CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Topic: the effects of current transformer in a load management device in

domestic appliances

1.1. Background of the study

Electrical energy is invisible, a universal commodity that is readily available
in most of the world, and it has been recognized as an everyday consumer
need. Renewable energy is used to aid the primary energy demand in the
form of solar PV, solar thermal, wind energy. The intermittent nature of
renewable energy, harmonics, and reactive power problems halts the
performance of the power system by originating stability concerns in the
power system.
Due to the increasing population and low economic growth, Nigeria is
suffering from an electricity crisis from the past decade. On the other hand,
the world is moving towards innovations in electronic appliance. Everyone
wants comfort and ease in one’s life, and modern appliance are increasing
rapidly.
However, what is the problem with the high usage of power? We can
examine this question from different perspectives, such as the production
approach. According to [1], fossil fuels are the main source of energy
worldwide, making up 62%of total consumption by 2021. The problems
with the class of resources are that they not renewable, so the more they are
used, the faster they disappear, and they also contribute significantly to
global pollution and climate change.
Additionally, many power plants or equipment installed inside the
distribution infrastructure are not ready to handle the new levels of energy
 consumption that are required by trend technologies. This results in
inadequate power supply during peak hours for end- users or even complete
power outages [2]. The above issues are common in microgrids, which are
decentralized power systems composed of small, diverse sources of energy
that operate independently or in parallel with the main grid.
The increase in power consumption comes with a series of challenges
that can be addressed through better energy efficiency, which can be
encouraged by the implementation of load shedding device. this consumer
method enables a balance between supply and consumption through an
effective management based on the use of modern technologies of
measuring, monitoring and controlling [2-5].
Table 1 reveals Nigeria present power demand in comparison with
generated power. This reveals that the actual electricity supply has been
significantly less than load demand, for instance in 2014 and 2016, the
actually supply logged behind the power demand by 21,639MW respectively
representing about 15% and 17% of power availability. This clearly indicate
that there is not corresponding increase in electricity generation as
population increase as shown in 2014 where country’s population increased
to 165 million but the total available power generated stood at 3795MW.

NIGERIA PRESENT POWER DEMAND AND GENERATED POWER:

YEAR POPULATION ESTIMATED ESTIMATED AVAILABLE

(MILLION) DEMAND POWER(MW) POWER(MW)
(MW)
1896 2.0 0.050 0.060 0.060
1980 73.7 5,085 2,240 788
1985 83.1 6,863 4,574 1,273
 1990 95.6 8,291 4,960 2,400
2010 159.7 21,624 6,904 3,358
2014 165.0 25,434 8,876 3,795
2016 170.0 28,360 10396 4,959
The current transformer (CT) is similar to the common voltage transformer
that we are all familiar with. It is a current measuring device used to safely
reproduce a low-level current that accurately represents a higher current level for
the purpose of metering and protection. Current transformers (CTs) are sensors that
measure alternating current (AC). They are particularly useful for measuring whole
building electricity consumption or generation.

The split core type, can be clipped onto either the live or neutral wire
coming into the building, without the need to do any high voltage electrical work.
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a
magnetic core, and a secondary winding. In the case of whole building monitoring,
the primary winding is the live or neutral wire (NOT both!) coming into the
building, that is passed through the opening in the CT. The secondary winding is
made of many turns of fine wire housed within the transformer case.

In energy management systems (HEMS), the current transformer helps to

measure the actual current in real-time system drawn by the load from the supply
for the microcontroller to adjust and shed off some loads to save energy.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Due to increasing population and low economic growth in Nigeria its power
sector is greatly suffering from electricity crisis from the past years. A load of an
ordinary person’s home is doubled, at least due to modern appliance great need to
reduce work, stress from manually operated devices. The current power generation
is unable to meet electricity demand. The gap between demand and supply was
reported around 6000MW, 5201MW, and 7000MW in 2012, 2015 and 2017
respectively [6-8] which have resulted in power outages and other power issues.

The efficient disconnection of loads due to insufficient energy generation is

one of the most important is one of the most important problems in the field of
smart grids. However, the consumer domain has been the least expected [9]. In
isolated microgrids, for example, this type of situation is common, since the
electricity produced is heavily reliant on renewable resources that are available and
or stored. In this situation, if the available power is divided by the number of
dwellings inside the grid, the power will be variable. Therefore, this type of
context is where load control management at the appliance level plays an
extremely significant role.

