The History of construct monumental structures

like Pyramids, mortuaries, and

Building Materials mastabas.

Summarized: Greek and Hellenestic cultures

- Similar to Egyptian Civilization,
Greek and Hellenestic people also
Stone Age
used stones for their buildings,
- During this time, primitive people
they used more from local marble
live thru the principle of
and limestones, since stones
hunter-gatherers, they moved
available in their place are not as
from a place to another in search
massive as those in Egypt, they
for food. The earliest documented
pursued new stone technology like
materials used for a “house” was
corbelling and construction of
excavated in Europe which dated
arches staggering pieces of stones
around 12,000 BCE used wooden
precisely to form radial segments.
poles that are assumed to be
frames for animal skins used as
Roman Civilization
walls for a tent.
- Romans contributed the use of
concrete as building material
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures
which was derived from the basic
- This can be recalled as the time
mortar mixture made by sand,
when Middle eastern civilizations
lime and water until 2nd century
existed along great river valleys like
B.C.E. when pozzolana was
the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates,
discovered and the new material
the Indus, and the Huang Ho.
called “pulvis puteoli”, natural
Given this geographical advantage,
cement was then formed with this
people during this time (around
material.
3000 BCE) people were able to
develop a building material made
Romanesque and Gothic Era
from mud and formed using straw
- During around the 5th century, the
with four sides, this materials is
Iron Age started wherein new
what we call “bricks”, these bricks
building technology was applied in
were made from sun-drying the
construction, this is thru using log
mud found along the
construction, packed clay walls,
aforementioned bodies of water.
mud brick and wattle and daub-
“ceramic” where also developed
which is the method of
during this time wherein more
constructing walls in which vertical
intricate decors were added, thus
wooden stakes, or wattles, are
giving Architecture more vibrance.
woven with horizontal twigs and
branches, and then daubed with
Egyptian Civilization
clay or mud.
- Everybody knows the building
material used during this
Renaissance Period
era-stones. Massive blocks of
- Construction of domes is a
stones such as limestone,
significant contribution of builders
sandstone, and granite that are
in this era, moreover, the use of
strong and durable were mined
timber trusses with king posts is a
and cut by early Egyptians to
major Roman building technique
 revived in this period. The use of
clear glass was also manifested in Modern Era
many Romanesque buildings - The modern era implies more
which is also called as the “crown change in building technology,
glass method” which is a process most of them aims to reduce the
handmaking glass out of building construction’s cost. More
soda-lime composition. research nowadays are being done
to upgrade the building
The First Industrial Age technology with the common aim
- at around 18th century, the which is to make construction
Industrial Revolution emerged faster and economical.
wherein mass production of Iron
was done to contribute to the 16 Divisions of Construction
development of machinery which Materials based on Construction
then lead to the “puddling Specifications International’s
process” or the process of Master Format
production wrought iron in 1769.
Because of this advancement,
➢ Div 00 Requirements of Bidding
machines were created, and the
and Construction
simple sun-dried bricks were
➢ Div 01 General Requirements
upgraded into “pressed” bricks
➢ Div 02 Siteworks
which were mass produced by a
➢ Div 03 Concrete
mechanical extrusion process.
➢ Div 04 Masonry
➢ Div 05 Metals
The Second Industrial Age
➢ Div 06 Woods and Plastics
- This was the time when steel and
➢ Div 07 Moisture and Thermal
electricity were first used for
Protection
advancement. Steel were mass
➢ Div 08 Doors and Windows
produced to build railroads and
➢ Div 09 Finishes
soon building frames which lead to
➢ Div 10 Specialties
construction of early skyscrapers.
➢ Div 11 Equipment
Concrete was then also
➢ Div 12 Furnishings
reformulated adding powdered
➢ Div 13 Special Construction
brick and pebbles (which soon
➢ Div 14 Conveying Systems
evolved into the aggregates we
➢ Div 15 Mechanical and Plumbing
use today) to the original mixture
➢ Div 16 Electrical
of lime, sand and water. After that,
the use of reinforced concrete was
evident all over the houses in Paris
Reference Standards for
which started when a French
Construction Materials
gardener named Joseph Monier
uses the concrete mixture for his
➢ ACI-American Concrete Institute
pots with cage iron wires as
➢ 211.01-85-Standard Practice for
reinforcement. More technologies
Selecting Proportions for Normal
emerged during this time such as
and Heavyweight Concrete
lighting, heating and cooling
➢ 301-84(R88)-Concrete, Structural
systems, more use of glass, and
for Building
use of other metals as building
material.
 ➢ 309R-87-Standard Practice for
Consolidation of Concrete ATTERBERG LIMITS are tests
➢ 318-86-Building Code performed on soils passing the No.
Requirements for Reinforced 40 sieve as follows:
Concrete
➢ AASHTO-American Association of Liquid Limit (LL) – the moisture content
State Highway and Transport at which a soil changes from the liquid
Official state to the plastic state, measured when
➢ M173-84-Concrete Joint Sealer, Hot soil in a shallow dish flows to close a 12.5
Pured Elastic Type Performed mm grove after 25 drops from 1cm.
Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete
➢ AASHTO-American Association of Plastic Limit (PL) – the water content at
State Highway and Transportation which a silt or clay material will just begin
Officials to crumble when rolled into a tread
➢ ANSI-American National Standards approx 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) in diameter.
Institute
➢ ASTM-American Society for Testing Plastic Index (PI) – is defined as the
and Materials Liquid Limit minus the Plastic Limit: LL –
➢ DPWH-Department of Public PL = PI, that is the range of water content
Works and Highways (Philippine over which sediment behaves.
Government)
➢ USCS-Unified Soil Classificatory
System
Soil Protection Systems

Site Construction
RIPRAP - Also known as rock lining is a
constructed layer of stone, placed to
prevent erosion, scouring or sloughing of
a structure or embankment.

GABION SYSTEMS - In simplest terms,

gabions are stone-filled wire baskets used
to stabilize soil and prevent erosion.

PAVEMENTS - Paving is a material that

provides a wearing surface for pedestrian
Tools needed for Site Preparation or vehicular traffic in the environment.

PAVEMENT TYPES
- Pavement is a material that
provides a wearing surface for
pedestrian or vehicular traffic in
the environment.

Flexible Pavements – pavements that

Materials needed for Site Preparation
consist of concrete, brick or stone unit
pavers laid out on a sand setting bed that
is somehow resilient and which
distributes loads to the sub-grade in a
radiating manner. In order to restrain its
horizontal movement, it will require
wood, steel, stone or concrete edging.
Rigid Pavements – pavements made of
reinforced concrete slabs or paving units
mortared over a concrete slab. It
distributes the loads internally,
transferring them to the sub-grade over a
large and broad area. This type of
pavement requires reinforcements and
extension of the base materials along
their edges.
Turf Pavements – pavements made of
unit pavers with spacing in between to
accommodate grass or ground covers
over a top soil mix.
Cement and Concrete
CEMENTING MATERIALS
Lime
- Lime is one of the oldest
manufactured building materials
which is used both as a mortar and
plaster by early civilizations. The
Greeks used it extensively for
mortars and plasters in their
structures and sculptures.
However, the Romans were the
first to develop the first real
cement by mixing lime putty and
volcanic ash.
- Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime
which will set under water.
- Stalking or Hydration - The
process of mixing quicklime with
water during which water is
absorbed and heat is energetically
evolved, driving off much of the
excess water in the form of steam.
Cement
- Cement was first developed by the
Romans by mixing slaked lime
with pozzolana (volcanic ash)
which hardened under the water,
but the art was lost with the fall of
the Roman Empire. In 1756,
Smeaton, an Englishman,
rediscovered hydraulic cement, but
it was not until 1824 that Aspdin,
an English bricklayer and mason,
invented and patented Portland
cement.
Portland Cement
- Portland Cement is made from
materials which must contain the
proper proportions of lime, silica,
alumina and iron components.
Blended Cement
- In the Philippines, this is the type
of bagged cement sold
commercially in hardwares, and is
not pure portland cement because
pure portland cement is
distributed in bulk.
Special Cements:
White Portland cement – same
materials as normal Portland except in
color (also called stainless cement
because it is free of iron impurities which
stain porous marbles, some granites and
limestone and other light-colored stones).
Masonry Cement – designed to
produce better mortar than that made
with normal Portland cement or with a
lime-cement combination.
Air-entraining Portland Cement –
small amounts of this is added to the
clinker and ground with it to produce
air-entraining cements, effective use for
resistance to severe frost.
 Oil Well Cement – special Portland Types of Aggregates Used in
cement used for sealing oil wells. Concrete:

Waterproofed Portland Cement – Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed

normally produced by adding a small
amount of stearate, usually calcium or
aluminum to the cement clinker during
the final grinding.
Alumina cement – Utilizes bauxite,
the ore from which aluminium is made,
as the major raw material and is also
known as a quick-setting cement.
stone, cinder, crushed furnace slag,
burned clay, expanded
vermaculite, and perlite.
Sand – found in riverbends, free of
salt and must be washed.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼”
diameter stones.

Masonry cements - these are Coarse aggregate – bigger than

prepared mixtures of Portland cement ¼” diameter stones.
with hydrated lime, granulated slag, silica,
etc. Small additions of calcium stereate,
petroleum, colloidal clays and other Concrete
admixtures with the ingredients and
proportions varying widely and usually
Concrete – the resulting product
patented.
when a large aggregate of more
than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added to
Natural cements - these are
cement, water and fine aggregate.
cements made of natural raw materials
found mixed in the correct proportions,
Reinforced Concrete - concrete
needing only grinding and burning in a
strengthened by having steel embedded
kiln to produce a cement. Their use today
in it.
has largely been replaced by Portland
cement. Natural cements sets more
Plain or Mass Concrete -
rapidly than Portland cement and are
Concrete without reinforcement.
slower in developing strength.

Pozzolanic cement - is the type of

cement made of lime mortar and
pozzolanic material. Various natural
materials contain active silica, among
them pozzolan (volcanic ash), granulated
slag and pumice. Slag cement is a
pozzolanic cement.
Warehouse set occurs from the
tendency of cement at bottom layers to
harden due to the pressure above when
cement is stored in high piles for long
periods.
Concrete Mixes and Additives
Concrete Mixes:
➔ Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete
under water, retaining walls
➔ Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns,
beams, RC slabs
➔ Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill,
non-bearing walls
➔ Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant
boxes, etc.
Control of Concrete Mixes:
Slump Test – when freshly mixed
concrete is checked to ensure that the
specified slump is being attained
consistently. A standard slump cone is 12
inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in
diameter at the bottom and 4 inches
(0.10) on top which is open on both ends.
Compressive Strength Test – common
quality-control test of concrete, based on
7 and 28 day curing periods.
Concrete Additives – materials often
added to the concrete or applied to the
surface of freshly placed concrete to
produce some special result.
Accelerators – an admixture which is
used to speed up the initial set of
concrete. Such a material maybe added
to the mix to increase the rate of
early-strength development for several
reasons.
Retarders – to delay or extend the
setting time of the cement paste in
concrete.
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained
concrete contains microscopic bubbles of
air formed with the aid of a group of
chemical called surface active agents,
materials that have the property
ofreducing the surface tension of water
intended for use when better resistance
to frost action is concerned.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on
concrete surface to increase hardiness
and toughness.
Waterproofing (permeability-reducing)
compounds – these reduce the capillary
attraction of the voids in the concrete or
mortar.
Colored pigments - are mainly used to
give color to concrete floors. Two types,
the Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for
surface coloring and Integral colors used
for body coloring and are incorporated in
the mortar topping.
Two Types of Concrete hardeners
and admixtures:
Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing
silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a
wetting agent which reduces the surface
tension of the liquid and allows it to
penetrate the pores of the concrete more
easily.
Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially
processed and graded iron particles
which are dry-mixed with Portland
cement, spread evenly over the surface of
freshly floated concrete, and worked into
the surface by floating.
Water Reducing Admixtures – material
used to reduce the amount of water
necessary to produce a concrete of given
consistency or to increase the slump for a
given water content.
Damproofers – materials used to reduce
or stop the penetration of moisture
through the concrete. Reduces
permeability.
Bonding Agents:
Paste Slurry – often applied to
such an old surface immediately prior to
pouring new concrete to increase the
amount of paste.
Two Types of Bonding Agents:
Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are
larger, but with same materials as the
permeability reducer. Bonding takes
place through the oxidation and
subsequent expansion of the iron
particles.
Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of
highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
dispersed in water.
Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the
cement paste from bonding to the
surface aggregate but will not interfere
with the set throughout the remainder of
the pour.
Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials
sometimes used in structures where it s
desirable to avoid high temperature or in
structures exposed to seawater or water
containing sulfates. Pozzolans maybe
added to concrete mixes-rather than
substituting for part of the cement to
improve workability, impermeability, and
resistance to chemical attack.
Water-Cement-Ratio
The water-cement ratio - the amount
of water used per bag of cement.
Traditional materials used for form
construction are Lumber, Plywood, and
Steel.
Metal Reinforcements
1. Steel Bars or Rods
- Reinforcement for concrete
construction is mostly in the form
of steel bars and rods of round or
square cross section. The bars may
be plain or deformed (with lugs or
projections for better bonding to
the concrete). They are called
billet-steel bars or rail-steel bars
2. Wire Fabric
- Wire fabric made of cold-drawn
steel wire is widely used for the
reinforcement of concrete slabs
and floors, as well as for stuccoed
work.
3. Welded Wire Fabric
- Fabric consists of a series wires
welded together to form a grid
pattern. It comes in various sizes
and spacings and gauges, e.g.
4”x4” – 6/6, 6” x 6: - 8/8 etc. Welded
wire fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6
ft. wide, 150, 200, and 300 ft. long
4. Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric
- This is built up of either single or
stranded longitudinal wires with
cross wires or bond wires running
diagonally across the fabric. The
longitudinal wires are spaced at 4
inches on centers and the cross
wires 4” or 8” apart.
5. Expanded Mesh
- This is manufactured from solid
steel sheets, where the sheet is
first cut or pierced in staggered
slots or patterns; then the sheet is
held by the two sides parallel to
the slots and stretched by pressure
until the desired openings of forms
are obtained. Expanded mesh is
therefore free from mechanical
and welded joints. e.g. "Steelcrete"
6. Laths
- Permanent centering or
self-centering laths are produced
in many forms. These laths are
furnished either in flat or
segmental sheets, pressed into a
series of solid ribs, between which
the metal is stamped, perforated
or deformed into an open
mesh-work. These laths are
furnished painted or galvanized,
and in open-hearth mild steel or in
 special copper-bearing or alloy
steels, e.g. “RIBPLEX” , “HYRIB”.
Types of Processed Concrete
1. Aerocrete
- This is a light–weight, expanded
structural concrete produced by
adding a small amount of metallic
aluminum powder to the mixture
of Portland cement and sand of
cinders. On the addition of water, a
gas is generated which expands
the wet mix and forms small air
cells throughout the material. It is
used for structural floor and roof
slabs, partition blocks for sound
proofing, wall insulation, in rooms
of refrigerator plants, lightweight
fill on top of structural floor and
roof slabs. In addition to its light
weight, it has excellent
fire-resistive qualities.
2. Gunite
- This is the mixture of sand and
cement deposited under high
pneumatic pressure with a use in precast slabs and blocks and
machine manufactured under the
trade name CEMENT GUN, to
which the required supply of water
is added just before the dry
constituents emerge from nozzle.
GUNITE is used for encasing
structural steel, when reinforced,
for floor and roof slabs and curtain
walls. Ideal for swimming pool
construction.
3. Porete
- A Portland cement concrete to
which a chemical foam is added to
generate gases in the process of
deposition, resulting in light
weight precast or shop-made unit
in both hollow and solid forms. It is
manufactured in solid slabs for
short spans roofs and siding of
industrial buildings.
4. Haydite
- This is processed concrete added
with lightweight aggregate.
Lightweight aggregates can be
divided into four general
classifications :
1. Aggregates of volcanic origin
➔ Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60
lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a
lightweight aggregate when dry
and well graded. Undesirable
feature, however, is its water
absorption. This can be mitigated
by wetting the aggregate before it
is mixed with cement .
➔ Perlite is composed of stable
silicates, and is inert and thus
durable for use as a lightweight
aggregate or for insulation and is
in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster
2. Micaceous minerals
➔ Vermiculite is a micaceous
mineral which expands on
application of heat to as much as
30 times its original volume. It is
used as an aggregate in concrete
fireproofing steel, for floor and roof
fill, and for acoustic and fireproof
plaster.
3. Expanded shales and clays
➔ Lightweight aggregates from
shales and clays require heating
the material in a kiln to a
temperature near its fusion point.
The material softens and coalesces
 to a sticky mass; escaping gases
Foot Piye
are trapped, forming cellular
structures and expanding the Forearm (14-16”) Bisig
volume of the material about 50%.
Foreman Kapatas
Examples of clay, shale aggregates
are “AIROX”, “ROCKLITE”, Gradient Grade
Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.
Half Inch Medya
4. By-product Aggregates
Handbreadth (4’) Damak

