Table of Content

~~/~~~-~ ••~ . •-:l~~if

Chapter 1.
INTRODUCTION OF IRRIGATION - ~
l .l Intr<Hiuction of irrigation 1
1.1.1 Definition of irrigation - 1
. 1.1.2 Necessity of irrigation 2
' '

1~1.3 Advantages (function) of irrigatio11 2

1.1.4 Disadvantages of irrigation 3
1.1.5 Scope of irrigation 3
1.2 History of irrigation developments in nepal 3
1.2.1 Categories of irrigation scheme 4
1.3 · Status and need of irrigatio11 in nepal 5
· 1.4 Crops their seasons and periods (cropping pattern and intensity) 5
1.5 • Commanded area and irrigation intensity 6.
1.6 Method offield irrigation and their ~tability 6
1.7 Advantages and disadvantages ?f surface and sub-surface·
irrigation method 11
1.8 Quality of irrigation water 11
1.9 Planning of irrigation project 12
1.9.1 Stages of planning 12
1.10 Worked out problems 13
1.11 Objective question 20

Chapter 2
IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT - 9
2-1 General 22
2.1.1 Duty and delta of crop 22
2.1.2 Relation between duty. delta and crop period 23
2.1.3 24
Facto~s affecting duty
25
r 2.1.4 Methods of impr,oving duty
 2.2 Crop water requirement (penman method)
2S BO
2.2.1 Penman equation 4,_3 Mechanics of cedlmen t transport
2S 81
2.3 Irrigation water requirement 4.4 Trac tive force approach of canal deslen
27 BB
2.3.1 Consumptive inigation requirement (CIR) 4.5 Design of a1Juvla1 canals (Ke nnedy's and Lacey's th eory)
27 88
2.3.2 Net irrigation requirement (NIR) 4.5 .1 Kennedy's th eory
27 92
2.3.3 Field irrigation requirement (FIR) 4.5.2 Lacey's theory
27 Lacey's regime equation 93
2.3.4 Gross irrigation requirement (GIR) 4.5.2.1
Effective rainfall (Re)
27 4.6 Design of lined canals with economic analysis 98
2.4
28 101
2.5 Water losses due to seepage and evaporation 4.6.1 Cross-section of lined channels
28 101
2.5.1 Evaporation losses 4.6.2 Design standards for lined channels
28 4.6.3 Design procedure for lined canals 103
2.5.2 Seepage losses
28 4.6.4 Economic justification for the lining of canal 109
2.6 Soil moisture irrigation relationship
29 4.7 Worked out problems 111
2.6 .1 Field capacity (FC)
29 4.8 Objective question 135
2.6.2 Permanent wilting point (PWP)
29
2.6.3 Readily available moisture (REM)
29 Chapter 5
2.7 Depth and frequency of irrigation
30
2.8 Irrigation efficiencies DIVERSION HEADWORKS 1 2-
30
/ 2.9 Worked out problems 5.1 Component parts of weir/barrage (detailed drawing) 138
32
2.10 Additional problems 5.1.1 Weir or barrage 138
48
2.11 Objective question 5.1.2 Undersluices 140
63
5.1.3 Divide wall 140
Chapter3 5 .1.4 Fish ladder 14.1
5.1.5 Canal head regulator 141
CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM ---('
5.1.6 Silt excluder 142
3 .1 Classification of canal
65 5.1.7 Silt ejectors 142
3.2 Components of canal irrigation system
66
5.2 Bligh's, Lane's and Khosla's seepage theory -142
3 .3 Alignment of canal
67 5.2.1 Bligh's seepage theory 143
3.4 Alluvial and non-alluvial canals
69 5.2.2 Lane's weighted creep theory 147
3.5
Canal standards and balancing depth 5.2.3 Khosla's theory
3.6 69 150
Canal distribution system
70 5.2.3.1 Khosla's method of independent variables
3.7 Worked out problems
3.8 72 (calculation of percentage pressure, i.e., uplift
Objective question
76 pressure by Khosla's theory) 151
5.3
Chapter4 Design of sloping glads weir bay (crest, length and thickness
of floor) 163
DESIGN OF CANALS J. o 5.4
Design of undersluice and silt excluder 171
5 ·4 ·1 . Design of undersluice 171
4.1 Design capacity of canals
77 5 ·4 ·2 Design of silt excluder 175
4.2 Sediment transport in canals 5.5
78 Design of silt ejector 178
 5.6 Worked out problems I '/! )
5.7 Object ive question ) )) Choptor9
WATER LOGGING AND DRAINAGE 10
Chapte r6 Causes, effects and preven tive measure of water loggjng 360
9.1
360
RMR TRAINING WORKS ~ 9.1.l Causes of water logglnz
9.1.2 Effect of water logging 361
6.1 River stages and need of river traini ng ✓] \l 362
9.1.3 Preventive measure of water logging
6.1.1 River stages 211) 363
9.1.4 Remedial measures of water logging
6.2 Classification of river training works 220 Water logging and drainage of irrigated land 363
9. 2
6 .3 Methods of river training 220 9.2.1 Water logging 363
6 .4 Worked out problems 233 9.2.2 Drainage 363
6.5 Objective question 249 Surface drainage system and their design 364
9.3
9.3.1 Surface drainage or op en drainage 364
C h apte r 7 9.3.2 Internal drainage of bunded field 364
9.3.3 External drainage 364
REGULATING STRUCTURE;S L 2-
9.3.4 Design of shallow surface drainage 364
7.1 Alignment of off-taking channels 251 Sub-surface drainage system/ tile drainage system and
9.4:
7.2 Function of bead regulator, cross regulator, outlet , drop a~d their design 366
escapes 252 9.4.1 Layout of subsurface drainage system 366
7.3 Design of regulator and escapes (crest, length and thickness of 9.4.2 Flow of ground water to the tile drain and spacing of
impervious floor) 253 tile drain 367
7.4 Types of outlet, design of outlet (free and_submerged) 265 Planning and d~sign of ground water irrigation schemes 371
9.5
~ 7.5 Types of falls (drops) 271 9.5.1 Exploration and developmen t of ground water 371
7.6 Worked out problems 286 9.5.2 Types of well 372
7.7 Objective question 309 Worked out problems 373
9.6
9.7 Objective question 387
Ch a pter 8

CROSS DRAINAGE STRUCTURE L1)

8.1 Types (drawing and selection) 311
8.2 Design 0£siphon aqueduct (detail drawing, drainage waterway
and barrel, canal waterway and transition, length·and thickness
of impervious floo r and thickness of impervious floor and
pro tection works) 315
8.3 Worked out problems 327
8.4 _Objective question 357
 Chapter 1: Introduction of Irrigation I

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION OF IRRIGATION

•••••
1.1 Introduction of irrigation .................................................................... ,
1.1.1 Definition of irrigation ............................................................ 1
1.1.2 Necessity of irrigation ............................................................. 2
1.1.3 Advantages (function) of irrigation ...................................... 2
1.1.4 Disadvantages of irrigation .................................................... 3
1.1.5 Scope of irrigation .................................................................... 3
1.2 History of irrigation developments in nepal.. ........ :....................... 3
1.2.1 Categories of irrigation scheme ......... ,.................................. 4
1.3 Status ~nd need of .i rrigation in nepal... .......................................... 5
1.4 Crops their. seasons and periods (cropping pattern and
intensity) ................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Command_e d area and irrigation intensity .................................... 6
1.6 Method of field irrigation and their suitability ............................ 6
1.7 Advantages a·nd disadvantages of surface and .............................. .
sub-surface irrigation method ..........:.............................................. 11
1.8 Quality of irrigation water ................................................ :.............. 11
1.9 Planning of irrigation project .......................................................... 12
1.9.1 Stages of planning .................................................................. 12

•••••

1.1 INTRODUCTION OF IRRIGATION

1.1.1 Definition of irrigation
· d et·me d as th e ar tifi.c1·a1 app1·1cat1on
· ti.on 1s
Irnga · of water the land for the
' . to ount of water at
purpose of the raising crops. A crop requires a certain am . b. 11. of
. . . f th The basic o iec ve
some fi xed mterval throughout its period o grow · . ·
tun um crop
· · · 1s
•rngahon • to supplement water· to the Ian d so as to obtain ' an op
yields.
 2 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering) Chapter 1: Introduction of Irrigation I 3

1.1.2 Necessity of irrigation 0 /\fores tati on

Inade quate rainfa ll o Flood contro l
the water requir emen t of th , o Insura nce agai ns t d rou ght
When ra~al ~ at ~e ~lace is in adeq~at_e to meet
for the arid and semi .· ~ 1.1.4 Disadvantages of Irrigation
crops, the lITlgation 1s necess ary. Tius
regi~n. When rainfall is less than 100
1s genera
cm,
lly
irrigat ion water is essen ti:'1
y
t o Water polluti on by seepa ge.
imate, resul ting m arshy
reqmred. o Irriga tion may res ult in colder and damp er cl
Irrigation requi remen t lands
Rainfall (cm) a k of diseas es like
Breedi ng of bacteria and mosq ui toes caus ing outbre
i) 100 Rainfall need to be suppl ement ed by irriga tion 0
malaria.
ii) 100-50 Rainfall is insufficient. Irrigation is essential □ Water Jogging due to over irriga tion.
and expensive in itself
iii) 50-25 Irrigation is essentially required □ Procu ring and suppl ying irrigat ion is compl ex
iv) Less than 25 No crop can be grown witho ut irriga tion 1;1.5 Scope of Irrigation
of water to the land in
Irrigation is the science of artificial application
Unev en dlstrlbutJon of rainfall the 'crop period ' for full-
is adequ ate but ·t • accordance with 'crop requir ement ' throu ghout
Irrigation is necessary when the rainfall in region crops. Not only that, it deals with all dimen sions
I IS not fl~dged nouris hmen t of the
evenly distributed over the time. farms. Broad ly the scope of
extending from the water shed to the agricu lture
Increastne the yields of crops ing catego ries:
irrigation can be divide d into the follow
sed b irri a . Engin eerin g aspec t
The yield of crops per hectare is substantially increarainfa Ji g tion as the
I)
supply of water IS proper ly contro lled. Altho ugh the
may be adequ ate □ Storage, divers ion and lifting of water .
for the ordinary · of high yieldi ng var· ti. □ Conve yance of water to agricu lture lands.
hich . crops it may not cater the needs . ie es
w reqwr e more water. In such th
case, e yield can be substa ntial! Y O Appli cation of water to agricu lture lands.
increased by rrngati .
. . on.. .
□ · Devel opme nt of water power
□ Drain age and reliev ing water loggin g.
Grow inf number of crops
e
The rainfall in a region may be sufficibent 11) Agric ultura l aspec t
but it may be inadequate wh en a num r of to growt h only one crop in a year
crop 2 to 3 are -grown m .
the same El Depth of water
lrri . is necessary if a be f
year. gation
are grown durin g same year □ pistri. bution of water
in different crops period. num r o crops
□ Capac ity of soil and flow of water
Grow fnf peren nial crops □ Reclamation of lands
· • . .
As rainfa ll is not regular rrngat
0 G . ion IS necessary f or
th .
e-perenrual crops . 1.2 HISTORY OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENTS IN NEPAl
rowm g superior crops y in Nepal. Annal s show that
The devel opme nt of irriga tion has long histor
0 For controlled water supply in Nepal as early as during the era of
irrigated agricu lture was practi ced
1.1.3 . A~antages (function) of irrigation
.
and some story indica tes he had involved himse lf in
Gautam Budd ha
. . system atic study, the history of
Every IITJgation project is designed k . resolving dispu tes amon gst irrigators. For
a capital invest ment on the proJec ' .eepmg m view of its economics. There is can be divide d into four phases as:
t and futu irrigation devel opme nt in Nepal 56
. re recurr ing charg e for ed develo pmen t i.e., before 19
mam te~e _and operation of the project. Th tage of irri~a tion can be i) Prima ry phase or period prior to plann
ts below : e advan
s um.manzed m the p oin ii) Infras tructu re devel opme nt phase (1 957- 1970)
0 Increa sing in food produ ction · iii) Intensive devel opme nt phase (1971-1985)
O Elimination of mixed cropp ing iv) Integr ated devel opme nt phase (1986-date)
0 Gener al prosp eri ty · .
I) · Prima ry phase
0 Gener ation of hydro power ucted in the Kathm andu valley during Liccha v;;id
Irrigation faciliti es constr
Dome stic water suppl y traces are still found arahe hedn
O
. Malla period such as Raj kulos of which the King Ram Sh a
F~cilities of comm unica tion (inspection· road 6 acts as a link road for n king of Gorkh a, . 1 al
0 lln ct er prima ry phase. Well know t by empow enng oc
differ ent villag es) sp . . I conln.buhon . . . . . . Chandra
ec1a m 1rngat1on management aspec
0 In land navig ation resolu tion. Durin g Rana regune ,
people in irriga tion dispu te
 4
I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering)
Shamsh h ~
B . . er . ad developed Chandra canal system in 1928 wiU1 assist
11 Chapter 1; Introduction of Irrigation I 5
ntish engineers. The main irrigation facilities during primary pl 1 " rl' 01
J~ddha canal in Sarlahi district, Jagadispur irrigation system in K " ~\' •lt\,
district, and Pardi irrigation system in Pokhara. . "P•lv"~I~ 3, Kos hi irrigation projec t

