat.Of Physics,
Nehru Memorial College,(Autonomous)
Puthanampatti.

1
 CONTENTS
MAJOR PRACTICAL – II (Any 10)
S.No Name Of The Experiment Page No
1 Static Torsion – Determination of n 3

2 Torsional pendulum – n and I 7

3 Coefficient of viscosity of highly viscous liquid 11

4 Stoke’s method – Viscosity of highly viscous liquid 16

5 Characteristics of junction and Zener diodes 19

6 Joule’s calorimeter – Specific heat capacity of liquid (Barton’s 27

correction)

7 Carey Foster’s Bridge – R and p 29

8 Potentiometer – Ammeter calibration 33

9 Spectrometer – I-d curve 37

10 CRO – Study of wave forms – Lissajous figures – f determination 42

11 Construction of Full wave rectifier – Using two diodes 44

12 Potentiometer – low range voltmeter calibration 47

13 Lees’ disc – Thermal conductivity of poor conductor. 51

2
 1. Rigidity Modulus -Static Torsion
Aim:

To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of a given cylindrical

rod through telescope and scale method.

Apparatus:
Searle's static torsion apparatus: rod with attached pulley, weight hanger,
slotted weights, telescope, mirror and scale.

Formula:

Where, l = The length of the rod from the clamped end to the mirror (m)

m =mass of the rigidity modulus (Kg)

r=mean radius of the rod (m)

R= radius of the wheel (m)

D=distance of the mirror from the scale (m)

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m s – 2

S=shift for m kg.

Procedure:

The experimental rod is held horizontal and firmly fixed at one end on a
suitable frame. The large vertical pulley mounted at other end of the rod. A light
string wound round the groove of the pulley carries a weight hanger.

A small mirror is fixed at a convenient point on the rod at a distance of

about 40cm from one end. The length l of the rod from the clamped end to the
mirror is measured. A telescope and scale arrangement is set up at a distance of
about 1m from the mirror. The telescope is turned towards the mirror and it is

3
focused at the reflected image of the scale in the mirror. The scale is so adjusted
that the reading of the scale in the telescope is near the centre graduation scale.

The string is wound once around the pulley in the clockwise direction. The
slotted weights are placed on the weight hanger one by one and are removed one
by one so as to deform the rod elastically. Starting with the weight of the empty
weight hanger, the reading of the scale division coinciding with the horizontal
cross wires of the telescope is taken, and again as each weight is added. The
weights are removed one by one and the corresponding readings are again taken.
The shift in the telescope reading due to the addition of a load is determined. The
experiment is repeated by winding the string in the anti-clockwise direction

around the groove of the pulley. Hence is calculated.

Diagram:

Application:

Engineers consider the value of shear modulus when selecting materials

for shafts, which are rods that are subjected to twisting torques.

4
Tabulation:

Measurement of the diameter of the wire using screw gauge:

Z.E.C. = ………. mm L.C. = …………….. mm

5
 Observed Reading = Corrected Reading =
Sl.No HSC
PSR + (HSC x LC) OR ±Z.E.C
. (div)
PSR (mm) (mm)
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean

Calculation:

6
Result:

The rigidity modulus of the material of the rod :( G) =---------------------------N/m2.

Graphical method: (G) =---------------------------N/m2

2.DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF THE

MATERIAL - TORSIONAL PENDULUM n and I
Aim
To determine the (i) moment of inertia of the disc and (ii) the rigidity modulus of
the material of the wire by torsional oscillations.

Apparatus Required
Torsional pendulum, stop clock, screw gauge, scale, two equal masses.

Principle
1. Torsional pendulum is an angular form of the linear simple harmonic
oscillator in which the element of springness or elasticity is associated with
twisting a suspension wire.
2. The period of oscillation T of a torsional pendulum is given by

T =2 π
√ I
C
. Where, I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of
rotation and C is the couple per unit twist of the wire.

Formulae

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 I =2 m ( d 22 −d 21 )
( T 20
T 22 −T 21 )
1. kg m2
2
8 πl× 2 m d1
× d 2− ¿2
2
2. N= 4 ¿
2 N m
–2
r T 2 −T 1
Where,

I = Moment of inertia of the disc (kg m2)

N = Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire (N m – 2)
m = Mass placed on the disc (kg)
d1 = Closest distance between the suspension wire and centre of mass (m)
d2 = Farthest distance between suspension wire and centre of mass (m)
T0 = Time period without any mass placed on the disc (s)
T1 = Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d1 (s)
T2 = Time period when the equal masses are placed at a distance d2 (s)
l = Length of the suspension wire (m)
r = Radius of the wire (m)

Diagram:

Fig. 6.2 Torsional Pendulum

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Table 1: Measurement of the diameter of the wire using screw gauge:
Z.E.C. = ………. mm L.C. = …………….. mm
Observed Reading = Corrected Reading =
PSR HSC
Sl.No. PSR + (HSC x LC) OR ±Z.E.C
(mm) (div)
(mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean

Table 2: Determination of period of oscillation without mass and

with mass:
Length of the wire---------- (m).d1=-------------- (m). d2= ---------------- (m).

S. No. of Time taken (s) Time period (s)

No oscillations without with with T0 T1 T2
(s) mass mass mass
at d1 at d2
1 5
2 10
3 15
Mean

Procedure
Step – I To determine T0
1. One end of a long uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be
determined is clamped by a vertical chuck. To the lower end of the
wire, a circular metallic disc is attached. The length of the suspension
wire is fixed to a particular value (say 50 cm).
2. This part of the experiment is performed without the equal cylindrical
masses on the disc.
3. Twist the disc about its centre through a small angle. Now the disc
makes torsional oscillations.