➔ Expanded Slag. Expanded Slag or Hectare Ektarya

“foamed” slags are made by
Inch Pulgada
treating molten blast furnace slag
with controlled quantities of water Laborer Piyon
or steam.
➔ Foamed slag has been used for Layer Patong
precast blocks, cast-in-place walls
Mason Kantero
of houses and for panel filling of
steel-framed buildings. Metertape Metro

Mixture Timplado
5. Cinders
➔ are composed of the ash Painter Pintor
components of the coal along with
the various quantities of unburned Paymaster Pagador
or partially burned combustible
Percentage Porsyento
matter.
Plumber Tubero

Roofer Latero
VERNACULAR TERMS
Span (7-8”) Dangkal

PART 1: PEOPLE & MEASUREMENTS Step Baytang

NAME VERNACULAR Storey Palapag

TERM
Warehouseman Bodegero
Architect Arkitekto
Welder Soldador
By Volume Bultuhan

Carpenter Karpentero PART 2: TOOLS & MATERIALS

Contractor Kontratista NAME VERNACULAR

TERM
Electrician Elektrisyan
Ball Bearings De Bulitas
Engineer Inhinyero
Barrel Bolt Trankilya /
Exact Siro-siro Pang-trangka
Measurement
Bolt Piyerno
Fathom (5-6’) Dipa
Brace Liyabe
 Brass Tumbaga Laminate Pormika

Brick Ladrilyo Latch Aldaba

Brick Hammer Piketa Lead Tingga

Bull-Point Chisel Sinsil Mallet Malyete

Cabinet Hinge Espolon Masonry Trowel Kutsara

Carpet Alpombra Mortar Agramasa

Cast Iron Pundido Nail Pako

Cement Semento Nailset Punsol

Chain Bolt Bakal de Kadena Nut Tuwerka

Chalk Line Reel Pitik

PART 3: AREAS & STRUCTURAL
Clamp Gato ELEMENTS
Concrete Buhos
NAME VERNACULAR
Copper Kobre
TERM
Crowbar Baret de Kabra
Balcony Balkonahe
Doorknob Busol
Canopy Medya Agua
Drill Barena
Ceiling Kisame
Escutcheon Eskudo
Corridor Pasilyo
Fiber-cement Hardipleks
Board Fascia Board Senepa

Filling Material / Escombro Flooring Suelo

Earthfill
Dining Room Komedor
Fine Sifted Sand Bistay
Door Pinto
Flat Bar Plantsuela
Eaves Alero
Floor Tile Baldosa
Entry Way Entrada
Framing Square Eskwala
Gable Roof Dos Aguas
G.I. Plain Sheet Liso
Garage Garahe
G.I. Strap Lingueta
Garden Hardin
Hinge Bisagra
Hip Roof Kuwatro Aguas
Hose Level Lebel
Kitchen Kusina
Iron Yero
Lean-to Sibe
Key Susi
Living Room Sala
 Mezzanine Entresuelo Crane Gruha

Overhang Bolada Diagonal Brace Pie de gallo

Roof Covering Atip Directly Rekta

Room Kuwarto Dome Bobida

Service Area Batalan Downslope Bahada

Small Window Bentanilya Dump Truck Damtrak

Stairs Escalera Embossed Risalte

Terrace Azoteya Erect a wall Asintahin

Toilet Banyo Estimate Tanstahin

Wall Pader Excavation Hukay

Window Bintana Excess Cut Retaso

Flatten Patagin

PART 4: EARTHWORK, FORMWORK, Floor Joists Soleras

STRUCTURAL & MASONRY TERMS Flushed Alahado
NAME VERNACULAR Form a Junction Tumbok
TERM
Foundation Pundasyon
Alcove Nitso
Framing Balangkas
Align Horizontally Lebelan
Gap Biyento
Align Vertically Hulugan
Girder Gililan
Alternate Unosinotra
Girt Sepo
Arch Balantok
Ground Fill Tambakan
Beam Biga
Grout Letsada
Bend Bali
Hollow Malukong
Bottom Chord Barakilan
Hook Kawit
Brace Piye de galyo
Horizontal Studs Pabalagbag
Ceiling Joists Kostilyahe
Hump Matambok
Collar Tie Sinturon
Inside Corner Kilikili
Compactor Pison
Install Ikasa
Concrete Slab Larga Masa
King Post Pendulo
Concrete Spacer Sapatos
Lintel Dintel
Corner Kanto
 Lot Boundary Muhon Scaffolding Andamyo
Marker
Scratch Coat Rebokada
Low Platform Tarima Plaster

Maneuvering Area Buweltahan Sift Pambistay

Manually Mano-mano Sketch Krokis

Mark a Straight Pitikan Slab Rebar Parilya

Line
Spiral Paikid
Masonry Filling Lastilyas
Material Splice / Joint Emplame

Masonry Wall Asinta Squared Eskwalado

Mix Halo Stack Salansanin

Mortar Joint Kosturada Stake Estaka

Nylon Tansi Stirrup Anilyo

Parallel Kahanay Storage Area Imbakan

Pattern Plantilya Strut Tirante

Pile Pilote Support Tukuran

Plan Plano Surveying Agrimensura

Plank Plantsa Top Chord Tahilan

Plaster Palitada Transom Trabisanyo

Form Porma Trench Trintsera

Post Haligi Unload Idiskarga

Pulley Kalo Vertical Studs Pilarete

Pure Cement Puro Waste Cut Seroho

Purlin Reostra Wheelbarrow Kartelya

Queen Post Taknang Window Sill Pasamano

Rafter Kilo Window / Door Sumbrero

Header
Ramp Rampa
Window / Door Hamba
Rebar Kabilya Jamb

Remove Baklasin

Ridge Kabalyete

Rough-in Abang

Sample Muestra
PART 5: PAINTING & CARPENTRY Open Stringer Hardinera
TERMS
Paint Pintura
NAME VERNACULAR
TERM Panelled De Bandeha

2’” x 2” Wood Dos por dos Plinth Sokalo

Apply Concrete Lasunin Polished Finish Monyeka

Neutralizer
Putty Liston
Apply paint by Bugahan
spraying Rabbet Basyada

Apply Prime / Pondohan Rag Trapo

Base Coat
Rough Wall Anay Finish
Apply Spot Putty Ispatan
Sandpaper Liha
Astragal Batidura
Sawdust Kusot
Banister Barandilya
Siding / Cladding Tabike
Baseboard Rodapis
Stair Landing Deskanso
Closed Stair Madre de Eskalera
Stringer Stair Riser Takip Silipan

Concave Moulding Medya Kanya Stringer Madrina

Cornice Kornisa Tressle Kabayo

Door Fillet Batidora Use Masking Tape Katingan

Entire Surface Sarado Batak Varnish Barnis

Fill a crack or hole Deskanso Wood Grain Haspe

Fretwork Kalyado Wood Plank Tabla

Groove Kanal

Handrail Gabay
CEMENTING MATERIALS
High Gloss Duko Finish

Lath Liston 1. LIME

- One of the oldest building materials
Applying a layer Pasada used as a mortar and plaster by all
the early civilizations:
Miter Joint Kanto Mesa
● Egyptians lime plaster before 2600
Mortise Mitsa B.C.
● Greeks used it extensively for
Moulding Moldura
mortars and plasters
Nail/Dowel Tarugo ● Romans developed a mixture of
lime putty and volcanic ash for the
Nailer Pamakuan first real cement.

- Manufactured by the calcination of
limestone (carbonates of calcium and
magnesium).
1.1 Hydrated lime
- Mixed with water to make lime putty,
is used as an ingredient of hard-finish
coat for two-and three-coat Portland
cement plasters. It is also used for
mixing with cement mortar or
concrete to:
- increase its workability
- decrease its permeability to water
- reduce cracking due to shrinkage
A type of lime which will set under water
is hydraulic lime, used only where slow
underwater setting is required.
2.0 Gypsum
- gypsum, like lime, was used as a
plaster by the Egyptians, Greeks and
Romans.
- "Plaster" from the Greek word for
both the raw material and calcined
product.
- In architectural terminology the
words "Plaster and "gypsum" are
often used interchangeably.
- Gypsum plaster is rendered more
plastic by the addition of hydrated
lime.
- Fiber or hair is also sometimes added
for greater cohesiveness. The fiber
may be hemp, sisal or jute; the hair is
generally cleaned goat or cattle hair.
3.0 Cement
- First developed by the Romans by
mixing slaked lime with
pozzolana(volcanic ash) which
hardened under water.
- With the fall of the Roman Empire
the art of cement-making was lost
and for several centuries.
- In 1756, Smeaton, an Englishman,
rediscovered hydraulic cement but
it was not until 1824 that Aspdin, an
English bricklayer and mason,
invented and patented Portland
cement.
- Today, the word “cement” generally
refers to Portland cement which is
the principal type of cement in use.
3.1 CEMENT
- Portland cement is obtained by
finely pulverizing clinker produced
by calcining a proportioned mixture
of argillaceous (silica, alumina) and
calcareous (lime)materials with iron
oxide and small amounts of other
ingredients.
- Types of Portland cement:
• slow-setting cement
 • quick-setting high early strength
cement
• sulfate-resisting cement
applications where alkaline water
and soils occur
• white cement(or stainless cement
which is free of iron impurities).
- Durable
- uniform quality
for - thoroughly sound
These are obtained through:
- careful selection of materials
- correct proportioning
- thorough mixing
- careful transporting and placing
- proper curing or protection of the
concrete after it is placed

MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

1. Cement
- In reinforced - concrete
CONCRETE
construction should be high -
- a proportioned mixture of cement,
grade Type 1 Portland cement type
aggregate and water.
C-150 conforming to the “Standard
- a plastic mass which can be cast,
Specifications and Test for
molded or formed into
Portland Cement” of the American
predetermined size or shape
Society for Testing Materials
- upon hydration, becomes stone-like
(ASTM).
in strength, hardness and durability.
- The kind of tests usually made
The hardening of concrete is called
are:
setting.
- soundness, or constancy of
- when mixed with water and a fine
volume
aggregate of less than 6mm (¼“) is
- time of setting
known as mortar, stucco or cement
- fineness
plaster.
- tensile strength
- When mixed with water, fine
aggregate and a large aggregate of
2. Aggregates
more than 6mm (¼”) in size
- inert mineral fillers used with
produces concrete.
cement and water in making
- when strengthened by embedded
concrete, should be particles that
steel, is called reinforced concrete.
are durable strong, clean, hard and
- when without reinforcement, is
uncoated, and which are free from
called plain or mass concrete.
injurious amount of dusts, lumps,
soft and flaky particles, shale, alkali,
organic matter loam or other
deleterious substances.

QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE

Concrete should be:

- Strong
A. Fine aggregates (aggregates smaller
than 6mm (¼”) in size) consist of sand,
stone screenings or other inert
materials of similar characteristics.
- Specs: 80 to 95% shall pass a No. 4
wire cloth sieve and not more than
30% nor less than 10% shall pass a
No. 50 sieve.
B. Coarse aggregate (aggregate larger
than ¼” in size) consists of crushed
stones, gravel or other inert materials
of similar characteristics.
- Coarse aggregates should be well
graded in size to a size which will
readily pass between all reinforcing
bars and between reinforcement and
forms but not exceed 25mm (1”) in
size for reinforced beams, floor slabs,
& thin walls.
- They may range up to 50mm (2”) for
less highly reinforced parts of the
structures such as footings, thick
walls, and massive work.
SLUMP TEST
C. Special aggregates, such as cinders,
blast furnace slag, expanded shale or
clay, perlite, vermiculite, and sawdust,
may produce:
- lightweight, nailable concrete
- thermal insulating concrete.
Water
- should be free from oil, acid, alkali,
vegetable matter, or other
deleterious substances
- should be reasonably clear and
clean.
- The use of sea or brackish water is
not allowed.
- Water combines with the cement
to form a paste which coats and
surrounds the inert particles of
aggregates.
- Upon hardening, it binds the entire
mass together.
- The strength of the mixture
therefore depends directly upon
the strength of the paste. If there
be an excess of water the paste
becomes thin and weak and its
holding power is reduced.
- The water-cement ratio is the
amount of water used per bag of
cement.
- This usually varies from 5 to 7
gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average
for ordinary job conditions. The less
water used in mixing, the better
the quality of concrete.
- The ideal mix is one that is plastic
and workable. It should not be too
dry that it becomes too difficult to
place in the forms, nor too wet that
separation of the ingredients
result.
- used for measuring the consistency
of a concrete mix.
- Consistency may be defined as the
“state of fluidity of the mix”, and it
includes the entire range of fluidity
from the wettest to the driest
possible mixtures.
- In this test the tendency of a mix to
“slump”, or reduce its height due to
gravity action, is measured. The
apparatus consist of metal cone, the
bottom opening being 200mm (8”)
in diameter, the top opening being
 100mm (4”), and the height exactly CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
300mm (12”).