Ii) Infrastructure dnelopment phase Nepal'• .l ar~e•t project

in first, second, third plan' periods fall Sunsari Morang irrigation project
1n:igation facilities developed 0
this phase. Different irrigation system were built with U1e co-operati lllldl'r Medllln1 lrrl~atlon project
1
India and USA. Some noteable irrigation system were Tika Bhairav t\_,°' fro,))

~
0 Baba i
~ola,_ Budh~tha irrigation system_ in Kathmandu valley,' Vi •:hadl'v 0 Sikta
imgation sytem m Pokhara valley, Khagen (Chitwan), Kamala and H J Y_aPl.lr a Marchawa
rd1 1
(Dhanusha), Kodku-Godavan (Lalitpur), Pasupati (Kathmandu a ~uth a Kamala
(Rupandehi). Apart from these irrigation systems, which were d), '•nuu 0 Bagmati
under Koshi and Gandaki treaties wiili India, were also constructe~Velo~ed 0 kankai
this phase. · . dt1r1ng More than 10000 farmer management irrigation systems in Hilly regions

ill) Intensive dnelopment phase (FMIS).

During foU£th, fifth and sixth plan period multilateral donor agencies . 1.3 STATUS DD.NEED OF IRRIGATION IN NEPll
l'k
World Bank and ADB came forward . in aid · of Nepal · . . 1 e Irri ation is a very ancient science. Since ancient times farmers are using their
development. Development
. .. . f
of Kankai and Mahakali-1
,
irri ti~ u-ngation
ga on proi·e t ~ source, knowledge and techniques for construction of different types of
IIUtiation o command area development in Narayani zone irri ti c s, ~gation system in Ne~al. However, the ~o~~ction of modem irrigation
t . d 'th .
e c. were came out WI assIStance of donor-. During plan pe~S~N d on syste Ill,
· ga s stem started in Nepal m 1922 AD. all the rrngation system were developed,
.
had assISted to develop a number of small irrigation system . epaJ ~ated and maintained by farmers themselves and called farmers managed
10 000 ha Bhair covering a total f
,_ . · awa-Lumbini ground water, Marchawar lift and hill . . . 0 ~gati~n system (FMIS). From 19~ to 1957, gov ernment mad~ little effort to
proiects were also initiated in these phase. Irngation develop irrigation infrastructures m Nepal Chandra nahar, JUddha nahar,
iv) In~ated dnelopment phase Jagadispur jalasaya, Phewa badh are the few examples of projects d~elop~ in
that periods. However, irrigation infrastru~e develoi:'111~ has _given high
From the seventh plan onward i.e., since the mid eighties , iliere h as been ·p_riori!:}' since 1957, the milestone of the begmrung of penodic plan m Nepal
. di hift . . . . a
ma1or para gm s m rrngation development. CorIStructi
development has been · 1 on onented
Bagmati b . Out of the total 14.718 million hectare area of the country only 2641 million
· . . given_ ess importance leaving 8 hectare area is available and 1.766 million hectare land is irrigable. 76% of
~ - I I and very recent Sikta irrigation projects aside no oth; a _ai,
projects were taken up. Rehabilitation of small farmers canals . r m~Jor potential irrigable area lies in the terai region.
· ·ty d were given high
Pn~n un er sectoral approach. Different projects like irri ti At the end of fiscal year 2065/066 out of the total irrigated land, the area
project, second irrigation sector pro1·ect and commuru:ty ga on sector covered by different methods is as follows:
· · · • management
rrngat10n prOJects were implemented on this phase. Surface.irrigation = 6,66,873 ha
1·2· 1 Categories of Irrigation Scheme Underground irrigation = 2,80,682 ha

I i)

Z1
ii)
Extensive_development schemes (ED)
All schemes havmg primary and second

Intensive_development scheme (ID)

All schemes havmg Primary and
Service block. size 30 to 50 ha
...) .
d
.
. .
system. Service block size 300 to 500 ha. ary canal but lacking tertiary canal

. secon ary canal and tertiary canal system.

h Command area development schemes (CAD)

Farmers water course
Total irrigated area
Total area
Total cultivated area
Total irrigable land
= 2,80,041 ha
= 12,27,596 ha
= 1,47,181 kn?
= 2.6 million ha
= 66% of cultivable land= 1. 7 Million ha
Total irrigation facilities = 60% of irrigable land = 1.06 million ha
More than 80% people of country directly or indirectly depends upon
sc eme ID plus quant . agriculture for their existence irrigation facility are developed only in terai but
ernary, service block size 3 to 5 h
Laree JrriflatJon project a. small and negligible in hilly region.
1 irrigation project 14 CROPS THEIR SEASONS DD PUIODS (CROPPING PAfflRN
· Mahakali
2· Gandaki irrigation project DD 1mNs1m
1
From tl1e agricultural view, the year can be divided into two Prind P e
cropping season Rabi and Kharif crops season.
 of Engi neer·Ing)
6 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor Chapter 1: Introd uctio n of Irriga
tion I 7

Rabi crop s seas on (1st Oct to 31•• Mar

ch) . ~
I)
. perennlal Irrig atio n
mus tard, pota toes etc.; also calle d 1. and con ti nuous water supp ly is
Rabi crop s are wheat, barley, gram, \V11r1 l\ 1n pere nnial sys tem of irrigation cons tant
requ irem ent of crops throu ghou t the
crop s •
111 assured to the crop in acco rdan ce with
Sept .)
II) Kharlf crop seas on (I"' April to 30 crop -period.
co, and grou ndnu t, etc.; also calle d s
Rice, maize, jower, cotto n, tobac
un-ini l'J Flood Irrig atio n od of
2. d inun datio n irrigation. In this meth
crop s.
s the quan tity of Wat This type of irrig ation is also calle flood ed wi th wate r so as to
to three time thoro ughl y
Kha rif crops require abou t two ~~q Utr~ · irrigation soil is kept subm erge d and
by the Rabi crops. . cause satu ratio n of ]and .
Crop period is the period with in
whic h it cove rs the land spac e Th
d.· e tinie .
crop s is calle d the crop perio b) Lift Irrigation
perio d from seeding to harv estin g of lifted up by so'm e mechanical or man ual mea ns such
as by pum ps
If wate r is ation .
15 CD■IWIDm DEA AND IRRIGAT
ION INTENSln tc and then supp .
lied for irrig ation then it is called lift
irrig,
e
in to two type s.
Com man ded area can be categoriz.ed Sub -sur f~ce Irri tatio n
II) in this type of irrig ation wate r
Gross com man ded area (GCA ) It is term ed as sub- surfa ce irrig ation beca use root
I) rgro und wate r nour ishe s the plan t
irrig ation boun dary of a p . does not wet the soils urfa ce. The unde
It is the total area boun ded with in the
out cons ider ing the limi ~~:~ t, Which by capillarity. It may be classified as;
can ~ economically irrigated with ~f the
des both the culti vabl e and Natural sub-surface irrigation
quan tity of available of water. It inclu :cul tiva ble · a) processes
l area, road s, grou nds, pond s, is achi eved simp ly by natu ral
area : r exam ple resid
0 entia
ded area . · are the When unde rgro und irrig ation d natu ral sub surfa ce irrig ation.
uncu ltiva ble area of the gross com man with out any addi tiona l' extra efforts
it is calle
ded area (CCA)
CuJturable or cult ivab le com man b) Artificial sub-surface irrigation
c:::
ii) so as to
th cul · bl gros s com man ded n is artificially laid belo w the soil
Cult
.
.
urab le area IS e tiva e part of the
~d When a syste m of open joint ed drai d artifi cial sub surface
man ded Area (GCA) on whic h s by capi llari ty then it is calle
;:du d~ all the ~ds of Gross com ures and fall land . anon · s~pply wate r to crop
poss ible. It will be thus , inclu de past . ow s whic h can be irrigation. to the
mad e cultivable. the irrig ation wate r can be appl ied
There are vario us way s in whic h
follo ws;
Inte nsit y of irrff atio n fields. Thei r main classification as
to be . . d . . .
perc enta ge of CCA prop osed on is called
The Img ate m a give n seas free floo dint
irrigation inten sity of that seas. on, or seasonal inten sity f · · . . For the field, and they may be either on
. o rrng ation ht this meth od, dit,ches are exca vate d in
ples the sanc tione d inten si f . . Wat er from these ditch es, flow across
exam
for Kha rif ty o Imgd ation ~de r BIP (Bag mati irrigation the cont our or up and dow n the slop e. rol the
project) is only 27.6%
~ n an 34.4 % m Rabi seas on · ditch es no attem pt is mad e to cont
. . . . · . the fidd . Afte r the wate r leav e the
_
Annual Intensity of Irri ga ti on (AD) - Sum of Img atio n inten sitie s of flow by mea ns of levees.
and wate r is inexpensive, and
each season □ Suita ble if the land is irreg ular
In above example; abun dant ly avai lable .
orm distr ibuti on and considerable
Mos t ineff icien t resu lting non unif
All= 27.6 + 34.4 =62% □
loss of wate r.
no land prep arati on is done
FIEI D IIII UD IN AND THE IR su1 ru1 un □ This meth od invo lves less labo ur beca use
:: .MEIIIOD Of followings· in the form of leav es, field ditch es, grad ing, etc.
gation may be broa dly divid ed into
'
J) Surf ace irrlf atJo n
. . +
In surface irrigation meth ods th wllater 15 directly appl ied to the surfa ce of
the land. It is furth er classifi~_ ; ~ Mam 1
cu as10 ows; supply t
a) Flow irrigation ditch +
level an . .
When wate r is available at a high er flow . d_ it ~ supp lied to lowe r level by I~
then it is calle d
mere action of gra\Tity ungation.: It is furth er sub divid ed
as follows; Figure: Fre~ flooding
8 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering! Chapter 1: Introduction of Irrigation I 9