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 4. Omit the first few oscillations. The time taken for 10 complete
oscillations are noted from the stop clock and the time period T 0 is
determined.

Step – II to determine T1
1. Two equal masses m are placed on either side, close to the
suspension wire.
2. Measure the closest distance d 1 from the centre of mass and the
centre of the suspension wire
3. The disc with masses at distance d 1 is made to execute torsional
oscillations.
4. Note the time taken for 10 oscillations and calculate the time
period T1.

Step – III To determine T2

1. Place the equal masses such that the edges of masses coincide with
the edge of the disc and centres are equidistant.
2. Measure the distance d2 between the centre of the disc and the
centre of mass.
3. Set the pendulum in to torsional oscillations and note the time
taken for 10 oscillations. Calculate the time period T2.
Step – IV Repeat the above procedure for different length of the wire (say 60
and 70 cm)

Step – V Determine the radius of the wire using screw gauge.

Graph
Plot a graph between length of the suspension wire l along X – axis and square of
the time period without masses on disc T02 along Y – axis. The graph is a straight line.

Calculations:

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 Result
1. Moment of inertia of the disc = ……… km m2.
2. The rigidity modulus of the wire
(a) by calculation = ……… N m – 2.

(b) by graph = ………. N m – 2.

3. COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF HIGHLY VISCOUS LIQUID

Aim:
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of water by capillary flow
Method, using graduated burette without stopper.

Apparatus required:

1. Burette stand,
2. graduated burette without stopper,
3. Capillary tube,
4. Rubber tube,
5. Beaker,
6. Stop watch,
7. Water,
8. Funnel,
9. Wooden bench.

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 Formula:

The coefficient of viscosity of the water,

(η) = πgdr4 htx106 N/m2

8vl
Where,

d = density of water. (Kg/m3)

g = acceleration due to gravity. (ms-2)
r = radius of the capillary tube. (10-2m)
l = length of the capillary tube. (10-2m)
v = volume of water comes out of the capillary flow (5 cc) (m3)
t = time taken for 5 cc flow of water.
H = the average pressure head height of the liquid levels
From the capillary tube. (10-2m)
H=h1+h2/2-h3

h 1 = height of initial level from the experimental table. (10-2m)

h 2 = height of final level from the experimental table. (10-2m)
h 3 = height of the axis of capillary tube from the table. (10-2m)

Principle:
The liquid is allowed to flow through a uniform capillary tube which is
held horizontally, under constant pressure difference between the two ends of the
capillary. The flow of liquid through the tube is streamline and the layers which
are in contact of the walls of the tube are at rest. The layer along the axis of the
tube has the maximum velocity.

Diagram:

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 Fig.1. Viscosity of a liquid apparatus

Fig.2. Radius of capillary tube

Description:
The graduated burette without stopper is mounted vertically in the
Stand. A rubber tube is connected to the bottom of the burette. To the other
end of the tube, a capillary tube is inserted and placed in a perfectly
horizontal position.

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Procedure:

 The dry burette is fixed on the stand using the clamps as shown in
fig.(2.1). The uniform circular bore capillary tube is fixed to the
burette using a rubber tube.
 The capillary tube is arranged horizontal to the table. The stand is
used to get uniform flow of a given liquid.

 A clamp and dry beaker is used to collect the water from the
capillary tube for a known interval of time.

 The given liquid is poured into the burette. The stop clock is
started when the liquid level crosses 0cc in burette.

 The time taken for the liquid to cross every 5cc (starts from 0cc)
on the burette say 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 ….50 cc are noted and
tabulated.

 The time taken for 5 cc of the liquid is determined for the flow
time t seconds from the table.
 The initial height h1 and final height h2 are noted for every 5 cc
interval. The length of the capillary tube (l) is measured by using
meter scale.

Determination of Least Count of Travelling Microscope:

Least count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

20 MSD = 1 cm
Value of 1 MSD = 1/20cm
= 0.05 cm
Number of Vernier Scale Division = 50
50 VSD = 49 MSD
1 VSD = 49/50 MSD
= 49/50 x 0.05
= 0.049
LC = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm
LC = 0.001 cm

Tabulation: 1
Measurement for time for liquid flow
Burrete Time (sec) Hight from the
reading Trail 1 Trail 2 Mean capillary tube
(cc) (h)[10-2 m]

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 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45

Mean: h=……….x 10-2 m

Range Time Height (10-2m) Mean ht(10-2m)

(sec)[t] h1 h2 h=h1+h2/2
0-10
5-15
10-20
15-25
20-30
25-35
30-40
35-45
Mean=ht=-------------10-2m.

To Find The Radius Of The Capillary Tube:

 The radius of the capillary (r) is determined using the traveling

microscope. The capillary tube is fixed on the stand and traveling
microscope is adjusted to view the inner circle of the capillary tube
as shown in Fig. (2.2).

 The vertical cross wire of the telescope is adjusted to concede with

the left edge (V1) of the inner circle. The corresponding MSR and
VSC are noted. Similarly, the cross wire adjusted with the right
edge (V2) of the inner circle and the readings are noted.

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  The experiment is repeated using the horizontal cross wire of the
telescope and the corresponding readings H1 and H2 are tabulated.

 The inner diameter of the capillary tube is determined by finding

the difference between V1 and V2, H1 and H2. The average value
of the diameter is used for the calculation.