The proportion is to be read:

- In making the test, the slump tester

- Class A : 1 part cement is to 2 parts
is placed on a flat, smooth surface
sand is to 4 parts gravel.
and is filled with newly mixed
- Each ‘part’ is equivalent to one cubic
concrete from mixer. In filling the
foot which is the measure of the box
mold with concrete, the latter is
constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches)
tamped in with a 12mm (½”) rod
on each of the three sides. Each bag
pointed at one end and the top of
of cement is equivalent to
the concrete is smoothed off exactly
approximately one cubic foot.
level. The mold is then slowly raised
vertically and the height deducted
A. Proportioning by arbitrary
from the original height of 300mm
proportions
(12”) represents the slump.
- Proportioning concrete by the
arbitrary selection of the
proportions is the oldest, the
most commonly used, the most
convenient and the least
scientific method.
- In this method, the aggregates
are measured by loose volume,
PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
thatis, its volume as it is thrown
Briefly stated, the principles of proper
into a measuring box.
proportioning are as follows:
- One sack of cement is taken as 1
A. Use good quality materials: Portland
cu. Ft. Enough water is used
cement, water, and aggregate.
to give the desired
B. Determine the strength of the
consistency.
concrete using the water-cement
ratio. (The strength increases as the
water-cement ratio decreases).
C. Determine the consistency of the
mix using the slump test using as
dry a mix as practicable.
D. Add correct proportions of
aggregates to the cement and
water as will give a mix of the
desired consistency.
E. Make a mix that’s workable, not
harsh.
B. Proportioning by the water-ratio
and slump test
There are two steps to be
observed:
- Select the amount of water to
be added to the cement to give
the desired strength (see Table)
- Add just enough mixed
aggregate to the water and
cement to give a concrete mix
the desired consistency
It is customary to specify
- the cement in sacks
- the water in gallons per sack of
cement and
- the mixed aggregate in cu. ft.
per sack of cement.
Proportions of cement to fine
aggregate to coarse aggregate
may be given if desired.
C. Proportioning by water-ratio,
slump and fineness modulus
- This method is the same as the
second except that the proportions
of the fine and coarse aggregate
are determined by the fineness
modulus method.
- For economy, proportion the fine
coarse aggregates so that the
largest quantity of mixed
aggregate may be used with a
given amount of cement and
water to produce a mix of the
desired consistency of slump.
- Comparatively, the coarse
aggregate has a lesser total surface
to be covered with cement paste
and, therefore, is more economical.
- However, there must be enough
fine aggregate present to fill the
voids in the coarse aggregate, or
extra cement paste will be needed
for this purpose. A well-graded
aggregate contains all sizes of fine
and coarse particles in such
proportions that the voids in the
combined aggregate will be a
minimum.
MIXING OF CONCRETE
- Reinforced-concrete work should
be mixed by machine
- Machine-mixed concrete is usually
of more uniform quality than that
mixed by hand and is generally less
expensive when in large volume.
- The strength of concrete is very
largely dependent upon the
thoroughness of mixing.
A. MACHINE MIXING
- In machine-mixing, the mixing of
each batch should continue not
less than one minute after all the
materials are in the mixer and
whenever practicable, the length
of the mixing time should be
increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes. The
entire contents of the drum should
be discharged before recharging
the mixer. The mixer should be
cleaned at frequent intervals while
in use.
Concrete mixers may be divided
into two general classes:
Batch mixers
- into which sufficient materials are
placed at one time to make a
convenient size batch of concrete,
the whole amount being discharged
in one mass after it is mixed.
Continuous mixers
 - into which the materials are fed - The time of transportation should
constantly and from which the not exceed 30 minutes.
concrete is discharged in a steady
stream.

- The concrete may be transported by

means of barrows, buggies, buckets,
cableways, hoists, chutes, belts and
B. HAND MIXING pipes.
- and-mixing must be done on a - When chutes are used, the slope
water-tight platform. should not be more than 1 vertical to
- cement and fine aggregate shall 2 horizontal or less than 1 vertical to
first be mixed dry until the whole is 3 horizontal. The delivery end of the
a uniform color. chutes shall be as close as possible
- water and coarse aggregate shall to the point of deposit.
then be added and the entire mass
turned at least three times, or until
a homogeneous mixture of the
required consistency is obtained.
- Since initial set of concrete takes
place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a
batch may be used anytime before
initial set takes place, provided that
the mix is plastic.
- Regaging or retempering of
concrete that has been allowed to - Before placing concrete, the forms
stand more than ½ hour is not to shall be cleaned and inspected,
be permitted. surfaces wetted or oiled, and
reinforcement properly secured.
- Concrete should be deposited in
approximately horizontal layers in
wall, column and footing forms.
They should not be piled up in the
forms which may result in the
TRANSPORTING AND PLACING separation of the cement mortar
OF CONCRETE from the coarse aggregate.
- Fresh concrete should be - Concrete should never be allowed to
transported from the mixer as drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed
rapidly as practicable by methods work and over 3 ft. for exposed work.
that will permit the placing of the
concrete in the forms before initial
set occurs and without loss or
separation of materials.
- The delivery of the concrete from
the mixer to the forms should be
fairly continuous and uninterrupted.
CURING OF CONCRETE c. Sprinkling with water.
- Concrete must be allowed to “cure” - Beams, columns and walls are
or harden after it is placed. sprinkled or sprayed with water as
- Hardening is a rather slow process in soon as the forms are removed.
which the cement and water unite d. Using curing compounds(see
to form compounds that give ADMIXTURES).
strength and durability to the
concrete. It continues as long as the
temperatures are favorable and
moisture is present.
- Three main factors that affect
hardening are:
- age or time
- Temperature
- Moisture
- In order that the hardening may
proceed favorably, the fresh
concrete, for about 7 days after
placing, should be protected from
excessive vibration, loads, extreme
heat or cold, too rapid drying, and
contact with impurities which may
interfere with the chemical action.
- The strength of the concrete
increases with age when the curing
conditions remain favorable.
- The increase in strength is rapid
during the early ages and continues
more slowly as time goes on. The
compressive strength reaches about ADMIXTURES
60% of its own maximum value at - Substances added to cements,
an age of 28 days and about 80% at mortars, and concrete for the
an age of 3 months. purpose of improving or imparting
particular properties, :
CURING OF CONCRETE - To improve workability of concrete,
- Curing consists primarily in keeping e.g. hydrated lime
the concrete from drying out too - To improve durability by
rapidly. This may be done by: entrainment of air
a. Covering the concrete. - To accelerate setting or hardening
- Floors shall be covered with paper (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride
sacking wetted down at the edges - To retard setting (retarders).
or with burlap, sand or earth that is - To improve wear resistance
kept moist, after the concrete is - To impart water-repellant or
hard enough to walk on. water-proofing qualities e.g.
b. Removal of forms at prescribed hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE
time. - To impart water-repellant or
- Forms shall not be removed until waterproofing qualities, e.g.,
after the time specified.
 hydrated lime, waterproofing
compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE.
- To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES,
COLORCON, METALICHROME.
A. Accelerators
- to speed up setting time, to develop
earlier strength, and to reduce
length of time for protection.
Principal ingredients are calcium
chloride. Maximum amount added
is 2 lbs. per bag of cement.
- Disadvantages: they increase the
expansion and contraction of
concrete, reduce resistance to
sulfate attack, and increases
efflorescence and corrosion of high
tension steels.
B. Retarders
- to slow down the hydration of the
cement during very hot weather.
Principal ingredients include zinc
oxide, calcium lignosulfonate,
derivatives of adipic acid.
- Disadvantages: may cause some
loss of early strength and will
therefore require careful control and
more frequent slump tests, also
reduces the expansion and
contraction of concrete.
C. Air-entraining agents
- introduce minute air bubbles to
greatly increase the resistance of
concrete to freezing and thawing,
increase plasticity and reduce
bleeding. Addition of air-entraining
admixtures is usually in the
proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume
of concrete. They are manufactured
from such ingredients as rosin, beef
tallow, stereates, foaming agents
(soap).
- Disadvantages: These require
careful control and more frequent
slump tests. They may also cause
some loss of strength.
D. Inert, finely divided powders
such as powdered glass , silica
sand, stone dust, hydrated lime
- are added to improve workability,
used as per manufacturer’s
directions. Hydrated lime is usually
in the proportion of 10 to 15% of the
cement by volume.
E. Waterproofing ( permeability -
reducing ) compounds
- reduce the capillary attraction of the
voids in the concrete or mortar, but
while it may decrease water
absorption of the concrete or
mortar, it does not render concrete
waterproof. They are manufactured
from stearic acid or its compounds,
mainly calcium steareate, and
include asphalt emulsions. They are
introduced usually in the amounts
of 0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of
cement.
F. Colored pigments
- are mainly used to give color to
concrete floors. There are two types:
- Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on,
for surface coloring. They are
 dusted on, usually in two coats, for concrete slabs and slab-and-joist
after all surface water has construction.
disappeared. The surface is then
finished with a steel trowel.
- Integral colors, for body
coloring. Integral color
pigments are incorporated in
the mortar topping. They are
mixed dry with the cement and d. PLASTIC FORMS
aggregate before water is - Polystyrene forms are now available
added. Amount of color for concrete work.
pigment required is not more
than 10% of the cement by
weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per
bag of cement .

FORMS
a. LUMBER FORMS
- The inside of forms which have been
used once and are to be used again
shall be coated an approved soap or
other approved material, or
thoroughly wetted before
concreting. No application of soap
or other material should be made to
forms after the reinforcements are
in place.
- The forms should be durable and
rigid, and should be well braced so
that bulging or twisting cannot
occur. The joints should be made
tight enough to prevent leakage of
the mortar.

b. PLYWOOD FORMS
- Works best where a smooth surface
is required. The plywood should be
waterproof, Grade “A” and at least
12mm (½”) thick.

c. STEEL FORMS
- Steel forms may be in the form of
pans for concrete joist construction
or steel decking or corrugated steel
 Module 4: barrier between the water and the
building structure, preventing the
Waterproofing,Sound and passage of water.
Thermal Insulation and
A SAFER FOUNDATION
Openings - Exposure to weather conditions like
heavy rain and sunlight could cause
WATERPROOFING structural problems. If wooded decks
- Building water-proofing is a process etc. is not properly waterproofed, we
which is designed to prevent water can notice discoloration, water stain,
from penetrating a building. rotting and fungi growth.
- Usually extensive waterproofing - Walls not properly waterproofed will
measures are added to a building at give in hydrostatic pressure creating
the time of construction, to provide cracks and leaks on walls and floors.
moisture control from the start.
- Waterproofing may also done after a HEALTHIER ENVIRONMENT
building is built, to address problems - Humidity and moisture is what moulds
as they emerge or as part of a building and mildew want. Mould and Mildew
retrofit. could cause respiratory problems like
- Water proofing is done in various parts asthma and also trigger allergic
of the building which include- reactions. There is no way to remove
1. WC these fungi’s spores inside the house,
2. Bathrooms the only thing that could remove such
3. Terrace growth would be to control moisture.
4. Roofs and Chejjas - Moulds do not only grow on walls or
5. Basement, swimming pools, areas where there are moisture issues.
underground ducts It could grow on anything like wood,
6. Under ground and overhead carpet and even food. By reducing
water tanks humidity, preventing condensation
- Water-proofing maintains the and water seepage, mould and mildew
appearance of the building and growth could be decreased.
increases the life of structure.
ELIMINATE INSECT GROWTH
- There are various kinds of insects,
WHY WATER PROOF water bugs, cockroaches, beetles, and
critters that find heaven in damp areas.
STRUCTURES? - Wet basements are ideal for wood
boring insects like termites to
CONSTRUCTION WATERPROOFING: reproduce.
- In building construction, a structure - These insects could cause damage not
needs waterproofing since concrete only to the foundation but also to
itself will not be watertight on its own important things stored in the room.
(but note concrete is easily
waterproofed with additives).
- The conventional system of
waterproofing involves ‘membranes’.
This relies on the application of one or
more layers of membrane (available in
various materials: e.g., bitumen, MATERIALS USED FOR
silicate, PVC, EPDM etc.) that act as a
WATERPROOFING
 SBS (styrene butadiene styrene) a rubber
CEMENT additive that gives more elastic benefits.
- Ordinary Portland Cement is used
for all water-proofing works Base Products - Polyester, fiber glass, rag
fiber (hessian), and paper. These products
SAND are bought in roll format and are pulled
- Clean river sand should be used for through the bitumen mixes on huge
water-proofing work. If muddy, the rollers. The base product becomes
sand should be washed before use. saturated in huge tanks by the tar-like
bitumen substance, creating rolls of
METAL waterproof material.
- Hard angular metal of sizes varying
from 12mm to 20mm is used for
water-proofing works. TECHNIQUES OF
WATERPROOFING
BRICK BAT
- Brick bats should be well burnt
Spray Waterproofing
pieces of bricks having proper
thickness. Underburnt or overburnt
brick bats should not be used for
water-proofing work.