Border Ooodlnf ---- . "al of cneck fl ooding and is adopted s ~ y for

. ...,ethod 1s a spec• . type Jly placed in the basin and surface IS flooded
Th 1s ,, · ees One tree 15 genera
orchard tr · •table for root of trees.

l
b ditch water sw
Y 1,.atton method .
crlf arr• er"""
fu rr
t
od involves a pplying water o -,-- Furrow or 6el.d ditch
This meth ( series of long narrow t - ,-:_ t
--,..
the turro~s i:tween the rows of the t- t~ ~ 1- ~ 1f"
figure: Bo.arder flooding channels~:Ogated. Due to percolation t~f t~ ~ t ~ ~ t
In this method land is divided into a number of strips with the help of lo\v plant to aches to the root of ~lants. ~ t ~ f t ~ -,, t ~ 1'" t
levees called borders. The length and slope of border strip_are dependent 011 water re ater is not applied to - -
soil type, as the velocities should not be as large as !o ~aus~ erosion and thiS method, w f land and hence .=:=-~---=-- - - - -- - -
tire surface area o 1 It is an Figure: Fmrow metbDd
should not be small as to result in very uneven depth of infiltration from head en Poration losses are ess. like groundnut, tobacco, cotton potatoes,
to tail of the strip. eva .
cellent me
· thod for row crop
· to
G)th
Water turned in to upper end of·each strips flows slowly towards the lower ex this method, less evaporation takes place smce -
end. cauliflowers, etc. In
□
□
Relatively efficient, rapid and easy.
Suitable for some close growing crops and row crops. ·
@)°' land surface is wetted by water.
□ Suitable for wheat, leafy vegetables, barseem and other foddersJ etc. 5 - _.,. don method . d
5-'olr.fel' 1.-.•~8 . dr - case of rm"1-ntity of water IS low an
.,.. . . the form of ram op m '1~- od bu
Check ffoocllnt Ap.plying water m . rinkl . . ti.on method. It is costly meth t
. ·- high known as sp er unga
Gieck flooding is similar to free flooding pr~sure_1:;"erent topography and slope efficiently.
except that the water is controlled by jrngates_,Wll . · .
surrounding the area with low and. flat
levees. Levees are generally constructed
.
C pump connector
along the contours of vertical interval 5-10
er (metal nozzle) or· sprinkler (plastic nozzle)
cm. F.ach compartment is essentially level
This result in more even spread of water Riser pipe
and avoid wastage. However, some loss of
l~~~~-5_..:=F---;~~~t--r-:J -QRCbend
cultivated area occurs. It requires constant
attendance and work during irrigation.
••
••
-
□ Suitable for both permeable and impermeable soil.
□ Water can hold for a certain time and allowed to percolate. e
□ Suitable for large discharge and level plots.
Basin Ooodlnf

,¥-~=--=.;g'."""" QRC service

•• saddle

--- Figure: Sprinkler irrigation

Advanta~ of sprinkler lrrlfatlon method . . .

. th th channel of surface llTlgation
□ Seepage losses which occur m e ear en
are c;ompletely eliminated.
□ Land leveling is not required. _ .
□ No·cultivation area is lost for making ditches.
(

r of Engin .
10 l Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bac.helo eenng)
Cha pter 1: Intro duct ion of Irrig
ation I 11

~
□ Fertilize r can be uniformly appl ied.
. ·
ty. ~et ~od . .
□ · This method prevents wate r loggeveding and sa lini Advantatie• of drip lrrltiatlon 0
¼).
. It has very high wate r appl ication efficiency (mo re than 90
□ Up to 80% efficiency can be achi the land surf ace are q uite low .
tatlon met hod ~ The evap orat ion loss es from
Dlsadvantaee,s of spri nkle r lrrl1 entirely elim inated.
The deep percolation losses are
0 sma ll trees and wid ely spaced plan ts.
□ High cost. It is quite suita ble for
□ Effect of pressure. □ ' n met hod
Dlsadvantatte• of drip lrrltiatlo .
□ Effect of wind . met hod . .
It is expe nsiv e of clog ging of small p1pe and
□ Leaf scorch due to sal t. 0 There are mai nten ance prob lem beca use
ging of nozzle. particles.
□ Oog □ open ing of emi tter by clay and silt
crop such as whe at
□ Energy or pressure is required . It is not suit able for clos ely spac ed
e
· □ is wetted, root grow th is sometim
□ Frequent supervision required. Because only a part of soil
of spri nkle r lrrl1tatlo n met hod □
limi tati ons irlhibited.
r patt ern ca . OF SURFACE IND SUB-
□ High wind . may disto rt spri nkle .
crop s. usm g non Uniform ADIINTIGES IND DISADVANTAGES
spre adin g of ~ate r on the 1.1
high win d Ioc1ty . SURFACE IRRIGATION ■moo n Sub -sur face inie atio
□ In the areas Iof high tem pera ture and cons I·d erabJ e
. . place. ve , Surf ace irrig atio n
evaporation osses of wate r may take Advanta ges
□ not suited to crops requ mn g fr equ ent and Jarger d epths of i) Adv anta ges of wat er
They are initial cost □ No wastage
· • . such as pad dy.
m:1 ~tio n
. . □ Less Con trol over wat er
hi h high ly skilled man □
□ Initial cost of syst em is v
ery g , and syst em requ ires high ecu ,Jcar
t I . □ Not
skill. pow er is requ ired
ge of eros ion of
□ . dev elop ed □ Less chan
It requires larger electrical power. □ Not
high ly
soil
£ . gy is requ ired
□ A constant water supp ly is need ed tech nolo
not : :mmgatedrc1alffiu~e of equi pme
nt. Cha nces of dest ruction is
□
□ Heavy soil with poor inta ke can e e ~ u y· □ Easy to
supe rvis e
less
Dri P lrrl1tat1on met hod
Disa dva ntag es
directl . ii) Disa dva ntag es
Wa ~ ~pplied in the form of drop y near the base of the plan t kn own
.
IS
rol ove r wat er □ Initi al cost is mor e
as drip urig atio n meth od This "tab] □ No cont
• met hod · ed man pow er is
· •
nolS sw e whe re scarcity of wate r. It is of wat er □ Hig hly skill
~o known as trickle irrigation. Ori e on the □ Was tage
cp zzles are the sma ll orifice mad
pipe network buried und er the s ur,a ce prov idin g w t to th e root zone of the
requ ired
a er Hig hly .developed
P lants and crops. □ Cha nces of wat er logg ing □
technology is requ ired
to su pervise
suff er from □ It is difficult
□ Cro ps may
excess wat er
□ Level trac
t of land is
requ ired
□ Cha nce of
eros ion of soil

1.8 QUIUTY OF IRRIGITION Wl nB , every

for hum an beings, in the sam e way
Just as ever y wat er is not suita ble cont ainin g imp uriti es whic h are
The water
water •is not suita ble for plan t life. for irrig ation and is called the
satis facto ry
fndsc.,.
injurious to plan t grow th is not
unsatisfactory wate r.
constituent
wate r is very much influenced by
The quality of suita ble irrig atio n r may be harm ful for irrigation
icul ar wate
of soil which is to be irrig ated . Part or even usef ul fo r
Figure: Drip inig.,lion r may be tolerable
on part icul ar soil, but sam e wate
 Chapter 1: Introduction of Irrigation I 13
12 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering)
WORKED OUT PROBLEMS
irrigation on some other soil. l11e various imp urities, which make
the w 1_10
1
" er PROBLEM 1
unfit for irrigation are as Follows:
i)
ii)
Sedimen t concentration in water
Total concentr ation of soluble salts in water
...
J tify
the need of irrigatio n develop ment in Nepal. Define croppin
. .
intelUlity and irrigatio n mtena1t y.
.
g

iii) Proporti on of sodium ions to other cations

Solution:
iv) Concent ration of potentially toxic elements present in water N al is an agricult ural country . About 65 % of the total populati
ons are
v) Bacterial contami nation ed in agn·cult ural for survival . On the other hand, there is no scarcity of
ep
Bicarbonate concentration as related to concent ration of calcium eng~g s.
vi) Pills water in Nepal because of the presence of bulky natural water resource
magnesi um Nepal, ·
Based upon above two facts, and also the followin g scenario of present
U Plllll ll IF IIBIUTIOI PROJECT irrigation is very much needed:
a Main objective of planning is to match water avctilability with de I) uneven distribu tion of rainfall
llland
as closely as possible. Rainfall distribu tion in Nepal is i:iot uniform all over the country . There
may
□ P ~ g is ~~ay~ before the implementation or operatio n of work. . be -surplus water at a region ru:1d deficit at_ the other. So, to
manage this
□ Plannin g of llTigation requires study of; problem, irrigatio n develop ment 1s necessar y m Nepal.
► Estimati ng water availability.
► Crop planting technique. II) · lncreas lnt the yield of crops
of crops.
► Estimating irrigation demand for the planned crops Fertility characte ristics of land alone are not sufficien t fon better yield
· no irrigatio n facility but fertile soil is
► Matchin g supply and demand. There are such zones in Nepal where
effort of irrigatio n
1.9.1 Stages of planning • pre~nt. So; to increase the yield of crops through combine
ed irrigatio n system is necessar y.
water and fertile soil, well develop
Planning is a stepwise process and it has the following stages.
· Iii) To trow numbe r of crops
I) Primary plannt q
(summe r,
Seasonal .v ~ation within a year is better in Nepal i.e., four seasons
□ Reconnaissance and p~efeasibility water w e can
□ Location of head works winter, spring and autumn ). With well manipu lated irrigatio n,
□ Availability of water grow and earn more number of crops within a year.
II) FeaafbiJJty study Iv) Inadequ ate rainfal l
rainfall. At
□ Economic analysis There might be scarcity of water at Terai belt due to inad equate
might be surplus water availabl e a t hilly region to
a Sustainability study the same instant there
and fulfill the
a Benefit cost ratio (BCR) > 1 irrig~te the land of terai. So, to overcom e the inadeqt1ate rainfall
y.
.~ / a lntemaJ rate of return {IRR) • water requirem ent of crops, well·gra ppled irrigatio n system is necessar
""" fll) f > 1 (Interest of bank)
lnaJ deaff,D v) Sound econom ic trowth
a f·
Final des· ·· · n system,
ign o migation structures and anais With aJJ-the above problem s solved through well addressed irrigatio
Factors to be considered d · lannin c · also be account ably increase d along with the
{ a)
b)
Type of the project p ::::s g stages are as follows·
Location, extend and gener~ ~Ian to irrigatio n '
· the ·economic w
gro. th can
increase in crop product ion.

