Sample Maths TB GR 10 Ncaps Mat 242 9781776118441 2023.06.12 Security Restricted

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
©COPYRIGHT BY THE AUTHOR

The whole or any part of this publication may not be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. This includes
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system.
Every effort has been made to obtain copyright of all printed aspects of this publication.
However, if material requiring copyright has unwittingly been used, the copyrighter is
requested to bring the matter to the attention of the publisher so that the due
acknowledgement can be made by the author.
LE
Mathematics Textbook Grade 10 NCAPS DBE & IEB
ISBN 13: Print: 9781776118441

PDF: 9781776118458
Product Code: MAT 242
Principal Authors: Jaco Odendaal

Jurgens Basson
Authors:
P
Heilana Gouws
Lidwinia Nieuwoudt
Editors: Jurgen Basson

Michelle Agenbag
M
First Edition: November 2022
Second Edition: May 2023 (Minor mistakes corrected)
A
PUBLISHERS
ALLCOPY PUBLISHERS
P.O. Box 963
S
Sanlamhof, 7532
Tel: (021) 945 4111, Fax: (021) 945 4118

Email: info@allcopypublishers.co.za
Website: www.allcopypublishers.co.za
i
When the latest Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) was made available, most
educators and authors were still in the dark as to the exact extent of the content to be covered.
There was also a level of uncertainty as to how the content should be presented. Textbooks had to be
produced based on limited information. As a result, an increasing number of educators found
themselves having to supplement textbooks with additional notes.
After carefully observing examination trends and teaching the curriculum over the last number of years,
LE
the authoring team of Mind Action Series Mathematics have started on a project of revising our
textbooks to alleviate the problems previously faced by Mathematics Educators.
Content has been better structured, more up-to-date examples and exercises have been provided,
chapters dealing with difficult topics have been improved and a broader range of typical exam questions
has been included. The language has been kept accessible, yet Mathematically correct.
We recommend our new series to educators and learners across the country in the belief that:
· it will help educators get through the curriculum more effectively
· it will enable educators to teach traditionally awkward topics (such as Probability theory, Statistics,
P
Functions and Euclidean Geometry) with greater ease
· it will greatly reduce the need for additional notes
· it will be easier for learners to follow
· it will prepare learners better for examinations
M
We proudly present our New Mind Action Series Mathematics textbooks to each learner and educator in
South Africa, certain that it will be of great benefit to all users.
A
S
ii
MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 TEXTBOOK
——————————————————————————————
Contents
————————————————————————————————————————
CHAPTER ONE Algebraic Expressions PAGE 1
CHAPTER TWO Equations and Inequalities PAGE 46
LE
CHAPTER THREE Exponents PAGE 65
CHAPTER FOUR Number Patterns PAGE 86
CHAPTER FIVE Functions PAGE 96
CHAPTER SIX
P Trigonometry PAGE 159
M
CHAPTER SEVEN Trigonometric Functions PAGE 191
CHAPTER EIGHT Analytical Geometry PAGE 212

A
CHAPTER NINE Euclidean Geometry PAGE 240
CHAPTER TEN Measurement PAGE 300

S
CHAPTER ELEVEN Financial Mathematics PAGE 330
CHAPTER TWELVE Statistics PAGE 348
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Probability PAGE 382
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES PAGE 412
iii
CHAPTER ONE
——————————————————————————————
Algebraic Expressions
————————————————————————————————————————
THE NUMBER SYSTEM
Summary of the Number System

1. Natural Numbers: ℕ = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; . . . }
2. Whole Numbers: ℕ0 = {0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; . . . }
3. Integers: ℤ = {. . . ; −3 ; −2 ; −1 ; 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; . . . }
LE
{b }
a
4. Rational Numbers: ℚ= : a ∈ℤ; b ∈ℤ; b ≠0
• All integers e.g. 3 ; 0 ; −2 etc.

1 2 4
• All proper fractions e.g. ; ; − etc.
2 3 5
13 2 1
• All improper fractions and mixed numbers e.g. ; 1 ; −11 etc.
7 3 2
P
• All terminating decimals (decimals that end) e.g. 0,4 ; 2,65 ; 3,14159265 etc.
• All recurring decimals e.g.

· ··
0,3 = 0,333333... ; −0,27 = 0,272727... ; 0,256 = 0,2565656... etc.
M
Note:
· 1 · 2 · 3 1
0,1 = 0,2 = 0,3 = = etc.
9 9 9 3
· · ·
0,9 = 1 1,9 = 2 2,9 = 3 etc.
A
5. Irrational Numbers: ℚ′
• Non-terminating, non-recurring decimals e.g. 2,45287330945689...
• Square roots of numbers that are not perfect squares e.g. 2; 3; 5 etc.
S
3 3 3
Cube roots of numbers that are not perfect cubes e.g. 2 ; 3; 4 etc.
(This can be extended to other types of roots as well.)
• Transcendental numbers e.g. π ; e etc.
6. Real Numbers: ℝ
Any number on the number line. All rational and irrational numbers.
7. Calculations that do NOT produce real numbers:

• Square roots of negative numbers e.g. −2 ; −4 ; etc.
6 −2 0 π
• Division by zero e.g. ; ; ; ; etc.
0 0 0 0
1
The set of all real numbers and its subsets
3
2,1524667... 7
ℚ
6
ℤ 3 −2 3
7 −0,7265 2
4
LE
−4 −1
π · ℕ0 100
0,4 − 5−2
4 7
−7 2 −100
0 55
1
·
3π −0,1 −10 −45 −45 π
Negatives
P
π +5 Fractions, terminating and 5
recurring decimals
M
Irrational numbers
A
Real numbers on the number line
Any number that has a position on the number line is a real number:
S
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
2
−1,5 −1 0 2 2 π
3
Rational number Integer Whole number Rational number Irrational number Natural number Irrational number
Real number Rational number Integer Real number Real number Whole number Real number
Real number Rational number Integer
Real number Rational number
Real number
2
EXAMPLE 1
State whether the following numbers are rational, irrational or neither:
(a) 0,75 (b) −3 (c) π +4 (d) 12
1 4
(e) − −15 (f) 25 (g) (h)
3 0
π 3
(i) (j) 0,232323... (k) 0,6482387... (l) −27
π
3 1 4
(m) −5 (n) π (o) (p) 3π
2 9
4 ·
(q) 0π (r) −16 (s) 4 + 16 (t) 0,9
Solution
(a) Rational
LE
All terminating decimals are rational numbers.
(b) Rational
All integers are rational numbers.
(c) Irrational
The sum of an irrational number and a rational number is always irrational.
(d) Irrational
12 is not a perfect square, therefore the square root of 12 is irrational.
(e) Neither
P
Square roots of a negative numbers are non-real.
(f) Rational
25 is a perfect square, therefore the square root of 25 is rational.
M
(g) Rational
All common fractions are rational.
(h) Neither
Division by 0 is undefined.
(i) Rational
A
This equals 1, which is an integer and therefore rational.

(j) Rational
All recurring decimals are rational numbers.
(k) Irrational
S
All non-terminating, non-recurring decimals are irrational.

(l) Rational
This equals −3, which is an integer and therefore rational.
(m) Irrational
Cube roots of negative numbers are real, but 5 is not a perfect cube so the cube root of
−5 is irrational.
(n) Irrational
A fraction of an irrational number is also irrational.
3
(o) Rational 2
This equals which is a common fraction.
3
(p) Irrational
An irrational number multiplied by a rational number is always irrational,
except when the rational number is 0.
(q) Rational
This equals 0 which is an integer and therefore rational.
(r) Neither
The 4th root of a negative is also non-real. The same applies for 6th roots, 8th roots, 10th
roots etc.
(s) Irrational
This equals 20 which is not a perfect square, therefore irrational.
LE
(t) Rational
All recurring decimals are rational.
REPRESENTING SETS ON A NUMBER LINE

Number sets can be represented in three different ways: set builder notation, interval notation and
number lines.
SET BUILDER NOTATION
Set builder notation is a mathematical notation that describes the elements and properties of a set of
P
numbers in curly brackets. There are three parts in set builder notation:
{ x : 0 ≤ x < 3 ; x ∈ ℝ }
Variable Condition Number type
M
INTERVAL NOTATION
Interval notation is another way of representing number sets, but can only be used to represent real
numbers on a number line. Round brackets ( ) indicate numbers not included and square brackets [ ]
indicate numbers included in the set.
Interval notation Meaning Set builder notation

A
All real numbers from −2 to 2,

x ∈ (− 2 ; 2) {x : − 2 < x < 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
excluding −2 and 2.
All real numbers from 1 to 4,
x ∈ [1 ; 4] {x : 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 ; x ∈ ℝ}
including 1 and 4.
S
All real numbers from 0 to 5,

x ∈ (0 ; 5] {x : 0 < x ≤ 5 ; x ∈ ℝ}
excluding 0 and including 5.
All real numbers from −1 to 3,
x ∈ [− 1 ; 3) {x : − 1 ≤ x < 3 ; x ∈ ℝ}
including −1 and excluding 3.
x ∈ (2 ; ∞) All real numbers greater than 2, excluding 2. {x : x > 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
x ∈ (− ∞ ; 1] All real numbers less than or including 1. {x : x ≤ 1 ; x ∈ ℝ}
x ∈ (− ∞ ; ∞) All real numbers. x∈ℝ
4
NUMBER LINES
Integers
When representing a number set consisting of integers, every number that is included in the set is
represented by a dot. Arrows are used to indicate that the number set continues in a particular
direction:
Set Builder Notation Number Line
{x : x ≥ 2 ; x ∈ ℤ} x
2 3 4
LE
{x : x < 3 ; x ∈ ℤ} x
1 2 3
{x : − 1 ≤ x < 3 ; x ∈ ℤ} x
−1 0 1 2 3
Real numbers
A number set consisting of real numbers is represented by a line. The endpoints of the line are either
included in the set or excluded from the set. An included point is represented by a closed dot (●)
P
and an excluded point by an open dot (○):
≤ ≥ < >
Included : For use Excluded : For use
[ ] ( )
M
Set Builder Notation Interval Notation Number Line
{x : − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ [− 2 ; 1] x
−2 1
A
{x : − 5 < x < − 2 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ (− 5 ; − 2) x
−5 −2
{x : − 1 < x ≤ 3 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ (− 1 ; 3]
S
−1 3 x
{x : − 3 ≤ x < 2 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ [− 3 ; 2) x
−3 2
{x : x > − 3 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ (− 3 ; ∞) x
−3
{x : x ≤ 2 ; x ∈ ℝ} x ∈ (− ∞ ; 2]
2 x
5
EXAMPLE 2
Represent the following on a number line:

