Week 1: Doing Philosophy Part 1

The Definition of Philosophy - The Free Dictionary has defined Philosophy as: "study of the ultimate
reality, causes, and principles underlying being and thinking. It has many aspects and different
manifestations according to the problems involved and the method of approach and emphasis used by
the individual philosopher. Philosophy Basics has collected the following definitions of philosophy from
various sources:

At its simplest, philosophy (from the Greek φίλοσοφία or philosophía, meaning 'the love of wisdom')
is the study of knowledge, or "thinking about thinking", although the breadth of what it covers is
perhaps best illustrated by a selection of other alternative definitions:
● the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts of things
exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as genuine knowledge
(epistemology); and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic) (Wikipedia)
● investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on
logical reasoning rather than empirical methods (American Heritage Dictionary)
● the study of the ultimate nature of existence, reality, knowledge and goodness, as discoverable
by human reasoning (Penguin English Dictionary)
● the rational investigation of questions about existence and knowledge and ethics (WordNet)
● the search for knowledge and truth, especially about the nature of man and his behavior and
beliefs (Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary)
● the rational and critical inquiry into basic principles (Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia)
● the study of the most general and abstract features of the world and categories with which we
think: mind, matter, reason, proof, truth, etc. (Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy) careful
thought about the fundamental nature of the world, the grounds for human knowledge, and the
evaluation of human conduct (The Philosophy Pages)

As used originally by the ancient Greeks, the term "philosophy" meant the pursuit of knowledge for its
own sake, and comprised ALL areas of speculative thought, including the arts, sciences and religion.
Philosophical questions (unlike those of the sciences) are usually foundational and abstract in nature.
Philosophy is done primarily through reflection and does not tend to rely on experiment, although the
methods used to study it may be analogous to those used in the study of the natural sciences.

In common usage, it sometimes carries the sense of unproductive or frivolous musings, but over the
centuries it has produced some of the most important original thought, and its contribution to politics,
sociology, mathematics, science and literature has been inestimable. Although the study of philosophy
may not yield "the meaning of life, the universe and everything", many philosophers believe that it is
important that each of us examines such questions and even that an unexamined life is not worth living.
It also provides a good way of learning to think more clearly about a wide range of issues, and its
methods of analyzing arguments can be useful in a variety of situations in other areas of life.

The Value of Philosophy - The Value of Philosophy by Russell has been summarized by Spark Notes:
The aim of philosophy is the achievement of knowledge through criticism, "which gives unity and
system to the body of sciences." However, philosophy does not maintain a substantial body of definite
knowledge in the sense that history, mathematics, or the physical sciences do. Part of the reason why
philosophy does not bear such a body of evidence is because when definite knowledge on a subject
becomes possible, it splits off forming another discipline. Study of the heavens, of natural sciences, and
the human mind originated in philosophic investigation and now assume the figures of astronomy,
physics, and psychology. Thus, with respect to definite answers, "the uncertainty of philosophy is more
apparent than real."

Yet, part of the uncertainty in philosophy derives from the very nature of the questions that it
undertakes to answer. These questions address most profound human interests: "Has the universe any
unity of plan or purpose, or is it a fortuitous concourse of atoms? Is consciousness a permanent part of
the universe, giving hope of indefinite growth in wisdom, or is it a transitory accident on a small planet
on which life must ultimately become impossible? Is good an evil of importance to the universe or only
to man?" Besides the magnitude of these questions, the various answers which philosophy suggests are
usually not "demonstrably true." Still, the pursuit of philosophy is not merely to suggest answers to
these questions but to make us sensitive to their importance and to keep us conscious of a "speculative
interest in the universe," which we might otherwise forget.

Even though some philosophers have developed programs of thought that do offer a definite set of
conclusions about religious belief, human knowledge, and other issues, Russell urges that such attempts
are usually unwise dogmatic declarations. Consistent with the thought of his other chapters, he claims
that we cannot hope for definite answers or even high degrees of certainty. In fact, he theorizes, the
value of philosophy appears in its very uncertainty. He persuasively writes, "the man who has no
tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from
the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind
without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason." This way of thinking is closed to
speculation or theory about possibility. Philosophizing, on the other hand, allows us to see even the
most ordinary things in unfamiliar light.