1. Inaccuracy of measurement: not with-standing the installation of energy

meters by the disco company to the consumers there is always an imbalance
of power measurement due to different in peak hours and off-peak hours in
energy consumption. This makes the consumer not to accept the amount of
tariff billed to him/her by the distribution company monthly or annually.
This has made power consumption in Nigeria to have a great setback.
2. Inaccurate tariff /billings: the implementation of the prepaid meter was
prompted by the electricity company’s (Power Holding Company of
Nigeria). Difficulties in collecting revenue from electricity. Bills and
reducing losses. The majority of clients did not agree with the amount of
electricity recharge without knowing how many hours each phase line and
equipment consumes much power at a period time.
1.3 Aim and Objective of the Study
1.3.1 Aim
 The aim of the seminar, is to study the imperatives of current
transformer in load monitoring and control in domestic appliances in a load
shedding device.

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES

1. To reduce the energy usage of appliances when they are in standby mode.

2.To design a system that is more convenient, one saving with time of use
(TOU) metering, cost effective, and highly automated to transfer data
periodically using GSM module to breach the communication gap.

3. To allow each unit of electricity to be used more efficiently, lowering

demand throughout the day and also distribution company can maintain a
specific load on a feeder.
4. Scalability in standardized electrical installations.
5. Presentation of calibration and validation of measurements.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STORY

1. Solving the power sector problem in Nigeria, the consumer problem with
engineering approach by developing a load shedding device system, thereby
bridging the gap between the disco company and consumer with modern
available components.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

In the course of this study the local shedding device with load control that
provide more electrical parameters (such as active, reactive, apparent power, power
factor, line frequency etc.) can be used in a wide range of scenarios, including
detecting appliance failures, or detecting loads automatically with machine
learning algorithms. The ability of the current transformer to accommodate large
current at the primary winding while low current flows to the secondary winding
making the CT to be able to measure current of any load appliance.

This study also targets in monitoring the domestic appliance at home,

controlling it to avoid usage during off- peak hours when the appliance is not
meant to be needed which will help to reduce power consumption in a particular
area and increase electricity generation stability.

ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT

The report has three chapters:

Chapter one is the introduction of this study. It comprises of the background of

study, statement of problem, aim of this study, objectives of the objectives of the
study, significance of the study and the scope of the study.

Chapter two is the literature review of this study. It consists of the historical
background and the working principle of current transformer and types and mode
of operation, uses, installation, warnings, safety, challenges faced by the CT in
measurement, accuracy, application, CT phase shift, and measuring currents using
current transformer in domestic application.

Chapter three consists of the methodology used in this study. It comprises of the
basics of current transformers, specifications of CT, system setup, load testing and
data collection. It also contains conclusion, recommendations, and References.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical Background of CTs

Current transformer was invented by three Hungarian engineers, Otto

Blathy, Miksa Deri and Karoly Zipernowsky, (ZBD) come from the initials of their
names) [10]. In the autumn is 1889 he patented the AC watt-meter. First altering
current transformers was produced in 187, when a Russian engineer Pavel
Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the
primary windings are connected to several “electric candles” (ac lamps) of his own
design [11].

A current transformer is similar to the common voltage transformer that we

all familiar with. It has an iron or ferrite core and two windings, but unlike the
voltage transformer, it comes with only one winding in the form of the cable that
passes through the transformer core and, as the name suggests, it works on current,
not voltages. Therefore, it will generate an output current flowing in the secondary
winding. The current transformer will generate whatever voltage is necessary to
drive that current within limits of course.

2.2 Working Principle of a CT

Maxwell’s Equations- Ampere’s law: Ampere was a scientist experimenting

with forces on wires carrying electric current. He was doing these experiments
back in the 1820’s, about the same time that faraday was working on faraday’s
law. Ampere and faraday didn’t know that their work would be unified by maxwell
himself, about four decades later.
 Ampere’s law explains that if a magnetic field is integrated round the close
loop wire, the close loop wire, the value of that integral is equal to the net current
enclosed by the loop [12].

FIG 1: Working Principle of a Current Transformer.

CT’S are closed loop instrument consisting of a magnetic core and a secondary
winding around the core. The primary winding of the CT the main loop has the
wire which you currently want to measure has rule the side of the core. The
primary winding that carries the main current is said to have a single loop of
winding, the wire produces a magnetic field that drives the current on the
secondary winding which is used as the current flowing through the center of the
core. Typically, the secondary rating is 5Amps or 1A. for examples Ampere’s law
of 1000 to 5 rating or a turns ratio of 200 to 1. When 1000 Amps flows on the
primary circuit would produce 5Amps on the secondary winding. Current
transformer is primary used for metering and production.

A wire carrying an electric current sets up a magnetic field around it. The wire
forms the primary winding of the transformer. The iron (or ferrite) transformer
core concentrates the field and couples it to the secondary winding. And, providing
the magnetic field continually changes, causes a current to flow in that winding
too. That current flows in the burden resistor, which generates a voltage the
emonTx can use. A current transformer will not measure direct current.