(a) {x : x > 5 ; x ∈ ℤ} (b) {x : x ≤ 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(c) {x : x ≥ − 3 ; x ∈ ℤ} (d) {x : x < − 6 ; x ∈ ℤ}
(e) {x : − 2 ≤ x < 5 ; x ∈ ℝ} (f) {x : 4 ≤ x ≤ 8 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(g) x ∈ (− 3 ; 2) (h) x ∈ [− 2 ; 3]
(i) x ∈ (6 ; 11] (j) x ∈ [ 2 ; 4)
(k) x ∈ (− ∞ ; 3] (l) x ∈ [− 4 ; ∞)
Solution
(a) (b)
5 6 7 x 2 x
LE
(c) (d)
−3 −2 −1 x −8 −7 −6 x
(e) (f)
−2 5 x 4 8 x
(g)
−3 2
P
x
(h)
−2 3 x
(i) (j)
x x
M
6 11 2 4
(k) (l)
3 x −4 x
A
EXAMPLE 3
(a) Write the set represented on each number line below in set builder notation:
(1) (2)
2 3 4 x −3 x
S
(3) (4)
−2 −1 0 1 x 2 x
(5) (6)
5 x 1 6 x
(7) (8)
−5 4 x −7 −1 x
6
(b) Write the set represented on each number line below in interval notation:
(1) (2)
3 9 x −1 7 x
(3) (4)
−4 1 x −7 −3 x
(5) (6)
−5 x 6 x
Solution
(a) (1) {x : x ≥ 2 ; x ∈ ℤ} (2) {x : x ≤ − 3 ; x ∈ ℤ}
LE
(3) {x : − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; x ∈ ℤ} (4) {x : x ≥ 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(5) {x : x < 5 ; x ∈ ℝ} (6) {x : 1 < x ≤ 6 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(7) {x : − 5 ≤ x ≤ 4 ; x ∈ ℝ} (8) {x : − 7 < x < − 1 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(b) (1) x ∈ [3 ; 9] (2) x ∈ (− 1 ; 7)
(3) x ∈ (− 4 ; 1]
P (4) x ∈ [− 7 ; − 3)
(5) x ∈ (− ∞ ; − 5] (6) x ∈ (6 ; ∞)
M
EXERCISE 1
(a) Complete the following table:
Number ℕ ℕ0 ℤ ℚ ℚ′ ℝ
e.g. −4 No No Yes Yes No Yes
A
(1) 9
(2) 8
(3) π
S
1
(4) −
3
·
(5) 0,65
(6) 2,468
0
(7)
5
5
(8)
0
7
1
(b) From the following list of numbers: −2 ; ; 3 ; 16 ; 0 ; 4 ; −5 , write down all the
4
(1) natural numbers (2) whole numbers (3) integers
(4) rational numbers (5) irrational numbers (6) real numbers
(c) State whether each of the following numbers are rational, irrational or neither:
3 7 π
(1) 4 (2) (3) 2 (4)
3 9 4
3
(5) −25 (6) − 25 (7) 2,01543 (8) 8+1
3 3 ·· 10
(9) 8 (10) 66 (11) 5,75 (12)
0
·
LE
( 6)
3 2
(13) 7 (14) −7 (15) (16) 1,9
(d) Represent the following sets on a number line:
(1) {x : − 3 < x < 7 ; x ∈ ℤ} (2) {x : x ≥ − 5 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(3) {x : − 2 ≤ x < 4 ; x ∈ ℝ} (4) {x : x < 3 ; x ∈ ℤ}

1
(5) {x : x ≤ 6,5 ; x ∈ ℝ} (6) {x : x ≥ 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
2
(7)
P
{x : x < − 3 ; x ∈ ℤ} (8) {x : 0 ≤ x < 5 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(e) Write the following sets in set builder notation:

M
(1) (2)
−5 −4 −3 −2 x −12 12 x
(3) (4)
8 x x
10
A
(f) Represent the following on a number line:
(1) x ∈ (− 1 ; 9] (2) x ∈ [− 2 ; 8) (3) x ∈ (5 ; 10)

(4) x ∈ [− 7 ; − 3] (5) x ∈ [− 4 ; ∞) (6) x ∈ (− ∞ ; 6]
1
x ∈ (− ∞ ; ∞) x ∈ [5 ; ∞) x ∈( 5; 9]
S
(7) (8) (9)

5
(g) Write the following in interval notation:
(1) (2)
−3 x −π π x
9
(3) (4)
−7 x 1 x
4
4
8
LOCATING SURDS BETWEEN INTEGERS
Square roots of numbers that are not perfect squares are irrational. These numbers are called surds.
Any surd can be located between two consecutive integers:
EXAMPLE 4
Between which two consecutive integers do the following irrational numbers lie?
π
(a) 11 (b) − 11 (c) (d) −3π
2
Solution
(a) 9 < 11 < 16 (b) 9 < 11 < 16

∴ 9 < 11 < 16 ∴ 9 < 11 < 16
LE
∴ 3 < 11 < 4 ∴ 3 < 11 < 4
∴ 11 lies between 3 and 4 ∴ − 4 < − 11 < − 3
∴ − 11 lies between −4 and −3
(c) π = 3,14159... (d) −3π = − 9,42477...

π 3,14159...
∴ = = 1,570796... −10 < − 9,42477... < − 9
2 2
1 < 1,57259... < 2 ∴ − 10 < − 3π < − 9
π
∴1< <2 ∴ − 3π lies between −9 and − 10
π
2
∴ lies between 1 and 2
2
P
WRITING RECURRING DECIMALS AS COMMON FRACTIONS
M
A recurring decimal has an infinite number of digits after the comma, but a particular digit or group
of digits are repeated. Any recurring decimal can be written as a common fraction as illustrated in
the following example:
EXAMPLE 5
·
A
Write 0,4 as a common fraction.
Solution
·
Let x = 0,4
∴ x = 0,444 . . . (1)
S
∴ 10x = 4,444 . . . (2)
(2) − (1) : 10x − x = 4,444 . . . − 0,444 . . .

∴ 9x = 4
4
∴x=
9
EXAMPLE 6
Show that the following numbers are rational:

·· · ··
(a) 0,36 (b) 0,12 (c) 2,45 (d) −2,312
9
Solution
To show that a number is rational, we have to write the number as a common fraction.
··
(a) Let x = 0,36
∴ x = 0,363636 . . . (1)
∴ 100x = 36,363636 . . . (2)
(2) − (1) : 100x − x = 0,3636 . . . − 36,3636 . . .

∴ 99x = 36
36
∴x=
99
·
(b) Let x = 0,12
∴ 10x = 1,222 . . . (1)
LE
∴ 100x = 12,222 . . . (2)
(2) − (1) : 100x − 10x = 12,222 . . . − 1,222 . . .

∴ 90x = 11
11
∴x=
90
(c) Let x = 2,45
∴ x = 2,454545 . . . (1)
P
∴ 100x = 245,454545 . . . (2)
(2) − (1) : 100x − x = 245,454545 . . . − 2,454545 . . .

∴ 99x = 243
243
∴x=
M
99
··
(d) Let x = − 2,312
∴ 10x = − 23,1212 . . . (1)
∴ 1000x = − 2312,1212 . . . (2)
(2) − (1) : 1000x − 10x = − 2312,1212 . . . − (−23,1212 . . . )

A
∴ 990x = − 2289
2289
∴x =−
990
S
EXERCISE 2
(a) Determine between which two consecutive integers the following irrational numbers lie:
(1) 8 (2) 21 (3) 50 (4) 74
3
(5) − 18 (6) − 42 (7) − 150 (8) 6
3 π
(9) − 49 (10) π (11) 5π (12) −
4
(b) Show that the following recurring decimals are common fractions:
· ·· · ·
(1) 0,5 (2) 0,27 (3) 0,32 (4) 13,55
(c) Show that the following recurring decimals are rational:
·· ·
(1) 0,215 (2) 4,68 (3) −3,12 4 (4) −6,49
10
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
An algebraic expression is an expression containing variables (a, b, c, x etc). Algebraic expressions
consist of terms separated by addition and subtraction. We will now work with products of algebraic
expressions.
PRODUCTS
Finding a product means multiplying.
THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

We use the distributive law to expand products:
a(x + y) = a x + ay
LE
THE PRODUCT OF TWO BINOMIALS
A binomial is an expression which has two terms, for example 3a 2 − 4b and −5x 3 + 15y.
To find the product of two binomials, we multiply each term of the first binomial by each term of
the second binomial. The result is the sum of all these products. We can use the acronym FOIL to
help us remember to multiply F = Firsts, O = Outers, I = Inners and L = Lasts:
Firsts Lasts
P (a + b)(x + y) = a x + a y + bx + b y
Inners
Outers
M
THE PRODUCT OF A BINOMIAL AND TRINOMIAL
A trinomial is an expression which has three terms, for example 4a 2 + 3x − 1 and
−3a 3 + 5a 2 + 2a.
To find the product of a binomial and a trinomial, we multiply each term of the binomial by each
A
term of the trinomial. The result is the sum of all these products:
(a + b)(x + y + z) = a x + a y + a z + bx + b y + bz
S
EXAMPLE 7
Expand and simplify:
(a) 3(2x + y) (b) −2qr (q − 2qr + 3r)
(c) −3x 2 y(x 2 + 2x y − y 2 ) (d) (a + 2)(a − 3)
( 3 2)(2 )
2x 1 3
(e) (5p 2 − 2q 3)(3p 2 − 1q 3) (f) − x +4
(g) (y + 1)(y 2 − 2y + 3) (h) (x − 2y)(2x 2 − x y + 3y 2 )
11
Solution
(a) 3(2x + y) (b) −2qr (q − 2qr + 3r)

= 6x + 3y = − 2q 2r + 4q 2r 2 − 6qr 2
(c) −3x 2 y(x 2 + 2x y − y 2 ) (d) (a + 2)(a − 3)

= − 3x 4 y − 6x 3y 2 + 3x 2 y 3 = a 2 − 3a + 2a − 6
= a2 − a − 6
( 3 2)(2 )
2x 1 3
(e) (5p 2 − 2q 3)(3p 2 − 1q 3) (f) − x +4
( 3 2)( 2 1)
2x 1 3x 4
= 15p 4 − 5p 2 q 3 − 6p 2 q 3 + 2q 6 = − +
8x 3x
LE
= 15p 4 − 11p 2 q 3 + 2q 6 = x2 + − −2
3 4
32x 9x
= x2 + − −2
12 12
23x
= x2 + −2
12
(g) (y + 1)(y 2 − 2y + 3) (h) (x − 2y)(2x 2 − x y + 3y 2 )
= y 3 − 2y 2 + 3y + y 2 − 2y + 3 = 2x 3 − x 2 y + 3x y 2 − 4x 2 y + 2x y 2 − 6y 3
= y 3 − 1y 2 + 1y + 3
P = 2x 3 − 5x 2 y + 5x y 2 − 6y 3
SPECIAL PRODUCTS
SQUARING A BINOMIAL
M
To square a binomial, we can multiply the binomial by itself using the FOIL method or simply
apply the following rule:
Note that the result is the sum of
2 2
(x + y) = x + 2x y + y 2
• the squares of the terms of the binomial (x 2 + y 2) AND
• twice the product of the terms of the binomial (2x y)
A
When the operation between the two terms of the binomial is a minus (−), the rule becomes:
Note that
2 2
(x − y) = x − 2x y + y 2
• only the middle term gets the minus: −2x y
x2 + y2
S
• and not the squares:
EXAMPLE 8
(a) (x + 3)2 (b) (2a − 1)2