Though such consideration diminishes our faulty certainty about the world, it suggests numerous
possibilities "which enlarge our thoughts and free them from the tyranny of custom." Though we lose a
little of our confidence as to what things are, we gain knowledge of what they may be. Philosophy
banishes "arrogant dogmatism" and liberates "our sense of wonder." Philosophic thought also has a
value by virtue of the things it contemplates and the distinctness of those things from "personal aims"
and "private interests." Philosophy lets in the outside world and enlarges out interest. Russell writes,
"in one way or another, if our life is to be great and free, we must escape this prison" of our private
world. Russell's belief is that everything that depends on the private world "distorts the object" of
contemplation and prevents the union of the object and the intellect. Philosophic contemplation sponsors
this escape by enlarging the Self. Russell holds that the primary value of philosophy is not in any kind
of definite answer, but exists in the questions themselves. He concludes that, "through the greatness of
the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great.
Holism - Philosophy Basics' article on holism stated the following: "Holism in general terms (whether
in science, sociology, economics, linguistics or philosophy) is the idea that all the properties of a given
system cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone, but the system as a whole
determines in an important way how the parts behave.
In philosophy, the principle of Holism (which comes from the Greek "holos" meaning "all" or "total)
was concisely summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics". "The whole is more than the sum of its
parts". However, the term "holism" was only introduced into the language by the South African
statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. Holism has significance for Epistemology and the Philosophy
of Language in particular. It is contrasted to Epistemological Reductionism (the position that a complex
system can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts) or of Atomism (insofar as it relates to
Philosophy of Language, this is the position that sentences have meaning or content completely
independently of their relations to other sentences or beliefs)."

Types of Holism
● Epistemological Holism (or Confirmation Holism) - is the claim that a single scientific theory
cannot be tested in isolation, because a test of one theory always depends on other theories and
hypotheses. One aspect of this is that the interpretation of observation is "theory-laden"
(dependent on theory); another aspect is that evidence alone is insufficient to determine which
theory is correct.
● Semantic Holism - is a doctrine in the Philosophy of Language to the effect that a certain part
of language (e.g, a term or a complete sentence) can only be understood through its relations to
a (previously understood) larger segment of language, possibly the entire language. Up until the
end of the 19th Century, it was always assumed that a word gets its meaning in isolation,
independently from all the rest of the words in a language. In 1884, Gottlob Frege formulated
his influential Context Principle, according to which it is only within the context of a
proposition or sentence that a word acquires its meaning. In the 1950's and 1960's,
philosophers such as Ludwig Wittgenstein, W.V.O. Quine and Donald Davidson broadened
this principle even further to arrive at the position that a sentence (and therefore a word) has
meaning only in the context of a whole language. However, problems arise with the theory
because, given the limits of our cognitive abilities, we will never be able to master the whole of
any language, and it also fails to explain how two speakers can mean the same thing when using
the same linguistic expression (and how communication is even possible between them).
(W.V.O = Willard Van Orman Quine)
● Confirmation Holism - and Semantic Holism are inextricably linked, and yet, although
Confirmation Holism is widely accepted among philosophers, Semantic Holism is much less so.
The question remains as to how the two holisms can be distinguished, and how the undesirable
consequences of "unbuttoned holism" can be limited. (no individual statement can be confirmed
or disconfirmed by an empirical test, but only a set of statements)
● Moderate Holism (or Semantic Molecularism) - is a compromise position, which holds that
the meanings of words depend on some subset of the language (not the entire language). The
argument then arises as to which parts of a language are "constitutive" of the meaning of an
expression.