You can pass more than one wire through the opening of a current transformer if
you want the sum (more specifically the vector sum) of the currents. There are two
common instances where this is useful:

1. You have a small current and it is difficult to get an accurate reading. In this
case, the wire diameter is small it’s possible to wind it into a coil and C.T.
can be fastened to the coil, or the wire can be passed through the CT opening
several times in the same direction, effectively multiplying the current by the
number of turns passing through the core. you can correct the reading by
changing the calibration of that input.
2. You have many small loads on different circuits, and you want to measure
the total currents used by those circuits. All the circuits must be on the same
phase, and all wires must pass through the CT in the same direction. If one
wire passes through the CT in the opposite direction, the current in that wire
will be subtracted from the total.
2.3 Types and Mode of Operation of a CT

CT comes in various sizes, and shapes for different applications.

Types of CT includes

1. Solid core current transformer or Ring-core CT.

2. Split core current transformer
3. Clamp- on style current transformer
1. Solid-core CT or Ring-core CT: are generally work permanently and
mostly found in metering and protection. It can be found in switchboards,
panel boards and switch gear. The core is solid, and the cable you wish to
put it on, needs to be disconnected in order to install the CT. therefore, it’s
used only where it’s practical, safe and legal to disconnect the circuit. Its
advantage is higher accuracy.
2. split core and clamp-on CT: are generally used on temporary applications
such as power quality instrumentation for permanent applications of
protection and metering the CT’S can be found anywhere in generators,
transformers, and connected loads or anywhere we want to monitor any
current flowing in the system. The core is in two parts held together by
ellipse or screws. The two parts are simply placed around the cable and
assembled. There is no need to disconnect anything. Provided the current
transformer has a burden connected, it can be installed on a live, insulated,
current-carrying cable.

FIG 2: Types of Current Transformers.

 For examples, utilities use CTs for incoming service to monitor the current and
power usage for billing purposes. This CT’s must be extremely accurate and are
considered revenue grade since they are used for billing.

Permanent CTs are also used in monitoring power and power factor so
that the real reactive power can be optimized. On the production side CTs can be
used in combination with trip units for low-voltage circuit breaker (CB) and relay
for medium CBs to trip the CB when there is over load per fault in the system.
Many CB has built-in CTs used to monitor current. As a point of clarification
many people call CT a sensor when are mounted inside switch gear or CB. The
functionalist purposes are the same to get current measurement to a useful level.

Safety

In general, a CT must never be open-circuited once it’s attached to a current-

carrying conductor. A CT is potentially dangerous if open-circuited.

If open-circuited with current flowing in the primary, the transformer secondary

will attempt to continue driving current into what is effectively an infinite
impedance. This will produce a high and potentially dangerous voltage across the
secondary [1].

Some CT’s have built-in protection. Some have protective Zener diodes as in the
case with the SCT-013-000 recommended for use in this project. If the CT is the
‘voltage output’ type, it has a built-in burden resistor. Thus, it cannot be open-
circuited.

2.4. Installation of a CT
The primary winding of the CT is the wire carrying the current you want to
measure. If you clip your CT around a two or three core cable that has wires
carrying the same current but in opposite directions, the magnetic fields created by
the wires will cancel each other, and your CT will have no output.[3] & [4]

A split-core CT, especially one that has a ferrite core (such as the ones made by
YHDC) should never be “clamped” to the cable using any sort of packing material,
because the brittle nature of the ferrite core means that it might easily be broken,
thus destroying the CT. you should only clamp the CT to the cable or busbar if the
housing is specifically designed to do so. Similarly, a ring-core CT should never be
forced onto a cable that is too large to pass freely through the center. The position
and orientation of the cable within the CT aperture does not affect the output.

Warnings

If an unburdened CT (i.e. one without a burden resistor) is attached to a current-

carrying conductor, the CT will generate an unsafe voltage at its leads which could
break down the insulation and destroy the C.T.

The YHDC transformer sold in the shop has internal Zener diodes to limits the
maximum unburdened voltage output to a safe level. CTs with internal burden
resistor (“the voltage output “type) are also protected against developing dangerous
voltages.

Always connect the C.T. leads before clipping it round a current-carrying

conductor, and always unclip the C.T. from the current-carrying conductor before
disconnecting its leads.

Never open-circuit a C.T. whilst it is on a current carrying-carrying conductor. It is

always safe to short-circuit a C.T.

Never attempt to fit a C.T to bare conductor unless you are absolutely certain it is
designed for that. Apart from the obvious danger of electric shock, there are two
factors to be considered: the strength of the CTs insulation, and its ability to
withstand the higher temperature at which bare conductors normally operate.

A split-core CT, especially one that has ferrite core (such as the one made by
YHDC) should never be “clamped” to the cable using any sort of packing
material, because the brittle nature of the ferrite core means that it might easily be
broken, thus destroying the CT. You should only clamp the CT to the cable or
busbar if the housing is specifically designed to do so. Similarly, a ring-core CT
should never be forced onto a cable that is too large to pass freely through the
center. The position and orientation of the cable within the CT aperture makes no
practical difference to the output.