Crop water require me~ of ungation land Moreove r, other reasons for irrigatio n d evelopment are:
c)
I d) Culturab le area
i) Growth of agro-ba ~ed industry
Cost of work ii) Utilization of natural water resource s
e)
!ii) Increase the employ ment
f) Needs of immedia te and futur d .
g) Evaluati on of benefits e ramage iv) To conserve the cultivab le land
Method of financin g v) To develop tl1e scientific agricult ural concept
~)
1) ·T . · Croppln t lntenslt y
ype and location of enoin=
o- ---nng works
j) Ann area.
uaJ cost of water to farmer It is defined as the ratio between net sown area and gross cropped
Mathema tically,
 15
l4 I Complete monuol of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering) Chapter 1: Introduction of Irrigation I

. . .· _ Gross crop cd nren x 100 ii) There are maintenance probl em beca use of clogging of small pipe and
Croppmg mt·cns1ty - ct sown area
opening of emitter by cl ay and silt particles.
th.,
The cropping intensity therefore, refers to raising a number of crops frolll ' iii) Root growth is sometime inhibi ted beca use certain parts of soil are
snmc field during one agricultural year. wetted.
Irrigatio n Intensity PROBLEM 3
The pcrccntage of CCA proposed to be irrigated annuall~ is called irrigation Discuss the status of irrigatio n in Nepal. [2072 Ashwin]
intensity. By knowing the irrigation intensity for a crop season the area to be
irrigated during that crop season can be detemune d. Solution: See the definition part 1.3

PROBLEM 2 PROBLEM 4
. Define irrigation . Write the history of irrigatio n developm ent in Nepal.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sprinkler and drip irrigation [2014 Semester fall: Po.U.]
(2071 Magh)

Solution: Solution:
of drop in case of quantity of water is low and Irrigatio n
Applying water in the form
is high known as sprinkler irrigation method. It is costly method but See the definition part 1.1.1
pressure
History of Irrigatio n developm ent In Nepal
irrigates different topographies and slope efficiently.
See the ·definition part 1.1.2
Advanta ges of sprlnlde r Irrigation
i) Control over water PROBLEM 5
ii) Saving of water
[Write short notes on: FMIS in Nepal
iii) Saving of labour
iv) Efficient use of land Solution:
v) Protection of soil and crop from the extreme weather condition s The abbreviation FMIS stands for farmer's Managed Irrigation System. FMIS
vi) Efficient use of land have prevailed in Nepal for many centuries . The FMIS systems are operated
vii) Frost and climatic control and maintained solely by the commun ity farmers or an individua l family. TI1e
of
viii) Prevent water logging and salinity infrastructure in FMIS Nepal were mostly built from the local materials
mud, stone and forest product with rudimentary traditiona l methods,
Dlladvanta11ea of sprlnlzler Irrigatio n
practiced over rnahy centuries . Mostly, these FMIS are location specific,
i) High cost
indigenous . in their managem ent practices and represent ative of the local
ii) Effect of pressure
organizational needs and services deliver. FMIS symbolizes grass root
iii) Leaf scotch due to salt
demo_cratic institutio n where commun ity takes responsibility of na tural
iv) Clogging of nozzle

I v) Energy or pressure is required

vi) frequent supervision required
Drip lrrl11at1on
resource managem ent and allocation. In this country, farmers are collective
engaged in irrigated agricultu ral development as an enterprise since time
immemorial. There are thousand s of FMIS in the country. Some notable
g of Palpa District
ly

and
.
examples of FMIS are Raj kulo of argali, and Chherlun
W~ter ~pplied in the form of drops direct! near the base. of plant 1s .
known as the Gyandhi irrigation system fo Palpa district. The FMIS provide irrigation
dnp 1rnga tion method Th . , , 1 . .Y
. is met 10d is suitable where water is insufficient. ~e~vices to 70% of country's total irrigation services to 70% of country's total
Advanta fea of drip Irritatio n irrigated area of little over of 1.2 million hectare. Hence, FMIS have gained on
their own status that symbolic of the national heritage in Nepal, special
!! _11 has very high water applica tionland efficiency (more than 90o/c
surfac .' °) . feature of FMIS are as follows;
u) J he evaporation losses from the e are quite 1ow
.. .) Tl . Hlllh mountai n
u1 ie deep
.
percolation losses are entirely el1'1n1· na t·ecI
• ) .
iv 1I 1s s u1lable for small trees and widelYspacec:I plants. · · The in take diversion is of rock fill with mud mortar walls and canals have
Disadvan tages of drip Irrigatio n slnte lining with mud mortar base. A water reservoir is built .i n the vicinity of
(iillnge, the main problems in the canal are leakages due to highly porous
i) II is nn expl'nsiv e method . strn ta and only 10% of flow is received at the command area.
 eerin g) 17
\6 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engin Chapter 1: Introduction of Irriga tion
I

MID hills PROBLEM 7

le brus hwo od dive rsion anct open 20% , dens ity
Tiw FM lS in the mjct-hms consists of simp rol leak age in The field capa city of soil is 40%
, perm anen t wilti ng poin t is
shru bs are used to cont can~, crop is 10 mm/ day.
L'nrtlwn cnnnl. Usunlly mud and dept h is 90 cm, ET
of soil is 1.2 gm/c c, effec tive root avai lable mois ture
s~-sh.·m. (IR) if the read ily
Calc ulate the irrig ation inter val , RAM and
ture capa city and show AMC
Tcral (RAM) it 75% of avai lable soil mois ]
are usua lly built with an earth en
b grap h of avai lable mois ture and time . [207 5 Bais hakh
ln the ter,li the diver sion struc tures Irrig ation inter val of
syste llnd
with shrub s, logs and stone s wher
Dang Deukhuri and Siyar i irrig
e
ation
avail
syste
able.
m of
Prag
Rupa
anna irrig ation 1
ndeh i Dist ricts are 0111of
e
t Solution: '
Give n that;
e>.nmple:- of FMlS in Terru regio n. Field capa city (F.C .) = 40%
are: 20 %
Probl em.~ in FMlS raise d by farm er's Pe~ ent wilti ng poin t (PW P) =
ln the hills and mou ntain s gm/ cc
1. Dens ity of soil (yd) = 1.2
e ~truc ture from flash f 00
i) Water acqu isitio n and prote cting intak d Effective root dept h (d) = 90 cm=
0.9 m
and river bed load.
r and main syste m ETcrop = 10 mm /day
ii) ~p~ ge prob lems in the feede
r cana l
iii) Siltation prob lems in the feede f½M =70 %of AVM
iv) Land slide bank failure Irrig ation inter val (IR) = ?
v) Rive r encro achm ent
Now,
vi) Wate r distr ibuti on - PWP
Available mois ture capa city = F.C.
vii ) Larg e river cross ing = 40- 20 = 20 %
2. In the lowl and terai x 20% = 14 %
Read ily avail able moi sture = 0.7
i) Abst racti on from river _ 1.2 X 0.9 x O.14
LO
~! Cana l bank over tapp ing
•
Dept h of wate r for cons ump tive use
-
w) Silta tion = 0.151 2 m
iv) Seep age = 151.2 mm
v! Cana l side slope insta bility
151.2 15.12 d ays
vi) Inun datio n from natu ral comm and area and drain age from · hon
Irnga ·
· mter v al = °I( )=
com man d area .
vii ) Wa ter d istrib ution AVM = 151.2 + 64.8 = 216 mm

PROBLEM 6
t 1-- .--- ---- -.-- --- . -- -
Why is irrig ation deve lopm ent
ping inten ,ity.
.
lDlportaot for Nepal? Defi ne crop
ping
. ',, i AJM R.Me =14% =151.2 nun
. .......... .
. . . t ... . . . .. . . .. .. . . . .6%... . . .64.S
patt ern and crop
[207 4 Bhad ra]
Solu tion: ~
·
Impo rtan ce of frrfa,.a ti on deve lopm ent I N
.2 [ . - Wilti ng poin t
= mm
n epal ~ ~ ~ ---:J.-.----'-----
See the solut ion of Q . no. l ·o 3:!
Cropplnt pattern
::E J: Hyg rosco pic w a ter 20% =216 mm

Crop ping patte rn is defin es as 1·Iie prod uclio n of .

poin1 of t' 1 • ar en unde r vnrio us crops al ,I
dyna mic JJ!lfi}Jn L'lfld b ccnu Time -+
for · JJ 1· 1me. I IS very
i· I .
.
se lher,e 1·,s no 1dcnl palh• rn
a 1mes 1oa pa r ICU or regio n
R 0. .
a I (wrn lcr) crops and khar ·f ,'
1 cxnm ple 111 PROBLEM 8
(sum mer) crop s nrc lhc porli culn r tbe
crop ping pa llern . adva ntag es of irrig ation ? Describe
Defin e irrig ation . Wha t are the (207 6 Baishakh]
Crop plnf hUen alfy •cop e of irrig ation in Nepa l.
See the solut ion of Q . no. 1 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3 and 1.1.5
Solu tion: See the defin ition part
 18 I Complete manual of lnigotion Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering) OIOplW 1: Introduction of Irrigation I
19

PROBLEM 9
Being - agriadtare coantry Nepal, why it not developed u ezitt!ctecJ. 'II ' PROBLEM 10 _ -1,---sarbce irrigation and \
different IIIHtho«b of sadace and 2JY77 Chaitra]
this Rdol'? Gm oar own reasons. . [2076 B~~l ~ •,:be irrigationwifhdlek.-it:. a1,ility. t
lain~ £arrow .
Solution:
.., ~- . 5 ., the definitfon part 1.6
Though Nepal is an agricultural Country, agricultural sector is not develo~(\ Sol~ti0O: .
~expected. . ROBLEM 1 l Describe ahoat
p. • of. . ation cleYelapmen1: in Nepal- .
Following are the reasons for our agricultural backwardness: . )aiJl the unportanc.e ung . . . . . and thm' saitabilitJ.
EsP r207s Baiebakh]
i) Lack of proper irrigation _system themethod of surface and ira1,-surface irrigatiOD
, L

► Farmers have to depend highly on monsoon rain which is not

· . • . Se~ the definition port 1.1. ·i.t."t.3' and 1-6
reliable Solution: ·
► Hardly about- 20% of_ total land under cultivation has gOod
irrigation system
► In winter much of farm land remain unused due to lack of
irrigation facilities
► In monsoon 4trufsli_ d e and floods damage the crop.
ii) Traditional farming
► Due to traditional ·f arming work is very difficult and productivity
is very low.
► Agricultural tools are not advanced .
iii) Lack of transport and market.
► Due to lack of market, transportation or storage facilities agro
based product rot in the place where they are grown.
► Difficult to provide facilities related . to agriculture (tools, plats,
equipment, etc.). Due to lack of transportation ·
iv) Unscientific distribution of land
► Those who are actual farmers don't own land at all while those
who don't even tread hold large area of land and leave barren.
► Over fragmentation of agricultural land into sinall parcels
resulting low productivity
v) Poor economic condition of farmers
► Most of Nepalese farmer are subsistence farmers compelled to take

v loan even to run their family, though it's not easy to get loan from
bank for actuaJ farmer without good mortgage, interest rate is high.
In such condition most of farmer cannot afford new technology
and machinery.
vi) Unavailability of fertilizer on time of demand
vii) Poor agricultural insurance mechanism
viii) Climate change-as new emerging problem
ix) Lack of research activities
Not enough research~ and experiments to find the best crops and the best
climate and best soil type.
 ineerin )
20 Eng inee ring (Bac helo r of Eng
/ Complete man ual of Irrig ation I 21

~
Requ i reme nt
Chapter 2 : Irrig atio n W oter

1.TI OBJECTIVE QUESTION

1. The object ~f irrig ation is ... ....

a) raise crop
lable to
.....