- Point of view: refers to a specific manner of consideration when it comes to how one sees
something
- Holism and Evolution: Title of the book authored by Jan Smuts which tackles holism
 Week 2: Doing Philosophy (Part 2)

Reflective practice

Reflective activity is simply defined as "the ability to think about or reflect on what you do." Its aim is
to engage in a process of continuous learning. Gillie said that it involves "paying critical attention to the
practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and
reflexively. This leads to developmental insight." Mere experience is not enough to lead to learning. It
still requires the presence of deliberate reflection on these experiences, as well. Someone who reflects
does not simply look back on the past actions and events in his or her life. It is through conscious
looking at emotional experiences, actions, and responses and using this information to add to his or her
existing knowledge could make a person reach a higher level of understanding

In the 20th century, John Dewey wrote about reflective practice, exploring experience, interaction and
reflection. After that, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget developed theories relevant to human learning and
development. Later on, Donald Schön's book, The Reflective Practitioner, published in 1983
introduced the concepts of reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. David Boud, an adult education
professor explained that reflection is an essential human activity in which people recapture their
experience, explore it and evaluate it. It is said that when a person is experiencing something, he or she
may be implicitly learning. However, it can be difficult to put emotions, events and thoughts into a
coherent sequence.

Models of reflective practice

Borton (1970) - Terry Borton's 1970 book Reach, Touch, and Teach popularized a simple learning
cycle inspired by Gestalt therapy composed of three questions which ask the practitioner: What, So
what, and Now what? Through this analysis, a description of a situation is given which then leads into
the scrutiny of the situation and the construction of knowledge that has been learnt through the
experience. Subsequently, practitioners reflect on ways in which they can personally improve and the
consequences of their response to the experience. Borton's model was later adapted by practitioners
outside the field of education, such as the field of nursing and the helping professions. (Borton, 1970;
Rolfe, etal., 2001)

Kolb and Fry (1975) - Learning theorist David A. Kolb was highly influenced by the earlier research
conducted by John Dewey and Jean Piaget. Kolb's reflective model highlights the concept of
experiential learning and is centered on the transformation of information into knowledge. This takes
place after a situation has occurred, and entails a practitioner reflecting on the experience, gaining a
general understanding of the concepts encountered during the experience, and then testing these general
understandings in a new situation. In this way, the knowledge that is formed from a situation is
continuously applied and reapplied, building on a practitioner's prior experiences and knowledge. (Kolb
and Fry, 1975)
Argyris and Schön 1978 - Management researchers Chris Argyris and Donald Schön pioneered the
idea of single-loop learning and double-loop learning in 1978. Their theory was built around the
recognition and correction of a perceived fault or error. Single-loop learning is when a practitioner or
organization, even after an error has occurred and a correction is made, continues to rely on current
strategies, techniques or policies when a situation again comes to light. Double-loop learning involves
the modification of objectives, strategies or policies so that when a similar situation arises a new
framing system is employed. (Smith, 2013; Argyris, et.al., 2001) Schön claimed to derive the notions
of "reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action, responding to problematic situations, problem framing
problem solving, and the priority of practical knowledge over abstract theory" from the writings of
John Dewey, although education professor Harvey Shapiro has argued that Dewey's writings offer
"more expansive, more integrated notions of professional growth" than do Schön's. (Shapiro, 2010)

Schon advocated 2 types of reflective practice. Firstly, reflection-on-action, which involves reflecting
on an experience that you have already had, or an action that you have already taken, and considering
what could have been done differently, as well as looking at the positives from that interaction. The
other type of reflection Schon notes is reflection-in-action, or reflecting on your actions as you are
doing them, and considering issues like best practice throughout the process. For Schön, professional
growth really begins when a person starts to view things with a critical lens, by doubting his or her
actions. Doubt brings about a way of thinking that questions and frames situations as "problems".
Through careful planning and systematic elimination of other possible problems, doubt is settled, and
people are able to affirm their knowledge of the situation. Then people are able to think about possible
situations and their outcomes, and deliberate about whether they carried out the right actions.