(c) −2x 2 y (x − 3y)2 (d) (m + 2)3
Solution
(a) (x + 3)2 (b) (2a − 1)2

= x 2 + 6x + 9 = 4a 2 − 4a + 1
12
(c) −2x 2 y (x − 3y)2 (d) (m + 2)3
= − 2x 2 y (x 2 − 6x y + 9y 2 ) = (m + 2)(m + 2)2
= − 2x 4 y + 12x 3y 2 − 18x 2 y 3 = (m + 2)(m 2 + 4m + 4)
= m 3 + 4m 2 + 4m + 2m 2 + 8m + 8
= m 3 + 6m 2 + 12m + 8
THE DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES
When the sum of two terms is multiplied by the difference of the same two terms, the result is the
difference of the squares of the two terms:
(x + y)(x − y) = x 2 − y 2
LE
EXAMPLE 9
(a) (x − 2) (x + 2) (b) (x 2 − 3y 3)(x 2 + 3y 3)

Solution
(a) (x − 2) (x + 2) (b) (x 2 − 3y 3)(x 2 + 3y 3)
= x2 − 4 = x 4 + 3y 3 x 2 − 3y 3 x 2 − 9y 6
= x 4 − 9y 6
P
MULTIPLYING MORE THAN TWO FACTORS
When multiplying more than two factors, any two factors can be multiplied first and the result is
then multiplied by the remaining factors:
M
EXAMPLE 10
(a) −3x (2x + 3)(3x − 2) (b) (a − b)(2a + b)2

A
(c) (3x − y)(3x + y)(2x + 5y) (d) (x + 2y)(x − 2y)(x 2 + 4y 2 )

Solution
(a) −3x (2x + 3)(3x − 2) (b) (a − b)(2a + b)2

= − 3x(6x 2 − 4x + 9x − 6) = (a − b)(4a 2 + 4a b + b 2 )
S
= − 3x(6x 2 + 5x − 6) = 4a 3 + 4a 2 b + a b 2 − 4a 2 b − 4a b 2 − b 3
= − 18x 3 − 15x 2 + 18x = 4a 3 − 3a b 2 − b 3
(c) (3x − y)(3x + y)(2x + 5y)
= (9x 2 − y 2 )(2x + 5y)
= 18x 3 + 45x 2 y − 2x y 2 − 5y 3
(d) (x + 2y)(x − 2y)(x 2 + 4y 2 )
= (x 2 − 2yx + 2yx − 4y 2 )(x 2 + 4y 2 )
= (x 2 − 4y 2 )(x 2 + 4y 2 )
= x 4 + 4y 2 x 2 − 4y 2 x 2 − 16y 4
= x 4 − 16y 4
13
EXAMPLE 11
Expand and simplify: (a + 2b)2 (a − 2b)2
Solution
(a + 2b)2 (a − 2b)2
= [(a + 2b) (a − 2b)]
2
Exponential law: a m b m = (a b)m
= (a 2 − 2ba + 2ba − 4b 2 )2
= (a 2 − 4b 2 )2
= (a 2 − 4b 2 )(a 2 − 4b 2 )
= a 4 − 4b 2 a 2 − 4b 2 a 2 + 16b 4
= a 4 − 8b 2 a 2 + 16b 4
LE
EXERCISE 3
(a) Expand and simplify:
(1) 2x(x − 4) (2) −4m(2m 2 + 5m 3 − 3)
(3) (x + 1)(x + 5) (4) (3x − 2)(x + 1)
(5)
(7)
−3(2y − 4x)(y − 3x)
P
(5p 2 + q 4 )( p 3 − 2q 2 )
(6)
(8)
(−2x − 4y)(3x + 5y) ⋅ 2
(4b 2 + 5c 2 )(−b 3 + 2c 5)
(2 3 ) ( 2)( 3)
1 1 1 4
(9) −3y y − y2 (10) a+ a+
M
(2 3)( 2 ) ( 2 )
1 b 3 1
(11) a+ 4a − b (12) (2q 2 + 8r −3) q 2 + r 2
(b) Expand and simplify:

A
(1) (x + 3)(x 2 − 2x + 4) (2) (2a − b)(3a b + a 2 − b 2 )

(3) (x + y)(x 2 − x y + y 2 ) (4) (9p 2 + 6pq + 4q 2 )(3p − 2q)
(5) (x − y)(5x 3 + 2x y − 3y 5) (6) (x 2 − y 3)(x 4 + 2x 2 y 3 − 3y 6)
S
(c) Expand and simplify:

(1) (a + 4)2 (2) (x − 3)2 (3) (−x − 5y)2
(4) (−3p + 6q)2 (5) 2(2x − 4y)2 (6) −12x 2 y 3 (2x − 3y)2
(7) [5(a + 4b)]2 (8) (a + 1)3 (9) (2x − y)3
(3 ) (2 3 ) ( 2)
2 2 2
x 1 2 y
(10) +2 (11) a− b (12) −4 2x −
14
(d) Expand and simplify:
(1) (x + 3)(x − 3) (2) (2x − 7)(2x + 7)
(3) (4x − 5y)(4x + 5y) (4) (x + y)(y − x)
(2 )(2 )
1 1
(5) (7 + 2a 3b)(7 − 2a 3b) (6) − a2 + a2
( 4 )( 4 )
3 3
(7) 2y + x 2y − x (8) (a 3 + b 3)(a 3 − b 3)
(9) (3n − 1)(3n + 1) (10) (a 2x + 7y )(a 2x − 7y )
(e) Expand and simplify:
(1) (2 + a)(2 − a)(4 + a 2 ) (2) (x + 2y)(x − 2y)(x 2 + 4y 2 )
LE
(3) (2q + 4r)(4q 2 + 16r 2 )(2q − 4r) (4) (3p − 1 + q)(3p − 1 − q)
[(2x + 3y) (2x − 3y)]
2
(5) (x + 3y)2(x − 3y)2 (6)
(f) Expand and simplify:
(1) (x − y)2(x + y)2 (2) (a + 4b)2(a − 4b)2

[(3x − 2y)(9x + 4y )(3x + 2y)]
2
(3) (−2a − 3b)2(2a − 3b)2 (4) 2 2
THE SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES

P
When a binomial x + y is multiplied by a trinomial of the form x 2 − x y + y 2, the result is the sum
of the cubes of the terms of the binomial:
(x + y)(x 2 − x y + y 2 ) = x 3 + y 3
M
When a binomial x − y is multiplied by a trinomial of the form x 2 + x y + y 2, the result is the
difference of the cubes of the terms of the binomial:
(x − y)(x 2 + x y + y 2 ) = x 3 − y 3
A
Before applying these rules, make sure that the trinomial (“long bracket”) is the sum of
• the squares of the terms of the binomial AND
• the product of the terms of the binomial, but with the opposite sign.
S
EXAMPLE 12

(a) (a + 1)(a 2 − a + 1) (b) (x − 2y)(x 2 + 2yx + 4y 2 )
(2 3)(4 9)
1 1 1 2 1 1
[(y + 3)(y − 3y + 9)]
2 2
(c) a− a + a+ (d)
6
(e) (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)
(f) (y − 2)(y 4 + 4y 2 + 16)(y + 2)
15
Solution
(a) (a + 1)(a 2 − a + 1) (b) (x − 2y)(x 2 + 2yx + 4y 2 )

= a3 + 1 = x 3 − 8y 3
(2 3)(4 9)
1 1 1 2 1 1
[(y + 3)(y − 3y + 9)]
2 2
(c) a− a + a+ (d)
6
= (y 3 + 27)2
1 3 1
= a − = (y 3 + 27)(y 3 + 27)
8 27
= y 6 + 27y 3 + 27y 3 + 729
= y 6 + 54y 3 + 729
(e) (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)
= (x 3 − 1)(x 3 + 1)
LE
= x6 + x3 − x3 − 1
= x6 − 1
(f) (y − 2)(y 4 + 4y 2 + 16)(y + 2)
= (y − 2)(y + 2)(y 4 + 4y 2 + 16)
= (y 2 − 4)(y 4 + 4y 2 + 16)
= y 6 − 64
EXERCISE 4
(a) Expand and simplify:

(1)
P
(x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4) (2) (y − 1)(y 2 + y + 1)
(3) (3x − 1)(9x 2 + 3x + 1) (4) (2a + 3)(4a 2 − 6a + 9)
(4 ) ( 16
a2
)
a
M
3 2 6 3 2 4
(5) (3x + 2y )(9x − 6x y + 4y ) (6) −4 + a + 16
(5 3 ) ( 25
y2
9)
1 1 1 2 1
(7) x+ y x − xy +
15
(b) Simplify the following:

A
(1) (a + b)(a − b)(a 4 + a 2 b 2 + b 4 )

[( p + 4)( p − 4p + 16)]
2 2
(2)
(3) (x + 2y)(x − 2y)(x 2 − 2x y + 4y 2 )(x 2 + 2x y + 4y 2 )
S
SUMS AND/OR DIFFERENCES OF PRODUCTS
To simplify sums and/or differences of products, the products are expanded first and then the
addition and/or subtraction is dealt with by adding/subtracting like terms:
EXAMPLE 13
(a) x (x + 2) + (x − 3)(x + 1)
(b) 3x y(x − 4y) − (x y 2 − 2x 2 y)
(c) 4x (x − 1)2 − 2(x − 3)(x + 3)x
16
(d) (x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4) − (x + 4)2
(e) 2x (x − 5)2 − (2x − 1)(4x 2 + 2x + 1) + (x − 1)(x + 1)
Solution
(a) x (x + 2) + (x − 3)(x + 1)
= x 2 + 2x + x 2 + x − 3x − 3
= 2x 2 − 3
(b) 3x y(x − 4y) − (x y 2 − 2x 2 y)
= 3x 2 y − 12x y 2 − x y 2 + 2x 2 y
= 5x 2 y − 13x y 2
(c) 4x (x − 1)2 − 2(x − 3)(x + 3)x
= 4x (x − 1)(x − 1) − 2x(x 2 − 9)
= 4x (x 2 − 2x + 1) − 2x 3 + 18x
LE
= 4x 3 − 8x 2 + 4x − 2x 3 + 18x
= 2x 3 − 8x 2 + 22x
(d) (x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4) − (x + 4)2
= x 3 + 8 − (x 2 + 8x + 16)
= x 3 + 8 − x 2 − 8x − 16
= x 3 − x 2 − 8x − 8
(e) 2x (x − 5)2 − (2x − 1)(4x 2 + 2x + 1) + (x − 1)(x + 1)
= 2x (x 2 − 10x + 25) − (8x 3 − 1) + x 2 − 1
P
= 2x 3 − 20x 2 + 50x − 8x 3 + 1 + x 2 − 1
= − 6x 3 − 19x 2 + 50x
EXERCISE 5
M
(a) 2x 2 − (−3x)2 + 4 (x − 1) x
(b) x (x − 1) + (x − 1)(x − 3)
(c) 3a(a − 2) − 2a 2(a − 1) − (a 3 − 3a 2 − a)
(d) ( p + q)2 − ( p + q)( p − q) − 2p(3p − q)
(a + 2) (a − 2) − 3a (a + 1) − (a − 3)2
A
(e)
(f) −x(x + 5) + 2x(x − 1)2 − (x + 1)(x − 6)
(g) 2x (x − 5)2 + (3x − 2)(x 2 − x + 1) − (x − 1)(x + 1)
(h) (2a − b)(2a + b)a 2 − (a − b)(a + b)(a 2 + 3b 2 )
(i) (x + 1)(x 2 − 2) + (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) − (x − 2)2
S
(j) (x + 2y)3 − (x + 2y)(x 2 − 2x y + 4y 2 )
FACTORISATION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Factorisation is the process of writing a number or expression as the product of its factors.
Factorisation is the opposite process of expanding products. In this chapter, we will study the
following factorisation patterns:
1. Common factors
2. The difference of two squares
3. Quadratic trinomials
4. The sum or difference of two cubes
5. Grouping
17
COMMON FACTORS
To start the process of factorisation, we look for the highest factor that can be divided into each
term of the expression and write this common factor down, followed by a bracket containing the
remaining factors of each term:
a x + a y = a(x + y)
EXAMPLE 14
Factorise the following expressions:
(a) 4x + 8y (b) p 2 − 2p
(c) 12a 2 + 6a (d) 9x 3 + 6x 2
(e) 25a 3b 5 − 5a 2 b (f) −6x y 3 z 2 + 4x y 2 z 3 − 8x yz 2
LE
1 3 1 2 2
(g) x − x + x (h) 1,2x 2 y 2 − 0,4x 4 y 3 + 0,8x 2 y 3
3 9 9
Solution
(a) 4x + 8y (b) p 2 − 2p
= 4(x + 2y) = p( p − 2)
(c) 12a 2 + 6a (d) 9x 3 + 6x 2
= 6a(2a + 1) = 3x 2(3x + 2)
(e) 25a 3b 5 − 5a 2 b
= 5a 2 b(5a b 4 − 1)
P (f) −6x y 3 z 2 + 4x y 2 z 3 − 8x yz 2
= −2x yz 2(3y 2 − 2yz + 4)
1 3 1 2 2
(g) x − x + x (h) 1,2x 2 y 2 − 0,4x 4 y 3 + 0,8x 2 y 3
3 9 9
M
1
= x (3x 2 − x + 2) = 0,4x 2 y 2(3 − x 2 y + 2y)
9
COMMON BRACKETS
Identical brackets occurring in all the terms of an expression are also common factors:
A
EXAMPLE 15
x (y + 1) + 2(y + 1) a(c − d ) − b(c − d )