To find the radius of the capillary tube by using microscope:

LC=0.001cm
Position MSR VSR OR=MSR+(VSRxLC)(cm) Diameter(2r) Redius
(cm) (div) (cm) (cm)
left

right

Bottom

Top

Mean = r =

Calculation:

Result:
Coefficient at viscosity of the given liquid (η) =-----------N/m2.

4.Viscosity of a liquid - Stoke's method

Aim:

16
 To determine the coefficient of viscosity of highly viscous liquid using
Stoke's method.

Apparatus Required:

A long cylindrical glass jar, Transparent viscous fluid, Meter scale,

Spherical ball, Screw gauge, Stop clock, Thread.

Formula:

Where, η = The coefficient of viscosity of highly viscous liquid (Nm-2).

r =Radius of the sphere (m).
v =Terminal velocity (m/s).
g =Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).
ρ = The relative density of liquid (2600 kg/m3).
σ =density of liquid (970 kg/m3).

Diagram:

Procedure:

 Find the least count and zero correction of the given screw guage.
 Find the

radius(r) of ball can

be calculated as ; r = d/2.
 Clean the glass jar and fill it with the viscous fluid.
 Place a meter scale vertically beside the jar.
 Measure the inner diameter of the jar using a vernier calipers.
Hence the inner radius of the jar R can be found.
 Mark two reference points A and B on the jar using two threads.
The marking A is made well below the free surface of liquid, so

17
 that by the time when the ball reaches A, it would have acquired
terminal velocity v.
 Adjust the position the thread B so that the distance between A and
B is 60cm.
 The ball of known diameter is dropped gently in the liquid. It falls
down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about one-third of
the height. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
 When the ball crosses the point A, start the stop watch and the time
taken by the ball to reach the point B is noted.
 If the distance moved by the ball is d and the time taken to travel is
t, then velocity,

 Calculate the terminal velocity of the ball, v using the relation,

 Now, the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid can be calculated by

using the formula,

 Now, repeat the experiment by changing the diameter of the ball.

Calculate the value of r2/ v in each time.
 Plot a graph with r2 along X axis and terminal velocity along Y axis.
We can calculate the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid by using the
slope of the graph.

Tabulations:
1. To find the terminal velocity of the sphere:
Time taken to
S. Radius of glass Velocity, v' = s/t 2
travel the r / v (m s)
No sphere, r (×10-3 m) (m/s)
distance s, t (s)
1
2
3
4
5

Mean:

2. Measurement of the radius of the wire using screw gauge:

Z.E.C. = ………. mm L.C. = …………….. mm

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 Observed Reading = Corrected Reading =
PSR HSC
Sl.No. PSR + (HSC x LC) OR ±Z.E.C
(mm) (div)
(mm) (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean

Calculation:

Result:

The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid, η

By calculation, = .................Nsm-2.

From graph, = .................Nsm-2.

5.V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A JUNCTION DIODE AND

ZENER DIODES

Aim:
19
To draw the static current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a junction diode
and Zener Diodes
 . ApAApparatus:

Diodes, (2v -12v) DC power supply, milliammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat

and wire.

Formula:

r = Vf / If

Where, V=volt (v),

I=current (mA)

The working principle of the diode:

Crystal diode as by p- type semiconductor and n- type semiconductor form
of p-n junction and the space-charge layer is formed in its both sides of the
interface, and has a self farm. When the applied voltage is not present, Because of
p-n junction on both sides of carrier concentration difference cause the diffusion
Current and self-built field cause the drift current equal and in electric balance
state.

Theory:

A diode, in electronics, is a two terminal electronic component with an

asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low resistance to current flow in one
direction and high resistance to current flow in the other direction. A semi-
conductor diode is the most common type diode, which is a piece of semi-
conductor material with a p-n junction connected to two terminals.

A diode allows electric current to pass in forward direction and block

current in reverse direction. The behavior of a diode in a circuit is given by its I-V
characteristics. The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge
carriers through the depletion layer that exist at the p-n junction. When a p-n
junction is first created, diffusion of holes and electrons take place through the
junction. As recombination proceeds, more ions are created at the junction and a
built-in potential is developed at the depletion zone.

If a voltage of same polarity as that of built-in potential is applied across

the junction, depletion zone acts as an insulator, preventing significant current
flow through the junction. This is the reverse bias phenomenon.

Circuits:

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1. Forward bias:

Fig (1)

2. Reverse bias:

Fig (2)
Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1).

2. Vary Vzf gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izf.
3. Step size is not fixed because of non-linear curve and varies the X-
axis variable (i.e., if output variation is more, decrease input step size
and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward
voltages

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2).

2. Vary Vzr gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izr.
3. Step size is not fixed because of non-linear curve and varies the X-
axis variable (i.e., if output variation is more, decrease input step size
and vice versa).
4. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse
voltages.

Observations:

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Forward Bias Condition:
S.n Forward Voltage across the Forward Current through the diode
o diode Vzf (volts) Izf (mA)
1 0.1

2 0.2

3 0.3

4 0.4

5 0.5

6 0.6

7 0.7

Reverse Bias Condition:

s.no Reverse Voltage across the diode Reverse Current through the
Vzr (volts) diode Izr (Ma
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
5. 5
6. 6
7. 7
8. 8

Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the
center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vzf, -ve X-axis as Vzr, +ve Y-axis as Izf and –
ve Y-axis as Izr.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first
Quadrant and reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

22
 Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance Rdc = Vf / If

Dynamic Forward Resistance rac = Vf / If

Static Reverse Resistance Rdc = Vr / Ir

Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac = Vr / Ir

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode.
This may lead to damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the
circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Principle behind Zener diode Working:

As stated above the basic principle behind the working of a zener diode
lies in the cause of breakdown for a diode in reverse biased condition. Normally
there are two types of breakdown- Zener and Avalanche.