Gibbs 1988 - Learning researcher Graham Gibbs discussed the use of structured debriefing to facilitate
the reflection involved in Kolb's experiential learning cycle. Gibbs presents the stages of a full
structured debriefing as follows (1988):
● (Initial experience)
Description: "What happened? Don't make judgments yet or try to draw conclusions simply describe."

● Feelings
"What were your reactions and feelings? Again, don't move on to analyzing these yet."
Evaluation: "What was good or bad about the experience? Make value judgments."

● Analysis
"What sense can you make of the situation? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you."
"What was really going on?"
"Were different people's experiences similar or different in important ways?"

● Conclusions (general)
"What can be concluded, in a general sense, from these experiences and the analyses y ou have
undertaken?"

● Conclusions (specific)
"What can be concluded about your own specific, unique, personal situation or way of working?"
 ● Personal action plans
"What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time?"
"What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learnt?"
Gibbs' suggestions are often cited as "Gibbs' reflective cycle" or "Gibbs' model of reflection", and
simplified into the following six distinct stages to assist in structuring reflection on learning experiences
(Finlay, 2008):
● Description
● Feelings
● Evaluation
● Analysis
● Conclusions
● Action plan

Johns 1995 - Professor of nursing Christopher Johns designed a structured model of reflection that
provides a practitioner with a guide to gain greater understanding of his or her practice. Johns, 2013) It
is designed to be carried out through the act of sharing with a colleague or mentor, which enables the
experience to become learnt knowledge at a faster rate than reflection alone. (Johns, 2010) Johns
highlights the importance of experienced knowledge and the ability of a practitioner to access,
understand and put into practice information that has been

acquired through empirical means. Reflection occurs though "looking in" on one's thoughts and
emotions and "looking out" at the situation experienced. Christopher Johns draws on the work of
Barbara Carper to expand on the notion of "looking out" at a situation.
(Carper, 1978) Five patterns of knowing are incorporated into the guided reflection: the aesthetic,
personal, ethical, empirical and reflexive aspects of the situation. Johns' model is comprehensive and
allows for reflection that touches on many important elements. Johns, 1995)

Brookfield 1998 - Adult education scholar Stephen Brookfield proposed that critically reflective
practitioners constantly research their assumptions by seeing practice through four complementary
lenses: the lens of their autobiography as learners of reflective practice, the lens of other learners' eyes,
the lens of colleagues' experiences, and the lens of theoretical, philosophical and research literature.
Reviewing practice through these lenses makes us more aware of the power dynamics that infuse all
practice settings. It also helps us detect hegemonic assumptions— assumptions that we think are in our
own best interests, but actually work against us in the long run. Brookfield argued that these four lenses
will reflect back to us starkly different pictures of who we are and what we do. (Brookfield, 1998)
● Lens 1: Our autobiography as a learner. Our autobiography is an important source of insight
into practice. As we talk to each other about critical events in our practice, we start to realize
that individual crises are usually collectively experienced dilemmas. Analysing our
autobiographies allows us to draw insight and meanings for practice on a deep visceral
emotional level.
● Lens 2: Our learners' eyes. Seeing ourselves through learners' eyes, we may discover that
learners are interpreting our actions in the way that we mean them. But often we are surprised
by the diversity of meanings people read into our words and actions. A cardinal principle of
seeing ourselves through learners' eyes is that of ensuring the anonymity of their critical
 opinions. We have to make learners feel safe. Seeing our practice through learners' eyes helps
us teach more responsively.
● Lens 3: Our colleagues' experiences. Our colleagues serve as critical mirrors reflecting back to
us images of our actions. Talking to colleagues about problems and gaining their perspective
increases our chance of finding some information that can help our situation.
● Lens 4: Theoretical literature. Theory can help us "name" our practice by illuminating the
general elements of what we think are idiosyncratic experiences.
 Week 3: Methods of Philosophizing

Wisdom

The word wisdom or sapience is the ability to think and act using knowledge, experience,
understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom has many definitions attached to it,
including several subtypes. Two key subtypes of wisdom that are worth noting are phronesis
and sophia. Phonesis refers to practical knowledge, or the seeking of knowledge to apply to the
given circumstance such as an understanding of people, objects, events, situations, and the
willingness as well as the ability to apply perception, judgment, and action in keeping with the
understanding of what is the optimal course of action. Sophia on the other hand refers to
"transcendent wisdom" or the "ultimate nature of reality."