culti v
_
b)
ator s
prov ide wate r to field
with resp ect to locatioQ, time
~~1
CH A PT ER 2
mak e wate r avai EN T
TI ON WA TE R RE QU IR EM
c) irem ent
quan tity as per crop requ GA
e
IR RI
d) non e of the abov
... .. .... ...
ired in area s with ann ual rain fall
2. Irrig ation wate r is essentially requ 50.:.. 25 cm d) < 25 crn
b) 50-1 00 cm c)
a) 100 cm .
3. Irrig ation ... . .. . . ... .
a) is eco- frien dly with prop er dam
dly even with out adeq
age in
uate
com
dam age
man ded area
•••••
b) is eco- frien
c) has no rela tion with drai nage ··········· ························ ·····- ·······-···::::::::::::~~
non e of the abov e 2 G~neral •······························ cro p •·····················-· ······ · ·
d) D t and del ta of ... 23
4. crop s (in all) high yield ing vari eties of crop havt
·1
u Y. d t del ta and crop per iod ....... ...... ...... 24
Com pare to conv enti onal 2.1 .1 betw een u y,
wat er requ irem ent . ... ... . . ...
· 2.1. 2 Relation ·········... ....
c) high er 1. 3 Factors affe ctin g
duty............ ..................
sam e 2
y .................. ...... ........................ . 25
a) loss er b) d) no rela tion
5.
Irrig atio n deve lopm ent .... .......
. · . Me tho ds of improving dut ..:........... ....... ..... 25
ble for wate r logg ing rath er lack of drai nage
resuJ ts
·
2.1. 4. .· · ent ( Pen man metho d) ...... . ........... 25
resp onsi 1rem
a) i tsel f is not Crop wat er requ ·····- ······ ············ ···· ········27
in dev elop men t of wate r logging man equ atio n ................. ··· •·····
logg ing 2.2. 1 Pen 27
itsel f is resp onsi ble for.w ater 2.2
.................................... ....... ....
·. I ·gation wat er r~quirement....
b)
ing
has no rela tion for wate r logg ) ............ .......... 27
c)
gati on req uire men t (CIR
d) non e of the abov e 2.3 ;;•.1 Con sum ptiv e irri
ded ::::::::::
6. er irrig atio n circle has · com man uire men t (NI R) ···:·············· ········:::: .
Typical atio n and mai nten ance und
oper... 232
_ : . · Ne t irri gati on req uire men t (FIR)........... ...... ...... ... 27
27
area of .. ...... . req
Field i~rigati on

7.
a)
c)
100 000 -200 000
100 000 -400 000
b)
d)
100 000 -300
100 000 -500 000
000

er capi ta is cons ider ed as 2.4

~:!:! Gro ss irri gati on req uire men t
e rain fall
(GIR) ............
(Re) ............ .......................,. .._..
............ ............
.
28
28
100 0 cubi c met re-p Effe ctiv
The wate r avai labil ity of less
than
eva por atio n ........................ .... 28
Wa ter losses due to see pag e and
2.5 .
a) opti mum b) abu nda nt c) criti cal d) non e es ...... ............ ......................................
abov e 2.S.1 Eva por atio n loss
of the
. 28
29
easi ng the 2.5.2 See pag e losses .............................. ......
..........
8.
effic ienc y of 45% if incr ease d to 60% mea ns incr .................. ...... ...... .......... 29
Pres ent wate r use rela tion ship ......
irrig ated area with out deve lopi
ng new wat er sour ces .. ..... .... . 2;6 S~il ·mo istu re irri gat ion .. · 29
100 % d) 150 %
) .......................................... ......
2.6.- 1 Field cap acit y (FC
b) 75% c)
a) 50%
(P(W pt)···························.............
9. em and .fod der is 29
atio n suitable for whe at, bars
The surf ace met hod of irrig 2.6.2 Per ma nen t wil ting poi nt ............ ...... ...... ...... .. 30
re RE ......
a) basin met hod b) furr ow met hod 2.6.3 Readily ava ilab le mo istu ...... ...... . 30
gat ion .............................. ......
c) bord er strip met hod d) non e of the above 2.7 Dep th and freq uen cy of irri
for irrit atio n mea ns ..... .. .. .. . _··············:·.. ··············· .. ·:···············
10. Conjunctive use of water
full wate r. 2.8 Irri gation effi cien cies .................. ...
a) bine d with
use of wat er com
b) use of rain wat er and cana l wate
r.
wate r
** ** *
c) use of grou nd wat er and cana l
d) none of the abo ve
Answer sheet
2 . I 3 4 5 6 7 8 -9 10 J
C I a C a a- C C C C J
 22 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering) Chapter 2 : Irrigation Water Requirement I 23

2.1 COEIII. Vegetol,les 45 cm (18")

\Vat.e r reqalranent of crop W hea t 40 cm (1 6")
Every crop requires a certain quantity of water after a certain fixed interv ~Barley 30 cm (12")
throughout its period of'growth. If the natural rain is sufficient and timely, ri~ 25 cm (10")
• · Maize
irrigation water is required for growth of crop.
Fodder 22.5 cm (9")
Water requirement of a crop is defined as the total quantity and the way . 15 cm (6")
which a crop requires water, from the time 'i t is shown to the time it Iii Peas
harvested. The water requirement will vary with the crop as well as with t~s Table 2.1: Average delta for certain crops
place. Depending upon _the variations in climates, types of soil, method 0
;
Duty (D)
cultivation and useful rainfalls, .,~ t crop will have different water
Duty of water is the i:elation between the area irrigated or to be irrigated and
~ e n t and some crop may_have different water requirements at
the quantity of water used or required to irrigate it for purpose of maturing its
different places of ~e same collJ111¥: Numerically, water requirement can be
crop. It can be defined as the number of hectares of land irrigated for full
defined as sum of three entities viz. consumptive use (A), application and
conveyance losses (B) and other special needs (C) i.e., · growth_of a given crop by supplying of 1 cubic meter of ~ater per second
flowing continuously for the . base period (B) of the crop. Its unit is
WR=A+B+C
' hectares/ cumecs. · ·
Crop period . . ·

!he time ~~ that elapses from the ins~t of its showing to th~
instant of Gross duty

=
It is the duty of water measured at the source of diversion of irrigation
Its harvesting _is call~ the crop period. The time between ·the first watering of
a crop at_the tnne of Its showing to its last watering before harvesting is called supplies.
~od or!: of the crop .•~"'f ~ad is slightly less tharr crop period, Nominal duty
~ purposes tney are W<en as one and the same thing and It is the duty sanctioned as per scheduled of an irrigation department
expressed m days. The term growth peno .
· d , crop · penod, bru;e .
· penod are
on . Economic water duty
~ YJ1:15C>deach rep_resen~g crop period and represented by B (in days) . The It is the duty of water which results in the maximum yield;
pen -of Kharif crop 15 l83 days and 182 days for Rabi crops.
i) , per unit area when land is limiting factor and
2. 1 -1 Duty and Delta of aop
ii) · per unit of irrigation water when water is the limiting factor.
Ddta (A)
Desltined duty
Delta can be defined as the total de th Of .
maturity. It can be defined th P wat~r reqwred by a crop to come to It is the duty of water assumed in an irrigation project for designing capacities
certain area to obtain maxim~ e _total_quantity of water supplied to irrigate of the channels.

each:::~know;;:
[ii yield i.e., the ratio of volume of water to the
area of land irri ted b . . The average values of certain crops are tabulated in table 22.
I on the amount:
the base period.
d_elta. Its lll'ljt is 'm' or 'cm'. It depends
g an . e interval between successive watering
Crop Duty in hectares(cu.mec
Sugarcane 730
.
Delta 15 .
stated with the reference to th Rice 775
delta. at fami, delta at outlet delta at ~~ce at which it is measured, that is
main canal. Below table indites th tributary head, delta at the head of
ca ,. •
e average v al ue o f delta for certain
Other Kharif 1500
·
1D1p0rtantcrop. Ra bi 1800
Perennials 1100
Cmp . Delta (4) on field..,...
- Hot fodder 2000
Sugarcane
120cm (48") Table 2 .2: Average approximate value of duty for certain crops
Rice
120 cm (48")
-
2 ,1.2 ·Relation between duty, delta and crop period
_!obacco
75 cm (30")
-
Garden fruits Let a. crop of base period 'B' days and suppose that one cusecs of water be
60cm (24") applied on this crop in the field for 'B' days.
_Cotton
socm (22") Now, the volume of water applied to this crop during B days is;
 /or of En . 25
ation Engineering (Bo che Requirement I
24 / Complete manual of Irrig ,, , . QineerjngJ Chapter 2: Irrigation Wa ter
~
V=QT ati on of can al
vii) Co ndi tio n. typ e an d loc ed the dut y is mo re
= 1 m3s-1 x B day s al is in goo d con diti on and pro per ly ma int ain
. me
I ma mta . d.
60 sec:
= 1 m s-l X Bx 24 x 60 x If can ed to tha t in dif fer ent con dit ion and poo r y
3