If any part of your wiring looks like this:

FIG 3: Wiring Connection to Meter and Exposure of Bare Conductor.

 Then you must get professional advice. Even though the load shedding device
shown above was (presumably) installed and sealed by the electricity distribution
authority, it is dangerous and illegal because a bare conductor is exposed.

(Exposed copper is visible on both the line and neutral conductors. Just because the
worst is the neutral conductor is no excuse. If the neutral is damaged and broken
anywhere on the supply side of this device then that neutral will become live at the
full mains voltage if anything is switched on downstream).

A single CT is generally needed for each phase and neutral to monitor

current or for ground fault CT. All of the phases and the neutral conductor goes
through the ground fault CT, current comes in one of the phases but does not return
back to the other phase through the neutral therefore there is a ground fault. The
ground fault interrupter circuit does this:

1. Current travels through body.

2. CT picks up current imbalance.
3. Sensor detects currents imbalance and open circuit.
FIG 4: Ground Fault Interrupter Circuit.

In home GFI is triggered by 5mA for residential and 30mA or more for
industrial. Ground fault is generally for personal safely at home and
equipment in industrial application (industrial ground fault protection relay-
C445).

FIG 5: Residential GFI outlet and Industrial ground fault protection relay-
C445.

In medium voltage applications, a common misconception is that the

insulation of the CT is to be rated for the line voltage the CT is measuring,
for example 14.8kv, however this is not the case cause the CT is installed in
an already insulated and typical shielded conductor. Most CT’s the
secondary winding insulation is rated at 600V. In medium voltage switch
gear CTs are physically mounted around an insulating material or use
physical separation to insulate the CT from the energized body with air gap.
FIG 6: Current Transformer Cross Section of Insulation.

CTs comes in different ratios like 100:5, 300:5, 5000:5, and 60:1 some
have multiple taps where the ratio can be selected in the field for some
specific applications like:

FIG 7: MULTIPLE TAPS OF CT.

RATIO TAP
300:5 X3-X4
500:5 X4-X5
800:5 X3-X5
1000:5 X1-X2
1200:5 X2-X3
1500:5 X2-X4
2000:5 X2-X5
2200:5 X1-X3
 2500:5 X1-X4
3000:5 X1-X5
For example, 300:5 the construction and circuit symbol:

FIG 8: Construction and Circuit Symbol of CT 300:5

When a wire carrying 300Amps AC flowing through the core will

produce 5Amps on the secondary winding, most CT’S have 5Amps as the
output while others have 1A therefore interfacing with meter or CB the
correct multiplier must be used in order to convert 5Amps or 1A to the
actual measured value. Even through the current step down from 300Amps
to 5Amps the voltage will step up on the secondary winding and open-circuit
on the CT secondary winding can have dangerously high voltage like
thousands of volts. When CT is unused, they should always have their
secondary winding shorted for safely by using a Shorting block or
Temporary jumper.

All CT’S output a current that is unusual used for metering but temporary
CT’S like those used in fluke and other power guidance instrument have
determined resistor on the secondary windings so that the output voltage can
be open-circuited when connecting the meter. With this resistor this CT’s
 can typically have rating of 10MV/A or 100MV/A. the lower range ratio is
used for secondary measurements in order words clamping on to the 5A
secondary of another CT.

FIG 9: PQ Instrument Total Ratio of 300:5 then 10mV/A into Meter.

2.5. Challenges faced by the CTs in Measurement and Solution:

Sometimes, the current value might be too small. A CT might not be accurate
unless the 10% of it’s full-load rating and one way to increase the amount of
current flowing through the core especially for temporary metering is to loop the
primary wire several times to the core. For example, for a 500/5Amps CT or
(100:0) ratio, looping the wire 5 times the core will make the CT ratio 100/5A, so
20Amps of current is flowing on the primary circuit and so 0.2A, 1A will flow on
the secondary making the measurement more accurate.

1 loop-500/5A

2 loop-250/5A

4 loops-125/5A
5 loops-100/5A

FIG 10: Multiple Loops Through Current Transformer.

2.6. Accuracy of CTs

CTs comes in variety of accuracy classes, for examples ratio of primary to
secondary current of class 1CT is 1% upgraded current CT accuracy
classes:3,2.5,1,.5s,.2s and .1. the accuracy of this devices is very important for
protection and metering. They have specific requirements for overload currents and
excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of the relays during
system fault.

A current transformer can have a range of rating from C10-C800 which is

related to the secondary winding output voltage capabilities and VA rating of the
CT. in simple terms this means that the CT with a higher rating can sustain a
higher burden on the secondary without saturating. For examples a C400 CT can
have a burden that would drive a maximum of 400v. based on this tables a C400
would be:

10% accuracy inferred at 20x normal current x secondary impedance.

