Chapter 8

Chapter 8
The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

PowerPoint Lectures
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, 8th Edition, Global Edition
REECE • TAYLOR • SIMON • DICKEY • HOGAN
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
• Cancer cells
• start out as normal body cells,
• undergo genetic mutations,
• lose the ability to control the tempo of their own division, and
• cause disease.
• Cancer therapy seeks to disrupt one or more steps in cell division.

Introduction
• In a healthy body, cell division allows for

• growth,
• the replacement of damaged cells, and
• development from an embryo into an adult.
• In sexually reproducing organisms, eggs and sperm result from
• mitosis and
• meiosis.

CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION

8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of
organisms
• The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is a key

characteristic of life.

organisms
• Cell division
• is reproduction at the cellular level,
• produces two “daughter” cells that are genetically identical to each
other and the original “parent” cell,
• requires the duplication of chromosomes, the structures that contain
most of the cell’s DNA, and
• sorts new sets of chromosomes into the resulting pair of daughter cells.

organisms
• Living organisms reproduce by two methods.

• Asexual reproduction
• produces offspring that are identical to the original cell or organism and
• involves inheritance of all genes from one parent.
• Sexual reproduction
• produces offspring that are similar to the parents but show variations in
traits and
• involves inheritance of unique sets of genes from two parents.

Prokaryotic chromosomes Eukaryotic chromosomes
1. Prokaryotes have short strands of circular 1. Eukaryotes have long strands linear double-stranded
double-stranded DNA DNA molecules.
2. It consists of a single chromosome. 2. It consists of several chromosomes.
3. The single chromosome is present in the nucleoid. 3. Several chromosomes are present inside the nucleus.
4. Present in the cytoplasm of the cell 4. Present in the nucleus of the cell.
5. The chromosomes lacks centromeres and telomeres. 5. It contains several centromeres and telomeres.
6. It encodes for only few proteins. 6. It encodes for large number of proteins.
organisms
• Cell division is used for

• reproduction of single-celled organisms,
• growth of multicellular organisms from a fertilized egg into an adult,
• repair and replacement of cells, and
• production of sperm and eggs.

A yeast cell producing a genetically
identical daughter cell by asexual
reproduction

A sea star reproducing asexually via
fragmentation and regeneration of the body
from fragmented arm.

An African violet reproducing asexually
from a cutting (the large leaf on the left)

Sexual reproduction produces offspring
with unique combinations of genes

Dividing cells in early human embryo
Cell division enables sexually

reproducing organisms to develop
from a single cell – the fertilized egg,
zygote – into an adult an adult. All of
the trillions of cells in your body
arose via repeated cell divisions that
began in your mother’s body with a
fertilized egg cell.
After an organism is fully grown, cell

division continues to function in
renewal and repair, replacing cells
that die from normal wear and tear or
from accident.

8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
• Prokaryotes (single-celled bacteria and archaea) reproduce by

binary fission (“dividing in half”).
• The chromosome of a prokaryote is typically
• a single circular DNA molecule associated with proteins and
• much smaller than those of eukaryotes.

8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
• Binary fission of a prokaryote occurs in three stages:

1. duplication of the chromosome and separation of the copies,
2. continued elongation of the cell and movement of the copies, and
3. division into two daughter cells.

Figure 8.2a-3
Plasma
membrane Prokaryotic
Cell wall chromosome
Duplication of the chromosome

1
and separation of the copies
Continued elongation of the

2
cell and movement of the copies
Division into
3
two daughter cells

THE EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE
AND MITOSIS

8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of
eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
• Eukaryotic cells
• are more complex and larger than prokaryotic cells,
• have more genes, and
• store most of their genes on multiple chromosomes within the nucleus.
• Each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of
chromosomes in each cell nucleus.

• Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin consisting of

• one long DNA molecule and
• proteins that help maintain the chromosome structure and control the
activity of its genes.
• To prepare for division, the chromatin becomes
• highly compact and
• visible with a microscope.

Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosomes:
• In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are located in the nucleus,
and are made up of chromatin.
• Chromatin is composed of DNA and histone proteins.
• DNA coils around histone proteins to form nucleosomes.
• The nucleosomes interact with one another to form coils and
supercoils that make up chromosomes.