V = 86400m 3 compar
ing du ty
. • . 1 _ Methods of improv
By defini · f ter sup pli ed for B d 2_ 4 of imp rov ing dut y are as
follows:
h tion o du ~ (D) one cul::>ic me
es D hectarays matures u
~ The ~arious me tho ds .
ntit y of wa ter (V) ma tur· ~la ugh ed and tille~. .
10 ~D2 off land. This qua e so, land
i) Lan d sho uld ~ proper~y m ~ ~g her dut y.
m o ar-ea.
0/
ing of wate~ ~pp lica tion
ii) Co rre ct qu anf ir and tim wa ter app lica tio n me tho d.
on this lan d ~ = Dri p irri gat ion IS mo st mo
der n and effi cie nt
Total dep th of wa ter applied · -los ses in the can al
Are a be line d to cut dow n tran sm issi on
Canals sho uld res ults in red uce d
iii) in line d sec tion also
=~ -8
4
.6 4Bm
-- =- sys tem. Hig her .velocity
B led del ta (,1) 10 D D eva por atio n losses. a so tha t idle len gth of
y definition total dep th of wa ter cal res t to the com ma nd are
. The canal sho uld be nea on los ses.
~ A -& ~m iv) hen ce red uce d tran sm issi
---u- the canal'i$ min imu m and
uld be use d for irri gat ion
.
v) Go od qu ¥-t J of wa ter sho
or, A= ~c m . be pra ctic ed.
D vi) Rotation of _c rop s sho uld so tha t efficient and
· h
w ere, B is in da y, D m
h ectares/cubic me ter etri c ass ess me nt of wa ter is enf orc ed
vii) Volum by cul tiva tor s.
. al .water is ma de
2.1.3 Factors affecting dut y economical use of the can
.
The Various factors affe ctin g dut y of wa ter are as fol low s· NMAN MOHODJ
J) T · 2.2 CROP WAnR REQUIREMENT (PE
Y.Pe of cro p ·
Co nsu mp tiv e use (Cu) and
Different cro ps reqUir . I) is 'los t by eva por atio n
e di.f fere nt am ies for th ter app lied for irri gat ion
di.f f cro o~ t of wa ter and dut Considerable ·pa rt of wa sep ara te are ta.ken as one
~en t. Du ty of wa ter for a s and vic ee: rare ces ses bei ng diff icu lt to
ric e~ ; : ~ g~o re wa ter
is les transpiration. The two pro use . Co nsu mp tiv e use for a
ObVIousl y dut y of wa ter for sa. ira tio n or con sum pti ve
nfa ll
t for wh eat . and called eva po- tra nsp l wa ter use d by pla nts in tran spi
rati on
lbe fuf rai def ine d as tota
IJ) . particular cro p ma y be fro m adj ace nt soi l in any
I1 the rain falling dir
t1 . etc.) and eva por atio n
ec_ y ove r the irri gat ed lan d is
of the (building pla nt tiss ues wit h tem per atu re, hW ll.idity,
cro p, the n Jess . .
req . d use ful tur e th for the gro wth pti ve use (Cu) var ies
IIng~tion water will be specified time. The con sum le mo istu re, me tho d of
useful rainfall Iess th I.Ur e to ma e cro p. Mo re top ogr aph y, sun ligh t hou rs, ava ilab
will be i
. e req uire me nt of irri gat on wa ter and hen ce mo re wind velocity, soil pa tter n, sea son s,
will be the dut y of irri gation water. th of wa ter app lied for irri gat ion , cro ppi ng
·irrigation, dep
re.
lfl) Type of sou . mean mo nth ly tem per atu
EVI'dent ly por ous il er a er0 P has less dut y due sum pti ve use
D so und . Factors aff ect ing con s upo n all tho se fac tors
on
uty of wa ter is mo re . ligh t ( todhigh ~bs orp tion loss. po- tra nsp ira tio n dep end
m heavy (clay) soil than san y) sod . Consumptive use or eva h as tem per atu re, sun ligh t,
Iv) C ltJ tran spi rati on dep end ; suc
P u vatJon methOd which eva por atio n and
. . win d mo vem ent , etc.
rop erly plo ugh ed and . . humidity and
tille d fiel d before irrigation re lra tlo n (PET)
~at er in its sat ura ted
ng the nu tam s hig her am oun t of Po ten tia l eva po- tra nsp
e -~e n by red uci
Increasing the duty. Mo :°nefficient the cul tiv ti . mb er of wa ter ing and
11) tely me et the nee ds; the
re is ava ilab le to com ple
M e
a . on me tho d, hig her is
the dut y. When ~he sufficient mo istu ng eva po- tra nsp ira tio n is cal led
v)
applJcau g an are a, the res ulti
Th eth Od of wa ter vegetation fully cov erin ica l factors rath er tha
n
e more effi .
on . end s on the clim ato log
Flood· . . c1enntsys the mo de of Ii
cation of w t . PET. PET critically dep
soil. ·
mg ung atio te h
m as
app
less er dut y tha n fur r a ~r, hig her is the dut y. characteristics of pla nt and
vJ) · To ow irri gat ion . tlo n
P<>iraphy of lan d . Actual eva po- tra nsp lra tio n
Ill)
act ual eva po- tra nsp ira
A 1~veJ field means . . in the field is called
ter . .
:orm app lka tion of wa , but if It is not lev el low The real PET occ urr ing teri stic s of soil and pla nt.
portions receive ni.oreu;;: affected by the cha rac
tha n hi h (AEJ).The AET is larg ely
Wasteful USe of
economical USe ;;;.ater and
. pth of wa ter
hen ce less dut y. p; ope
er llevel por tion s wh ich ~p
r y lev ele d fiel d me ans mo re
lies
2-2.1 Penman equ atio n
ps.
Water and hig h d u ty . l PET for his reference cro
Penman gives theoretica
 26
I Complele manual of l,rig<mon Engineering (Bo,helo, of Eng;n~•riogJ
l:' _ AHn+E ay . oti·on Water Requirement
Chapter 2 : Img I _27
wi- A+y
h
were, E1= Daily po tential evapo-t ranspira tion.
IRRIGA TION WATER REQUIRDIU--: 1 all types of water
A= Slope of the saturati on vapor pressur e It is defined as th e sum of crop
2.3 water requuem ent p us
curve at the mean air tempera ture. . water requirem ent (IWR) = CWR + Losses
versus teill.pe1q~., losses. .Irrigatio n_ . .
H = Net incomin g solar radiatio n or energy express ed in rn~
. crop water
15 reqwrem ent.
evapora ble water per clay. - ... ,, 01
n ent is further studied as;
. .CWR
where, .
gation water reqwrem
E. = Parameter. includm g Wllld velocity and- saturati on den,;, •
n requirement (CIR) art of the
mm/day 2 3 ,mConsumplive irrigatio
Th• . . . d by the plant If a p
1 the consump tive
antity of water"dactually reqwre ainfail
y = Psychom etric constan t= 0.49 mm of Hg/°C. .. : .
It IS the ti qu . prov1 e d by the natural r ,
nsump ve . . use 15

Rn= Hc(l - r) (a+ bN)- at!(0.56 - 0.92,/e J ( 0.1 + 0.9N) co

·irrigatio . n requiremen t is given by,
on , CIR= C., - R,,;
where, He = Mean incident solar-racliation at the top of the •lmosp he,e
where, r'--u = Consum . .
. ptive use
horizon tal surface, expressed in mm of evapora ble water Per
day.
· R,, = Effective rainfall d is available to
r = Reflecti on coefficient (albedo) of the given area. . th period of a crop an
. e of the rainfall lost
. e. the rainfall falling
during the . grow f th op exclUS1v
a = Constan t dependi ng upon latitude ( <f>) and t .•, transpir ation needs o e er . 1 surface run-off.
.
0.29 COS<f> given as; a :::: \ meet
through deep perco1a ti"on below root zone or the water ost as
evapo-
b = Constan t having average value ~ o.s2· 3 2 1-tet irrigation requirement (NlR). . ~emen t plus the water
tive Irrigatio n req .
n = Actual duration of bright sunshine in hours. 2. · . C
. . f alkaline or salty soils.
. . defined thas the onsump leaching
s such as
N = Maximum possible ho~ of bright sunshin e (mean value). This
It -~ purpose 0
required for o er - , - ) + Le
value is a function of latitude (<f>). chin and other purpose . .
NIR. =CIR+ Le - (C., R,, for lea g
t= 2.01 x 10-9 mm/ day. where, Le is the water required ainfall
a= Stefan - Boltzma nn constan
. R,, is the effective r ·
Ta = Mean air tempera ture in K = 273 + °C
ea = Actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of Hg. 2 3 3 Reid irrigation requirement (FIR) Ii d to the field . 1t is equal to the
The parame ter Ea of the Penman• s equation is estimate d as; I ... the amount of .water required to be appt :f applied water lost as surface
. tis . '. tion reqwrem ents p lus the amoun
Ea = 0.35 ( 1 + ~) (e5 - ea) mm/ day net 1rnga . d deep percolation.
ff vaporati on an
runo , e
FIR= NIR + Water app ica
r tion losses .
where, V = Mean wind Speed at 2 m above the ground in km/ day.
2

~ It is usually expresse d as, '

= Saturation vapour pressure at mean air tempera ture in mm of Hg. NIR
ea = Actual mean vapour pressure of air in mm of Hg. FIR= -
Penman 's ~a effi . cy
The above equation gives PET for given climatic conditio n for . the water applicat ion
where, ~a IS IR .
c1en
for any crop this· value should be multipli ed
)
referenc e crop. To determine PET
by correspo nding crop coefficient
ETcrop = ¾op X ETo
2 3 4 Gross irrigation requirement (G
Th • water required at the hea o
1
f the canal is greater than the field)
me transit (or conveyance
• tity of there are always so
K = 1.1 -1.3 for paddy . .e quan
. uiremen t because . . b
uiremen t is given Y, .
rrngation req . . .
K = 0.8 for wheat losses. Thus, the gross llTlgation req
K=0.6f ormaiz, e GIR = FIR +Conve yance losses
• can be.expresse d as,
Alternatively, 1t
ETo = Daily potentia l evapo-transpirati<>n . FIR
of crop GIR= -
The inigatio n sys1e,n;,, designe d to. fuifiII tlie potentia l "'!ui<em ent
(PET).
~c efficiency.
where, ~c is the water conveya nce
 28 \ Complete manual of Irrig ation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering)

Chapter 2: Irrigation Water Requirement I 29

2..4 EFRCTIIE IIINflll Cle)
The p recipitation falling during growing period of a crop that is avail b Amount of siJt ca rried by water
iv)
meet evapo-tra.nspiration needs of crop is called effective rainfall. It ina h~ l() Velocity of canal water
I v)
the precipitation lost through deep percolation below the root zoon orc:dl:'s vi) Cross-section of canal and its wetted perimeter
lost as surface runoff. il l1:-t
2.6 SOil MOISTURE IRRIGATION REIATIO.NSHIP
2.5 WATER LOSSES DUE TO SEEPAGE IND EVAPORATION 111e moisture (water) content within the soil may be d ivided in three parts.
During the passage of water fro m main canal to the outlet at head of 2 _6,1 Field Capacity (FC)
course, water lost by evapo-transpiration from the surface or by se Wat er Field capacity is the water content of a soil after free drainage has taken plac:
through precipitation of channels. · epa ge for sufficient period. It consists of two parts; one is attached to the soil
2.5.1 Evaporation losses oJecules by surface tension against gravitation force, and can be extracted by
~ants by capillarity. This water is called capillary water. The other is that
The water lost by evaporation is generally small as compared to the wate ~hich is attached to the soil molecule by loose chemical bonds. This wat~
bv see
, · · chann
pages m certam r 1Ost
els. Evaporation losses are generally 2-3% oft t which ~an't be removed by capillary is not available to the plants, and JS
l<>sses. o al
called hygroscopic water.
2 .S.2 Seepage losses . Weight of water retained in certain volume of soil
Field capacity= Weight of same volume of dry soil x 100
There are two different condition of seepage which is as follows;
Weight of water retained per unit area of soil
I) Percolation
F= . ydxd
In percolation; there exists a zone at
where, d is the root zone depth in meter.
continuous saturation from the canaJ
to the water table and a direct flow is Yd is the dry unit weight of soil.
· Q denendent on H
established. Almost all water Jost -.-;-~,...,.....~~Fuly saturated soi l ~ _js the unit weight of water.
from the canal joins the ground water F is" the field capacity rn.c.
· The I
reservoir. oss of water depends . . .............. .. . . .. . Water table level Now, . . ?
upon the difference of top water Figure: Precolation Weight of water retained in unit area of soil= yd x d x F kl"\! / nr
sthurfafice level of the channel and level of the water table (i.e.,
e gure.
H) as shown in . . . . YctxdxF
Volu:r:n,e of water m urut area of soil= Yw
II) Absorption
2.6.2 Permanent wilting point (PWP) ·
In absorption; a small saturated soil PWP is that water c~ntent at which plant can no longer extract the water .for
Saturated zone
zone exists round the canal section its growth, and wilts up. Hence available water or availabl_e moisture tyPe
and is surrounded by zone of may be defined as the difference in water content of soil between field
decreasing saturation. A certain zone capacity and PWP.
just above the water table is saturated 2.6.3 Readily available moisture (REM)
by capillarity. Thus, there exists an It is that portion of available moisture which is easily e~tracted by plants, and
unsaturated soil zone between the two
saturated zones as in the figure.
Saturated ca pillary ZQne
Figure: AbsorpHon . :::'_.X{ i(: :9./ -1:(,:
In this case, the rate of loss is independent of seepage head (H) but depend s
only upon the water head 'h' (i._e., distance between water surface level of Soil zone·or root zone
~ and bottom of the saturated zone) plus capillary head (h ) as shown in Soil moisture Intermediate zone
the figure . . c ,

The seepage loss d_epends on; Water table½_ l_ ------------- -- --.___Capill311'._ :~~:- ---
~~ Ty~es of seepage: Percolation or absorption Ground .water
u) Soil permeability ~ ~ P~i:'.:i?~~ ~?"~!~
iii) The condition of canal Figure: Soil moisture irrigation relationship
 JO I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engine .
- - ~_ : _ : _ _ _ _ . . ' . . _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --.:::...:.:..:.:e ring)