WATER-PROOFING CHEMICAL /
POWDER
- A number of chemicals and
water-proofing compounds in
Sheet Membrane Waterproofing
powder form are available in the
market. Some chemicals include:
- Tar / bitumen based
compounds
- Inorganic compounds with
little percentage of chlorides
and sulphates.
- Acrylic based compounds
- Epoxy resins Cavity Wall Waterproofing
- Silicones
- Polysulphides and
polyurethanes

WATERPROOFING CHEMICALS

Bitumen - Mixed with a filler component

such as limestone or sand. Polymers are
added to the bitumen such as APP
(atactic polypropylene) a plastic additive Surface Applied Coating
that gives rigidity and tear resistance, or
Hot Rubber Waterproofing
Epoxy Healer Sealer
Blind Side Waterproofing
WATERPROOFING MEMBRANES
Deck Coating / Traffic Topping
Concrete Repair
Epoxeal GS & Carbon Fibre Fillmore
Expansion Joint Systems
- Waterproofing membrane systems
include both negative and positive
side waterproofing.
- Positive side waterproofing systems
are applied to the face of the element
that is directly exposed to moisture,
the exterior face.
- Negative side waterproofing systems
are applied to the surface of the
element opposite the surface exposed
to moisture.
- Positive systems are available in
numerous materials and forms.
Negative systems are limited to
cementitious systems.
WATERPROOFING MEMBRANES CAN
BE CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR TYPES
CEMENTITIOUS SYSTEMS
SHEET -MEMBRANE SYSTEMS
FLUID APPLIED SYSTEMS
BENTONITE CLAYS
DETAILS OF GLAZED CHINA MOSAIC
WATER-PROOFING
4.1 Different Types of
Waterproofing
Types of Waterproofing:
- Torch Applied, Integral and Membrane
- Cementitious
- Sprayed Polyurethane Foam
- Elastomeric
Types of Damp-proofing:
- Damp-roof Membrane
- Asphalt & Bitumens
- Plastic sheets
- Sound Insulation
Types of Sound Insulation Applications &
Materials:
- SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)
- Plaster Type
- Fiberglass Type
Waterproofing Coatings and
Washes
The materials employed as surface coatings
may be classified as follows:
- Alum and soap mixtures applied in
alternate mixtures (known as the
Sylvester process), which penetrates
the pores of the concentrate forming
insoluble compounds due to chemical
action between the alum and soap
solutions, and these compounds
prevents percolation. The proportions
used about ¾ gal. of soap to 1 gal. of
water, and 2oz. of alum to 1 gal. of
water both substances to be perfectly
dissolved in water before using. Both
solutions should be applied with a soft,
flat brush (one for each solution), the
soap boiling hot and the alum solution
of 60 to 70°F. The soap solution is
applied first and allowed to dry -
usually for 24 hours. Then the alum is
applied and allowed to dry for the
same length of time. This constitutes
one treatment, as many treatments
 may be applied as necessary. The
solutions should be well rubbed in, but
care should be taken to avoid frothing
when applying the soap wash.
- Alum, lye and cement washes.
- Cement grout, with or without the
addition of water – repellants.
- Paraffin and other mineral bases,
applied cold in solution or prepared in
melted.
- Miscellaneous materials of unknown
composition sold under various trade
names.
- Specially prepared bituminous
products, e.g., “FLINT-KOTE”,
“JOHN-MANSVILLE”, etc.
- Asphalt emulsions. Minute asphalt
particles dispersed in water and
maintained in suspension (until
applied) by a mineral colloid
emulsifying agent. The product is
generally called Asphalt Base Clay
Emulsions. When the water vehicle
evaporates, resilient reinforced
weatherproof film remains. Such
coatings resist passage of free water
but allow movement of water vapor
through the film and are classed as
breathing films.
- Cutback Asphalts. These
composed of a wide variety of
products from thin liquids to heavy
paste. Often one or more asphalts
dissolved in solvent are filled with
minerals and fibers to meet
requirements of different coating uses.
Cutback asphalts provide tough,
durable films resistant to the passage
of water vapor.
Types of Waterproofing
according to application:
1. Integral Waterproofing Compounds
- These are waterproofing compounds
that are manufactured and sold under
various trade names and are available
in either powder or liquid form, e.g.,
- “SAHARA”
- “POZOLITH”
- Truscon “ZILICON”
- “AQUELLA”
- “ANTI-HYDRO”
2. Membrane Waterproofing
- The layers of waterproofing materials
used in this method range from the
ordinary tar paper laid with coal-tar
pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt laid
in asphalt. In this method, all concrete
surfaces to be waterproofed should be
as smooth as possible and should be
cleaned and dry. The concrete should
be allowed to set thoroughly and all
uneven surfaces should be leveled up
with a coat of cement mortar. All sharp
projections on the concrete or
masonry should be removed or they
will puncture the waterproofing.
Insulation
INSULATING MATERIALS
- Thermal Insulation
- Sound Insulation
are
Thermal Insulators
- Thermal Insulation is the process
intended for the restriction of heat
losses and gains in buildings and
installations. From the technical
perspective, thermal insulation is
applied in order to reduce heat
transfer between to environments with
different Temperatures.
- Following are the types of heat
insulators:
1. Asbestos
2. Cork
3. Magnesium Plastic
4. Aluminum Foils
5. Cellular Rubber
6. Mineral Wool
 THERMAL INSULATORS
HOW HEAT IS TRANSMITTED

CONDUCTION
- The transmission of heat from one
molecule to another within a
material or from one material to
another when they are held in
direct contact.

CONVECTION
- the transfer of heat by another
agent, such as air or water.
TYPES OF THERMAL
CONVECTION CURRENTS
INSULATORS
- the flow of air that is created within
the Space.
1. ASBESTOS:
RADIATION - It is one of the best heat insulating
- the transmission of heat through a material for big and small applications
alike. Insulating sheets made from
wave motion, similar to the way
asbestos mixing some clay in the
light is transmitted.
presence of a suitable binder are used
for insulating boilers and also bulk
head lining in ships.

2. CORK:
- It is lightweight external tissue or bark
of the oak tree. It has been found to be
good heat insulator and is used much
for the same purpose.
THERMAL INSULATION FACTS
- Fibrous materials are generally good
insulators.
- Commercial insulation materials are
made of:
- Glass fibers 3. MAGNESIUM PLASTIC:
- Glass foam - This consist of thoroughly blended
- Mineral fibers mixture of hydrated magnesium
- Organic fibers carbonate and asbestos. It is applied as
- Foamed plastic a plastic mass cover over the surface
from which the escape of Heat is to be
controlled.

4. ALUMINUM FOILS:
- These are essentially thin sheets made
from aluminum and its alloys. When
wrapped over steam pipes and other
appliance, it serves as a good
insulating material.
- It should have a very high softening
point
- It should be stable to thermal shocks,
i.e. should not break on repeated
heating and cooling.
- It should be stable chemically and
physically at high temperature for
prolonged period at stretch
- It should not be resistant to moisture
and vibration and have good strength
too

THERMAL INSULATION

5. CELLULAR RUBBER:
- It is a special variety of rubber made
extra porous during manufacture. This
rubber is used as an insulator in cold
storage.

Why do we thermally insulate our

equipments?

6. MINERAL WOOL:
- Most used forms of insulation for
- It is also called rock wool. This material
business and homes.
is obtained commercially from impure
- To decrease the rate at which heat is
limestone. The rock is first heated to
transferred from the interior to the
melting temperature, Jet of air or
exterior of a building
water is made to fall on streams of this
- In order to contain heat as long as
molten rock which solidifies into wool
possible, thermal insulation is installed
like structure. Clay and Dolomite are
in the roof and walls of a building
also used for making mineral wool.

USES OF THERMAL INSULATORS

- In order to minimize heat losses in

PROPERTIES OF THERMAL
INSULATORS
Thermal Insulators should possess
following properties:
- It should have very low
conductivity
industry and also in construction of
buildings, thermal insulation is widely
used.
- Thermal insulation in buildings is an
important factor to achieving thermal
comfort for its occupants. Thermal
insulation reduces unwanted heat loss
the and also reduce unwanted heat gain.
thermal
 SOUND INSULATION

- Sound insulation relates to the overall

ability of a building element or
building structure to reduce the sound
transmission through it.
- Two types of sound insulation might
be referred to: airborne sound
insulation and impact sound
insulation.

SOUND INSULATION

REASONS:
- To stop sound from bothering other
people in the house or other people
outside the room.
IMPACT SOUND INSULATION - If you have irritating neighbors, do not
worry, Sound proof your apartment by
- Relates to the reduction of footstep
sound insulation.
sound from people walking on a floor
- In Radio Stations, studios are
structure. It is determined by the
completely insulated or Sound
impact sound level in the room below.
proofed.
A suspended ceiling system can be
used to improve the impact sound
insulation and therefore reduce the USES:
impact sound level. - Our noise control materials have been
extensively used to achieve effective
soundproofing in:

SOUND INSULATION MATERIALS

AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION

- Sound is transmitted through most
walls and floors by setting the entire
structure into vibration. The higher the
transmission loss of a wall, the better it
functions as a barrier to the passage of
unwanted noise.
 4.2 Thermal Insulations
Three ways of heat transfer:
Conduction – the inside of a concrete wall
which has one side exposed to outside winter
temperatures feels cold to the touch. Heat is
being conducted from the side of higher
temperature to that lower temperature.
Radiation – from this point, it is transferred to
the outside air by radiation.
Convection – when air is heated, it expands
and begins to circulate, during the circulation
it comes in contact with cooler surface, some
of its heat is given up to them. It is therefore
important to try to prevent air currents from
being set up in the walls and ceiling of our
buildings.
Kinds of Thermal Insulation:
1. Loose Fill:
Fibrous type – made from mineral
woolrock wool, glass wool, or slag wool
– or vegetable fiber – usually wood
fiber.
Granular insulation – made from
expanded minerals such as
vermaculite and perlite or from ground
vegetable matter such as granulated
coork.
Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate
walls of buildings built without
insulation.
Granules – are graded into four sizes, 1,
(3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve) and sizes 2 (no. 4
to no. 30 sieve) used as loose-fill
insulation for sidewalls and ceilings
over suspended ceilings, between
wood sleepers over a concrete floor
slab, as fill for the cores of concrete
blocks, and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100
sieve) size 4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve).
2. Blanket Insulation – made from some
fibrous materials such as mineral wool,
wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat, 16,
20 or 24 in. width, in 8 ft. lengths or put
up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear feet,
with controlled thickness of 1, ½, 2, 3
and 4 inches.
3. Batts – similar to blankets but they are
restricted to 48 inches long more or
less they are always covered with
paper, and made especially for
installation between stud spacings.
4. Structural Insulation Board – made
from organic fiber-wood, cane, straw or
cork. The wood and cane raw material
is first pulped, after which it is treated
with water proofing chemicals.
Strawboard – made from carefully
selected straw, fused under heat and
pressure into a panel 2 inches thick
and 4 ft. wide.
Corkboard – made from granulated
cork mixed with resin and pressed into
sheets of several thickness, depending
on the use to which they will be put.
5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type
of insulation is so called because the
units are relatively stiff and inelastic. In
most cases inorganic materials are
used in their manufactures.
6. Reflective Insulation – made from
such materials as aluminum or copper
foil or sheet metal, with bright surfaces
that reflect heat rather than absorbing
it.
7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is
polyurethane product made by
combining a polyisocyanate and a
polyester resin.
8. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials
used are polyurethane foam asbestos
fiber mixed with inorganic binders,
 vermiculite aggregate with a binder
such as Portland cement or gypsum
and perlite aggregate using gypsum
as binders.
9. Corrugated Insulation – usually made
from paper foamed into shapes that
produce enclosed air pockets. One
type is produced by shaping heavy
paper into a series of small regular
semicircular corrugations and covering
a both sides with a sheet of flat paper
to give strength and produce the air
pockets.
4.3 Glass and Glazing
Materials
Glass and Glazings
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance,
ordinarily transparent or translucent;
produced by melting a mixture of silica, a flux
and a stabilizer.
Glazing - in architectural specifications is the
term used for the installation of glass. It is the
setting of glass in an opening.
Glazing Materials - The materials used for
making a weathertight joint between the
glass and the frame into which the glass sets.
Major types of Glass are:
1. Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime
type of glass used for general glazing,
mirrors, insulating and laminated glass.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
Window Glass – used for glazing
windows doors and storm sash in
residential buildings where good light
and vision are required at moderate
cost.
Heavy Sheet Glass – used for glazing
windows and doors where greater
strength is required but where slight
distortion is not objectionable.
Picture Glass – used for covering
pictures, photographs, maps, charts
projector slides and instrument dials.
2. Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature
of this glass is its surface rather than the
composition and thickness. It is formed
by rolling molten glass into a plate that
is subsequently ground and polished on
both sides to a perfectly flat plane after
cooling. It provides a virtually clear and
indistorted vision.
There are two kinds
- one with thickness up to 8 millimeters
(5/16”)
- the heavy plate glass from 16
millimeters (5/16”) to 32 millimeters
(1-1/4”).
3. Float Glass – is produced by pouring
molten glass into a surface of molten tin
and allowing it to cool slowly and the
resulting flat and parallel surface
minimize distortion and eliminate the
use of grinding and polishing. Float
glass is manufactured for majority of flat
glass production.
Other Types of Glass:
1. Reflective Glass – used to control glare
and reduce solar heat. It the product of
a glasscoating process which is carried
out in a large, rectangular vacuum
chamber. Manufactured in two types,
silver and gold, the glass can be
specified in any one of three nominal
light transmittance of 8, 14, or 20
percent.
2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass – used
where clear vision is not required, such
as by factory roofs and walls, windows
 for halls and staircases, skylights, and
partitions in offices. Cast glass diffuses
light, and because of its low reflecting
and absorption index, transmits 90 to 93
percent of light rays striking it.
3. Cathedral and Figured Glass –
manufacturing is similar to rolled and
rough-cast glasses. However, they
contain a pattern or texture impressed
usually on one surface by a patterned
roller.
4. Wired Glass – simply a rolled glass into
which diamond-shaped wire mesh is
inserted during the proces of
manufacture.
5. Heat –Absorbing Plate Glass – made
by adding ingredients to the mix used
in making regular slate glass so that the
finished product is pale bluish-green or
gray.
6. Tempered Plate Glass – three to five
times as strong as regular plate of the
same thickness – and area in resisting
compressive forces and fracture due to
strain or thermal shock.
7. Vitreous Colored Plate – polished plate
glass can be heat-strengthened and
coated on one side with vitreous color
which is fire-fused to the surface.
8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet
Proofing) – widely used in the
automotive industry and transportation,
but now finding some uses in the
building industry, like glass that can
withstand firearm attack and
explosions.
9. Insulating Glass – consists of two
sheets of plate or sheet glass, separated
by an air space, and joined around the
edges to produce a hermitically sealed
unit.
10. Annealed Glass – type of glass that is
cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
11. Heat Strengthened Glass – is annealed
glass that is partially tempered by the
process of reheating and sudden
cooling. This has the about twice the
strength of annealed glass with the
same thickness.
12. Heat Absorbing and Glare-Reducing
Glass (Tinted Glass) – Any type of glass
that absorbs percentages of the total
radiant energy of the sun and includes
glass that has been made translucent
by surface treatment.
13. Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent
glass with distinctive geometric or linear
designs that was formed during the
rolling process that diffuse light and
obscure vision.
14. Structural Glass – is a specially ground
and polished, opaque colored glass
obtained bythe addition of metallic
oxides. It is used for facing material for
vertical and horizontal surfaces of walls,
partitions and narrow flat surfaces.
15. Tempered Glass – annealed glass that
has been reheated to just below the
softening point and then suddenly
cooled by subjecting both surfaces to
jets of air. This process induce
compressive stresses in the outside
surfaces and edges of the glass (which
cools faster) with the inner portion to be
under the state of tensile stresses, the
two forces/stresses being balanced. This
glass cannot be drilled or cut, that is
why all dimensions, holes, hardwares
must be designed before its
manufacture. When fractured, the glass
breaks up into relatively harmless,
pebble-sized pieces.
16. Obscure Glass – has one or both sides
acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure
vision. Both process, however weaken
the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
 17. Spandrel Glass – opaque finish use for
concealing the structural elements in a
curtainwall construction. It is produced
by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior
surface of tempered or
heat-strengthened glass.
18. Low-Emissivity Glass – or Low-E glass
is produced by depositing a low
emission coating either on the glass
itself or over the transparent plastic film
suspended in the sealed air space of the
insulating glass. This glass selectively
reflect the longer wavelengths of the
radiant heat while transmitting visible
light.
Glass products:
Glass Blocks – comparable in many ways to
unit masonry but have the added feature of
transmitting light.
Solid Glass Brick – also made to admit light
into a building, because of its solid
construction, it offers greater protection
against vandalism than conventional window
glass or glass blocks. The ability of the brick is
to allow soft passage of light.
Glazing materials in general use are
as follows:
1. Wood Sash Putty – is the cement
composed of fine powdered chalk
(whiting) or lead oxide (white lead)
mixed with boiled or raw linseed oil. It
may contain other drying oils such as
soybean and perilla. As the oil oxidizes,
the putty hardens; and if rapid
hardening is desired, litcharge or
special dryers may be added. Putty is
also used to fill up holes and cracks in
woodwork. The wood should be
treated with boiled linseed oil or a
priming paint before putty is applied.
Putty should never be painted unless it
is thoroughly dry.
2. Metal Sash Putty – is made of
materials that adhere to non-porous
surfaces. It should always be applied as
per recommendation of the
manufacturer. In general, it should be
painted two (2) weeks after
application. Metal sash putty is made
in two types: a.) exterior glazing and
b.) interior glazing.
3. Elastic Glazing Compound - is made
from selected processed oils and color
pigments compounded so that iot will
remain plastic and resilient over a long
period of time. They are generally used
where vibration and twisting occurs.
4. Polybutane Tape – a non-drying
mastic made in extruded ribbon
shapes of various widths and
thicknesses and must be applied with
pressure for proper adhesion. It
remains plastic over extremely long
periods of time and is also used as a
continuous bed material with
polysulfide sealing compound.
5. Polysulfide Elastomer Sealing
Compound – is a compound
composed of two-part synthetic
rubber. The activator and the base
compound are generally mixed at the
job site and applied with a caulking
gun or spatula. The use of this material
requires that the surrounding areas be
protected by masking with tape and
any spillage shall be removed
immediately because once the
mixture sets, it will be almost
impossible to remove.
6. Compression Materials – are
extruded or molded shapes made of
rubber, neoprene, vinyl, or other
plastics. In order to achieve a
weathertight joint, the shape must be
compressed not less that 15%.
7. Gaskets – are used between the glass
and extruded aluminum and
wood-framed windows. They are made
 of non-hardening materials such as
vinyl, rubber.
8. Stabilizers and Metal Joining Units –
are used between two large glass
panels, as used in glass curtain walls
where wind velocities are normally
higher than the glass can withstand
without this protection.
Glazing Systems
- Cap bead or sealant – an
adhesive liquid of synthetic
rubber injected into the joint
between a glass pane or unit
and a window frame, forming a
watertight seal upon curing.
- Glazing bead or stop – is the
wood molding or metal section
secured against the edge of a
glass pane or unit to hold it in
place.