Figure 8.3b-0
Chromosomes Chromosomal DNA
molecules
Sister chromatids
Chromosome
duplication
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
Separation
of sister
chromatids
and
distribution
into two
daughter
cells
• Before a eukaryotic cell begins to divide, it duplicates all of its

chromosomes, resulting in two copies called sister chromatids.
• The sister chromatids are joined together along their lengths and are
cinched especially tightly at a narrowed “waist” called the
centromere.
• When a cell divides, the sister chromatids
• separate from each other and are then called chromosomes, and
• sort into separate daughter cells.

Figure 8.3b-1
Chromosomes Chromosomal DNA
molecules
Chromosome
duplication
Sister
chromatids
Centromere
Separation
of sister
chromatids
and
distribution
into two
daughter
cells
8.4 The cell cycle includes growing and division phases
• The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that extends from

the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own
division.
• Cell cycle is the period between one cell division and the next.

8.4 The cell cycle includes growing and division phases
• The cell cycle consists of two stages, characterized as follows:

1. Interphase: duplication of cell contents
• G1—growth, increase in cytoplasm and synthesize new proteins and
organelles. It is the longest stage.
• S—duplication of chromosomes
• G2—growth, preparation for division, checking for errors in DNA copy, and
correcting the errors
2. Mitotic phase: division
• Mitosis—division of the nucleus
• Cytokinesis—division of cytoplasm

Figure 8.4
G1 S
(first gap) (DNA synthesis)
M
k inesis is G2
t o s
Cy ito (second gap)
M

• Note:
Cells can also exist the cell cycle (usually from the G1 phase) and enter into a
state called the G0 phase. During G0 phase, cells do not copy their DNA and do
not prepare for cell division. Many cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
For example, fully developed cells in the central nervous system stop dividing at
maturity and normally never divide again.

8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes
• Mitosis progresses through a series of stages:

• prophase,
• prometaphase,
• metaphase,
• anaphase, and
• telophase.
• Cytokinesis often overlaps telophase.

8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic
changes
• A mitotic spindle
• is required to divide the chromosomes,
• guides the separation of the two sets of daughter chromosomes, and
• is composed of microtubules and associated proteins.
• Spindle microtubules emerge from two centrosomes,
microtubule-organizing regions in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.

Figure 8.5-2
Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Fragments of
Centrosomes the nuclear
Chromatin Early mitotic Centrosome envelope Kinetochore
spindle
Nuclear Centromere
Plasma Spindle
envelope membrane Chromosome, consisting
microtubules
of two sister chromatids

changes
• Interphase
• The cytoplasmic contents double.
• Two centrosomes form.
• Chromosomes duplicate in the nucleus during the S phase.

Figure 8.5-1
MITOSIS
INTERPHASE Prometaphase
Prophase
Centrosomes Fragments of
Chromatin Early mitotic Centrosome the nuclear envelope
spindle
Kinetochore
Nuclear Centromere Spindle

Plasma
envelope membrane Chromosome, consisting microtubules
of two sister chromatids
changes
• Prophase
• In the nucleus, chromosomes become more tightly coiled and folded.
• In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins to form as microtubules
rapidly grow out from the centrosomes.

• Prometaphase
• The nuclear envelope breaks into fragments and disappears.
• Microtubules extend from the centrosomes into the nuclear region.
• Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores.
• Other microtubules meet those from the opposite poles.

Figure 8.5-6
MITOSIS
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Metaphase plate
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelope
Separated
Mitotic spindle forming
chromosomes

• Metaphase
• The mitotic spindle is fully formed.
• Chromosomes align at the cell equator.
• Kinetochores of sister chromatids are facing the opposite poles of the
spindle.

• Anaphase
• Sister chromatids separate at the centromeres.
• Daughter chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell as
motor proteins move the chromosomes along the spindle microtubules
and kinetochore microtubules shorten.
• Spindle microtubules not attached to chromosomes lengthen, moving
the poles farther apart.
• At the end of anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equal collections
of chromosomes.

• Telophase
• The cell continues to elongate.
• The nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes at each pole,
establishing daughter nuclei.
• Chromatin uncoils.
• The mitotic spindle disappears.

• During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells.

• Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with telophase.

8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs as

1. a cleavage furrow forms from a contracting ring of microfilaments,
interacting with myosin, and
2. the cleavage furrow deepens to separate the contents into two cells.

Figure 8.6a-0
Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow
Contracting ring of
microfilaments
Daughter cells

8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
• In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs as

1. a cell plate forms in the middle, from vesicles containing cell wall
material,
2. the cell plate grows outward to reach the edges, dividing the contents
into two cells, and
3. each cell now possesses a plasma membrane and cell wall.