~ OIOp4w 2 : Irrigation Waler llequirement \ 3\

is approximately 75 to 80% o( actual moisture content (AMq .
RAM = 75 to 80% of AMC Quantity of water
AMC= FC-PWP Water app lication efficiency (l\ a ) = stored at root
Quantity zone x 100
of wate:r
Sou moisture deficiency applied to field
The water required to bring the soil moisture content of a given soil to . . Efflclency of water stoTatc
. . . . !Is f1~1
capacity is called moISture deficiency. · · o f water stor ed. at rex>t zone d unng
Q Ill). the ratio of quantity · · tion to the
·rrnga
It JS tity of water needed to bring the moisture content of soil to the field
ln1fatlon lntenal (U) quan .
is called in; a . capacity.
1be time interval of irrigation water to re~irrigate the field _ Quantity of water
interval g tio~
i.e., ~ater storage elliaency
· ( ) stored in the root zone . x 100
Quantity
FC 11s of water needed to bring
i..e., II= PET the moisture to fi.eld ca-paci.ty
2-1 aEPn II■ REIii.iCY IF IIIIIATIIN · l•) . Effl~lency of water use .
The irrigation water should be applied as soon as i:he moisture falls up t It is defined as the ratio of the quantity of water used beneficially by ~ crop,
0th
.
optimum · l el (grea th PWP) d ·ts ·ti·ty h uld be. uffi . ' . eluding water required for leaching, to the quantity of water delivered to
. ev ter en an 1 quan s _o JUSt s c1ent to ~ ·
bring the moisture conterit up to the field capacity, making allowance for field. Quantity of water
application losses. The depth and frequency of irrigation can be shown in used benefi.ci.all
figure (i) and (ii). i.e., Water use efficiency (T\~) = Quantity of wa!r x100 ·
Readily · delivered to the field
t
i:
t - - r - - - - --~-Field
___ca.!..pao~·ty
available moisture
Field capacity T) Oudetdbchaqefactor
The duty of the water varies, from one place to another, due to the vanous
.
i! OMC
8e -- - --t------------
AMC or capillary water
----------- -
losses and increases as soon as one moves downwards from the head of the
canal~wards the head of the branches or water coUISes. Th~ duty at the head
~ Faeld capacity Wilting point Field capaci~ of water course is quite important, and is called the out let discharge factor.
0
:::E Hygroscopic water OMC Willing pt. m.c.

Tune._ Tune--..:+
Figure: (i) Figure: (ii)

2.1 l■IICITIII DRCIEICIES

Efficiency is the ratio of water output to the water input, and is usually
expressed as percentage. The efficiency of the irrigation is of di.ffer~nt kinds:
I) Efficiency of water con•eyance
It is the_ratio o~ the quantity of water delivered to lf!!s!-field to the quantity of
) water ~verted ~to ~ canal from the off take point. It takes the conveyance
or transit losses m consideration.

Quantity of water delivered

Water conveyance efficiency ('le) = . to field x
Quantity of water diverted 100
from offtake ·
fl) . Efficiency of water appHcation
· It .is the ratio of quantity 0 f
te · d ·
. . wa r store at the root zone of the plants to the
.
~uantity of water applied to the field. It takes into consideration the water Jost
mfarm.
 eerin g (Bac helor of Engi neeri ng) ,rem" lnl I 33
j Complete manu a l of lniga tion Engin Chapter 2 : Irriga tion Wale r Pequ
32

Avai lable mol •tur e cont ent

2.9 WIIIID OUT PBOBlfMS I)
Reaclily avai lable mou ture cont
ent.
U) at outl et of the field
Dep th of irrig atio n
PRO BLEM 1 ill)
has 600o j;' Irrig ation lnte "al
rice crop . An irrig atio n proj ect iv)
Draw aop coef ficie nt curv e for mm /mo nth a ~ The requ irem ent of head wor
k

·~
effe ctiv e rain fall in 30 v)
of CCA and n 0· is 150 mm/clay, irrig atio n dem and ~d
is 30% . Calc ulat e the Solution:
1J effic ienc y of the proj ect
o,,u-a
A vaiJa ble moi sture content = AMC
cam .ea. = Field capacity (F.C.) - Perm anen t wt.long
Solution: poin t (P.W .P.)
Given that; = (80 - 35) % = 45 %
CCA = 6000 ha Readily avai lable moi stur e cont ent (RA M) = 80% of AMC
ET0 = 150 mm/ day = 0.8 X 45 % = 36%
Effective raintall = 30 mm/ mon th
= ~~ mm / day = 1 mm / day
Dep th of wate r avai lable for cons
ump tive use = y;: d x 0.36
Efficiency of the project = 30% _ 1.5 X 0.6 0 ,.
- --1- - x -~6
Tasseling
- 1.0 = 1.5 X 0.6 X 0.36
-
~ 0.9
0.8
= 0.32 4m
-~ 0.7 = 32.4 cm
::: 0.6 324
~ 05 Earlydent · ·m terv al = -0, 5-
· ahon
lrng = 64.8 d ays
'-' 0.4
o.. 03 moo
~ 0.2 Block layer Con sum ptiv e use _ 0.324
u 0.l Field irrig atio n requ irem ent -- Water application efficiency - O:S
0.0 --- --- --- --= == =- ---
Figure: Crop coefficient curve = 0.405m
We know , Dep th of wate r at outl et of field = 0.405 m
4 5 113 n
ETcrop = ETO X Ka-op . hon
rrnga . reqm.rem ent a t h ead wor k- = 0_550. x00.6S = . 0 m .
K = 1.1 - 1.3; for pad dy (rice)
ETcrop = 1.1 x 150m.m/ day = 165
mm / day
PROBLEM 3
, Den sity
Dep th of irrig ation w ater = (150 - 1) = 149 mm / day , perm anen t wilt ing poin t is 25%
The field capa city of aoil is 60% op is 9 mm /day .
day x 6000 ha dep th is 120 cm, BTcr
Irrig ation demand (Q) = 149 mm
/ of •oil is 1.2 gm/ cc, effe ctiv e root e moi stur e is 85% of
if the read ily avai labl
Calculate the irrig atio n inte rval
3
149 X J0 - 4 3 (206 9 Bhadra]
= 86400 x 6000 x 10 ,n / sec. available soil moi stur e capa city
.
= 103.472 m 3/ sec. Solution:
Project efficiency is 30%. Given tha t;
so, Irrig ation dem and =~ _
0.3 - 3 44.91 cum ec
Field ca paci ty = 60%
Perm anent wilting poin t = 25 %
PROBLEM 2 Density of soil = 1.2 gm/ cc
With following data: Effective root dep th = 120 cm
PC= 80% PWP = 35% ·ETcrop = 9 mm / day
Root depth = 60 cm : PW P = (60 - 25) % = 35 %
Soil den sity = 1.5 gm/ cc Ava ilable moi stur e cap acit y= FC--
BTc = 5 mm /day 35 = 28 %
App licat ion effic ienc y = BO% Rea dily available moistur e= 0.8 x 1.2 X 1.2
Conveyance loss == 55% Dist ribu tion loss = 65 % . l.0 x 0.28
ptive use =
Calculate; Dep th of wat er avai labl e for con sum
 34 I Complete manual of Irrigation Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering) 35
Chapter 2 : Irrigation Water Requirement I
= 0.403 m = 403.2 lllll]
403.2 similarly,
Irrigation interva l= - 9 - = 44.8 day . 0.35 G G
. · . df
Discharge requue or nee = 864 = 2468.5
d for wheat.
4
• • . Since, the discharge required for rice is more than that require
PROBLEM 4 km fro111 Ii Th outlet factor of rice become s controll ing factor.
Calculate the deSign dischar ge of canal at O, 1, 2, 3 andafter each k.n .e~d e
works. The GCA at the head of the canal is 45000 ha and . G
~ Below km Gross culturable area Discharge required for nee =
CCA is 80%. The intens t 2468.5
by 5000 ha. Out of this comma nd, the
reduced
of irrigati on for wheat and rice are 60% and 35% respect
ively. Ass::: 0 36000 14.58
total loss below km 4 = 0.45 m
3
/s; channe l losses per km is 3.S% '
12.96
01 1 32000
wheat and rice a.-
discbazxe at beginni ng of each km; Kor periods
and 3 weeks respect ively. Kor depth for wheat
for
and rice are 16 and; i
1
2 28000
24000
11.34
9.72
respect ively. 3
Solutio n: 4 20000 8.1
at various kn loir
The gross comma nded area and cultura ble comma nded area
. At 4 Lo;ses below 4 km = 0.45 m3 /sec.
are first of all worked out.
Gross comma nded area in · Oischarg~ require d for crop at this point = 8.1 cumec
Below Gross cultura ble area in hectares
hectares Total disclrarge require d = 0.45 + 8.1 = 8.55 cumec
0 45000 36000 Design dischar ge = 10% more than require d
1 40000 32000 - , - ·= 1.1 x 8.55 == 9.405 cumec
2 35000 28000 - At3km;
3 Outlet dischar ge below 3 km= 9.72 cumec
4
30000
25000
24000
. Losses below 4 km = 0.45 cumec

Outlet discharges for two crop seasons are determ

·
ined as given
'
20000
Losses betwee n 3 to 4 km= 3.5 % of 9.72 = to~
x 9.72 = 0.34 cumec
i) For wheat, Totctl losses below 3 km = 0.45 + 0.34 = 0.79 cumec
D=~ Total dischar ge require d at 3 km= 9.72 + 0.79 = 10.51 cumec
.1
Design discha rge= 1.1 x 10.51 = 11.561 cumec
where, B = 4 week = 28 days
.1= 16 cm = 0.16 m At2km ;
8.64 X 28 Out let dischar ge require d below 2 km = 11.34 cumec
D = 0.1 6 = 1512 hectare / cumec Losses below 3 km= 0.79 cumec
ii) For rice,
Losses betwee n 2 and 3 km = lot x 11.34 = 0.397 cumec = 0.4 cumec
D=~ Total losses below 2 km= 0.79 + 0.4 = 1.19 cumec
.1
where, B = 3 week = 21 days Total dischar ge require d= 11.34 + 1.19 = 12.53 cumec
.1= 0.21 cm Design dischar ge = 1.1 x 12.53 = 13.78 cumec
D= 8.64 x 21 Atl km;
0.21 864 hectare / cumec
I
Out let dischar ge require d below 1 km= 12.96 cumec
I Intensity of irrigation for wheat = 60% Losses below 2 km= 1.19 curnec
If 'G' .
gross culturable area at
IS .
.
Intensity of irrigati on for rice -- 35 %
o
Losses betwee n 1 and 2 km = lo~x 12.96 = 0.45 cumec
is the rice area. any point, th en 0.6G is the wheat is and 0.35G Total losses= 1.19 + 0.45 = 1.64 cumec
Discharge required for wheat = 0.6 G _ G Total dischar ge requir ed= 12.96 + 1.64 = 14.6 cumec
1512 - 2520 Design discha rge= 1.1 x 14.6 = 16.06 cumec
/ ·
 . Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering)
1 -
36 \ Complete monuol ol lrngot on
Chapter 2: Irrigation Water Requiremen _l _I 3_7
__