S
(a) (b)
(c) 4x (a + 1) − 3y(1 + a) (d) m(x − y) − n(−y + x)
(e) (x + 2)4 + 3(x + 2)2 (f) 3(b − a)2 − a(a − b) + 2b(a − b)
(g) y(3x − 1) + 3x − 1 (h) p(q + 3) − q − 3
Solution
(a) x (y + 1) + 2(y + 1) (b) a(c − d ) − b(c − d )

= (y + 1)(x + 2) = (c − d )(a − b)
(c) 4x (a + 1) − 3y(1 + a) (d) m(x − y) − n(−y + x)
= 4x (a + 1) − 3y(a + 1) = m(x − y) − n(x − y)
= (a + 1)(4x − 3y) = (x − y)(m − n)
18
(e) (x + 2)4 + 3(x + 2)2 (f) 3(b − a)2 − a(a − b) + 2b(a − b) (b − a)2
= (x + 2)2[(x + 2)2 + 3] = 3(a − b)2 − a(a − b) + 2b(a − b) = (a − b)2
= (a − b)[3(a − b) − a + 2b]
= (a − b)(3a − 3b − a + 2b)
= (a − b)(2a − b)
(g) y(3x − 1) + 3x − 1 (h) p(q + 3) − q − 3
= y(3x − 1) + (3x − 1) = p(q + 3) − (q + 3)
= (3x − 1)(y + 1) = (q + 3)( p − 1)
CHANGING SIGNS
When two or more brackets contain the same terms, but with opposite signs, we can change the
signs of the terms in any bracket(s), provided we change the operation before the bracket (+ to −
LE
or − to +). We will then have identical brackets which can be taken out as a common factor:
EXAMPLE 16
(a) 3a(2x − y) + 4(y − 2x) (b) 2p 2( p − 3) − 12q 2(3 − p)

(c) 5a(3x + y) − (−3x − y) (d) 2x (2a − 1) + 3y(−2a + 1) + 3(−1 + 2a)
Solution
(a) 3a(2x − y) + 4(y − 2x)

P (b) 2p 2( p − 3) − 12q 2(3 − p)
= 3a(2x − y) − 4(2x − y) = 2p 2( p − 3) + 12q 2( p − 3)
= (2x − y)(3a − 4) = 2( p − 3)( p 2 + 6q 2 )
M
(c) 5a(3x + y) − (−3x − y) (d) 2x (2a − 1) + 3y(−2a + 1) + 3(−1 + 2a)
= 5a(3x + y) + (3x + y) = 2x (2a − 1) − 3y(2a − 1) + 3(2a − 1)
= (3x + y)(5a + 1) = (2a − 1)(2x − 3y + 3)
EXERCISE 6
A
(a) Factorise the following expressions:

(1) 9x + 3y (2) x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x
(3) 12x 3 − 4x (4) 9e 2 f − 12e f 2
(5) 3a 2 − 9a b + 12a 2 b (6) −15y 2 − 3y
(7) −2m n + 28m 2 n − 6n (8) 16x 4 y 8 − 8x 3y 7 − 24x 2 y 3
S
(9) 25a 3b 2 c + 5a 2 b 2 c 3 + 15a 2 b 3c 2 (10) π r 2 + 2π rh

1 2 1 3
(11) 0,3pq 3 − 1,2pq 2 + 0,9pq (12) a − a b + a 2b
4 2 4
(b) Factorise the following expressions:
(1) a(x − 2) + b(x − 2) (2) c(x + y) + 3(x + y)
(3) x(y + 3) − 2(y + 3) (4) m( p + q) − n(q + p)
(5) 4a(2 − y) + b(−y + 2) (6) a(b 3 − 4) − (b 3 − 4)
(7) (a − b)7 + 2(a − b)3 (8) ( p + q)2 − p( p + q)
(9) 6(y − x)2 − 3(x − y) (10) (x + y)2 + 2x (x + y) − 3y(y + x)
(11) 3d − 8e − 4q(3d − 8e) (12) p(m + 5n) − m − 5n
(13) x(y − 5) − y + 5 (14) 2x + 2y − a(x + y)
19
(c) Factorise the following expressions:
(1) x(a − 1) + y(1 − a) (2) 2p(x − y) − 2q(y − x)
(3) x(3p + q) + y(−3p − q) (4) x 2(2y − z) − x (−2y + z)
(5) 4e 2(d 3 + 2) − 2e(−d 3 − 2) (6) 5a(b − c) + 10a 3(c − b) + 15a 2(−c + b)
(7) 2(x − y)2 + x(y − x) − 2y(x − y) (8) m 2(m − n) + n 2(−n + m) + (n − m)3
THE DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES

The difference of two squares is factorised as follows:
x 2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)
EXAMPLE 17
LE
(a) a2 − 9 (b) 4x 2 − 9y 2
(c) x6 − y4 (d) p 4 − 16
1 4
(e) x2 − (f) − 9b 2
9 a 2
Solution
(a) a2 − 9 (b) 4x 2 − 9y 2
= (a − 3)(a + 3) = (2x − 3y)(2x + 3y)
(c) x6 − y4
= (x 3 − y 2 )(x 3 + y 2 )
P
x 6 = (x 3)2 (d) p 4 − 16
2 2
= ( p − 4)( p + 4)
p 4 = ( p 2 )2
y 4 = (y 2 )2
= ( p − 2)( p + 2)( p 2 + 4)
1 4
M
(e) x2 − (f) − 9b 2
9 a2
( 3)( 3) (a )(a )
1 1 2 2
= x− x+ = − 3b + 3b
Remember that we always have to take out the highest common factor of all terms before
A
attempting any other type of factorisation:
EXAMPLE 18
S
(a) 2x 2 − 2 (b) −3a 3b 2 + 12a b 4

(c) x 2(a + b) − y 2(a + b) (d) m 2(n 2 − 4) + 25(4 − n 2 )
Solution
(a) 2x 2 − 2 (b) −3a 3b 2 + 12a b 4
= 2(x 2 − 1) = − 3a b 2(a 2 − 4b 2 )
= 2(x − 1)(x + 1) = − 3a b 2(a − 2b)(a + 2b)
(c) x 2(a + b) − y 2(a + b) (d) m 2(n 2 − 4) + 25(4 − n 2 )
= (a + b)(x 2 − y 2 ) = m 2(n 2 − 4) − 25(n 2 − 4)
= (a + b)(x − y)(x + y) = (n 2 − 4)(m 2 − 25)
= (n − 2)(n + 2)(m − 5)(m + 5)
20
In the following example, we are required to deal with brackets that are squared. We treat these
brackets exactly like we treat single variables:
EXAMPLE 19
(a) 9(a + b)2 − 16 (b) (3x − 1)2 − (2x + 1)2

Solution
(a) 9(a + b)2 − 16 Alternative method:

= [3(a + b) − 4] [3(a + b) + 4]
Let a + b = k
= (3a + 3b − 4)(3a + 3b + 4)
9(a + b)2 − 16
= 9k 2 − 16
LE
= (3k − 4)(3k + 4)
= [3(a + b) − 4] [3(a + b) + 4]
(b) (3x − 1)2 − (2x + 1)2 Alternative method:

= [(3x − 1) − (2x + 1)] [(3x − 1) + (2x + 1)] Let 3x − 1 = p and 2x + 1 = q
= (3x − 1 − 2x − 1)(3x − 1 + 2x + 1)
(3x − 1)2 − (2x + 1)2
= (x − 2)(5x) = p2 − q2
= ( p − q)( p + q)
= [(3x − 1) − (2x + 1)] [(3x − 1) + (2x + 1)]
P = (3x − 1 − 2x − 1)(3x − 1 + 2x + 1)
= (x − 2)(5x)
EXERCISE 7
M
(1) m2 − n2 (2) x2 − 4 (3) 4a 2 − 1

(4) 9y 2 − 16 (5) 9x 2 − 25y 2 (6) 1 − 9x 2 y 2
(7) x 4 − 49 (8) a 10 − b 6 (9) 25a 4 − 49b 2
A
(10) x 4 − 81 (11) y8 − 1 (12) p 8 − 16q 4

1 a4 1 2 9
(13) x2 − (14) − b (15) x2 − 2
4 16 25 y
S
(1) 3x 2 − 3 (2) 20 − 5y 2 (3) 4x 2 − 16y 2

(4) a3 − a (5) 2x − 18x 3 (6) 2p 3q − 8pq 3
(7) −18x 3y 3 + 8x y 5 (8) 3a 7b − 27a b 3 (9) 16a 5b − a b 5
1 2 1 q2 1
(10) x −4 (11) 2p 2 − (12) 5 − 3y 2
2 2 2 3
(13) a 2(x − y) − b 2(x − y)
(14) x 2 (a − 3) + (3 − a)
(15) x 2(a 2 − 9) + y 2(−a 2 + 9)
21
(1) (x − y)2 − 9 (2) 4(a + 1)2 − 25 (3) 49 − ( p − q)2