The Oxford English Dictionary defines wisdom as "Capacity of judging rightly in matters
relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgment in the choice of means and ends;
sometimes, less strictly, sound sense, esp. in practical affairs: opp. to folly;" also "Knowledge
(esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition." Charles Haddon
Spurgeon defined wisdom as "the right use of knowledge." Robert I. Sutton and Andrew
Hargadon defined the "attitude of wisdom" as "acting with knowledge while doubting what one
knows". In the psychological literature however the construct of wisdom does not have a
commonly accepted definition.

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses
Metis and Athena. Athena is said to have sprung from the head of Zeus. She was portrayed as
strong, fair, merciful, and chaste. To Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of
Wisdom (philo-sophia). This permeates Plato's dialogues, especially The Republic, in which
the leaders of his proposed utopia are to be philosopher kings, rulers who understand the Form
of the Good and possess the courage to act accordingly. Aristotle, in his Metaphysics, defined
wisdom as the understanding of causes, i.e. knowing why things are a certain way, which is
deeper than merely knowing that things are a certain way. In fact, it was Aristotle who first
made a distinction between phronesis and sophia aspects of wisdom.

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom. It was personified in Minerva, or Pallas. She also
represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl
which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said
to be born from Jupiter's forehead.

Wisdom is also important within Christianity. Jesus emphasized it. Paul the Apostle, in his first
epistle to the Corinthians, argued that there is both secular and divine wisdom, urging
Christians to pursue the latter. Prudence, which is intimately related to wisdom, became one of
the four cardinal virtues of Catholicism. The Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas considered
wisdom to be the "father" (i.e. the cause, measure, and form) of all virtues.
 In Buddhist traditions, developing wisdom plays a central role where comprehensive guidance
on how to develop wisdom is provided. In the Inuit tradition, developing wisdom was one of
the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person becomes wise when they can see what
needs to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do. In many cultures, the
name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom,
eg, as in the English wisdom tooth.

Religious perspectives

● Ancient Egypt - Sia represents the personification or god of wisdom in the traditional
mythology adhered to in Ancient Egypt.
● Buddhism - Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the
ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative
understanding of all phenomena," which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the
"complete freedom from suffering." In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through
an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble
Eightfold Path. This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating
wisdom. Buddhist scriptures teach that a wise person is endowed with good bodily conduct,
good verbal conduct, and good mental conduct. (AN 3:2) A wise person does actions that are
unpleasant to do but give good results, and doesn't do actions that are pleasant to do but give
bad results (AN4:115). Wisdom is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The
Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:
- He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But
the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.
- He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice,
wise and righteous.
- One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear,
is verily called a wise man.
- By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who,
as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a
muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a
true sage.

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature covered by the self-imposed three dusty poisons
(greed, anger, ignorance) Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into
generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth
Patriarch of Chán Buddhism, Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra, "Mind without dispute is self-nature
discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self nature
wisdom."

● Christianity - In Christian theology, "wisdom" describes an aspect of God, or the theological