OR

V= IR, 400 volts = (20x 5amps) x b4.0 ohms.

For protection CT’s this is especially important because this device consists of
20 to 30 times rated current during faults. In addition to CT saturation, the
maximum frequency range a CT can measure is typically 3-5KHZ. For most
applications this is okay since the harmonics in the power system are typically
within this range.

FIG 11: Frequency Response Curve.

2.7. Application of CTs

However, for high frequency applications like transients 100KHZ or mega-hertz
range special highly accurate CTs like this Pearson CT’s can be used.

CT Polarity:
 CT have polarity dots, arrows or markings indicating current flow direction. The
primary wire enters the CT indicated by H2 or P2. When a CT has an arrow
indicating direction, the arrow points to the load the current on the secondary
comes out from X1 and returns to X2.

FIG 12: Current Transformer Polarity Connection.

2.8. CT Phase Shift:

A common problem when using CT is that after installation a negative power
is measured this can happen if the primary orientation or the secondary wiring is
backwards or the settings is incorrect in the meter or the load shedding device.
Additionally, a CT can experience a phase shift between the primary and
secondary windings which range between few -3º to 6º. That phase difference can
make power measurements incorrect even to the point that may look like it
incorrectly flowing out of the load. Like all transformers CT’s have V-Ampere or
capacity ratings. CT have limits to the number of devices and length of wires that it
can be connected to its secondary side which is called the Burden. Items that
contribute as burden are the relays, meters and wiring.

The best way to reduce burden is to keep the conductors between the CT’s and
the metering devices as short as short as possible or increase the wire size to reduce
resistance. The burden today in modern electronics in relay and measuring is very
low compared to older equipment. But care must be taken to ensure CTs are not
overloaded or in accurate current measurement or protection will result.

2.9. Measuring Current

In addition to CT’s there are few mode ways of measuring current including:

1. Current shunts.
2. Hall effects sensors.
3. Rogowski coils.
One of easiest way of measuring current is the current shunt or shunt
resistor by using ohm’s law and known value (shunt resistor) in combination
with a differential voltmeter can be used to measure the current passing
through the resistor because the resistor is small in value, the voltage drops
across it is also small but the value of current can also be large.
FIG 13: Resistor Sensor Differential Measurement.
This method can be used to measure AC and DC current. However, as the
current that is been measured in physics implementing this method requires
the use of large high current rating and low ohmic value resistors that
requires making a break in the circuit and aa in the additional electrical
components to the load shedding device.
Hall effect sensors can also measure AC and DC current. Hall effect
sensors requires an additionally DC supply to produce a constant magnetic
field when another magnetic field interacts with the hall effect field, it
produces a changing current of the semi-conductor and a sensor to detect it
the strength of the detecting field is proportional to the amount of current.
 FIG 14: A Typical Hall-Effect Sensor.

Hall effect sensor are used in ups, solar, and microgrid applications
for monitoring DC currents. This advantage of hall effect sensor is that they
require Dc voltage source in form of a battery or external power supply.

Drift can also be a potential problem requiring them to be compensated

periodically to a calibration process. Many more time meters utilize a combination
of CTs and a hall effect sensor in order to get accurate current measurement.

Rogowski coils are open loop current transformer using an open- air core
with a very low inductance that is capable of measuring very past transient current
in AC currents. Due to the low inductance the signals in Rogowski coil generates
are very small and requires amplification and a DC power supply just like the hall
effects sensor Rogowski coils are used for:

1. Current monitoring.
2. Precision welding systems.
3. Arc furnaces.
4. Electrical equipment per high frequency measurements where high
frequencies are required.
BUILDING AN ARDUINO ENERGY MONITOR- MEASURING
MAINS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

This guide details how to build a simple electricity energy monitor on that
can be used to measure how much electricity energy you use in your home. It
measures voltage with an AC to AC power adapter and current with a clip on
CT sensor, making the setup quite safe as on high voltage work is needed.

The energy monitor can calculate real power, apparent power, power factor,
rms voltage, rms current. All the calculations are done in the digital domain on
an Arduino.

Step one- Gather components

You will need:

1x Arduino

https://learn.openenergymonitor.com

Voltage Sensing Electronics:

1x 9v AC-AC power adapter

1x 100k Ohm resistor for step down voltage divider.

1x 10k Ohm resistor for step down voltage divider.

2x 470k ohm (for voltage divider, any matching value resistor pair down
to10k).

1x 10uf capacitor
Current Sensing Electronics:

1x CT sensor SCT-013-000

1x burden resistor 18 Ohms if supply voltage is 3.3v or 33ohms if supply

voltage is 5v

2x 470k Ohm (for voltage divider, any matching value resistor pair down to
10k).

1x 10uf capacitor.

Other

1x a breadboard and same single core wire.