(4) 36x 2 − 25(x − y)2 (5) (a + b)2 − (a − 2b)2 (6) 9(2x − 1)2 − 4(x − 3)2
(d)* Factorise the following expressions:
(1) x 2a − 1 (2) a 2m − b 2n (3) 24x − 38y
THE SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES
The sum or difference of cubes is factorised as follows:
x 3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x 2 − x y + y 2 ) x 3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x 2 + x y + y 2 )
LE
Notice that the sum/difference of cubes have two factors: a binomial (“short bracket”) and a
trinomial (“long bracket”). These factors are determined as follows:
• The terms in the short bracket are the cube roots of the original terms.
• The terms in the long bracket are as follows:
- The first term in the long bracket is the square of the first term in the short bracket.
- The second term in the long bracket is the product of the two terms in the short
P
bracket, but with the opposite sign.
- The last term in the long bracket is the square of the last term in the short bracket.
EXAMPLE 20
M
(a) x3 + 1 (b) y3 − 8
(c) 27a 3 + b 3 (d) x9 − y3
1 3 8
(e) −2x 4 y + 54x y 4 (f) p +
A
64 27
Solution:
(a) x3 + 1 (b) y3 − 8
= (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1) = (y − 2)(y 2 + 2y + 4)
S
(c) 27a 3 + b 3 (d) x9 − y3 x 9 = (x 3)3

= (3a + b)(9a 2 − 3a b + b 2 ) = (x 3 − y)(x 6 + x 3y + y 2 ) (x 3)2 = x 6
1 3 8
(e) −2x 4 y + 54x y 4 (f) p +
64 27
(4 3 ) ( 16 9)
1 2 1 2 1 2 4
= − 2x y(x 3 − 27y 3) = p+ p − ⋅ p+
4 3
(4 3 ) ( 16 9)
1 2 1 2 1 4
= − 2x y(x − 3y)(x 2 + 3x y + 9y 2 ) = p+ p − p+
6
22
EXERCISE 8
(1) x3 + 8 (2) y3 − 1 (3) a 3 − 27

(4) 8x 3 + 1 (5) a 3 − 64b 3 (6) 27p 3 − 8q 3
(7) 1 + m 3n 3 (8) −x 3 − y 3 (9) −125 + p 3
(10) a6 + b3 (11) 8x 3 − 27y 9 (12)* x 6 − y 6 (Careful!)
27 1 x 3 64
(13) x3 + (14) y3 − 3 (15) + 3
8 y 8 y
(1) 8p 3 − 8q 3 (2) 16 − 2x 3
(3) a4 + a (4) 3a 5 − 24a 2
LE
(5) 2m 5n + 16m 2 n 4 (6) −8p 3n 6 + 27p 3n 9
(7) a 3(b + 1) − (b + 1) (8) x 3(y 2 − 1) + 8(y 2 − 1)
1 3
(9) x 2(x 3 − 1) + y 2(1 − x 3) (10) x −4
2
1 y3 1
(11) 3y 3 + (12) +1
9 3 8
( 2)
2
9 49
(1) 3
P
(x − y) + (x + y) 3
(2) 3
x − −
4
(d)* Factorise the following expressions:
(1) a 3m + 1 (2) 23x − 2−3x
M
QUADRATIC TRINOMIALS
A quadratic trinomial is a trinomial in which the highest exponent of the variable is 2.
The general form of a quadratic trinomial is a x 2 + bx + c

A
When a = 1, the trinomial will have the form x 2 + bx + c.
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM x2 + bx + c
To factorise a quadratic trinomial, we have to find two binomials that can be multiplied to produce
the trinomial, for example x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3):
S
x2 +6
x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
+2x
+3x
+5x
23
In general:
x 2 + bx + c = (x + p)(x + q) where p×q =c and p + q = b.
Note:
• If c is positive, p and q will have the same signs (either both positive or both negative).
• If c is negative, p and q will have opposite signs (one positive and one negative).
The following example illustrates all the possible combinations of signs of b and c. It also shows
the process of finding the correct factors:
EXAMPLE 21
(a) x 2 + 5x + 6 (b) x 2 − 9x + 8
LE
(c) x 2 + 3x − 4 (d) x 2 − x − 12
Solution
(a) x 2 + 5x + 6 (b) x 2 − 9x + 8
b = + 5 and c = + 6 b = − 9 and c = + 8
• Possible factor pairs of the • Possible factor pairs of the

constant term value 6: constant term value 8:
1×6 2×3
P 1×8 2×4
• Since c is positive, look for • Since c is positive, look for

a pair of numbers that add to a pair of numbers that add to
b = + 5, using the same b = − 9, using the same
M
signs: signs:
+2 + 3 = + 5 −1 − 8 = − 9
x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3) x 2 − 9x + 8 = (x − 1)(x − 8)
A
(c) x 2 + 3x − 4 (d) x 2 − x − 12
b = + 3 and c = − 4 b = − 1 and c = − 12
• Possible factor pairs of the • Possible factor pairs of the
S
constant term value 4: constant term value 12:

1×4 2×2 1 × 12 2×6 3×4
• Since c is negative, look for • Since c is negative, look for
a pair of numbers that add to a pair of numbers that add to
b = + 3, using opposite b = − 1, using opposite
signs: signs:
−1 + 4 = + 3 +3 − 4 = − 1
x 2 + 3x − 4 = (x − 1)(x + 4) x 2 − x − 12 = (x + 3)(x − 4)
24
Before using this method to factorise a quadratic trinomial, it is important to take out any common
factors first. We want the coefficient of the square term (a) to be 1 if possible:
EXAMPLE 22
(a) 2x 2 + 14x + 24 (b) y 3 − 10y 2 − 11y

(c) −a 2 − 3a + 10 (d) 12m 2 − 16m 3 − 2m 4
Solution
(a) 2x 2 + 14x + 24 (b) y 3 − 10y 2 − 11y

= 2(x 2 + 7x + 12) = y(y 2 − 10y − 11)
= 2(x + 3)(x + 4) = y(y − 11)(y + 1)
LE
(c) −a 2 − 3a + 10 (d) −16m 2 + 12m 3 − 2m 4
= − (a 2 + 3a − 10) = − 2m 2(8 − 6m + m 2 )
= − (a + 5)(a − 2) = − 2m 2(m 2 − 6m + 8)
= − 2m 2(m − 4)(m − 2)
MORE ADVANCED TRINOMIALS
EXAMPLE 23
(a)
P
(x 2 − 3x)2 − 2(x 2 − 3x) − 8 (b) x 4 − 8x 2 − 9
Solution
(x 2 − 3x)2 − 2(x 2 − 3x) − 8 x 4 − 8x 2 − 9
M
(a) (b)
= [(x 2 − 3x) − 4] [(x 2 − 3x) + 2] = (x 2 )2 − 8(x 2 ) − 9
= (x 2 − 3x − 4)(x 2 − 3x + 2) = (x 2 − 9)(x 2 + 1)
= (x − 4)(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 1) = (x − 3)(x + 3)(x 2 + 1)
EXERCISE 9
A

(1) x 2 + 3x + 2 (2) p 2 − 8p + 15 (3) a 2 + 5a − 6
2
(4) y − y − 20 (5) a 2 + 6a + 9 (6) n 2 − 25n + 24
2
(7) k − 6k − 16 (8) b 2 + 3b − 40 (9) y 2 + 9y + 20
2
(10) x − 5x − 24 (11) 5c + c 2 − 50 (12) 25 − 10m + m 2
S

(1) 3x 2 + 12x + 9 (2) −x 2 − 5x + 14 (3) −2x 2 + 20x + 22
(4) x 3 − 13x 2 + 36x (5) 2x 4 − 4x 3 − 70x 2 (6) −3x 3y − 33x 2 y + 36x y
(7) 48 + 28x + 4x 2 (8) 6x 2 − x 3 − 8x (9) −18x 2 + 44x − 2x 3
(10) x 2(a − b) + 3x(b − a) − 4(−b + a)
(11) p 2(m 2 + 5m − 6) + q 2(6 − 5m − m 2 )

(1) (a + b)2 + 7(b + a) − 8 (2) (x − y)2 + 7(y − x) + 10
(3) (x 2 + 4x)2 + 2(−x 2 − 4x) − 15 (4) x 4 − 13x 2 + 36
(5) x 6 + 7x 3 − 8 (6) (a 2 − 5a)2 − 36
25
FACTORISING TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 1)
We will now factorise trinomials of the form a x 2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 1 (after the highest common
factor has been taken out). Remember that the goal is to find two binomials that can be multiplied
to produce the given trinomial, for example 6x 2 + 11x + 3 = (2x + 3)(3x + 1):
6x 2 +3
6x 2 + 11x + 3 = (2x + 3)(3x + 1)

+9x
+2x
+11x
LE
To factorise these trinomials, we list the different possible factor pairs of the square term and of
the constant term and to try out different combinations in order to find the correct middle term:
EXAMPLE 24
(a) 10x 2 + 21x + 9 (b) 15x 2 + x − 6
Solution
(a)
P
Possible factor pairs of 10x 2: x × 10x → (x )(10x )
2x × 5x → (2x )(5x )
Possible factor pairs of 9: 1×9→( 1)( 9) or ( 9)( 1)
M
3×3→( 3)( 3)
Test x × 10x with different Test 2x × 5x with different

factor pairs of 9: factor pairs of 9:
(x 1)(10x 9) (2x 1)(5x 9) Remember to
+10x +5x
A
• try the factors of the

+9x +18x
constant term in different
+19x +23x orders (swap them around
if necessary). This is not
(x 9)(10x 1) (2x 9)(5x 1) necessary for the square
S
+90x +45x term.