Figure 8.6b-0
Cytokinesis New
cell wall
Cell wall Cell

of the wall
parent cell
Daughter
nucleus
Cell plate
forming Cell plate
Vesicles containing Daughter cells
cell wall material

8.7 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors
affect cell division
• The cells within an organism’s body divide and develop at different

rates.
• Cell division is controlled by
• anchorage dependence, the need for cells to be in contact with a solid
surface to divide,
• density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing,
• the presence of essential nutrients, and
• growth factors, proteins that stimulate division.

Figure 8.7a
Anchorage
dependence: cells
anchor to the dish
surface and divide
Density- dependent
inhibition: When cells
have formed a
complete layer, they
stop dividing.
Removal of cells
Note:
1. Cancer cells
are not subject
to anchorage Restoration of single
dependence;
layer by cell division
they grow
whether or not
they are in 2. density-
contact to Cancer cells forming dependent
suitable clump of overlapping inhibition fails
surface cells in tumor.
When grown in the lab, cells fail to
divide if an essential nutrients is left
out of the culture medium.
Growth Factor: is a protein
molecule made by the body; it
Cultured cells
functions to regulate cell division &
cell survival.
suspended in liquid
For example, a protein called
vascular endothelial growth factor The addition of
(VEGF) stimulates the growth of
growth
new blood vessels during fetal
development and after injury.
factor
Cells fail Cells divide in

to divide presence of
growth factor

8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
• The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the

cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.
• Checkpoints in the cell cycle can
• stop an event or
• signal an event to proceed.

8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
• There are three major checkpoints in the cell cycle.

1. G1 checkpoint: allows entry into the S phase or causes the cell to
leave the cycle, entering a nondividing G0 phase.
2. G2 checkpoint
3. M checkpoint
• Research on the control of the cell cycle is one of the hottest areas in
biology today.

Figure 8.8a
G1 checkpoint
G0
G1
S
Control
system
G2
M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
A checkpoint is a stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle at which
the cell examines internal and external cues and "decides"
whether or not to move forward with division.
The G1 Checkpoint at the G1/S transition checks for:

1. Cell size
2. Nutrients
3. Growth Factors
4. DNA damage
The G2 checkpoints at the G2/M transition checks for:

1. DNA damage
2. DNA replication completeness
The Spindle checkpoint at the transition from Metaphase to

Anaphase checks for:
Chromosome attachment to spindle at metaphase plate

8.9 CONNECTION: Growing out of control, cancer cells
produce malignant tumors
• Cancer currently claims the lives of 20% of the people in the United
States.
• Cancer cells escape controls on the cell cycle.
• Cancer cells divide excessively and invade other tissues of the body.

• A tumor is a mass of abnormally growing cells within otherwise

normal tissue.
• Benign tumors remain at the original site but may disrupt certain
organs if they grow in size.
• Malignant tumors can spread to other locations in a process called
metastasis.
• An individual with a malignant tumor is said to have cancer.

Figure 8.9
Lymph
vessels
Blood
vessel
Tumor
Tumor in
another
Glandular part of
tissue the body
Tumor growth Invasion Metastasis

• Cancers are named according to the organ or tissue in which they

originate.
• Carcinomas originate in external or internal body coverings.
• Leukemia originates from immature white blood cells within the blood
or bone marrow.

• Localized tumors can be

• removed surgically and/or
• treated with concentrated beams of high-energy radiation.
• Metastatic tumors are treated with chemotherapy.

8.10 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Tailoring treatment to each
patient may improve cancer therapy
• It is increasingly possible to personalize cancer treatment by

• sequencing the genome of tumor cells and
• tailoring treatment based upon the tumor’s specific genetic profile.

Can cancer therapy be personalized?
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The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• In a healthy body, cell division allows for

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is a key

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Living organisms reproduce by two methods.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

2. It consists of a single chromosome. 2. It consists of several chromosomes.

• Cell division is used for

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Cell division enables sexually

After an organism is fully grown, cell

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Prokaryotes (single-celled bacteria and archaea) reproduce by

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Binary fission of a prokaryote occurs in three stages:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Duplication of the chromosome

Continued elongation of the

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin consisting of

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Before a eukaryotic cell begins to divide, it duplicates all of its

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• The cell cycle is an ordered sequence of events that extends from

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• The cell cycle consists of two stages, characterized as follows:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Mitosis progresses through a series of stages:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Nuclear Centromere Spindle

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm is divided into separate cells.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs as

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs as

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Cell wall Cell