Step two- assemble the electronics

The electronic consist of the sensors (which produce signals proportional to

the mains voltage and current) and the sensor electronics that convert these
signals into a form the arduino is happy with.

Assemble the components as in the diagram above

Step three-upload the Arduino sketch

The Arduino sketch is the piece of software that runs on the Arduino. The
Arduino converts the raw data from its analog input into a nice useful value and
the outputs them to serial.

A. download emonlib from GitHub and place in your Arduino libraries folder.
Download:Emonlib.
B. Upload the voltage and current example.
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODLOGY

3.1 Basics of Current Transformer

A current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to
measure the current in a power distribution system as port of a load
shedding device. The CT works by wrapping a secondary coil around a
portion of the main current-carrying conductor, effectively forming a small,
isolated loop. The current in the main conductor creates a magnetic field in
the CT, which induces a proportional current in the secondary coil.

The CT output is proportional to the current in the main conductor, with

the ratio of the primary to secondary winding determining the level of
current reduction. The reduced current output from the CT is then fed into
the load shedding device, which uses it to monitor the current flow in the
power distribution system and domestic appliances.

When the current exceeds a pre-determined threshold, the load shedding

device will automatically shed some of the load to pervert an overload and
potential power collapse. The CT is an essential component of the load
shedding device, providing accurate and reliable current measurement to
ensure effective load shedding control.

The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic

field in the core, which induces a current in the secondary winding circuit
[13]. The current in the secondary winding is proportional to the current
flowing in the primary winding.

I secondary= CT turns Ratio x I primary.

CT turns ratio= Turns primary / Turns secondary.

The number of secondary turns in the CT pictured above, is 2000, so

the current in the secondary is one 2000 th of the current in the primary.
Normally this ratio is written in terms of currents. In Amps e.g. 100:5 (for a
5A meter, scaled 0-100A). The ratio for the CT above would normally be
written as 100:0.05

Burden Resistor
A “current output” CT needs to be used with a burden resistor. The burden
resistor completes or closes the CT secondary circuit. The burden value is
chosen to provide a voltage proportional to the secondary current. The
burden value needs to be low enough to prevent CT core saturation.

Calculating a suitable burden resistor size:

If the CT sensor is a “current output” type such as YHDC SCT-013-000, the

current signal needs to be converted to a voltage signal with a burden
resistor. If it is a voltage output. CT you can skip this step and leave out the
burden resistor, as the burden resistor is built into the CT.

A. Choose the current range you want to measure: The YHDC-SCT-

013-000 CT has a current range of o to 100A. for this example, let’s
choose 100A as our maximum current.
B. Convert maximum RMS current to peak-current by multiplying by
√2:
Primary peak-current =RMS current x √2=100A.