Circuit:
1. Forward bias:

23
2. Reverse bias:

Fig (1) and (2)

Theory:

An ideal P-N junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition.
A zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodes
operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage.

A zener diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode.

A zener diode when forward biased can undergo avalanche break down or
zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at
the junction widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction may
rupture covalent bonding between electrons. Such rupture leads to the generation
of a large number of charge carriers resulting in Avalanche Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region
at the junction reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction may
rupture covalent bonding and generate large number of charge carriers. Such
sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in zener mechanism.

24
Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:

 1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (1).

 2. Vary Vzf gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izf.
 3. Step size is not fixed because of non-linear curve and vary the X- axis
variable (i.e., if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice
versa).
 4. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward
voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

 Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2).

 Vary Vzr gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izr.
 Step size is not fixed because of non-linear curve and varies the X- axis
variable (i.e., if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice
versa).
 Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.

Observations:
Forward Bias Condition:
s.n Forward Voltage across the Forward Current through the
o diode Vzf (volts) diode Izf (mA)
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8

Reverse Bias Condition:

s.no Reverse Voltage across the Reverse Current through the

diode Vzr (volts) diode Izr (mA
1 0.1
2 0.2

25
 3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8

Graph:

 Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the
center of the graph sheet.
 Now mark +ve X-axis as Vzf, -ve X-axis as Vzr, +ve Y-axis as Izf and –
ve Y-axis as Izr.
 Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first
Quadrant and reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance Rdc = Vf / If

Dynamic Forward Resistance rac = Vf / If

Static Reverse Resistance Rdc = Vr / Ir

Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac = Vr / Ir

Precautions:

26
  While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the
diode. This may lead to damaging of the diode.
 Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown
in the circuit diagram.
 Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked
the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

Result:

1. The PN Junction Diode Characteristics have been studied.

The forward bias Resistance of the diode = _____ Ώ.

2. The Zener Diode Characteristics have been studied.

The forward bias Resistance of the diode =_______ .

The reverse bias Resistance of the diode= _______ .

The Zener Resistance at the breakdown voltage was found to be =

_____ V.

6. Specific heat capacity –Joules calorimeter

Aim:

27
 To determine the Specific heat capacity of a liquid using a Joules
calorimeter.

Apparatus:

Joules calorimeter, battery (2v), Rh, plug key, ammeter, voltmeter, and
thermometer.

Formula:

Specific heat capacity of liquid (water):

s Ect
2= ¿
¿¿ ¿

Where,

w1=mass of the empty calorimeter (kg)

w2= mass of the empty calorimeter+ liquid (kg)

θ1 =Initial temperature (c̊)

θ2 =Final temperature (c̊)

x=radiation correction (c̊)

c=ammeter reading (Amp)

E=voltmeter reading (v)

t=time of passage of current(s)

s1=specific heat capacity of calorimeter (J/KgK)

Circuit:

28
Procedure:

A battery plug key, Rheostat, Joules coil and an ammeter are connected in
series as shown, a voltmeter is connected across the coil. The calorimeter with
stirrer is taken out and its mass w1 kg is found. Sufficient liquid to immerse the
coil is taken in the calorimeter and the mass of the calorimeter with liquid is
found as w2 kg.

The calorimeter is placed in position keep in the coil fully immersed in

liquid. The plug key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted for a current of 1amp in
the circuit. The circuit is broken. The liquid is well starrier and the initial
temperatureθ1 c̊ is noted. The circuit is closed. Starting a stop clock
simultaneously. The ammeter reading c and the voltmeter reading E are noted.
The liquid in the calorimeter is stirred continuously. When the temperature rises
by about 5 ̊c the current cut off and the time of passage of current is recorded.
The final resulting temperature θ 2 ̊ c is noted. The stirring is continued for the
same interval of time and the fall of temperature is noted. Halt of this fall gives
the radiation correction X .this added to θ 2 to θ2 to get the corrected resulting
the temperature.

Calculation:

Result:

The specific heat capacity of the given liquid s2=…………. J/KgK.

7. CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE

29
AIM:

To determine the resistance per unit length of Carey Foster’s

bridge wire and specific resistance of the material of the given wire
using Carey Foster’s bridge.

APPARATUS USED:

Carey Foster’s bridge, rheostat, Battery eliminator, copper strip,

resistance box, galvanometer, plug key, given wire whose specific
resistance is to be determined, connecting wires and screw gauge.

FORMULA USED:

Resistance per unit length of the bridge wire: r’= R/ AJ1˜AJ2

(Ώ/m)

Resistance of a given coil of Wire: X=R+ (AJ1-AJ2) r’ (Ώ)

Where, R = resistance of the given wire (Ώ)

L = length of the given wire (m)
r = radius of the given wire. (m)
AJ1, AJ2=Balancing length (m)

PROCE DURE: The method can be followed in the following steps:

(1) Method for Determination of the Resistance per Unit Length
of the Bridge Wire
The standard resistance is kept in the outer left gap for X and
thick copper strip in the outer right gap for Y (fig (1)). The ratio arms
P and Q can be obtained by connecting the lower terminals of the
rheostat to the points A and C and its upper terminal kept at the
middle and connected to the sliding contact to the galvanometer G.