+x +2x
• use the same sign in both
+91x +47x
brackets, since the constant
(x 3)(10x 3) term is positive.
(2x 3)(5x 3)
+30x +15x • use + with both products
+3x +6x to obtain a positive middle
+33x +21x ✔ term.
∴ 10x 2 + 21x + 9 = (2x + 3)(5x + 3)

26
(b) 15x 2 + x − 6
Possible factor pairs of 15x 2: x × 15x → (x )(15x )

3x × 5x → (3x )(5x )
Possible factor pairs of 6: 1×6→( 1)( 6) or ( 6)( 1)
2×3→( 2)( 3) or ( 3)( 2)
Test x × 15x with different Test 3x × 5x with different

factor pairs of 6: factor pairs of 6:
(x 1)(15x 6) (3x 1)(5x 6)
Remember to
+15x −5x
−6x +18x • try the factors of the
constant term in different
+9x +13x
LE
orders (swap them around
if necessary). This is not
(x 6)(15x 1) (3x 6)(5x 1)
necessary for the square
+90x +30x term.
−x −3x
+89x +27x • use opposite signs in the
two brackets, since the
(x 2)(15x 3) (3x 2)(5x 3) constant term is negative.
+30x +10x
−3x
P −9x
• use + with the largest
product to obtain a
+27x +x ✔ positive middle term.
(x 3)(15x 2) (3x 3)(5x 2)

M
+45x +15x
−2x −6x
+43x +9x
A
∴ 15x 2 + x − 6 = (3x + 2)(5x − 3)

Note: It is not always necessary to test all possible combinations. With practice, you will become
better at finding the correct combination rather quickly.
Remember to take out the highest common factor before attempting to factorise a trinomial:
S
EXAMPLE 25
Factorise 12x 2 − 2x − 10.
Solution
12x 2 − 2x − 10 (x 1)(6x 5) • Use opposite signs in the two brackets,

−6x since the constant term is negative.
= 2(6x 2 − x − 5)
+5x • Use − with the largest product to obtain
= 2(x − 1)(6x + 5)
−x ✔ a negative middle term.
27
TRINOMIALS OF THE FORM ax2 + bxy + cy2
We can factorise trinomials of the form a x 2 + bx y + c y 2 (i.e. trinomials with two variables) by
using the same thought process that we used for trinomials with one variable. Since the last term of
the trinomial is now a square term of the second variable (instead of a constant term), the second
term in each bracket will now be a term of the second variable (instead of a constant):
EXAMPLE 26
(a) x 2 + 3x y − 4y 2 (b) 3a 2 − 13a b + 14b 2
Solution
(a) x 2 + 3x y − 4y 2
LE
= (x + 4y)(x − y)
(b) 3a 2 − 13a b + 14b 2 (a 2b)(3a 7b) • Use the same sign in both brackets,
= (a − 2b)(3a − 7b) −6a b since the b 2 term is positive.
−7a b • Use − with both products to obtain
P −13a b ✔ a negative middle term.
EXERCISE 10
(1) 2x 2 + 5x + 3 (2) 3y 2 − 7y + 2
M
(3) 5a 2 + 2a − 3 (4) 7n 2 − 13n − 2
(5) 2p 2 − 11p − 21 (6) 6t 2 + 11t + 4
(7) 10m 2 − 23m + 6 (8) 12x 2 + 19x − 18
(9) 20k 2 − 9k − 18 (10) 21x 2 + 40x + 16
(11) 25x 2 − 20x + 4 (12) 18y 2 + 11y − 24
A
(13) 16a 2 + 12a − 18 (14) −9p 2 + 13p − 4

(15) 30x 3 − 8x 4 + 8x 2 (16) 14x y − 9x 3y − 15x 2 y

S
(1) x 2 + 5x y + 6y 2 (2) a 2 − 5a b − 6b 2
(3) 2x 2 + x y − 3y 2 (4) 6p 2 − 19pq + 15q 2
(5) 6c 2 − 22cd + 12d 2 (6) −20a 2 − 44a b − 21b 2
(7) 33x 3 + 9x 2 y − 24x y 2 (8) 21m n 2 − 8m 2 n + 9n 3
(1) 4x 4 − 37x 2 + 9 (2) 8x 6 + 63x 3 − 8

(3) 3a 4 − 5a 2 b 3 − 2b 6 (4) 4p 4 + 3p 2 q 2 − q 4
(5) (3a 2 − 5a)2 − 4 (6) (2x 2 + 5x)2 − 9(2x 2 + 5x) − 36
28
GROUPING
Expressions containing four or more terms can often be factorised by grouping certain terms
together and factorising the groups separately. The expression, in its new form, is then factorised
as a whole. The final goal is always to obtain an expression consisting of a single term (i.e. a
product of factors).
TWO-TWO GROUPING
The most common way of grouping the terms of an expression with four terms is to group the
terms in pairs of two. Each pair is then factorised separately. The expression will now consist of
two terms. If the grouping was successful, the two terms will have a common bracket –
sometimes after performing a sign change. The common bracket is then taken out as a common
factor and the expressions in the brackets are factorised further if necessary:
LE
EXAMPLE 27
(a) a x + bx + a y + b y (b) x 3 − 3x 2 − 4x + 12
(c) a 3b 2 + b 2 − a 3 − 1 (d) x 2 − 9 + 3x y − x 2 y
Solution
(a) a x + bx + a y + b y
= x(a + b) + y(a + b)
P (b) x 3 − 3x 2 − 4x + 12
= x 2(x − 3) − 4(x − 3)
= (a + b)(x + y) = (x − 3)(x 2 − 4)
= (x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 2)
M
(c) a 3b 2 + b 2 − a 3 − 1 (d) x 2 − 9 + 6y − 2x y
= b 2(a 3 + 1) − (a 3 + 1) = (x 2 − 9) + 2y(3 − x)
= (a 3 + 1)(b 2 − 1) = (x − 3)(x + 3) − 2y(x − 3)
= (a + 1)(a 2 − a + 1)(b − 1)(b + 1) = (x − 3)(x + 3 − 2y)
A
Sometimes terms have to be rearranged for a successful two-two grouping:
EXAMPLE 28

S
(a) p + q + pq + 1 (b) m n − 8 − m 3 + 2n
Solution
(a) p + q + pq + 1 (b) m n − 8 − m 3 + 2n
= p + pq + q + 1 = m n + 2n − m 3 − 8
= p(1 + q) + (q + 1) = n(m + 2) − (m 3 + 8)
= (q + 1)( p + 1) = n(m + 2) − (m + 2)(m 2 − 2m + 4)
= (m + 2)[n − (m 2 − 2m + 4)]
= (m + 2)(n − m 2 + 2m − 4)
29
THREE-ONE GROUPING*
In some cases, a two-two grouping will not result in a common bracket. In such cases, three terms
can be grouped together to form a quadratic trinomial. The trinomial should have two identical
factors, producing a square. If the remaining term is also a square (and the terms are subtracted),
the expression can be factorised as the difference of two squares:
EXAMPLE 29*
(a) x 2 + 6x + 9 − 4y 2 (b) 9 + 8a b − 4a 2 − 4b 2
Solution
(a) x 2 + 6x + 9 − 4y 2 (b) 9 + 8a b − 4a 2 − 4b 2
LE
= (x 2 + 6x + 9) − 4y 2 = 9 − 4a 2 + 8a b − 4b 2
= (x + 3)(x + 3) − 4y 2 = 9 − 4(a 2 − 2a b + b 2 )
= (x + 3)2 − 4y 2 = 9 − 4(a − b)(a − b)
= [(x + 3) − 2y] [(x + 3) + 2y] = 9 − 4(a − b)2
= (x + 3 − 2y)(x + 3 + 2y) = [3 − 2(a − b)][3 + 2(a − b)]
= (3 − 2a + 2b)(3 + 2a − 2b)
GROUPING WITH MORE THAN FOUR TERMS*

P
When an expression contains more than four terms, try out different groupings to create an
expression that can be factorised. If you are not successful with a particular grouping, simply try
something else, until you find a grouping that works:
M
EXAMPLE 30*

(a) a x 2 − a + a 2 − a 2 x 2 + 2x 2 − 2 (b) x 2 − 3x − 3x y − 3y − 4
Solution
A
(a) a x 2 − a + a 2 − a 2 x 2 + 2x 2 − 2 (b) x 2 − 3x − 3x y − 3y − 4
= a(x 2 − 1) + a 2(1 − x 2 ) + 2(x 2 − 1) = x 2 − 3x − 4 − 3x y − 3y
= a(x 2 − 1) − a 2(x 2 − 1) + 2(x 2 − 1) = (x 2 − 3x − 4) − 3y(x + 1)
= (x 2 − 1)(a − a 2 + 2) = (x − 4)(x + 1) − 3y(x + 1)
= (x 2 − 1)(−a 2 + a + 2) = (x + 1)(x − 4 − 3y)
S
= − (x 2 − 1)(a 2 − a + 2)
= − (x − 1)(x + 1)(a − 2)(a + 1)
EXERCISE 11

(1) m x + my + n x + ny (2) x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 3
(3) 3ap − 3bp − 3a q + 3bq (4) 2y 3 + 6y 2 − 3y − 9
(5) 2x 3 − 8x y 2 + x 2 y − 4y 3 (6) 4x 2 y − 8x 2 + 8 − 4y
(7) px 3 + p + x 3 + 1 (8) m 2 n 3 − 4n 3 − m 2 + 4
(9) x y + 3a + 3y + a x (10) m n + 2 − 2n − m
(11) a 2 x + y − x − a 2 y (12) p 3q 2 − 4 − 4p 3 + q 2
30
(1) a x − 2a + x 2 − 4 (2) x y + y + x3 + 1
(3) x 2 − 3x − y 2 − 3y (4) x 3 − 27 + 9y − x 2 y
(5)* x 2 + 2x + 1 − y 2 (6)* a 2 − 9 − 6a b + 9b 2
(7)* 9m 2 − 4n 2 + 16n − 16 (8)* p 2 − 4q 2 − 12qr − 9r 2
(c)* Factorise the following expressions:
(1) a x + 2x + a y + 2y + a z + 2z
(2) 3a 2 − 2a b + 2b 3 − 3a b 2 − 3a c + 2bc
(3) p 2 x 2 − p 2 y 2 − 4px 2 + 4p y 2 + 3x 2 − 3y 2
(4) x 2 − 5x − 6 + x y + y
(5) 4a 2 b − 6a 2 + 5a − b + 4
(6) x3 − x2 − y3 − y2 − x y
(7) 5x 5 − 7x y 3 + 6y 3 − 6x 3 + 7x 4 − 5x 2 y 3
LE
MIXED FACTORISATION
In the following exercise, you will be required to factorise a variety of expressions of different
types.
• The first step is always to look for the highest common factor, before attempting any other
method of factorisation. If there is a common factor, take it out and then proceed if possible.
• Remember to keep checking the factors you find for further factorisation options. Don’t stop
factorising until no further options remain.
•
P
Count the number of terms to guide you in choosing the correct factorisation method:
• Two terms could be the difference of two squares or the sum/difference of cubes.
• Three terms could be a quadratic trinomial.
M
• Four or more terms could be factorised using an effective grouping of terms.
EXERCISE 12

(a) 6x 3y − 4x 2 y 2 + 2x 2 y (b) 16x 2 − 25y 2
A
(c) 8x 3 − 125 (d) x 2 + 13x + 36

(e) 14x 2 − 17x + 5 (f) 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 2x − 3
(g) 200x 2 y 2 − 2 (h) −8a 3b 2 + 18a b 4
x 3 − x 2 − 42x 27p 4 + pq 3
S
(i) (j)
(k) 32x 3y − 30x y 3 + 16x 2 y 2 (l) 12x 2( p − 3) + 29x(3 − p) + 15(−3 + p)
(m) 2x (x + 3) + 3(x + 3) + 1 (n) m 5 − m 2 n 3 − 9m 3n 2 + 9n 5
(o) x 3y 2 − y + x 3y − y 2 (p)* 4x 2 − 4 + 25y 2 − 20x y
1 3 1 2
(q) x +4 (r) x − 2x + 2
2 2
2 2 17 7 1
(s) x − x− (t) 5x 2 − 3
3 6 2 5
(u) y 4 − 15y 2 − 16 (v) 1 − 26a 3 − 27a 6
(w) 9 − (2x 2 − x)2 (x)* (5x 2 − x)2 + 10x − 50x 2 + 24
31
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Algebraic fractions can be simplified, added, subtracted, multiplied and divided using the same
rules that apply for numerical fractions:
ap p
Simplification: =
aq q
a b ab
Multiplication: × =
x y xy
a b a y ay
Division: ÷ = × =
x y x b bx
LE
a b a ±b
Addition and Subtraction: ± =
x x x
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
When simplifying an algebraic fraction:
1. Factorise the expressions in the numerator and denominator, if possible.
x
P
2. Factors that are common to the numerator and denominator may be cancelled, for example:
2x x (x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1) x −1
= ✔ = x +1 ✔ = ✔
2y y x 3x (x + 1) 3x
M
Do not cancel terms or parts of terms that are not factors of the entire numerator and
denominator, for example:
x +y 2x + 1 x +1 2(x + y) + a 2+a
=y = =
x 2x x (x + y) + b b
A
EXAMPLE 31
Simplify the following fractions:

6x 2 + 9x a2 − a − 2 3y 3 − 3
(a) (b) (c)
12x a2 − 4 2y 2 + 2y + 2
S
Solution
6x 2 + 9x a2 − a − 2 3y 3 − 3
(a) (b) (c)
12x a2 − 4 2y 2 + 2y + 2
3x(2x + 3) (a + 1)(a − 2) 3(y 3 − 1)
= = =
3x ⋅ 4 (a − 2)(a + 2) 2(y 2 + y + 1)
2x + 3 a+1 3(y − 1)(y 2 + y + 1)
= = =
4 a+2 2(y 2 + y + 1)
3(y − 1)
=
2
32
Sometimes a sign change is required to recognise factors common to the numerator and
denominator:
EXAMPLE 32
x2 − 9
Simplify
3x − x 2
Solution
x2 − 9
3x − x 2
(x − 3)(x + 3)
=
x (3 − x)
(x − 3)(x + 3)
LE
=
−x(x − 3)
x +3
=−
x
MULTIPLYING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
When multiplying algebraic fractions:
1. Factorise all numerators and denominators fully, if possible.

P
2. A factor appearing in a numerator as well as a denominator of any of the fractions in the
expression may be cancelled. (Remember not to cancel terms or parts of terms that are not
factors of an entire numerator and denominator.)
3. After all possible cancelation is completed, multiply numerators by numerators and
M
denominators by denominators:
a b ab
× =
x y xy
EXAMPLE 33
A
Simplify the following expression to a single fraction in its simplest form:

2x 2 − 2x − 4 1−x
×
x3 − x (2 − x)2
S
Solution
2x 2 − 2x − 4 1−x
×
x −x
3 (2 − x)2
2(x 2 − x − 2) −(x − 1)
= × (2 − x)2 = (x − 2)2
x (x 2 − 1) (x − 2)2
2(x + 1)(x − 2) −(x − 1)
= ×
x (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 2)(x − 2)
2
=−
x (x − 2)
33
DIVIDING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
To divide one fraction by another, we multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second
fraction (“tip and times”):
a b a y ay
÷ = × =
x y x b bx
EXAMPLE 34

x 2 − 16y 2 x 3 + 64y 3
÷
2x 2 − 7x y − 4y 2 y + 2x
Solution
LE
x 2 − 16y 2 x 3 + 64y 3
÷
2x 2 − 7x y − 4y 2 y + 2x
x 2 − 16y 2 y + 2x
= 2 ×
2x − 7x y − 4y 2 x 3 + 64y 3
(x − 4y)(x + 4y) 2x + y
= ×
P
(x − 4y)(2x + y) (x + 4y)(x 2 − 4x y + 16y 2 )
1
=
x 2 − 4x y + 16y 2
M
EXERCISE 13
(a) Simplify the following fractions:

8x 4y 14m 2
(1) (2) (3)
4x 8y 7m
A
6p 2k + 4 x 2 − 3x
(4) (5) (6)
9p 3 2 2x
5n 2 − 15n 3x 3 + 6x 2 8y − 16y 2
(7) (8) (9)
5n 2 9x 4y 3
S
x 2 + 7x q +3 a3 + 1
(10) (11) (12)
x +7 q2 − 9 a+1
y 2 + 3y + 9 m 2 + 5m + 4 2+x
(13) (14) (15)
y 3 − 27 m2 − 1 x 2 − 3x − 10
x 2 − 4y 2 9 − 4a 2 6x 2 + x y − 15y 2
(16) (17) (18)
2y − x 4a 2 − 16a + 15 6x 2 + 10x y
x 4 + 8x p 3 − 6p 2 + 9p x 3 + 2x 2 − 4x − 8
(19) (20) (21)
2x − x 2 − 4 (3 − p)2 x 2 − 5x − 14
34
(b) Simplify each of the following expressions to a single fraction in its simplest form:
x2 − x 4x a 2 − 3a a 2 + 4a + 3
(1) × (2) ×
2x + 2 3x − 3 3+a a 3 − 3a 2
n3 − 1 1−n 9x 2 + 3x − 2 (8 − x)2 x 2 − 16x + 64
(3) ÷ (4) × ÷
4n 3 − 4 2n − 6 8 + 12x x − 3x 2 2x 3
6x 2 − x y − 5y 2 6x y + 5y 2 y 2 − 4
(5) ÷ ×
x2y − x y2 2x + x y 2−y
3m + 6m 2 8m 3 + 1
( 4m 3 − 2m 2 + m 2m )
m +5
(6) ÷ ÷
25 − m 2
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS (BASIC)
LE
When adding or subtracting fractions, the denominators of the fractions must be the same and
then the numerators are added/subtracted, keeping the denominator the same:
a b a ±b
± =
x x x
When denominators are not the same, the lowest common denominator (LCD) is found and the
fractions are converted to equivalent fractions with the LCD as denominator:
EXAMPLE 35
P
x +3 x −1 x +1
M
+ −
2 3 6
Solution
x +3 x −1 x +1
+ − LCD: 6
2 3 6
A
x +3 3 x −1 2 x +1 Multiply the numerator and denominator of each fraction by

= × + × −
2 3 3 2 6 the number required to change the denominator to the LCD.
3(x + 3) 2(x − 1) x + 1
= + −
6 6 6
S
3(x + 3) + 2(x − 1) − (x + 1) Since denominators are now the same, add/subtract numerators.
=
6 Keep the LCD as denominator.
3x + 9 + 2x − 2 − x − 1
=
6
4x + 6
=
6
2(2x + 3)
= Ensure that the fraction is fully simplified.
6
2x + 3
=
3
35
The next example shows how fractions with variables in the denominator are added/subtracted:
EXAMPLE 36
Simplify each of the following expressions to a single fraction in its simplest form:
1 a−1 x + 1 x2 − 1 2
(a) + (b) + −
5 a x2 x3 x
x + 1 3x − y 5
(c) + −
3x 2 4x y 6y
Solutions
1 a−1
(a) + LCD: 5a
5 a
LE
1 a a−1 5 5a is the smallest number
= × + ×
5 a a 5 that is a multiple of both
a 5(a − 1) denominators (5 and a).
= +
5a 5a
a + 5a − 5
=
5a
6a − 5
=
5a
x + 1 x2 − 1 2
P
(b) + − LCD: x 3
x2 x3 x
x + 1 x x2 − 1 2 x2 Use the highest power of x
M
= × + − × 2 in the denominators for LCD.
x2 x x3 x x
x(x + 1) x 2 − 1 2x 2
= + − 3
x3 x3 x
x 2 + x + x 2 − 1 − 2x 2
=
A
x3
x −1
=
x3
x + 1 3x − y 5
(c) + − LCD: 12x 2 y
S
3x 2 4x y 6y
x + 1 4y 3x − y 3x 5 2x 2 For the LCD, use the LCM of the
= × + × − ×
3x 2 4y 4x y 3x 6y 2x 2 numerical factors in the denominators
4y(x + 1) 3x(3x − y) 5(2x 2 ) and the highest power of each variable
= + − factor in the denominators.
12x 2 y 12x 2 y 12x 2 y
4x y + 4y + 9x 2 − 3x y − 10x 2
=
12x 2 y
x y + 4y − x 2
=
12x 2 y
36
EXERCISE 14
x 2x p +1 p
(a) + (b) + −1
3 5 3 4
a a+3 a−1 2 2m + 3n m − 5n
(c) − + (d) (m + n) + −
2 10 5 3 2 6
3 1 1 y 2 + 1 4y − 1
(e) + + (f) −
2x 3x 6x y 4
m + n m − n m2 − n2 x +2 y−2 y−x
(g) + − (h) + −
m n mn 2x 5y xy
a−1 a+1 y +2 x −3
LE
(i) 1+ + (j) − 2
a a2 xy x
p + 6 3p − 2 2p + 1 m + n 3m 2 + n m − 5n 2
(k) + − (l) − +
3p 2 6p 2 m 3m 2 5m n
3a + 1 4b 2 − a 1 x + 3 y + 2 3x + 4y
(m) − + (n) + −
3a 2 4a b 2 12b 2 3x 3y 8x y 2 12x 2 y 2
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS (MORE ADVANCED)

P
The following example shows how fractions with sums and/or differences of algebraic terms in
the denominator are added/subtracted:
EXAMPLE 37
M
1 2 2 3
(a) + (b) +
x −1 x +2 x − 3 2x
1 2 1
A
(c) + −
6x 3x(x − 1) 2(x − 1)2
Solution
1 2
(a) + LCD: (x − 1)(x + 2)
S
x −1 x +2
1 x +2 2 x −1 Each different sum / difference in the
= × + × denominators is a factor of the LCD.
x −1 x +2 x +2 x −1
x +2 2(x − 1)
= +
(x − 1)(x + 2) (x − 1)(x + 2)
x + 2 + 2x − 2
=
(x − 1)(x + 2)
3x
=
(x − 1)(x + 2)
37
3 2
(b) + LCD: 2x (x − 3)
2x x − 3
3 x −3 2 2x The different factors in the
= × + × denominators are 2, x and x − 3.
2x x − 3 x − 3 2x
3(x − 3) 2(2x) All three are factors of the LCD.
= +
2x (x − 3) 2x(x − 3)
3x − 9 + 4x
=
2x (x − 3)
7x − 9
=
2x (x − 3)
1 2 1
(c) + − LCD: 6x (x − 1)2
LE
6x 3x(x − 1) 2(x − 1)2
1 (x − 1)2 2 2(x − 1) 1 3x For the LCD, use
= × + × − ×
6x (x − 1)2 3x(x − 1) 2(x − 1) 2(x − 1)2 3x the LCM of the
numerical factors
(x − 1)2 4(x − 1) 3x
= + − in the denominators
6x (x − 1) 2 6x(x − 1) 2 6x (x − 1)2 and the highest
x 2 − 2x + 1 + 4x − 4 − 3x power of each
= variable and/or
6x(x − 1)2
=
x2 − x − 3
P “bracket” in the
denominators.
6x (x − 1)2
All denominators must be factorised before finding the LCD. A sign change may also be required:
M
EXAMPLE 38
5 x +1 4
Simplify: + −
x 2 − 4x x 2 − 7x + 12 3 − x
Solution
A
5 x +1 4
+ 2 −
x2 − 4x x − 7x + 12 3 − x Factorise all denominators and perform
5 x +1 4 a sign change where necessary.
= + +
x (x − 4) (x − 3)(x − 4) x −3
S
LCD: x (x − 3)(x − 4)
5(x − 3) x(x + 1) 4x (x − 4)
= + +
x (x − 3)(x − 4) x(x − 3)(x − 4) x (x − 3)(x − 4)
5x − 15 + x 2 + x + 4x 2 − 16x
=
x (x − 3)(x − 4)
5x 2 − 10x − 15
=
x (x − 3)(x − 4)
5(x 2 − 2x − 3) 5(x + 1)(x − 3) 5(x + 1)
= = =
x (x − 3)(x − 4) x(x − 3)(x − 4) x (x − 4)
38
EXERCISE 15
(a) Simplify each of the following expressions to a single fraction in its simplest form:
1 1 1 1
(1) + (2) −
x −1 3 x x +1
4 5 3 2
(3) + (4) −
x +4 x −5 3x + 2 2x + 3
1 x −1 x 1
(5) − (6) −
2 2x − 1 x +1 x
2
1 2 1 1 1 2
(7) − + (8) + −
x −1 x x +1 x x − 2 x (x + 2)
1 1 x +2 4
(9) − (10) +
LE
x + 1 (x + 1)2 x − 2 (2 − x)2
3 x +1 1 1 2 1
(11) + 2 + (12) + −
x(x − 3) x 3−x 2(x + 1) 5(x + 1) 2 10x
(b) Simplify each of the following expressions to a single fraction in its simplest form:
1 1 x 1
(1) − 2 (2) −
x x +x x −9 x +3
2
1 1 x +2 6x
(3) + (4) −
(5)
x
+
1
P
x 2 + 5x + 6 3 + x
(6)
x 2 − 2x + 4 x 3 + 8
1−
4x + 3 2x + 1
+
x 2 − 4 4 − 2x 3x + 3 6x
2 1 x 2 + 3x − 7 2 − x
− − +1
M
(7) (8)
2x 2 − 5x − 3 x 2 − 3x x2 + x − 2 1−x
2x + 1 5 10x + 5 x 2 1
(9) − − 2 (10) − 2 −
x +3 2−x x +x −6 2x − 4 x − 2x x
1 x −1 x −3 1 x y
(11) − − (12) + 2 − 2
x − 1 (x + 1) 2 1 − x2 6x − 12y 3x − 12y 2 2x − 8x y + 8y 2
A
MIXED OPERATIONS WITH FRACTIONS