- Heel Bead – is an adhesive

1. Face Glazing – refers to the setting of
liquid of synthetic rubber
small glass panels or panes in a rabetted
injected between a glass pane
frame, held in place with glazier’s points
or unit and a glazing bead that
and sealed with beveled head of putty
forms an airtight seal upon
glazing compound.
curing.
- Glazier’s points – these are
3. Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass
metal points that hold a glass
pane in a window frame with a
pane in a sash until the face
compression gasket instead of glazing
putty has hardened.
tape or liquid sealant.
- Putty – is a mixture or
- Compression gasket – a
compound of whiting and
pre-formed strip of synthetic
linseed oil, of dough-like
rubber or plastic compressed
consistency when fresh, used in
between a glass pane or unit
securing window panes or
and a window frame to form a
patching of woodwork defects.
watertight seal and cushion for
the glass pane.
- Face Putty – is the putty or
glazing compound formed on
4. Structural Gasket Glazing – are
the exterior side of a glass pane.
pre-formed synthetic rubber or other
elstomeric materials to secure a glass
- Glazing compound – is an
pane or unit in a window frame or
adhesive compound used as
opening. The gaskets are held in
putty, formulated so as not to
compression by forcing a keyed locking
become brittle with age.
strip into a groove in the gasket. The
glass pane must be supported on at
2. Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a
least two sides by the frame or a
window frame with glazing tape or a
support gasket.
liquid sealant.
- Glazing tape – is a preformed
- Setting blocks – made of lead
ribbon of synthetic rubber such
or synthetic rubber placed
as butyl or polyisobutylene,
under the lower edge of a glass
having adhesive properties used
pane or unit to support it within
in glazing to form watertight
the frame.
seal between glass and frame.
 4.4 Doors and Door
Hardwares

DOOR

LOCATION OF A DOOR IN A BUILDING

DOORS IN PLAN

SIZES OF DOORS

The common width-height relations used:

COMPONENTS OF A DOOR
- Width = 0.4 - 0.6 Height
A. Door Frame
- Height = (width + 1.2)m
B. Door Shutter
General sizes used:
 a. Residential

External Door - 1.0 x 2.0 to 1.1 x 2.0 m

Internal Door - 0.9 x 2.0 to 1.0 x 2.0 m
Bath & WC - 0.7 x 2.0 to 0.8 x 2.0 m
Garages for cars - 2.25 x 2.25 m to
2.40 x 2.25 m

b. Public

1.2 x 2.0 m or 1.2 x 2.1 m or 1.2 x 2.25 m

DESIGNATION OF DOORS

The size of an opening is indicated by

number of modules where each module is of
100 mm.

E.g. 10 DS 20 OR 10 DT 20

Size of an opening = 1000 x 2000 mm

D - Door opening
S - Single shutter
T - Double Shutter

MATERIALS USED FOR DOOR FRAMES

- Timber
- Steel
- Aluminum
- Concrete
- Stone

Classification of Door Frames:
Three Types:
4.4 Doors and Door
Hardwares
Doors
- These are movable panels used to
open or close an entranceway. They
are the means of access or approach
(ingress) to and exit (egress) from a
room, building or passage.
- Kinds of doors according to
operation:
1. Swinging Doors – normally swing on
hinges fixed on a side jamb, either
pulled or pushed. Some may be
pivoted from its head jamb and
threshold.
2. By-pass Doors – glide on an overhead
track and long bottom guides/rails
fixed on the floor. They may be used
for exterior and interior purposes.
3. Surface Sliding Doors – mounted on
exposed overhead tracks, usually used
for interior and exterior purposes.
These doors usually provide access
through the full width of the doorway.
4. Pocket Sliding Doors – glides on an
overhead track and vanishes into a
pocket or recess within a wall. Pockets
may be built on both sides, each to
take one of thedoor panels. They are
generally for interior use only but may
be designed for exterior wall locations.
5. Folding Doors – usually used to
subdivide large interior spaces with
door panels hinged to fold against
each other when opened.
- Wooden Door Frame
- Aluminum Door Frame
- Iron Door Frame
a. Angle Iron Door Frame – made from
angle iron 40mm X 40mm X 6mm
with iron hinges welded to frame.
Joints should be flushed welded and
ground smooth with grinder.
b. T Iron Door Frame - Frames are
made from T Iron sections.
c. Pressed Steel Door Frame –
Manufactured from mild steel sheet
1.25 mm thick.
Metal Doors and Frames 3. Types of Steel Frame
Types of Metal Doors - Knocked Down – frames that
are field assembled and shall be
Steel Doors of rigidly interlocked frame
Types According to Design:
joints so as to maintain
alignment and assure
1. Flush
performance of completed
- Full Flush
frames when field assembled.
- Flush Panel
- Welded
- Stile and Rail Construction
- Stile and Panel Construction
a. Face Welded – the joint
- Recessed Panel
between the head and
2. Glass
the jamb faces are
- Half Glass
completely arc welded
- Half Glass with Muntin
along their length either
- Full Glass
internally or externally.
3. Vision Lite
The remaining frame
4. Narrow Lite
profile, like the soffit,
5. Louvered
stops, rabbets are not
- Bottom Louvered
welded.
- Full Louvered
b. Full Profile Welded –
- Full Louvered with Vision Lite
specified also as Fully
6. Dutch
Welded or Continuously
Welded. The joints of all
Door Finishes the elements of the head
and jamb profiles, i.e.,
soffit, stops, rabbets, faces
1. Galvanized and primed for painting
and returns are
2. Baked Enamel paint
completely arc welded
3. Vinyl Cladded
internally and externally.
4. Aluminum or Stainless Steel Cladded
(maybe polished or textured
1. Slip-on Drywall – frames use for
installation in existing drywall
Types of Door Edges
construction. Not available with
1. Beveled Edge
welded corners.
2. Double Beveled Edge
3. Overlapping Astragal
Steel Fire Doors
4. Split Astragal
A door assembly of a fire-resistant door,
doorframe and door hardware needed to
Steel Door Frames protect the openings of a fire-rated wall in a
building. The doorframe and the hardware
1. Nomenclature for Steel Door Frames are required to have a fire-resistance rating
- Single Rabbet Frame similar to the door. The door (with a
- Standard Double Rabbet Frame maximum size of 1.22 meters x 3.050 meters)
- Covemold Frame must be equipped with self-latching closers.
- Cased Open Frame
Aluminum Doors
2. Types of Steel Frame Installations Doors generally fabricated from extrusions
- Butt-Frame Installation and rolled shapes.
- Wrap-Around Installation