The key (K) is closed and the jockey is then made to touch the
bridge wire near its ends. The deflections in the galvanometer in the
two cases must be in opposite directions. However, if only one-sided
deflection is observed then the connections should be rechecked and

30
screws properly tightened, seeing that the ends of the connecting wire
are perfectly clean.

Introduce some resistance X in the resistance box and by

sliding the jockey null point is obtained. The distance of null point L 1
from left reference zero ends is noted.

Now interchange the position of resistance box and the copper

strip. Again the balance is obtained for the same applied resistance in
the box. Let the null point from the left reference zero be L 2.Change
the value of X by 1ohm and obtain different sets of observation as
described in above steps. Calculate the value of ρ separately by taking
Y=0 for each set using the formula:
X
ρ=
( L2−L1 ) .Obtain the mean value of ρ.

(2) METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE RESISTANCE OF

THE GIVEN WIRE:

The experiment is repeated exactly in the same manner as

stated above by replacing the copper strip with the given wire and
retaining the same resistance X. The resistance of the given wire R, is
then calculated by the value of ρ by,
' '
R=X− ρ( L2−L1 ) .Take different sets by changing the value of

resistance in the resistance box.

(3) DETERMINATION OF THE LENGTH AND DIAMETER

OF THE GIVEN WIRE:

i. The length of the resistance wire between the terminals is

measured by a meter scale and its mean radius is obtained by

31
 measuring its diameter at two-three places in two mutually
perpendicular directions by a screw gauge.
ii. Having obtained the values of the specific resistance is calculated
by using equation (2) given above.

DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS: [A] Resistance per unit length of the bridge

wire: r’:

Balancing length (cm) r’=R/

S. Resistance AJ1˜AJ2
No. (R) Ω AJ1 AJ2 (Ώ/m)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean r’=………………….Ω cm-1

32
[B] OBSERVATIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF THE
RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE (X):

S. Resistance Balancing length (cm) X=R+ (AJ1-AJ2)

No. (R) Ω AJ1 AJ2 r’ (Ώ)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean X =………………………Ω

[C] OBSERVATIONS FOR RADIUS OF THE GIVEN WIRE:

L.C. = …………….. mm Z.E.C. = ………. mm

Sl. PSR OR =PSR + (HSC 
HSC CR =OR ±Z.E.C.
No (mm LC)
(div) (mm)
. ) (mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean=

CALCULATION:

RESULT:-

The resistance and specific resistance of the given coil of wire

are determined by using Carey Foster’s bridge.

1. The Resistance of the given wire =……………. Ω.

33
 2. The Specific resistance of the material of the given wire =
………….Ω m.

8. CALIBRATION OF AMMETER USING POTENTIOMETER

Aim
To calibrate the given ammeter by potentiometer.

Apparatus Required
Potentiometer, rheostat, batteries (2V and 6V) (or) accumulators, keys, Daniel
cell, high resistance, sensitive table galvanometer, the given ammeter, a standard
resistance (1 Ω) (or) a dial type resistance box (110 ohm) connecting wires etc.

Formulae
Calibrated current passing through standard resistance

1 . 08
i' = ℓ (amp)
Rℓ0

Where,

R= Standard resistance (1 Ω)

l = Balancing length for different ammeter readings (m)

l0 = Balancing length corresponding to e.m.f. of Daniel cell (m)

Procedure
Part 1 : To standardize the potentiometer (or) To find the potential
fall across one metre length of the potentiometer
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in fig. (6.14) and is described below.
2. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of a battery to the
end A of the potentiometer and its negative terminal to the end B through a key
(K1).

34
3. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal of the Daniel cell
to A and its negative to the jockey through a high resistance (HR) and a sensitive
galvanometer.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the circuit.
5. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f. the potential drop across the
potentiometer wire remains steady.
6. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10-metre potentiometer
wire, till the position for the null deflection is found in the galvanometer.
7. Let the balancing length be l0 meter (AJ). Then, the potential drop per unit length
1. 08
l0
of the potentiometer is calculated. The rheostat should not be disturbed
hereafter.

Part 2 : To calibrate the given ammeter

1. In order to calibrate the given ammeter, the primary circuit of the potentiometer is
left undisturbed.
2. In the secondary circuit the voltmeter is replaced by a standard one-ohm
resistance (or a dial resistance box).
3. One end of one ohm resistance is connected to A and the other end is connected to
jockey through a high resistance (HR) and galvanometer [figure (6.15)].
4. In addition an ammeter, plug key (K 2), a rheostat and a 6V battery are connected
in series to ends of one ohm standard resistance.
5. The rheostat of the ammeter is adjusted to read 0.1 A and the jockey is moved and
pressed to get null deflection in the galvanometer. The second balancing length l
m is determined, and i’ is calculated using the given formula.
6. The experiment is repeated by adjusting the rheostat in the secondary circuit, so
that the ammeter readings are successively 0.2, 0.3, …..1 ampere.
7. The current flowing through the circuit is calculated in each case and the
corrections to the readings of the ammeter (i’ – i) are tabulated.
8. Graph
9. 1.A graph between ammeter reading (i) along the X-axis and the correction (i’ – i)
along the y – axis is drawn.
10. 2.A graph between ammeter reading (i) and calculated ammeter reading i’ is also
drawn.
Circuit Diagrams

35
 Fig.6.14 Standardisation of Potentiometer

Fig.6.15 Calibration of Ammeter

Table 1: To calibrate the given ammeter

Balancing length l0 = ……… 102 m
(Length of the wire balancing the emf of the Daniel cell)

Length balancing the p.d Calculated ammeter

Ammeter reading
across l ohm coil Correction
S.No. reading 1.08
l m i' = ×l (I i) (A)
i (A)
l0 (A)
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

36
0.5

0.6

0.7

Modal graph:

+Y
Y

i - i (am p ere)
i (am p ere)

X
O i (am p ere)

X
O i (am p ere)
-Y

Fig.6.16 Model Graph (i vs i' ) Fig. 6.17. Model Graph i vs (i' – i)

37
Result
The given ammeter is calibrated and a calibration curve is drawn.

9. Spectrometer –i-d curve

Aim:

 To determine the angle of prism (A).