C. Divide the peak-current by the number of turns in the CT to give the

peak- current in the secondary coil:
The YHDC SCT-013-000 CT has 2000 turns, so the secondary peak
current will be:
Secondary peak-current= primary peak-current/RMS current.
D. To maximize measurement resolution, the voltage across the burden
resistor at peak-current should be equal to one-half of the Arduino analog
reference voltage. (AREF/2):
If you’re using an Arduino running at 5v: AREF/2 will be 2.5volts.
so, the ideal burden resistance will be:
 Ideal burden resistance= (AREF/2)/ secondary peak-current.
35ohms are 39 and 33 0hms. Always choose the smaller value, or
the maximum load current will create a voltage higher than AREF. We
recommend 33 ohms ±1% burden. In some cases, using 2 resistors in
series will be closer to the ideal burden value. The purifier from the ideal
value is, the lower the accuracy will be.
Adding a dc bias
If you were to connect one of the CT wires to ground and measure
the voltage of the second wire, relative to ground, the voltage would vary
from positive to negative with respect to ground. However, the Arduino
analog inputs require a positive voltage. By connecting the CT lead we
connected to ground, to a source at half the supply voltage instead, the
CT output voltage will now swing above and below 2.5v thus remaining
positive.
Resistors R1 and R2 in the circuit diagram below are a voltage
divider that provides the 2.5v source (1.65v for the emon Tx). Capacitor
C1 has a low reactance – a few hundred ohms- and provides a path for
the alternating current to pass the resistor. A value of 10uf is suitable.
 FIG 15: Circuit Diagram of Current Transformer with Burden Resistor.
Choosing a suitable value for resistors R1 & R2
Higher resistance lowers quiescent energy consumption. We use 10k
ohms resistors for mains powered monitors. The emon Tx uses
470kohmns resistor to keep the power consumption to minimum, as it is
intended to run on batteries for several months.
3.2 Current Transformer Specifications
Current transformer to be used in an electrical installation system, either
as metering-monitoring, protection or transactions will affect the expected
measurement results. To determine the current transformer specifications to
suit its purpose and get the measurement results as expected, the
specifications that must be of concern are as follows:
1. Current Transformer Ratio
2. Current Transformer Current Rating
3. Current Transformer Power Rating
4. Class Current Transformer (precision Class)
The explanation of the 3 criteria above is as follows:
1. Current Transformer Ratio:
Current transformer ratio (current transformer) is the ratio between the
primary current to the output current of the CT (secondary current). So the
writing is like x/5A or x/1A where x is the primary current where the value
is a certain to multiple and adjusted to the needs of the amount of current to
the measured, while the secondary currents only have 2 choices of values,
5A and 1A. And this ratio is written on the name plate on the CT itself.
The more widely used CT secondary current is 5Amps. This is because
the majority of high-precision metering/loading -shedding devices use the
current input from the CT is 5A.
 The secondary current CT with a value of 1A was chosen more for
technical and economic considerations, because the secondary current CT
1A is recommended to be used if the distance between the CT and the
measuring instrument is too but in accuracy, lower than the 5A [16].
2. Current Transformer Current Rating:
The CT current rating or the CT nominal current is the amount of the
CT primary current and CT secondary current which is also indicated on the
CT name plate.
In addition to the 0.25 and 0.55 classes, the current rating on the
primary side of the Ct is: 10A-12.5A-15A-20A-25A-30A-40A-50A-60A-
75A and their multiple. While on the secondary side are 1A and 5A.
Generally, the most frequency used are those that are due to the factors
mentioned above.
Whereas for 0.2S and 0.5S classes, the current rating on the primary
side is25A-50A-100A and its multiples. Whereas on the secondary side there
is only a value of 5A.
The correct selection of the current rating of a current transformer,
both on the primary and secondary sides, greatly affects the accuracy of
current measurements the recommendation for selection is that the current
on the primary side of the CT should be slightly higher than the maximum
load current (in max) to be measured. As for the secondary side, it is
recommended to use a 5A rating.
Example:
The maximum in (Nominal Current) of a load is: 1170 A.
From the CT current rating criteria on the primary current rating side, the
primary current rating is 1250A. and if a higher accuracy is desired, the CT
current rating on the secondary side is selected which is 5A. so that the
current rating for the CT to be used is: 1250/5A.
If the current transformer (CT) current rating is higher than the in max
current, the measurement accuracy is reduced. For the reason. It is necessary
to pay attention to the maximum nominal current of the load to be measured.
At the beginning of planning on the installation system, the nominal current
value can be determined easily, which is to adjust to any load that will be
installed in the installations, and don’t know what loads are already installed
on the installation, a practical way is for us to determine the CT current
rating by paying attention to the following to the following criteria:
1. If the current transformer is installed right after or before the power
transformer or distribution transformer, then the current transformer is
1.1 times the amount of the power transformer, and selected that is
closest to the CT primary current rating.
2. If the current transformer is installed right near the fuse protection
device, then the current transformer magnitude is slightly above the fuse
current rating, and is chosen which is closest to the CT primary current as
we discussed above.
However. The above also needs to be supposed by manual measurements
using a current multimeter or tang amperes for more accurate results.

3. Current Transformer Power Rating:

This is the maximum value of power that can be output by CT on the
secondary side in VA units. In order for the performance and accuracy of
the CT to be fulfilled, the power output (VA) transmitted to the
secondary side of the CT must not exceed its own capacity. The VA
value of the CT is listed on the name plate. The standard VA values on
CT are 2.5-5-10-15-30VA.
To ensure that the VA value does not exceed the CT rating, what must be
considered is what equipment uses the output of the CT secondary. So
that the total VA of all equipment connected to the CT is lower than the
rated (VA) CT. the illusion is as explained below:

In the picture above, you can see a CT that is used to measure the current
passing through the conduct (Red Power Cable). The Ct is used for
digital metering equipment and analog amperemeters with a VA of 2.5A
and 1.5 VA, respectively

For measuring needs, a 4 mm2 cable with a length of 10m and 5m is used
so that the total length of the cable is 15m

From the circuit above, the rated power (VA) that must be selected for
the Ct are:

Total VA of the meter = 2.5 = 1.5VA = 4VA

The VA for metering cable is:

P= I² x R x 2 X L,

R: Value of the cable resistance(m)

L: Cable length

2; because of 2 pulls

So that the VA value of the cable is obtained:

P= 12 x (4.61/1000) X 2 X 15

P= 0.1383VA
Total VA = 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.1383VA = 4.1383 VA

So that the VA CT must be above the value of 4.1383 VA. For this case
the approximate value is 5 VA. So that for metering installations above
CT 100/1A, it must have a rated output of 5VA.