concept regarding the wisdom of God. There is an oppositional element in Christian thought
between secular wisdom and Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks
the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation"
Christ represents the wisdom of God. (1 Corinthians 1: 17-31) Also, Wisdom is one of the
seven gifts of the Holy Spirit according to Anglican, Catholic, and Lutheran belief. 1
Corinthians 12:8-10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which wisdom is one. The
book of Proverbs in the Bible primarily focuses on wisdom, and was primarily written by one
of the wisest kings according to Jewish history, King Solomon.Proverbs is found in the Old
Testament section of the Bible and is written in a sort of poetic way, giving direction on how to
handle various aspects of life; one's relationship with God, marriage dealing with finances,
work, friendships and persevering in difficult situations faced in life. According to King
Solomon, wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come
knowledge and understanding" Proverbs 2:6. And through God's wise aide, one can have a
better life: "He holds success in store for the upright, he is a shield to those whose walk is
blameless, for he guards the course of the just and protects the way of his faithful ones"
Proverbs 2:7-8. "Trust in the LORD with all your heart and lean not on your own
understanding; in all your ways submit to him, and he will make your paths straight" Proverbs
3:5-6. Solomon basically states that with the wisdom one receives from God, one will be able
to find success and happiness in life. There are various verses in Proverbs that contain parallels
of what God loves, which is wise, and what God does not love, which is foolish. For example,
in the area of good and bad behavior Proverbs states, "The way of the wicked is an
abomination to the Lord, But He loves him who pursues righteousness (Proverbs 15:9). In
relation to fairness and business it is stated that, "A false balance is an abomination to the Lord,
But a just weight is His delight" (Proverbs 11:1; cf. 20:10,23). On the truth it is said. "Lying
lips are an abomination to the Lord, But those who deal faithfully are His delight" (12:22; cf.
6: 17,19). These are a few examples of what, according to Solomon, are good and wise in the
eyes of God, or bad and foolish, and in doing these good and wise things, one becomes closer
to God by living in an honorable and kind manner. King Solomon continues his teachings of
wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes, which is considered one of the most depressing books of
the Bible. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks
of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless.
"Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. Utterly meaningless Everything is
meaningless' ...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more
grief" (Ecclesiastes 1:2,18) Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even
wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God. The book of James, written by the
apostle james, is said to be the New Testament version of the book of Proverbs, in that it is
another book that discusses wisdom. It reiterates Proverbs' message of wisdom coming from
God by stating. "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all
without finding fault, and it will be given to you." James 1:5. James also explains how wisdom
helps one acquire other forms of virtue, "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all
pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and
sincere." James 3:17. In addition, James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform
acts of service to the less fortunate. A part from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main
books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on
gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations. But wisdom is not limited to only these
books in the Bible, no matter the book, words of wisdom can be found. Through devotional
time or meditation through the reading and reflection of the Bible and other readings that
 analyze the Bible, one can gain wisdom in order to help Christians become more aware,
insightful and happy in life.

● Confucianism - According To Confucius (551-479 BCE), one can learn wisdom by three
methods:
- reflection (the noblest)
- imitation (the easiest)
- experience (the bitterest)

One does not dispense wisdom oneself unless asked by another. This means that a wise man never tells
his wisdom unless asked person to person. According to the Doctrine of the Mean, Confucius also said:
"Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be
shameful is akin to courage (zhi, ren, yong. three of Mengzi's sprouts of virtue)."
Compare this with the Confucian classic, Great Learning, which begins with: "The Way of learning to
be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good."
One can clearly see the correlation with the Roman virtue prudence, especially if one interprets "clear
character" as "clear conscience."

● Hinduism - Wisdom in Hinduism is considered a state of mind and soul where a person
achieves liberation.
The god of wisdom is Ganesha and the goddess of knowledge is Saraswati.
"O Lord Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Lead me from darkness to light.
Lead me from death to immortality.
May there be peace, peace, and perfect peace".
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28.

Wisdom in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, basis for the entire Creation, i.e., of Shristi. In
other words, wisdom simply means a person with Self-awareness as the one who witnesses the entire
creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual through right conduct
and right living over an unspecified period comes to realize their true relationship with the creation and
the Paramatma who rules it.