 Find the angles of deviation (d) corresponding to various angles of
incidence and draw the i-d curve.
 To determine the refractive index of the material of the prism.

Apparatus:

Spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp, lens. etc.

Principle:

When a beam of light strikes on the surface of transparent material(Glass,

water, quartz crystal, etc.), the portion of the light is transmitted and other portion
is reflected. The transmitted light ray has small deviation of the path from the
incident angle. This is called refraction.

Refraction is due to the change in speed of light while passing through the
medium. It is given by Snell's Law.

------------------- (1)

Where (i) is the angle of incident and (r) is the angle of refraction. And
ŋ1is the refractive index of the first face and ŋ2is the refractive index of the second

face. And the speed of light on both faces is related to the equation
------------------- (2)

C1 is the velocity of wave in first face and C2 is the velocity of wave in

second face.

38
 Refractive index: It is the property of the matter, which determines how much
Light is bending, when light travelling through the it. The refractive index of the
material of the prism can be calculated by the equation.

------------------- (3)

Where, A - angle of the prism and D is the angle of minimum deviation.

Formula: Refractive index:

Where, A - angle of the prism and D is the angle of minimum deviation

d =i1+i2-A and A=i1+i2-d

Procedure: Preliminary adjustments.

: Focus Telescope on distant object.

1. Turn the telescope towards the white wall or screen and looking through
eye-piece, adjust its position till the cross wires are clearly seen.
2. Turn the telescope towards window; focus the telescope to a long distant
object.
3. Place the telescope parallel to collimator.
4. Place the collimator directed towards sodium vapor lamb. Switch on the
lamb.
5. Focus collimator slit using collimator focusing adjustment.
6. Adjust the collimator slit width.
7. Place prism table, note that the surface of the table is just below the level
of telescope and collimator.
8. Place spirit level on prism table. Adjust the base leveling screw till the
bubble come at the centre of spirit level.
9. Clamp the prism holder.
10. Clamp the prism in which the sharp edge is facing towards the collimator,
and base of the prism is at the clamp.

To draw i-d curve and obtain angle of minimum deviation

39
 Indirect way to set the incident angle (i) in the spectrometer apparatus

Consider ab is the incident ray of light on one face of the prism. i is the
angle of incident and d is the angle of deviation. Basic idea to set the incident
angle is the ‘angle of incident and angle of reflection is same’. There for reflected
ray from the surface of the prism is at an angle 180-2*i from c.

Fig (1): Schematic

representation of setting incident angle

To find angle of deviation (d)

corresponds to incident angle i

Performing simulator

Step 1: View the direct ray

without the prism. Set the
vernier and main scale in 0-0 in
0-180 position.

Step 2: For incident angle i (say

30), rotate the Telescope to 180-
2*i degrees in the anti-clock wise direction. (Make sure the 0 line on the one of
the vernier scale coincides with 120 in the main scale), see fig (2)

Step 3: Rotate the vernier table in the clockwise direction so as to get the
reflected image of slit from one face of the prism. And make it coincide with
cross wire of the telescope by the fine angle of vernier table, without rotating the
telescope. (Refer figure below). Note the reading as θ. See Fig(3).

40
 Step 4: Rotate the telescope in clock wise direction, without disturbing the
vernier table, to find the emergent ray from other face of the prism. See fig(4)

Step 5: Make the slit coincide with the cross wire of telescope.

Step 6: Note down corresponding vernier 1 and vernier II reading. This

reading is called refracted reading.

Step 7: to find the direct ray reading- remove the prism by clicking
“remove prism” button.

Step 8: place the telescope in line with the collimator. (do not change
vernier table
position). See fig(5)

Step 9: Note
down vernier I and
vernier II readings.
This reading is called
directed ray reading.

Step 10: place the

prism and bring
vernier and main
scale in 0-0 in 0-180
position.

Step 11: Repeat the step from 1 to 10, for different incident angle, and
tabulate the readings and find angle of deviation (d).

41
 Step 12: Plot the graph between i
and d, where i is in x-axis and d is in y-axis.
And note down the minimum value of d
( which is the angle of minimum deviation -
D)

Step 13: Using the equation 3, find

out the refractive index of the prism.

Tabulation:

S. I Angle of Refracted reading Angle of Mean angle

No rotation deviation of deviation
θ =180-2i VA VB VA VB d
1. 40̊ 100
̊
2. 45 ̊ 90
3. 50 ̊ 80
4. 55̊ ̊ 70
5. 60 ̊ 60
6. 65 ̊ 50

Calculation:

42
Result:

1. Angle of the prism (A). =------------

2. Angles of minimum deviation (D) =---------------

3. The refractive index of the material of the prism (µ) =--------------------

10. Lissajous figure

Aim:

To determine the frequency of an unknown signal using Lissajous figure.