Wood Doors
Types of Wood Doors:
1. Batten Doors
2. Panel Doors
3. Flush Doors
Wood Flush Doors
- Doors with no visible seams on both
sides or faces.
Types of Design
1. Plain flush door
2. Flush door with glass inserts
3. Flush door with louvered inserts
Construction – there are three types of
flush door according to their construction:
1. Hollow Core Flush Door – contains a
framework consisting of stiles and rails
which bordered the expanded
honeycombed core of corrugated
fiberboard or of a grid of interlocking
horizontal and vertical wood strips.
This type of door is usually covered
with plywood on both faces and has
little inherent thermal or acoustic
insulation characteristics. It is
lightweight and is generally use for
interior applications.
2. Solid Core Flush Door – contains a
core consisting of bonded staved
lumber blocks, particle boards or of
mineral composition. It is primarily use
for exterior applications and may also
be used as sound insulation. Solid core
door is also chosen whenever
increased fire resistance or stability is
required. The bonded staved lumber
core is always used because it is the
most economical unlike the mineral
composition core who has a
low-holding strength for hardwares.
3. Wood Framed Flush Door – contains
a framework of stile and rail covered on
both faces with veneer of
manufactured boards such as
plywood.
Wood Panel Doors
Doors which consist of a framework of
horizontal rails and vertical stiles that may be
either made of veneered hardwood or solid
softwood. This framework holds in place solid
wood panels, glass lights inserts or louvers.
1. The available designs for Wood
Panel Doors are;
- Panel
- Panel with sash
- Louvered Panel
- French door
- French door with divided lights
2. Construction - A framework
consisting of the rail and stiles whose
joints are doweled or dovetailed with
mortices and tenons. The rail is
composed of the top rail, lock rail and
the bottom rail. The stile is made up of
the hinge stile (from which the door is
hung) and lock stile which holds the
lockset. Door heights range from 2.030
meters – 2.440 meters and widths up
to 0.915 meter. Thickness is usually 35
millimeters or 45 millimeters.
Batten Doors
Are doors consisting of vertical board
sheathing nailed at right angles to ledgers or
cross strips. Diagonal brace is nailed and
notched between and into the ledgers.
Sliding Doors
These doors may either be of the bypass,
surface or pocket sliding type. Their panels
may be made of wood, glass or polysterene
with flush, louver or panel designs.
Special Doors
1. Metal Covered Doors
- Doors composed of metal
facings of relatively light gauge
wrapped around a core of wood
 or other material. It serves a
decorative or protective
function rather than a structural
one. Kalamein doors and other
metal-covered swinging fire
doors are samples of this type.
2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
- Also known as rolling doors
consisting of horizontal and
interlocking metal slats that
have rollers guided by a track on
either or both sides and is open
by a coiling motion about an
overhead drum located at the
head of the door opening. The
door maybe operated manually
or through the use of hoist or
lever and/or automatically
through the use of electric
motor. These doors are available
with vision panels, thermal
insulation and other options.
- Types of Coiling or Rolling
Door Designs;
1. Wood or Aluminum
Panel Doors
2. Wood or Steel Flush
Doors
3. Steel or Fiberglass Ribbed
Doors
4. Steel or Aluminum
Slatted Sections
3. Plastic-Faced Doors
- Doors constructed of various
materials and faced with
melamine plastic sheets, vinyl
sheets, polyvinylflouride films, or
other special-duty or decoratrive
plastics.
4. Folding Doors
- Doors made of panels or leaves
of various widths and thickness
that are hinged together that
fold together when open, use to
subdivide large interior spaces.
For exterior use, the most
common type is the steel
accordion door which is made
of steel pleats that folds like an
accordion.
5. Overhead Doors
- Doors that are constructed of
one or several leaves of wood,
steel, aluminum or fiberglass
and is open by swinging or
rolling up to a position above
the door opening. The door may
be open manually or operated
by a chain hoist or electric
motor. Also known as canopy
doors
- Three types:
1. Canopy Door
- Operates in vertical tracks on the door
side frame and when fully opened
forms a canopy of about one-third of
the door’s height above the opening.
a. Balanced - the door is
suspended at its center
and balanced throughout
its operation by
counterweights.
b. Cantilevered – door
supported by bracing
member on both sides
operated through
counterbalance. The
three kinds of
cantilevered doors are;
inward folding,
telescoping and outward
folding.
2. Retractable -Guided by horizontal
tracks inside and recedes completely
when opened.
3. Sectional Door- Opened by vertical
lift action guided by fixed vertical and
horizontal tracks.
6. Sliding Glass Doors
- Doors of narrow stile sliding
type usually made of aluminum
extrusions. Some are made of
steel, wood, or other materials.
 - Two types:
a.) slide at straight line or
parallel straight lines and
b.) slide around corners in a
building (have a hinged door at
the jamb).
7. Tempered Glass Doors
- Doors made of either figured or
polished tempered glass.
8. Revolving Doors
- Doors that contain three or four
“leaves” or “wings” that rotate
about a central, vertical pivot
within a vestibule shaped like a
cylinder. It is generally chosen as
entrance doors in large
commercial and institutional
buildings because it provides a
continuous weatherseal, which
eliminates drafts, and prevents
huge cooling loss or fluctuations
in temperature whenever it is
use by a great number of
people. It excludes pollution
from dirt and noise and provides
security by deterring
unauthorized or undesired
access.
9. Flexible Doors
- Doors that is flexible and made
of plastic or rubber.
10. Hangar Doors
- Doors that are specially
fabricated for aircraft hangars.
Finishing Hardware:
Hinge - a movable joint used to attach
support and turn a door about a pivot,
consists of two plates joined together by a
pin which the door and connect it to its
frame, enabling it to swing open or closed.
1. Butt hinge – consists of two
rectangular metal plates which are
joined with a pin. In large hinge, the
pin is removable, in small hinges, it is
fixed.
2. Fast pin hinge – a hinge I which the
pin is fastened permanently in place.
3. Full surface hinge – a hinge designed
for attachment on the surface of the
door and jamb without mortising.
4. Loose joint hinge – a door hinge
having two knuckles, one of which has
vertical pin that fits in a corresponding
hole in the other, by lifting the door up,
off the vertical pin, the door maybe
removed with unscrewing the hinge.
5. Loose pin hinge – a hinge having a
removable pin which permits its two
parts to be separated.
6. Paumelle hinge – a type of door hinge
having a single joint of the pivot type,
usually of modern design.
7. Olive knuckle hinge – a paumelle
hinge with knuckles forming an oval
shape.
8. Spring hinge – a hinge containing one
or more springs, when a door is
opened, the hinge returns it to the
open position automatically, may act
in one direction only, or in both
directions.
9. Vertical spring pivot hinge – a spring
hinge for a door which is mortised into
the heel of the door, the door is
fastened to the floor and door head
with pivots.
Door Hardware Functions:
1. Acts as door hangers – hinges,
closers, pivots
2. Operates the door – handles, latches,
pull bars and push plates
3. Closes the door – closers,
combination pivots and closers
 4. Locks the door - locksets, dead bolts,
flush bolts, electric locks and other
special devices
5. Seals the door – weatherstripping,
sound and smoke seals
6. Protects the door – kick plates, corner
protection and similar hardwares
Door Hand Location Specification
In specifying door hardwares specially
locksets and closers, it is important to know
the door hand conventions where the terms
of reference assumes the view from the
exterior of the structure/building or room to
which the doorway is heading.
1. Left Hand (LH) – the door opens
inwards going to the left with the
hinges located at the left.
2. Right Hand (RH) - the door opens
inwards going to the right with the
hinges located at the right.
3. Left Hand Reverse (LHR) - the door
opens outwards going to the left with
the hinges located at the left.
4. Right Hand Reverse (RHR) - the door
opens outwards going to the right
with the hinges located at the right.
Handles, Pulls and Push Plates,
Door Stops and Bumpers, Astragals
Handles, Push and Pull Bars - are
devices to hold the door in place
without provision for locking. They do
not require automatic latching and are
also usually used for commercial
kitchens and hospitals.
Door Stops and Bumpers – are small
metal fabrications provided with
rubber bumpers attached to a door to
prevent it from harming finishes and
damaging adjacent constructions.
Closers, Combination Pivots and
Closers, Panic Hardware
Closers - are door devices that automatically
return the door to its closed position after it is
opened and also protect the door and the
surrounding construction from damage by
controlling the distance it can be opened.
They can be either surface mounted on the
door or head frame or concealed in the frame
of door itself.
Pivots are used as the alternative way to
hang frameless doors where it is impossible
to make use of hinges or the visual
appearance of hinges on doors becomes
objectionable or creates an unacceptable
look. They are either center hung or offset
and are mounted on the floor and head of
the door.
Panic Hardware is a type of operating
mechanism required for safe egress or exit
during emergency and/or panic situations.
This hardware is operated through push bars
extending across the width of the door
connected to vertical rods that disengages
latches at the top and bottom of the door.
The vertical rods can either be concealed or
surface-mounted.
Center Latch Bolt Type is used for:
a.) single door
b.) active door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair with mullions
Vertical Rod Type is used for:
a.) single door
b.) inactive door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair
Latches, Locksets, Deadbolts, Bore-in locks and latches – also known as
Flushbolts cylindrical or tubular locks, are relatively
inexpensive, simple to install in wood doors
and have fewer operating functions than
Latches or Latch set – are devices that hold
mortise lock. Installation needs only two
the door in place without a provision for
holes to bore and a shallow mortise for case
locking. It contains a beveled latch which
front.
extends from the face of the door edge which
automatically engage the strike that is
Interconnected lock – a combination
mounted on the frame when the door is
cylindrical lock and dead bolt, in which both
closed.
locks are interconnected to allow for single
action to release both bolts by turning a knob
Thumb Latch – this is the oldest type of latch
or lever handle.
and is simple to install but difficult to adjust.
It is usually padlocked.
Other door locks:

Locksets – are devices that have special

Entrance lockset – operated inside with a
mechanisms which hold a door in the closed
key and a thumb turn or universal button
position and allow it to be locked with a key
which puts and locks the door in place when
or thumb turn.
pushed. It is usually intricately designed and
used for entrance doors.
Types of Latches and Locks:
Bedroom lockset – has simple design than
Rim Locks and Latches – the case and strike entrance lockset but have the same
are mounted on the face of the door and trim functions.
but without morticing.
Toilet lockset – operates without a key and is
Mortise Lock and Latch – this type lock from the inside by pushing a universal
developed historically from rim types. This button and is unlock only from the inside by
type makes for lengthy installation in wood turning the cylindrical knob.
doors because of the large mortise. The size
of case and accessibility of mechanism Dead Bolts – operates through the use of a
makes economically possible the maximum key only.
number and variety of knob and lever
designs and locking options. It allows the use
of dead and latch bolts that can be extracted
Parts of Latches and Locks:
in a single operation. It is considered more
secure than a cylindrical lock.
Knob - a more or less spherically-shaped
handle use for operating a lock.
Unit Lock – also known as preassembled lock
and latch. It is a complete factory lock
Knob Rose – is the round plate that is
assembly that eliminatesmuch adjustment
fastened to the face of the door around the
on the job. Unit locks slid into notch cut on
hole through which the door knob spindle
job (for wood doors) or prepared at shop (for
passes through.
metal doors). Dead bolt may be omitted to
make simple latch set to match but it can
Strike, Strike or Striking Plate – a metal box
also have button in inside knob to prevent
or plate set in a door jamb that is either
outside knob from turning (for bathrooms,
pierced or recessed to receive the bolt or
bedrooms).
latch of a lock that is fixed on the door.
Lip Strike – projects from the side of a strike traditional distinction between wall and
plate on which the bolt of a lock strikes first window no longer holds.
when a door is closed. It is the projection
from the side of the strike plate to protect the Five (5) functions of windows:
door frame.
Light Admission - the most important
Escutcheon – a protective plate surrounding
function from a practical, psychological and
the keyhole of a door.
aesthetic viewpoint.

Ventilation - the access of natural

Door bolt or barrel bolt – a sliding rod or bar
ventilation. The use of air-conditioning has
attached to a door for locking manually.
reduced the need for natural ventilation in
many types of buildings, its function remains
Chain Door Fastener – a device fastened to a
valid especially in the advent of green
door and its jamb to limit the door opening
building.
depending on the length of the chain. Use for
security purpose.
Vision - allows visual connection to and from
the external environment.
Chain Bolt – a spring bolt attached at the
top of a door which is actuated by the chain
Escape - sometimes, windows act as
attached to it.
emergency exits or escapes from dangers,
fires, etc.
Foot Bolt – a device fixed at the bottom of
the door operated by foot. When the door is
Architectural Element - windows are
unbolted, the bolt is held up by a spring.
considered by architects as elements of
architectural composition and are extremely
Flush Bolt – device attached to the inactive
important in the total aesthetic effect
leaf of a pair of doors to lock it in place. It is
created in a building.
either surface-mounted or mortised into the
edge of the door.