Al 0 km; 14 58 cumcc
Out lc-t dL<:ehorge req uired = . ' Kor period ror wheat= 15 days
Losses below 1 km = 1.64 cumec Kor depth for gram = 12 cm
- ~ x 14 58 = 0.5103 cumec Kor dep th for wheat= 15 cm
Losse!- between 0 to 1 km - J 00 ·
Total losses = (1. 64 + 0.5103) cumecs = 2.15 cumec Now,
864 X 18
Totul discharge required= 14.58 + 2.15 = 16.73 c~ec Duty for gram = 12 = 1296 ha/ cumec
Design discharge required= 1.1 + 16.73 = 18.403 cumec , 864 X 15 ·
Duty for wheat = 15 = 864 ha/ cumec
PROBLEM 5 Area of gram irrigation = 2000 x 0.3 ~ 600 ha
. 600
A minor commanch 400 ha of irrigation area. It is proposed to conside, Discharge for gram = 1296 = 0.46 cumec
wheat aop in the whole commanded area. The ·Kor peri~ for wheat ii
couiclerecl 3 weeks. The Kor depth has been assum~d to be 10 cm. In th1 Area of wheat irrigated = 50% x 2000 = 1000 ha
.1000
periocl 2. 75 cm of rainfaII i, normally upected with such intensity that Discharge for wheat= 864 = 1.16 curnec
50% of tlw coald be taken u nperfluou s (surface run off). Consideri n
10% connyuace los1 find oat; (a) duty of canal water at the field head an!
Total discharge required= 0.46 + 1.16 = 1.62 cumec
(b) cfucharge of minor at upstream head. [2070 Bhad I
ra PROBLEM 7
Solution: ,------::-----::-:---- --:;:---:-------=-- =---=-- ---=--- ---- - - - ~
Compute. the flow discharge needed for a canal to irrigate dry seasons
Given that;
aops in 30000 ha and wet season. aops in 40000 ha. Kor period and Kor
Commanded area = 400 ha depth for dry and wet season aops are 6 week and 14.8 cm and 4 weeks
Kor period =3 weeks =.21 days and 11.5 cm respective ly. [ 2071 Magh; T .U.]
Kor depth = 10 cm Solution:
Water available from rainfall = 50 0,, 0 of 2.75 cm = 1.375 cm For dry season
Depth of irrigation water = 10 - 1.375 = 8.625 cm Dry season crop area = 30000 ha

Duty of water on field = ~ _ 8.64 x 21 Kor period = 6 weeks = 42 days

Here, conveyance Joss is lOo/c So/J ~ ~
0862 2104 87 Kor depth = 14.8 cm
- · ha/ cumec ·
course, 0.9 cumec at the fieldo.. 'a sc .rge of 1 cumec at the head of water Now
D . ,
864 x 42
uty at head of waler cour - 2 Duty for dty season= 14 8 2451 .89 ha/ cumec
D' · se - 104.87 x 0.9 = 1894.36 ha/ cumec ·
JScharge required _ 400
. · 30000
- ~ = 0.211 cumec Discharge for dry season = 2451 _89 = 12.23 ha/ cumec
PROBLEM
6
A field chann For wet season
1 . . Wet season crop a rea= 40000 ha
irrigation fore hu ~tllrable conunand area of 2000 h
. gram 11 30% and th a. The 1ntens1ty of
penod of 18 clay, and Ko d at for wheat u so~0 G h K Kor period = 4 weeks = 28 days
cl.a cl r epth of 12 ,.n.., • ram as a or
Kor depth = 11.5 cm
Y• an Kor clepth of 15 cm Cal ulatecm. "mle wheat hu K period of 15
• c th d' cl or
e •• •arge of the field channel. . Now,
Solution: [2070 Magh) 864 X 28
Given t.hat; Duty for wet season = ll.S

Culturable com = 2103.65 ha/ cumec

Int . manded area (CCA) -
ens11y of irrigati f - 2000 ha · 40000

r
Intensity of . . _on or wheat = 50% Discharge for wet season = 2103 _65
•rngahon for '= 19.01 ha/ cumec
Kor period fo gram = 30%
r gram -18
- d ays
Total discharge required = 12.23 + 19.01
~ 31.24 ha/ cumec ._
 ·gotion Engineering (Bachelor of Engineering)
fI
38 I Co~m~p~Ie~te~m~o~n~uo~I o~ m~~~.:!:.:=~ '.-:--- - - - ~ - -.::.:_
J~- _J_~ Chapter 2: Irrigation Water Requ irement I 39
- -------
PROBLEM 8 PROBLEM 9
What is field c.apadty of soil? For clistn'l,atary, GCA is 500 ha, CCA ia 800J. What do you mean by ·
iDtnantf of irrigation is 30% for wheat and 20% for rice. The kor period ~' required at outlet whener;: water requirement? Calcalate the d:isch.arge
e area to be . . ted .
3 weeks and 2.5 weeks for wheat and rice respectively. Calculate the out1~1 and Kharif are 13 5 cm and 4 _,__ unga m Rabi is 4000 hectares
. f al
disdaarge and also determine the c.apaaty o can cons1 enng 0% loss ~ Solution:
"d . 1 ' • We,:aa and 19 d
cm an 2 -5 weeks respectively.

distribation- Crop water requirement

Solution: Crop water requirement is defin d
_e ~ ~ e total quantity and the way in w hich
a qop requires water from the tim
Field capacity of son e 1t IS shown t th .
Field capacity is the water content of a soil after free drainage has taken pla crop water requirement will vary with the o e time it is harvested. The
for sufficient period. It consists of two parts, one is attached to the s Ct Here, according to the given conditi. . crop as well as with the place.
on, we have
molecules by smface tension against gravitational force and can be extraci°u Duty for Rabi = 864 x B 864 x 4 x 7 '
by p~ts cap~ty,_ hence the v:ater is ~ed capillary water and the oth~ fl 13.5 = 1792 ha/ cumec
water IS that, which IS attached to the soil molecule by loose chemical bond and, Duty for Kharif = 864 x B 864x25 x7
Such type of water which cannot be removed by capillary is not availabl s fl 19 = 795.79 ha/ cumec
th e plants and is called hygroscopic water. e l( Now,
Weight of water retained in certain volume in-soil Outlet discharge required for Rabi = Area _ 4000 ,.,
Field capacity Weight of same volume of dry soil x 100 Duty-1792 = 223 cumecs
Here, and, Outlet discharge required for Kharif = Area _ 4000
Gross commanded area (GCA) = 500 ha
Duty - 795.79 =5.02 cumecs
Culturable commanded area (CCA) = 80% of GCA PROBLEM 10
= 0.8 X 500 = 400 ha
Determine the capacity of reservoir it . .
Now, hectares, from the following data· ' its cultivable area is 50000
· [2014 Semester fall: Po.U.]
Area to be irrigated under wheat= 400 x ~
100 -- 120 h ectares Base period Duty at field Intensity of irrigation
Crop
(days) (Ha/cumecs) (Percentage)
100 -_:_ 80 h ectares
Area to be irrigated under rice = 400 x 1Q_ Wheat 120 1900 25
. IS
Here, kor depth of wheat and nee .
. not given, so assumin . Rice 120 1000 10
Kor depth for wheat = 13.5 cm g; Sugarcane 330 2500 15
Kor depth for rice = 19 cm Solution:
Kor periods for wheat = 3 weeks = 21 d Here,
Kor riods f . ays
pe or nee = 2.5 weeks = 17 5 d Area of each -crop under irrigation = CA x irrigation intensity
Now, • ays
Area = 51900
Wa te r required for wheat = Duty oooo x o·25 -- 6•58 cumecs
Duty for wheat = B64 x B _ 864.x 21
fl - ----ns-
= 1344 ha/ cumec Area = 51000
Water required for rice = Duty oooo x o·1 _- 5 cumecs
and, Duty for rice= 864flx B = 864 x 17.5 _
Again, 19 - 795 _79 ha/ cumec
2500 x O·15 -- 3 cumecs
Area = 50000
Water required for sugarcane= Duty

Outlet discharge required for wheat = Area - 120 Wa ter volun1e required by wheat in 120 days base periods = 6.58 x 120
/ Duty - 1344 = 0.089 cumec X 24 X 3600

an d , O utlet discharge required for rice = Area - 80 =68.22Mm3

Considering 10% . . Duty - 795 79 = 0.1 cumec Wa ter volume required by rice in 120 d ays base periods = 50 x 120 x 24
o 1oss m dIStributi . X 3600
on,. we have
=
. Capacity of canal 0.089 + 0.l ' =51 .84 Mm3
0.9 = 0.21 cumec
 . •ng (Bachelor of Engineering)
Engmeeri
40 I Complete monuo I of Im·gotion ~ Chapter 2: Irrigation Water Requirement I 4l
. u ane in 330 days base periods = 3 x 120 - - - - - - - ------=::.:.::!:::.:.:~..:.:..:.:~~~~~~~'.'...'.:..'..'.'.....!...._ ~
and Water volume required bys garc x 24 )( 3600 Solution:
,
Wetting diameter
= 31 .1 Mlll3 1
3
. . _ 6B 22 +51.84 + 31.l = 151.16 Mm :::::: 152 MJn3
10m Sprinkler
Capacity of reservorr - ·

PROBLEM 11
Three clistribatoriu are med for irrigation. The details are given belo\v, 40m
Find which one is more efficient. [2 072 ~hwin]
Distributary-2 Distributar y-3-
J>istn1,atary~1 - -'-
3
1Sm / s 20m 3
/s 25 m3 /s
Ditcharge
lSO00ha 25000ha 30000ha 10m
C.c.A.
Intemity of 60% 80% 50%
10m ·20m 10m
irrigation
120days 365 days
-
200days 40m
Bue period (wheat a-op) (sugarcane)
(cotton aop)
Solution:
- Figure: Sprinkler irrigation system (Plan)

For Dlstributary-1 Sprinkler head

Area irrigated under,cotton crops = 15000 x 0.6 = 9000 ha
Discharge = 15 m 3/ sec.
9000
Duty =15 = 600 hec/ cumec
For Dlstributary-2 Main line pipe
Area irrigated under wheat corps = 25000 x 0.8 ~ 20000 ha Figure: Sprinkler irrigation system (Side view)
Discharge = 20 m3 / sec. · · ·
From above figure, we can clearly see that some portion of field remains dry.
20000 To get desirable water distribution unifonnly, two adjacent sprinkle.rs should
Duty =2'1, =1000 hec/ cumec
be spaced in such a way that there is some overlap of precipitation. As general
For Distr_lbutary-3 rule, the spacing between the sprinkler is kept between 50-60% of wetting
Ar . . .
. ea Imgated under sugarcane crops = 30000 x 0.5 = 15000 h diameter. In this case, to improve moisture content we should decrease
DISCharge = 25 m3 / s a spacing between s_p rinklers and use more number of sprinkle.rs.
D 15000 PROBLEM 14
uty = 2'1, = 600 hec/ cumec
Since, distributary 2 has hi h . With the following data: PC = 35%, PWP = 12% root depth = 70 cm, soil
- g_er duty so more efficient
. density = 1.4 gm/cc, BTc = 9 mm/day, RAM = 70% AMC, application
PROBLEM 12
efficiency = .85%, conveyance l~ss and distribution loss 20% where the
Ezplain about soil-moinur . . abbreviatio ns have their usual meanings. Calculate;
Sol ti . . e-llTlgation relationship. (2072 Ashwin]
u on; See the definition part 2.6 . i) Available moisture content
ii) Readily av~ble moisture content ·
PROBLEM 13
iii) Depth of irrigation at the outlet of the field
A farmer with bu 40 iv) Irrigation interval and
having a throw ~ x 40 m plot Plans to irrigate his v) Depth of ir.rigation water required at the headwork. [2072 Magh)
•ketch of •ettin ce as 10 m and each pla d field 4 sprinklers
moUhre patt g pattern of these •Prinklers Wc~ 20 m apart. Prepare a Solution:
em and suggest --.are to . . n~e ~oar conunentJ on the i) AMC= FC - PWP = 35-12 = 23 %
llllprove at if r'eqliiJ:ed.
ii) RAM = 70% AMC = 0.7 x 23 = 16.1 %
[2072Magh ]
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