● Islam - In Islam, Wisdom is deemed as one of the greatest gifts humankind can enjoy.
The Quran states:
"He gives wisdom to whom He wills, and whoever has been given wisdom has certainly been given
much good. And none will remember except those of understanding."
— Qur'an, sura 2 (Al-Bagara), ayat 269
Judaism
The word wisdom is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest
virtues among the Israelites along with kindness and justice. Both the books of Proverbs and Psalms
urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.
In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is represented by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2 Chronicles
1:10. Much of the Book of Proverbs, a book of wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs
9:10, the fear of YHWH is called the beginning of wisdom. In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to
wisdom personified in female form,
"Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In Proverbs 8: 22-31, this
personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even taking part
in creation itself.
The Talmud teaches that a wise person is a person who can foresee the future. Nolad is the Hebrew
word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for birth, so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is
that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future"
that he/she "gives birth" to).
Taoism
In Taoism, wisdom is construed as adherence to the Three Treasures (Taoism): charity, simplicity, and
humility.
Knowing others is intelligence; knowing yourself is true wisdom.
Mastering others is strength;
mastering yourself is true power.
Tao Te Ching, 33, tr. S. Mitchell

Truth
It is difficult to define truth as it may differ in any case. Blackburn defined truth as "the aim of belief
wherein falsity isa fault." In the same article on truth, it says that truth is essential and believing in
something that is not the truth may lead to consequences.
Propositions. A common technical definition of a proposition (credited to Peter van Inwagen) is "a non-
linguistic bearer of truth value" A proposition is a representation of the world or a way the world could
possibly be and propositions are either true or false.
Propositions are different than sentences. Sentences are symbolic, linguistic representations of
propositions.
Let's take the sentence.
"The moon has craters." This is an English sentence that
supposedly states some fact about the world or reality (and specifically about the moon).
Because it's in English, we say it's "linguistic" or language based. If we're going to get philosophical
about it, we could describe its properties as having four words and 17 letters, it's in the English
language written in 11-point font and it's black. The same sentence could be written like this:
The moon has craters.
This sentence has different properties from the first one above. This one still has the same number of
words and letters and it's in English. But it is in 18-point font and is written in blue. Now let's take this
sentence, "La luna tiene cráteres" This sentence has four words but 19 letters It's written in 11-point
font and is black but it's Spanish. What do all three sentences have in common? They all express the
same idea or meaning and we could say the same "truth." We could express the same idea in Swahili,
semaphore, Morse code, or any other symbolic system that conveys meaning.
Notice that the symbols themselves are neither true nor false. The meaning the sentences represent is
either true or false. Sentences are symbolic representations of something else —propositions. The
common property true of all sentences that express the same truth is what philosophers call the
propositional content of the sentences or "the proposition." Now we can better understand the idea
behind non-linguistic bearer of truth value." Propositions are non-linguistic because they aren't written
or spoken in a language. They bear truth because they are the things that are true or false. This is what
allows them to be expressed or "exemplified" in a variety of different symbolic systems like language-
based sentences. When it comes to understanding truth, many philosophers believe propositions are at
the center.
Belief. Beliefs are things (at least) people have. They don't exist outside the mind. Some philosophers
say beliefs are "dispositional." That is, they incline a person to behave in a way as if the thing they
believe is true. So a belief, simply, is a proposition that a person accepts as representing the way the
world actually is. Beliefs can be about false propositions and thus be "wrong" because the person
accepts them as true. This is a critical distinction. While a proposition has to be true or false, beliefs
can be about true or false propositions even though a person always accepts them as being true.
Some philosophers attempt to define truth "mind-independently." That means, they want to come up
with a definition that doesn't depend on whether humans can actually believe or know what is true.
Truth is viewed as independent of our minds and they seek a definition of it that captures this. Other
philosophers have developed theories that keep people at the center. That is truth and belief are
considered together and are inseparable.

Knowledge. Knowledge is belief in a true proposition that a person is justified in holding as true. The
conditions under which a person is justified is complicated and there are many theories about when the
conditions are met. Theories of knowledge attempt to describe when a person is in a "right" cognitive
relationship with true propositions.

- Fact: It is a statement that is objective in nature and well-supported by evidence.

- Opinions: are based on beliefs and feelings. And hey do not have to be based on logical
reasoning.
- Opinion: A statement that expresses someone's belief, view, or judgment about
something/someone.
- Plato: The philosopher who stated that opinion is intermediary between knowledge and
ignorance
- Saint Thomas Aquinas: Christian philosopher who proposed that wisdom is the "father of all
virtues."