Types of Operation:
Automatic Door Bottoms – are devices that
are surface mounted to the bottom of the
Fixed Window - cannot be opened,
door or mortised into it to provide a sound or
consisting of a stationary sash and frame It
lights seal. The seal is up when the door is
provides 0% or no ventilation.
open and a plunger strikes the jamb that
forces the seal down whenever the door is
Double-Hung Window - provides only 50%
close.
maximum opening. It consists of two (2)
sashes, both sliding vertically on separate
4.5 Windows and Window tracks.
Hardware
Sliding Window - provides only 50%
maximum opening. It consists of two or more
Windows and Hardware sashes, with at least one sliding along a track
Traditionally, windows were considered as
horizontally. The sash is usually removable for
apertures or openings in a wall. In fact even
easy cleaning.
today professionals still use this term. But
because of the wide use of glass, windows
Awning Window - provides 100% opening. It
now form the entire wall system, thereby the
consists of sashes that swing outward on
hinges attached to the top of the frame.
Hopper Window - provides 100% opening. It
consists of sashes that swing outward on
hinges attached to the bottom of the frame.
Casement Window - provides 100% opening.
It consists of sashes that swing outward on
hinges attached to the sides of the frame.
Pivoted Window - provides 100% opening. It
consists of sashes that rotate about a vertical
or horizontal axis at the centers.
Jalousie Window - provides 100% opening. It
consists of horizontal glass or wood louvers
that pivot simultaneously and operated by
crank or mechanical operator in a common
frame. Use commonly for residential
buildings.
Parts of a Window:
Frame - refers to the part of the window that
receives and holds the sash and other
necessary window hardware. It is fixed and
non-operable.
Elements of the Frame:
Head - the uppermost horizontal part or
member.
Jamb - the two vertical side members
Sill - the bottom horizontal member with
the upper surface usually sloped to shed
rainwater
Sub Sill - an additional sill fitted to a window
frame to allow rainwater to drip further away
from the wall surface
Casing Trim - the finishing trim work around
a window opening. It consists of head and
jamb casings, window sills and aprons.
Head and Jamb Casing – hides or conceals
the joint or gap between the window and
surrounding wall surface.
Windowsill - this is the horizontal ledge
formed by the flat area upon which a window
shuts down called the stool at the base of the
window opening.
Apron - the flat piece of trim immediately
beneath the stool of a window sill.
Architrave – this is the continuous casing
with the same profile that surrounds a
window.
Plinth Block – terminates a jamb casing
above the floor.
Sash and Glazing
This refers to the part of the window that
holds the pane of glass or other materials. It
is either fixed or movable.
Elements of the Sash:
Pane - a single unit of glass set in a
sash; a division of a window
Glazing - the panes or sheets of glass
set in the sash
Rails - the horizontal part framing a
sash
Muntins - the vertical members
holding the edges of the window
panes
Stiles - the upright or vertical
members framing a window sash.
Mullions - refers to the vertical
member separating a series of
windows.
Operators are devices for doors and windows
that are not supplied as part of the door and
window package, including both
self-contained mechanisms and those with
remote pumps or power units, as well as
photocells, mats, transmitters and other
actuating devices.
Types of Operators:
- Lever Arm
 - Rack and Pinion
- Hand Chain Control
5.1 Concrete Surface Finishes
Concrete Surface Finishes (for
Walls)
Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco
Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement, sand
and water. In order to make the mortar easier
to work with, hydrated lime is added. The
mixture is applied in three coats – scratch,
brown and finish coats.
Rubbed Finish
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day
or two after it has set using a brick of
carborundum, soft natural stone or emery.
Then a thin grout of cement and sand is
applied to the surface in a circular motion
rubbing it in to fill in the surface
imperfections. Afterwards, the work is
washed down with clean water. A sand-float
finish is a method using fine sand instead of
grout.
Brushed Finish
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or
brushing the concrete surface while still
green with fiber or wire brushes and water to
remove the surface film or mortar leaving the
coarse aggregate exposed.
Tooled Finish
Concrete surfaces may be finished by tooling
employing any methods for the dressing or
finishing of natural stone. The most popular
method used in tooling concrete surfaces is
through the use of bush hammering either
manually or by using a pneumatic tool.
Sand-Blast Finish
A sand-blast finish is much the same
appearance as that of a brushed finish.
Sand-blasting produces a granulated finish
similar to sandstone but is not so uniform
because the aggregates are likely to be
brought out irregularly. It is done through the
use of washing done top cement cover with
water with a specified nozzle gun.
Exposed Aggregate Finish
The color of this finish is obtained from the
exposed aggregate and not through the
addition of coloring material to the mixture..
Such colored or other special aggregate used
for the finish shall be exposed by scrubbing.
5.2 Floor Finishes
Floor Finishes
Wood Float Finish
The concrete aggregate is forced below the
surface, and the surface is then leveled with a
straight wood screed and while the concrete
is not firmly set, it is given a float finish with a
straight, flat wood trowel called floats.
Steel-Trowelled Finish
After the concrete aggregate is forced below
the surface, the surface is then leveled with a
straight wood screed, and given a wood float
finish. The entire surface is then
steel-trowelled before the concrete finally
sets.
Integral Colored-Cement Floor Finish
When the concrete is still green but the
surface water is gone, the surface is leveled
with a straight wood screed. Then a finish
coat of 1:3 mortar with color is applied. This
finish coat is leveled with a wood screed,
given a float finish and then steel-trowelled.
Separately Applied Cement Finishes
These separate finishes are designated as
non-slip, heavy duty, colored cement, etc.
1. Granolithic Finish
This consist of a topping with a
mixture of 1 part cement, 1 part sand
and 1 part finely crushed stone. It is
called granolithic because fine
aggregate chips were originally used
in the aggregate. Finely ground
 corundum may also be a part of the
aggregate to produce an enduring
and non-slip surface.
2. Terrazzo Finish
Terrazzo is a mixture of cement,
marble chip aggregates and water laid
as a topping or as a wall finish, and
ground to a fine, smooth surface. It is
used for floors and bases where
durability, resistance to wear and
minmal maintenance are necessary. It
is available in either in precast form,
e.g. tile or cast-in-place, with either a
smoothl;y polished or non-slip
surfaces, abrasive granules are added
to the mixture.
Tile Finishes
Cement Tile
Cement tile is manufactured by
pressing in moulds a plastic mixture of
cement and sand. Surface color of the
tile is achieved by the addition of
mineral oxide colors. Thickness of
cement tiles is 25.4 millimeters (1”).
Common sizes are squares 8”x8”,
textured, polychrome, mottled, stippled or
12”x12”, 16”x16”.
rippled surface.
Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tiles are small surfacing units
made from clay or mixture of clay with
other ceramic materialsand fired
according to various processes. Tiles
differ principally in: (a) composition of
the body; (b) surface finish, that is,
glazed or unglazed; (c) process of
manufacture; and (d) the degree of
vitrification or fusion of the tile body
after firing, as indicated by the extent
to which it absorbs moisture.
a. Unglazed tiles are composed of
the same ingredients
throughout and derive their
color and texture from the
materials of which the body is
made.
b. Glazed tiles have a glassy
surface of ceramic materials
fused upon their face to give
them a decorative appearance
and to make the surface
impervious to moisture. Glazes
are produce in a large variety of
colors, ranging from pure white
to jet black. Glaze finishes are of
two general classes in their light
reflecting qualities:
- Bright glazes – which
have a highly polished
surface and reflect an
image clearly.
- Matte glazes – or those
which do not clearly
reflect an image or are
entirely without sheen. All
degrees of semi-lustrous
or satin-like finish may be
produced between the
two extremes of
reflection and
non-reflection.
In addition, glazes may have plain,
Types of Ceramic Tiles
The leading types of ceramic floor and
wall tiles are:
Glazed Interior Tiles – glazed interior
tiles are non-vitreous product made by
the dust-press process.
Ceramic Mosaic Tiles – are tiles less
than 6 square inches in facial area,
preponderantly unglazed and having
fully vitrified or fairly dense bodies. To
facilitate installation, ceramic mosaic
tiles are usually mounted at the factory
on sheets of paper about 2 square feet
in area, with the individual tile units
being spaced so as to allow for the
 insertion of grout between them when
the paper is removed and the face of
the tiles is exposed.
Glazed Weatherproof Tiles
These are durable tiles with
semi-vitreous body and are suitable for
use on all walls both interior and
exterior and on all floors except those
subject to heavy wear. All dull or matte
finish is recommended when these
tiles are used on floors.
Pavers
These are standard size unglazed tiles
resembling ceramic mosaic tiles in
composition and physical
characteristics but usually having facial
area of 6 square inches or more.
Because of their greater size, which
usually ranges from 3”x3” to 6”x6”,
these tiles are generally not pasted
onto paper but are laid out
individually.
Quarry Tiles
Quarry tile is an unglazed floor tile
made from natural clays or shales by
the plastic method. They are very
durable flooring material being
impervious to moisture, stains and dirt
and are resistant to abrasions.
Faience Tiles
Faience tiles are generally surfaced
with a highly colored opaque glaze
and are always made by the plastic
method from natural clays. The body of
faience tiles may be non-vitreous,
semi-vitreous or vitreous, the degree of
vitrification depending largely upon
whether the tiles are to be used for
interior and exterior work.
Ceramic Trim Tiles
Trim tiles are variously shaped units
used to finish the wall tile installation
and include caps, bases, inserts,
combinations, internal and external
angles, returns (finishing units for
outside corner installation).
The most widely used flux in floor and
wall tiles is the mineral feldspar.
Brand names of ceramic tiles:
MARIWASA (local); EUROTILES (local);
LEPANTO (local); ROCERSA;
Resilient Floor Finishes
Resilient flooring is manufactured as tile or
sheet. Resilient floor tiles include asphalt,
vinyl, rubber, linoleum and cork. Resilient
floor sheets include vinyl, linoleum and
rubber.
1. Asphalt Tile and Sheet
This consist of thoroughly bonded
composition of thermoplastic binder
(asphaltic type for standard asphalt tile and
resinous for greaseproof asphalt tile),
asbestos and other fibers, inert filler materials
(various stone dust, diatomite, mica etc) and
inert color pigments formed under pressure
while hot and cut to size. Asphalt tile is
usually made in 22.86 mm. (9”) squares and
less commonly in 30.48 mm. (12”) squares.
Rectangular borders 45.75mm.x 60.96 mm.
(18”x24”) are made in limited variety of colors
and patterns.
2. Vinyl Tile and Sheet
Vinyl resilient flooring materials are divided
into three major types: (a) solid vinyl, (b) vinyl
and asbestos combined (c) a thin vinyl
applied to other types of resilient flooring
materials.
- Vinyl tiles are manufactured into the
following thicknesses: 1.5mm, 2.0mm,
2.5mm and 3.0mm, in squares
300mmx300mm. The colors, texture
and patterns of vinyl asbestos tile cover
a wider range than the sheet.
- Vinyl sheet flooring is manufacured
in the same thicknesses in rolls of 6
feet wide and lengths of 50 feet. The
thicker sheet is used in areas where
heavy traffic will be encountered. Vinyl
 flooring is recommended where a
colorful, textured, tough, durable, easily
maintained, grease-resistant type of Wood Flooring Finishes
finish flooring is required for areas of
Wood is used in several different forms as a
both light and heavy human traffic. It
finish flooring material. There are several
may be used for above-grade,
types of wood flooring:
on-grade and below-grade floors. Vinyl
flooring should not be used for exterior
1. Strip Flooring
floor surfaces; in areas where specific
This type of flooring consits of
chemicals that attack vinyl are used;
tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards 150mm (6”)
where economy is of major
or less in width. Nominal sizes of strips are
importance.
1”x3”, 1”x4”, and 1”x6”; with net (face) widths of
2-1/4”, 3-1/4” and 5-1/4” respectively. The net
3. Rubber Tile and Sheet
thickness is 7/8”. Strip flooring is often laid
Rubber floor tiles as a rule are made of
over a concrete slab sub-floor. The flooring
nuetral rubber for greatest resilience. Sizes,
steps are nailed to 2”x3” or 2”x4” sleepers or
thicknesses, as well as methods of
screeds embedded or anchored to the
application and precautions to follow in
concrete floor. The sleepers should be treated
installation, are much the same as for vinyl
with a suitable wood preservative. The space
floor tiles. Rubber sheet flooring is applied
between the finish floor and the top of the
according to the general rules given for
concrete slab is filled with cinder concrete or
linoleum. Advantages of rubber flooring are:
other damp-proof composition fill.
(a) It is the quietest floor possible with the
exception of thick cork tile; and (b) Its colors
Kiln-dried (KD) T&G Flooring and Siding:
are more brilliant than those of other types.
MATIMCO, NALCO (Nasipit Lumber Co.)
Rubber flooring, however, are not resistant to
soap, oil, and many household solvents as
2. Plank Flooring
vinyl and linoleum.
This type of flooring consists of square-edged
boards 8” or more in width as are commonly
4. Linoleum Tile and Sheet
found in old Spanish-period houses. Plank
Linoleum is a resilient, waterproof floor
flooring is usually faced-nailed.
covering that consists of a backing covered
with a relatively thick layer of wearing
3. Parquet Tile Flooring
surface. This wearing surface is a mixture that
Also known as block flooring, which consists
contains oxidized linseed oil processed in a
of square pieces or blocks which have been
special way, combined with wood or cork
built-up in several layers like plywood and
flour, various fillers, stone dusts, whiting,
having a veneered surface, or consists of
diatomite, resins, binders, driers and inert
several parquet strips assembled at the
color pigments. Linoleum is available in three
factory to form a tile. This type of flooring may
gauges: (a) service (1.6mm or 1/16”), standard
be nailed to a wood sub-floor or set in mastic
(2.5mm or 3/32”) and (c) heavy (3.2mm or 1/8”).
to a concrete sub-floor.
It comes in rolls of 2’-0” and 6’-0” wide and up
to 30’-0” in length and in 9”x9” tiles for plain
4. Floating Flooring
and marbled.
Floating flooring are wood floors that are not
nailed or glued to the sub-floor, but instead
Laminated or Engineered Flooring
“float” above it on a thin pad of resilient foam.
Brand names of resilient floor sheet and tile:
They are made by connecting the individual
ARMSTRONG (asphalt, vinyl, vinyl-asbestos,
pieces of flooring together at the edges to
vinyl corlon, rubber, linoleum and cork tiles);
make one continuous piece as large as the
APO FLOORING (vinyl sheet and tile);
room in which the flooring is laid.
AZROCK (asphalt tiles); KENTILE (cork tiles)
 Paint Finishes

5.3 Ceiling Finishes Transparent Finishing Materials

1. Wood Stains
Ceiling Finishes
Wood stains are composed of pigments
(coloring ingredients) and liquid solvents of
1. Ceiling Boards
water, oil or alcohol. When applied, the
These are shiplapped boards with a bead
coloring matter penetrates the surface,
running along the center of the board and
remaining transparent to display the
along the joint, hence it is often referred to as
beautiful grain effect to advantage.
beaded ceiling board (B.C.B). The thicknesses
are 3/8” and ½” and widths of 4” and 6”.
Three types of wood stains:

2. Acoustic Tile
Oil Stains – the pigments are obtained
Acoustic tile is used for ceiling and wall
from various earth clays. After they are
finishes in rooms where it is required to
dissolved in linseed oil, the coloring
control sound absorption. There are several
particles remain suspended between
types of acoustic tile:
the oil molecules. For spreading the
color particles over large surfaces, the
- Cellulose fiber tile – These are made
ground oil color is thinned with
from compressed sugar cane or wood
turpentine.
fibers with perforations on the surface
of the tile.
Water Stains – made from anilyne
dyes and mineral extracts which have
- Mineral wool tile – Felted rock wool
been dissolved in hot water.
with a fissured surface. Mineral wool
tile has limited vacoustic values, is
Spirit (Alcohol) Stains – Stains that
flame retardant but will not withstand
are mixed with alcohol-solution
rough usage and cannot be painted. It
anilyne powders and warm alcohol.
is available in ½”, 5/8”, ¼”, 7/8”, and 1”
thickness and sizes of 12”x12”, 12”x24”,
2. Wood Fillers
and 24”x24”.
Paste Fillers – composed of silex
- Glass Fiber Tile – are made of glass
(stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil,
fiber held together by binders.
turpentine and sometimes colors
Thickness is available in 1-1/4” with sizes
ground in oil by adding color to a filler
of 23-3/4”x23-3/4” and 47-3/4”x47-3/4”.
(both wood filling and staining is done
simultaneously). Filler is applied with
- Cork Tiles – an acoustical tile made of
the grain and allowed to dry “flat” for
cork. Available in sizes of
about ten (10) minutes. It is then wiped
¼”x5-3/4”x11-1/2” and 1-1/2”x11-1/2”x11-1/2
off across the grain with burlap or
some other coarse material. Paste
3. Asbestos Cement Tile
fillers requires about 24 hours for
a perforated tile made of asbestos wool fibers.
drying before it can be sanded.
Not in use anymore because of health
hazards
Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty,
stick shellac, etc. They are used for
filling nail holes, cracks and dents.
5.4 Paint Finishes
Shellac – made by refining seed lac
and its natural color is orange; white
shellac is obtained by bleaching. Lac is
a resin exuded by certain insects in
India in the twigs of trees. These twigs
with the resin attached are called
sticklac and are crushed and washed
to produce seed lac. Shellac is an
under or a preparatory coat for varnish
and wax finishes, but is not satisfactory
as an independent finish because it is
not durable and turns white from
contact with water. It is also used to
cover wood knots before a priming
lead and oil coat is applied because it
kills the resin in the knot and prevents
discoloration.
Varnish – is a resolution of resin in
drying oil (oil varnish) or in a volatile
solvent such as alcohol or turpentine
(spirit varnish). It contains no pigment
and hardens into a smooth, hard and
glossy coat by the oxidation of the oil
or by the evaporation of the alcohol.
The chief resins used in varnishes are
copal or African fossil gums; dammar
or resins from Singapore and the East
Indies; rosin, the residue left under the
extraction of turpentine from pine
resins and rosin esters, obtain by
treating rosin with glycerine to make it
waterproof when dry. In general, oil
varnishes are more durable than spirit
varnishes. Spirit varnishes are either
dammar varnish, made by treating
dammar resins with turpentine or
shellac varnish, made by dissolving
white or orange shellac in grain
alcohol. They dry by evaporation of the
solvent. Drying time is from 4 to 24
hours. Varnish should never be applied
when the weather is moist or humid.
Lacquer – is made synthetically and is
closely related to rayon or nylon fabrics.
It requires a special thinner sold by
each manufacturer for his own brand.
Average drying time is 1-1/2 hours. For
fine lacquer finishes, a special
undercoat of lacquer sealer is applied
over a wash coat of shellac. After the
sealer has dried, it is sanded or
steel-wooled to give the lacquer a
gripping surface.
Opaque Finishing Materials
1. Paint
Paint is the dry film formed from a mixture of
a pigment (solids) and a vehicle (liquids or
fluids) spread on a surface as a decorative or
protective coating.
Pigment – is that solid, finely ground
portion which gives to paint the power
to obscure, hide or color the surface.
Pigments may be divided into white
and colored The white pigments can in
turn be divided into active (hiding)
pigments and extender pigments.
Active (hiding) pigments are those
that when mixed with the drying oil
produces an opaque finishing material.
The most widely used active pigment
is the white lead which when used
alone with linseed oil, will produce an
excellent, durable paint. Other active
white pigments include zinc oxide
(used with white lead to give increased
hardness, greater durability, reduced
caulking, greater color retention and
elasticity), lithopone, titanium dioxide.
Extender pigments are inert
pigments which when mixed with the
drying oils possess very little hiding
power. They are often referred to as
fillers, extenders or suspenders. They
serve to prevent the primary
ingredient from setting in a hard mass
at the bottom of the paint can. The
extender pigments include calcium
carbonate, silica and mica. All paints
other than white paints also contain
color pigments in addition to white
pigments. A good exterior paint shoul
contain not less than 65% pigment by
weight. High quality exterior paints
contain not more than 10% of extender
 pigments. Example of extender
pigment is talc.
Vehicle – is the liquid or fluid portion of the
paint which carries the particles of the
pigment in suspension and by the oxidation
deposits and hardening binds them to the
painted surface or by evaporation, deposits
them thereon. A good paints vehicle will
contain from 85% to 95% drying oil and the
rest thinners and driers. The vehicle or liquid
portion of the paint consists of the following:
Binder – forms the film.
Driers – to speed up formulation of the
film. Driers may be classified into two
types:
(a) oil driers are used in powdered or
crystalline form such as litharge (monoxide
of lead), manganese dioxide, borate and;
(b) liquid driers are inorganic compounds of
lead, manganese and cobalt, which are
dissolved in turpentine or benzene and
which mix readily with the oil at ordinary
temperatures.
Volatile Solvent – known technically
as the thinner. The volatile solvent
facilitates application and contributes,
through its evaporation, the drying of
the paint, but is not a permanent part
of the film.
Types of Paints
Oil Paint – is the principal paint for exterior
wood surfaces. It contains white lead as the
white paint pigment, together with color
pigments and extenders in a vehicle
consisting of drying oil (usually linseed oils),
dryers and the solven t or thinner
(turpentine).
Alkyd-Resin or Oil-Resin Emulsion Paints –
oil and resin emulsified in water makes a
heterogeneous finishing material by an
emulsifying agent such as casein. A great
advantage of oil-resin paint is that its
viscosity can be easily reduced by the
addition of water.
Synthetic Latex (Rubber-Base) Paints –
paints made from synthetic latex which acts
as the pigment binder and the film forming
material for the paint. A careful balance of
synthetic latex and alkyd resins gives a
solution that can thinned with water for
application as a continuous film with
excellent adhesion and wash ability. Latex
paint is the preferred paint for plaster,
cement, concrete and masonry.
Portland Cement-Base Paints – is a
water-based paint (where the solvent is
water) used for painting concrete and
masonry surfaces.
Enamel Paints – are generally paints which
use varnish as a vehicle. They have the ability
of levelling brush marks, are more resistant to
washing and rough usage and have a harder
and tougher film. They can have either a
glossy, semi-glossy or matt finish.
Rust-Inhibiting Paints – are protective
paints for ferrous metal and are of two types:
Priming Paint: e.g. red lead, litharge, lead
chromate
Finish Paint: e.g. lead sulfate, zinc dust
2. Paint Behavior and Defects
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a
properly prepared surface wears by gradual
“chalking” and maintains a smooth, tough
and durable film that constitutes a
satisfactory surface for repainting. Such a
paint film will remain an effective protective
coating for a period of three to five years
depending upon the locality and the
characteristics of the original surface. It
requires little treatment beyond surface
dusting in preparation for repainting.
Defective paint behavior and surface failures
are traceable to three main causes:

- Improper paint formulation.
- Inadequate surface preparation and
careless application of paints.
- Faulty construction or building
materials.
The following are the various paint defects,
their causes, prevention:
Excessive or premature chalking –
this is evidenced by surface dusting
and rapid thinning of the film,
sometimes to bare wood. The cause
may be due to improper formulation
or paint application. Paints containing
too high a percentage of volatile
thinner forms a porous film subject
has completely worn away. Prevention
requires merely a strict adherence to
high standards of paint formulation
and application.
Sagging and Running – is marked by
irregular wavy lines that texture an
otherwise smooth finish film. The
cause is usually paint formulation with
too low a pigment volume or too heavy
and careless application of a should be painted while metallic zinc
thin-consistency paint. It occurs
sometimes when repainting an
interior if an original gloss surface has
not been cut by sanding. Curing the
condition necessitates sanding the
irregularities and repainting.
Prevention involves maintaining
proper proportions of pigment and
linseed oil as to formulation and
careful brushing of properly thinned
paint as to application.
Storm Spotting – usually occurs after
continuous rains and electric storms
are characterized by unsightly and
irregular color changes. Rain
sometimes absorbs nitrates and
peroxides firmed by electrical
discharges and penetrates the paint
film, changing the refractive index of
the coating. The cure of the condition
can sometimes be accomplished by
rubbing the spots with alcohol.
Subsequent weathering usually
restores the original color within a
month or two.
Washing – is characterized by
streaking on the surface, fading color,
the final exposure of the original
surface and accumulation of pigment
particles below the painted area. This
is caused by water-soluble compounds
which develop by chemical reactions
in the paint dissolved during rain
storms and was out of the film. Also,
when paints are applied during
periods of high humidity and low
temperatures, the film structure may
be injured during the drying period.
Stains – are surface discolorations
which often disappear gradually as the
paint film wears. Sometimes, however,
they go through the film necessitating
its removal and subsequent
repainting. Metal stains are sometimes
caused by water dripping from
exposed metal. Prevention involves the
coating of the metal. Galvanized iron
dust in spar varnish or paint
containing zinc oxide. Mildew stains
are caused by air-borne fingi that feed
on oil and multiply rapidly. They
cannot be easily removed. Old growth
should be removed before repainting
by washing with 1 lb. of tri-sodium
phosphate or sodium carbonate with 1
gallon of water. For prevention, the
paint can be treated with about ¼
ounce of mercuric chloride per gallon
of water.
Checking – is characterized by minute
cracks on the surface of elastic paint
films. Usually it is not a serious film
defect, for checks do not extend
through the film. The cause is
improper application or improper
formulation of undercoats. The finish
film is applied over a body coat not
quite enough for a proper foundation.
Unequal tensions occur in drying and
small surface checks result. The cure of
condition involves wire brushing the
affected areas and repainting it, if
checking does not disappear under
the influence of normal wear.
Prevention involves the allowance of
sufficient drying time between coats
and the formulation of the body coat
with a minimum amount of oil in order
to develop a hard foundation for finish
coat.
Alligatoring - is an advance state of
checking, varying in degree to a coarse
texturing of the finish film. The cause
involves application of a harder drying
finish over soft or slow-drying
undercoats. As in checking,
formulation with too much linseed oil
in the priming or body coat may result
in alligatoring. The cure of condition, if
extensive, requires the removal of the
film and repainting. Prevention
necessitates precautions noted above
to prevent checking.
Cracking and Scaling – are
characterized by irregular cracks that
subsequently curl at the edge, flake
and finally scale off. Over wood, scaling
is usually most marked in direction of
or across the grain. Cracking is a wear
characteristic of hard-drying paints
that contain large proportions of zinc
oxide pigment. Scaling comes from
the water pressure when moisture
seeps through the crack to the original
surface. The condition is common to
any surface coated with paint
improperly formulated to withstand
local conditions. The cure of the
condition at an early stage requires
vigorous brushing and recounting
with a less brittle film. Prevention
involves the formulation to produce a
tougher, more elastic film. Usually this
means an increased percentage of
white lead.
Blistering and Peeling – is
characterized by swelling of the entire
film which is usually followed by a
break in the film and subsequent
peeling. The cause is water pressure
from behind the film due to faulty
construction that allows moisture
seepage or abnormal condensation.
This is a mechanical damage that may
occur whatever the type or quality of
paint used. It sometimes also results
when damp surfaces are covered by
quick-drying paints. This type of
damage may be evident on wood,
stucco or masonry surfaces. The cure
of condition requires the complete
removal of the paint and repainting as
for new work. Prevention necessitates
the permanent removal of sources,
often involving extensive repairs and
waterproofing the moisture.
Spot Fading – is characterized by color
changes and flatting of gloss in
irregular patches on the film. The
cause is from uneven oil absorption,
usually a result of insufficient coats or a
priming coat improperly formulated to
penetrate and adequately seal surface
pores. It may be emphasized when
“skimping” is attempted, that is,
application of two coats when three
are needed, or the use of a cheaply
formulated paint. The cure of the
condition is repainting. Prevention
requires merely the exercise of proper
painting technique.
Wrinkling – should not be confused
with alligatoring, for wrinkling is
marked by a tough, leather-like
texturing. The cause is usually when
paint is put on too thickly and not well
brushed out and may be contributed
to by formulation, if too high a
proportion of oil is used in finish coats.
The cure of the condition requires only
sanding and repainting if texture is
slight. Otherwise, the film removal is
indicated with subsequent painting as
for new work. Prevention requires
 strict adherence to high standards of
b. Digital Rule
paint formulation and thorough (Laser Meter)- used
brushing out in application. to Measure long
distances

6.1 Construction Tools and

c. Framing Square
Equipment (Hand Tools) is a layout tool that
is used to measure
90-degree angles at
the corners of
Tools and Equipment employed in
framework and joint.
construction are grouped into four
categories: d. Level Bar is a
long, straight tool
- Hand Tools that contains one or
- Power Tools more vials of liquid
and used to
- Construction Equipment
determine if the
- Heavy Equipment horizontal or vertical
is exact.
Hand Tools are the tools that use power
delivered by man only. e. Chalk line or
Marker Ink is used
for Marking Lines
1. Pry Bar

used to force open

boards used in
forming concrete.

3. Hammers

2. Measurement and Layout Tools

a. Claw Hammer is
a. Folding Rule an ordinary
Hammer used to
drive or remove nails

b. Sledge Hammer
is a heavy hammer
Tape Measure used to drive stakes
into the ground and
to break up concrete
and stones.
 4. Screwdrivers 6. Chisels

a. Standard a. Wood Chisel is

Screwdriver has a used to trim wood
flat tip and is and clear away
designed to fit a excess material from
standard slotted wood joint.
screw

b. Philips
Screwdriver has an
X-shaped tip and is
b. Cold Chisel is
used to turn
used to trim metals
Philip-head screws
only.

c. Spiral Ratchet
Screwdriver is that
which relies on a 7. Special Hand Tools
pushing force rather
than a twisting
a. Nail Set is used to
force.
drive finishing nails
below the surface of
wooden trim or
5. Saws molding.

a. Ripsaw has
chisel-like teeth b. Pipe Wrench is
designed fro ripping used to turn around
or cutting with the objects like pipes
grain wood

b. Crosscut Saw is
used to cut across
the grain of wood c. Brick Trowel is
used to place and
trim mortar
c. Backsaw is a
between bricks or
special type of
concrete blocks
handsaw that has a
very thin blade and
makes very straight
cuts such as those
on trims and d. Bull Float is used
mouldings. to polish the surface
of wet concrete

d. Hacksaw is used
to cut metal.
 Table Saw is used
e. Blind Riveter is for cutting large
used to fasten sheets of wood and
pieces of sheet wood composites
metal together. and consists of a
blade mounted on
an electric motor
beneath a table-like
surface.

Portable circular
6.2 Construction Tools and saw is used for
Equipment (Power Tools) cutting materials
that are difficult to
cut with stationary
Power Tools tools.
are tools that employ power supplied by
Power miter saw is
forces other than that coming from humans.
a circular saw
mounted over a
Different types of Power Tools are: small table used to
cut various angles in
1. Power Drill wood.

Saber saw is used

Power drill is used to cut curves or
to drill holes in holes in floors and
wood, metal, and roofs for pipes and
concrete. has a small
knife-shaped blade
that moves up and
down.

2. Power Screwdriver

4. Types of Power hammers

Power screwdriver
or screwgun is used
to install and Pneumatic
remove screws. Hammer or
Jackhammer is
used to break up
concrete or asphalt
paving

3. Types of Power Saws Rotary Hammer is

like an electric drill
that operates with
Radial arm saw is both rotating and
used for reciprocating
crosscutting wood actions and is used
and consists of a to drill holes in
motor-driven saw concrete.
blade that is hung
on an arm over a
table.
 5. Types of Power Nailers 2. Types of Surveying Equipment

Nailers or nail gun Transit is an

fasten materials equipment used by
together by surveyors to
shooting nails into measure horizontal
the building and vertical angles
materials to obtain land
elevation.
Powder-actuated
stud driver is a kind
of nailer that is
powered by a Surveyor’s level
gunpowder and is determines an
used to drive long unidentified
pins into wood, steel, elevation from a
or concrete. known one.

Staplers are like

nailers but loaded
with u-shaped Construction laser
staples instead of flashes a narrow,
nails for fastening. accurate beam of
light to make a
baseline for
additional
measurements and
is used as a level or
as an alignment
tool.

6.3 Construction Tools and

Equipment (Construction 3. Types of Pumps

Equipment)
Water pump is used
to pump water out
Construction Equipment of holes in the
is a term that refers to large, complex tools ground so that
construction work
and machines that are designed to do a
can commence.
particular job.

1. Conveyor

Concrete Pump is
used to move
Conveyor is an concrete from
equipment which concrete mixer to
moves materials the concrete form.
other than fluid.
 4. Concrete Mixer 1. Bulldozer

Concrete Mixer is a Bulldozer is a

machine that mixes tractor with a
concrete ingredients pushing blade
by means of a which moves earth
rotating drum. Raw and clears land of
materials are bushes and trees
introduced into the
mixing drum
through its open
end and discharge 2. Types of Cranes
by tilting the mixing
drum to allow the
Crawler Crane is a
concrete to pour
crane mounted on
out.
metal treads so that
it can move over
rough terrain.
5. Types of Welding Machine

Truck Crane is
mounted on a truck
a. Arc Welding frame so that it can
Machine is used to be driven in the site.
weld materials by
melting portions of
the metal.
Tower crane or
climbing crane is
used in the
construction of tall
building because it
has built-in jack that
raises the crane
from floor to floor as
b. Laser-powered
the building is
welder is used to
constructed.
weld materials by
employing a laser to
heat the metal.
3. Types of Excavators

Backhoe is used for

general digging
6.4 Construction Tools and which is usually
mounted on either a
Equipment (Heavy crawler or truck
Equipment) frame.

Trencher is a special
kind of equipment
Heavy Equipment that digs trenches or
are those which are very large and very long, narrow ditches
for pipelines or
powerful equipment used for construction.
cables.
Front-end loader is
a large shoveling
machine that can
scoop or deposit a
large amount of
material.

4. Other Construction Equipment

Scrapper is a
machine that loads,
hauls and dumps
soil over medium to
long distances

Grader is an
earthworking
machine that grades
or levels the ground

Compactor or roller
is an equipment
that compacts soil
to prepare for road
paving

Paver is a machine
that places, spreads
and finishes
concrete or asphalt
paving materials.