3.3 System Setup:

A prototype of the load shedding system is made and evaluated using
a project-based scenario with three current transformers/ sensors to
measure connected load current of all different kinds of loads like
lighting, necessary and general loads. For other devices/components
includes:
1. Relay: it acts as a switch to control the load shedding process
based on the current measurement from the current transformer. It
is an electro-mechanical device the requires a small current to
drive a large current and is an actuator.
2. Circuit breaker: it is used to interrupt the flew of current in the
electrical circuit to protective the device or system against surge.
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Microcontroller: is a
40-pins IC that works according to the program or codes written
on it to behave that way. It is used to monitor the current
measurement and control the load shedding process. Here Arduino
IDE is used to code the microcontroller.
4. Display unit: it displays the currents measurement and other
information related to the load shedding process. The display used
is the liquid crystal display which works perfectly well with micro
controllers.
 5. Power Supply: it where the conversion process of the supply
takes place which includes, transportation, rectification, filtering
and regulation. It provides power to the components of the load
shedding system.
6. GSM module: works in-conjunction with the micro-controller in
sending notification of situations to the consumer’s mobile by
GSM.
7. Keypad: it is a 4x4 matrix button which is used to input the
required power which each device/ appliance is required to
consume and also to input the time for the peak and off-peak hours
of the load.
3.4 load Testing and Data Collection:
Three lamps of 100W each are connected to depict the different
load scenarios for the experiment. During off-peak hours, only a
specified amount of the load can be used. In this case, a total limit of
0.55A was set to check the proposed design’s implementation.
In this simulation, the set time for the peak hours is 6:00 pm to 10:00 pm, and the
rest of the time is off-peak hours. The current threshold value should be less than
10 A. Arduino will only operate when both these conditions come true. The total
load consumed by the four electric lamps (11.4A) and one motor (9.9 A) is 21.3A,
as shown in Figure 16A. During peak hours, the current sensor ACS712 measures
the value of the current that is 21.3A. It means that all the attached loads in
working condition then the Arduino controller immediately send the trip the signal
to the first relay and shut down the first lamp. The value load decreased from
21.3A to 18.45 A. But this value is still higher than 10A, so after the delay of 2
seconds, Arduino again sends the trip signal to relay two and shut down the lamp
2. The value of load current now decreased to 16A, as shown in Figure 16B.
Initially, the current value was 21.3A, and when the peak hour came to the control
system operates, it turned off the first two appliances, and the load current reached
up-to 16 A, which is still higher than the set load current of 10A for peak hour
times. Then the control system again operates, and another appliance is off, and
now the load current drawn by the appliances is less than the set limit. The current
value is fluctuating between 21.3A and 15.6A. When the peak hours (6 pm to 10
pm) come, all the heavy loads have shut down, and load value decreased to the
desired base value of 9.9 A. This system is very flexible in terms of peak hours
because the peak hours of the electric utility vary from area to area and season to
season. The Customer Support Representative (CSR) of an electrical power
company can easily change the value of peak hours by change the Arduino code in
the system installed at the consumer end. After this, all the lamps will shut down,
and the value of the load current reaches the desired value of 9.9A. Now only one
load is working and consuming the 9.9A, as shown in Figure 16C.

FIG 16: Variance of Current during Peak and Off-Peak Hours.

3.5 .CONCLUSION

The use of current transformers (CTs) in load shedding devices is

crucial for power control and monitoring in domestic appliances. CTs
provide a way to measure the current flowing in the electrical circuit,
which is essential for load shedding to occur. By monitoring the current,
the load shedding device can accurately determine when to shed load to
prevent overloading and ensure the safety of the electrical system.
Furthermore, the precise measurement of current provided by CTs
enables accurate power monitoring, which is necessary for efficient
energy management in domestic appliances.

In conclusion, the imperatives of current transformers in the operation

of load shedding devices are significant for ensuring power control,
monitoring, and efficient energy management in domestic appliances.
The current transformer also ensures the safely of the system by reducing
the risk of high voltage damage to the equipment. Thus, the current plays
a vital role in the effective operation of load shedding devices.

RECOMMENDATION

When operating a load shedding device in power control/ monitoring

in domestic appliances, both consumer and electric utilities to control the
use of heavy home load during peak and off-peak hours as well a
considerate amount of saving for both domestic commercial consumers is
achieved by employing this.

Firms and companies can adopt this device in order to know their
load capacity in order to handle the maximum load of connected of
devices, machines and appliance to avoid overlapping, tripping and
billings.

In urban area’s use CTs incoming power supply line to measure the
overall current consumption of the system, the key load circuits to
monitor the current consumption of the system. The key load circuits to
monitor the current consumption of specific loads and enable selective
load shedding.

In panels, systems and gadgets is important to use CT as protective

device e.g. circuit breakers. Relays etc. to trigger load shedding when
current exceeds a specified threshold. It’s important to note that the
selection of CTs for a load shedding application will depend on the
specific requirements and electrical system being used.
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