Requirements:

CRO, two function generator, CRO Probes, etc.

Formula used:

Where, ∩ means intersection

Diagram:

Theory:

43
Lissajous figure:

When two signals having some frequency are applied to input terminal of
CRO and get superimposed perpendicularly (when A/B or B/A is pressed), then a
pattern of closed figure is obtained which is known as LISSAJOUS FIGURE.

Two sinusoidal inputs are applied to the oscilloscope in X-Y mode and the
relationship between the signals is obtained as a Lissajous figure. To generate a
Lissajous pattern two different signals are applied to the vertical and horizontal
inputs of the CRO. Earlier this technique used to measure frequencies before the
frequency meter were discover. A signal generally sine wave of unknown
frequency was applied to horizontal input and a frequency whose value is known
applied to the vertical input of CRO. The pattern observed was depend on the
ratio of the two frequencies applied to the vertical and horizontal inputs.

Procedure:

 Two signal generators was used, consider the first generator as the standard
frequency source where as frequency from the second function generator is
consider as unknown.

 Set the frequency of generator one to 1 kHz, vary the frequency of second
function generator until a stable Lissajous pattern is displayed to the screen of
CRO.
 Trace the pattern, record the number of horizontal and vertical tangents and
frequency of second function generator.
 Repeat the procedure for 4-5 unknown frequencies it will give different
Lissajous pattern.

Tabulation:

Vertical input standard frequency=1000 Hz.

S.No Horizontal No. of Actual

input Tangential point frequency (Hz)
frequency x-axis y-axis
(Hz)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
44
 Calculation:

Result:

The wave forms were studied using the Lissajous figure and unknown
frequency is determined.

11.Construction of Full wave rectifier – Using two diodes

Aim:

To determine the Full wave rectifier – Using two diodes.

Apparatus:

 A step down center-tapped transformer

 Two diodes
 Load resistance, RL (10 – 1000 Ω)
 DC voltmeter
 AC milliammeter
 Capacitor (50 μF)
 Project board
 Connecting wires etc.

Circuit:

45
Full wave rectification can be achieved by two diodes. In a Full Wave Rectifier
circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle. Let V = Vm Sinθ
the alternating voltage. Suppose diode resistance is ‘R’ and load resistance is R L.
In case of forward biasing current flows through the diodes. But during reverse
bias current flowing through it is very small (I μA). Rectifier is used for converting
AC flow info DC flow. During the positive half cycle current flows and during
negative half cycle reverse bias are established and no current flows through the
diodes. To smooth DC wave capacitor C is used in the circuit. During positive
half cycle the capacitor receives charges and in negative half cycle it discharges.
As a result between two DC halves the wave becomes smooth. This action of
smoothing is called filtering. By a DC voltmeter DC voltage between the resistors
RL is measured and current is measured by DC ammeter. In oscilloscope screen
between the two terminals of the resistance DC now is observed. Circuit,
connecting instrument, and input and output signals etc are shown in figures 1
and 2.

Working procedure:

(1) Two diodes are to be connected with the upper and lower output terminals of
the transformer as per diagram.

(2) Negative terminals of the two diodes are to be connected combinedly.

46
(3) A capacitor (C), load resistances (RL), a, b, c, voltmeter are to be connected
in parallel and an ammeter is to be connected in series and central point of the
transformer is connected to RL, C and lower terminal of the voltmeter. The lower
terminals of C and RL are connected to the ground.

(4) The midpoint of the -ve terminals of the diodes is connected to the capacitor
by a wire.

(5) By flowing current in the circuit current and output voltage are measured.

(6) Output d. c. voltage and current are observed by an oscilloscope.

Experimental data:

(a) Capacitance of the capacitor C = ….. μF

(b) Resistance of the diode, R = ….. Ω

(c) Load resistance, RL = ….. Ω

Idc = 2Im/π; Im = Peak value of current.

Table:

Observation:

Output voltage Vdc has been observed by the oscilloscope and Vdc has been
measured by a voltmeter.

Precautions:

47
 1. Positive terminals of capacitor, milliammeter, and voltmeter are to be
connected jointly.
2. Diodes D1 and D2 are to be taken of the same value.
3. Step down transformer is to be used.
4. The capacitor is to be used for getting smooth d. c. output.
5. Ends of the wires are to be connected tightly.

Result:

The Full Wave Rectifier circuit design output waveforms have been studied and the
required parameters have been calculated.

12. CALIBRATION OF LOW RANGE VOLTMETER

USING POTENTIOMETER

AIM

To calibrate the given Low Range Voltmeter Using a

Potentiometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Potentiometer, rheostat, batteries (2V), keys, Daniel cell, high

resistance, sensitive table galvanometer, the given voltmeter,
connecting wires etc.

FORMULAE

Calibrated current passing through standard resistance

48
 1.08
Vc= ×l [ volt ]
l0

Where,

R= Standard resistance (1 Ω)
l = Balancing length for different ammeter readings (m)
l0 = Balancing length corresponding to e.m.f. of Daniel cell (m)

PROCEDURE
Part 1: To find the potential fall across one meter length of the
potentiometer
1. The circuit connections are made as shown in fig. (6.14) and is
described below.
2. A primary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal
of a battery to the end A of the potentiometer and its negative
terminal to the end B through a key (K1).
3. A secondary circuit is made by connecting the positive terminal
of the Daniel cell to A and its negative to the jockey through a
high resistance (HR) and a sensitive galvanometer.
4. The rheostat is adjusted to send a suitable current through the
circuit.
5. Since the accumulator has a constant e.m.f. the potential drop
across the potentiometer wire remains steady.
6. Next the jockey is moved along and pressed along the 10-metre
potentiometer wire, till the position for the null deflection is
found in the galvanometer.
7. Let the balancing length be l0 meter (AJ). Then, the potential
1. 08
drop per unit length of the potentiometer l0 is calculated. The
rheostat should not be disturbed hereafter.

Part 2: To calibrate the given low range voltmeter

1. In order to calibrate the given voltmeter, the primary circuit of

the potentiometer is left undisturbed.
2. In the secondary circuit the voltmeter is replaced by a standard
one-ohm resistance (or a dial resistance box).
49
 3. One end of one ohm resistance is connected to A and the other
end is connected to jockey through a high resistance (HR) and
galvanometer [figure (6.15)].
4. In addition an voltmeter, plug key (K 2), a rheostat and a 6V
battery are connected in series to ends of one ohm standard
resistance.
5. The rheostat of the voltmeter is adjusted to read 0.1 A and the
jockey is moved and pressed to get null deflection in the
galvanometer. The second balancing length l m is determined,
and i’ is calculated using the given formula.
6. The experiment is repeated by adjusting the rheostat in the
secondary circuit, so that the voltmeter readings are
successively 0.2, 0.3,1 ampere.
7. The current flowing through the circuit is calculated in each
case and the corrections to the readings of the ammeter (i’ – i)
are tabulated.
8. A graph between ammeter reading (i) along the X-axis and the
correction (i’ – i) along the y – axis is drawn. A graph between
voltmeter reading (i) and calculated voltmeter reading i’ is also
drawn.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

50
TABLE 1: TO CALIBRATE THE GIVEN LOW RANGE
VOLTMETER
Balancing length l0 = ……… 102 m
(Length of the wire balancing the emf of the Daniel cell)
S.No voltmeter Balancing 1 . 08 Correction
Vc=
l0
Хl
. reading(v) Length (L) m (Vc V)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7

51
 +Y
Y

i - i (am p ere)
i (am p ere)
X
O i (am p ere)

X
O i (am p ere)
-Y

Fig.6.16 Model Graph (i vs i' ) Fig. 6.17. Model Graph i vs

(i' – i)

RESULT
The given ammeter is calibrated and a calibration curve is
drawn.

52
 13. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY - LEE’S DISC

Aim:
To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using
Lee's disc apparatus.

Apparatus:
1. Lee's disc apparatus
2. a brass disc and a metallic disc of large diameter compared to its thickness
3. sample of bad conductor in the form of the disc with same diameter
4. two mercury thermometers
5. stop watch
6. screw gauge and
7. balance.

Formula:
msRd 2 h+r
Thermal conductivity, K= W K −1 m−1
π r ( T 1−T 2 ) 2 h+2 r
2

Where,

k - Thermal conductivity (WK-1m-1)

m- mass of the brass disc (kg)

r- Radius of the brass disc (m)

h- Thickness of the brass disc(m),

d- Thickness of the bad conductor(m)

s- Specific heat capacity of brass(JKg-1K-1).

T1- Temperature of steam chambar (0c)

T2- Temperature of the brass disc (0c)

R-Rate of fall of Temperature(0c)

53
Diagram:

Procedure:
 Determine the mean thickness of metal disc and bad conductor
with a screw gauge.
 Determine the Radius of the brass disc and bad conductor .
 Find the mass M of the metal disc by a balance.
 Keep the bad conductor between metal disc and steam chamber.
 Introduce thermometers through holes in the steam chamber and in
the metal disc.
 Pass steam through the chamber until the temperature indicated by
thermometers become steady and note the steady temperature.
After some time the heat chamber temperature(T1) and the Lee's
disc temperature(T2) will become steady.
 Remove the bad conductor.

 The temperature of T2 will rise again; stop the heater when the
reading of T2 reaches 10 degrees above the steady temperature.
The 'Stop Steam' button can be used to do this.
 Now the temperature at the Lee's disc will start to drop. Start the
stop watch, and note down the temperature at T 2 from 5 degrees
above the steady temperature to 5 degrees below that at each 30
seconds.
 Remove the steam chamber when the temperature of the metal disc
is 10 0 C above it's steady temperature.Using these points a graph
has to be plotted and dT/dt can be obtained from it and the Κ value
can be calculated.

54
  Plot a time-temperature graph.

Tabulation:
1. To find rate of fall of temperature(R):

S.no Temperature Time(sec) Range (dθ) k Time (dt)sec R= dθ/dt

°C k/sec
1 65
2 64
3 63
4 62
5 61
6 60
7 59
8 58
9 57
10 56
11 55

Mean=R=---------

(i) To find the thickness of the bad conductor using screw gauge

LC=0.01mm ZE= ---------- mm

S.no PSR HSC HSR=HSC*LC OR=PSR+HSR CR=OR±ZE

(mm) (div) (mm) (mm) (mm)

1

Mean=d=…………10-3 m.

55
(iii)To find the thickness of brass disc using screw gauge.

LC= -------- mm ZE= -------------mm

S.no PSR HSC HSR=HSC*L OR=PSR+HSR CR=OR±ZE

C
(mm) (div) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
1

Mean=h=…………..10-3m.

Calculation:

Result:

The thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor

i) By calculation k=………………….. Wm-1K-1

ii) By graphical calculation k=………………… Wm-1K-1

56
57