When multiple operations are performed on algebraic fractions, we follow the order of operations:
1
S
Expressions in brackets are evaluated first

followed by
2
powers and/or roots
followed by
3
multiplication and/or division
followed by
4
addition and/or subtraction
39
EXAMPLE 39
( x x − x2 ) x3 − 8
2x 2 x 2 − 3x x2 + x 1 1 x3 − x
(a) + ÷ (b) + ×
x2 − 1 x2 − x − 6 x +2
Solution
2x 2 x 2 − 3x x2 + x
(a) + ÷ Division before addition.
x2 − 1 x2 − x − 6 x +2
2x 2 x 2 − 3x x +2
= + ×
x2 − 1 x2 − x − 6 x2 + x
2x 2 x(x − 3) x +2
LE
= + ×
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x + 2)(x − 3) x (x + 1)
2x 2 1
= +
(x − 1)(x + 1) x + 1
2x 2 x −1
= +
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1)(x + 1)
2x 2 + x − 1
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)
(x + 1)(2x − 1)
P
=
(x − 1)(x + 1)
M
2x − 1
=
x −1
Brackets first.
( x x − x2 ) x3 − 8
1 1 x3 − x
(b) + ×
( x x(1 − x) ) x − 8
1 1 x3 − x
A
= + × 3
( x x(x − 1) ) x − 8
1 1 x3 − x
= − × 3
S
( x (x − 1) x(x − 1) ) x − 8
x −1 1 x3 − x
= − × 3
x − 1 − 1 x(x 2 − 1)
= × 3
x (x − 1) x −8
x −2 x(x − 1)(x + 1)
= ×
x (x − 1) (x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
x +1
=
x2 + 2x + 4
40
COMPLEX FRACTIONS
A fraction containing fractions in its numerator and/or denominator is called a complex fraction.
Remember that the fraction line represents division. To simplify a complex fraction, we simply
rewrite the fraction as its numerator divided by its denominator, placing both the numerator and
denominator in brackets:
EXAMPLE 40

9 4
−
x2 y2
3 2
x
+ y
LE
Solution
9 4
−
(x y ) (x y)
x2 y2 9 4 3 2
= − 2 ÷ +
3 2 2
x
+ y
9y 2 − 4x 2 3y + 2x
= ÷
x2y2 xy
=
x2y2
P
(3y − 2x)(3y + 2x)
×
xy
3y + 2x
3y − 2x
=
xy
M
EXERCISE 16
x +1 x3 − x x −3 1 2x 3 − 2 x2 − 1
(a) + 2 × 2 (b) − ÷
A
x − 1 x − 2x − 3 x + x x 2 + 3x + 2 2x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x x
2x + 7x − 4 ( x + 2x − 8 4 − x 2 ) ( x + y x + 2x y + y ) ( y − x )
2
x +1 2x − 1 x 1 2y x +y
(c) 2
÷ 2
+ (d) − 2 2
×
1 1 1
1+ +
S
x x3 8
(e) 1
(f) 1 1 1
1− 4
− 2x
+
x2 x2
1 4y 4 1
− −
y x2 y2 x2
(g) 1 2
(h) 4 4 1
+ xy
+ xy
+
y2 y2 x2
2 1 1 1
x+2
+ x−1 x
− x+3
(i) x+1 x−1
(j) 1 3
x−1
− x+1 x+3
−
x 2 + 6x + 9
41
CONSOLIDATION AND EXTENSION EXERCISE
(a) Complete the following table:
Number ℕ ℕ0 ℤ ℚ ℚ′ ℝ
e.g. −4 No No Yes Yes No Yes
3
(1) 64
(2) − 49
5π
(3)
9π
LE
(4) 0,35
(5) −16
π
(6)
3
··
(7) 0,35
(8)
0
π
P
(9) 11
M
3
(10) −8
(11) 3,12345...
1
(12) −2
8
A
2π
(13)
0
(14) ( 6 )
2
S
3
(15) 9
(b) Represent the following on a number line:

(1) {x : x > 6 ; x ∈ ℤ} (2) {x : x ≤ − 6 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(3) {x : − 4 ≤ x < 1 ; x ∈ ℝ} (4) {x : 3 ≤ x ≤ 6 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(5) x ∈ (−1 ; 5) (6) x ∈ [0 ; 3]
(7) x ∈ (−2 ; 1] (8) x ∈ [2 ; 8)
(9) x ∈ (−∞ ; 2] (10) x ∈ [− 3 ; ∞)
42
(c) Write the set represented on each number line below in set builder notation:
(1) (2)
4 5 6 x −5 x
(3) (4)
−10 −9 −8 −7 x 4 x
(5) (6)
7 x 3 8 x
(7) (8)
−4 5 x −8 −2 x
LE
(d) Write the set represented on each number line below in interval notation:
(1) (2)
4 16 x −2 12 x
(3) (4)
−3 7 x −20 −5 x
(5) (6)
x x
P
−10 1
4
(e) Determine between which two integers the following irrational numbers lie:
3
17 − 23 16 6π
M
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(f) Show that the following recurring decimals are rational numbers:
· ·· · ·
(1) 0,8 (2) 0,6 4 (3) 0,25 (4) 6,36
· ··
(5) 0,123 (6) 8,64 (7) −9,81 (8) 5,125
A
(g) Simplify the following expressions:
(1) pq 2(−2p 2 + 4q) (2) (2x 3 − 5y 2 )(3x 3 − 2y 2 )

(3) (2a + 3b)2 (4) −3x (x − 1) (x − 4)
(5) 2x(x − 5)2 (6) (2x + 5)(x 2 − 6x + 4)
S
(7) (x + 3)(x 2 − 3x + 9) (8) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)

(9) (x − 2)3 (10) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
(11) (x + 1 − y)(x + y − 1) (12) (x − y + 1)2
(2 3)( 3 2 ) (3 2 )
2
3 y 4x 1 2 3
(13) x− − y (14) x− y
( x)( x) ( x)
3
2 2 1
(15) x+ x− (16) x+
(17) 2 (x − 1)2 + x (x − 1) (x + 2) − (x − 3) x 2
(18) (x − 3)(x + 3)x + 2x(x − 2)2 − (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
43
[(x − y)(x + y )(x + y)]
2 2 2
(19)
(20) (x − 2)(x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4)(x 2 + 2x + 4)

(21) (2n − 3n )(2n + 3n ) (22) (3n − 1)(32n + 3n + 1)
(x + y ) (x − 3y ) (x − x )
m 2m m 2m a −a 2
(23) (24)
(h) Factorise the following expressions fully:
(1) 8x 3y 2 − 6x 2 y 3 + 2x 2 y 2 (2) 3x 3 − 27x

(3) x (x − 4) + 3 (4) −x 3 + 2x 2 + 3x
5 2
(5) 6a 2 + 17a + 12 (6) y2 + y −
6 3
LE
(7) 12x 2 − 4x y − 21y 2 (8) 29x y − 15x 2 − 8y 2
(9) x 3 + 27 (10) 24x 3y − 81y 4
1
(11) 13 + 4x 3 (12)* 23a − 1
2
(13) x − 16y 4
4
(14) 4x 4 − 13x 2 y 2 + 9y 4
(15) (x 2 − 7x)2 − 2x(x − 7) − 48 (16) (x 3 − 14y 3)2 − 169y 6
(17) x 2( p − 1) + 3x(−1 + p) + 4(1 − p) (18) a 2 x 2 − a 2 y 2 + 9y 2 − 9x 2
(19) a 3 − a − 1 + a 2 (20) a 3 + a 2 + b 3 − b 2
P
(21) (2x − 1)2 − a + 4a x 2 (22)* y 2 − 6y − x 2 + 9
(23)* 1 − p 2 − 4pq − 4q 2 (24)* a x 2 − 2a x + a + bx 2 − b
(25)* a − c + 2b + cx − a x − 2bx (26)* a 2 x + 3x 2 + 3a 2 + 9x − x 3 − 27
M
(i) Simplify:
x2 − 4 x2 − 9 x 4 + 27x x 3 − 3x 2 + 9x
(1) × (2) ÷
x 2 + 2x x 2 − 5x + 6 2 − 3x 3x 2 + x − 2
x 2 + x − 6 x 3 − 2x 2 1 2x 2 y + 2x y 6x 2
A
(3) ÷ × (4) ÷ 2 ÷
3x 2 − 12x x 2 − 16 x +4 x2y2 − 1 3x − 3x x y 2 − y
x + 3 3y + 1 2y + x 1 1 2x
(5) + − (6) + − 2
3x 6y 2 2x y x −2 x +2 x +4
S
1 4 1 x −3 x −2 3x − 8
(7) − − (8) + + 2
x − 2 (x + 2)2 x + 2 x − 2 3 − x x − 5x + 6
1 − 4x 2 ( 4x 2 − 9 4x 2 − 4x − 3 )
3 3x 2 + 6x 2 + x2 x 3x 2x
(9) + × (10) ÷ −
1−x 3x 2 + 6 x3 − x2
x 25y 7
y
− x 9x 2 − 4
(11) 5y
(12) 2 3
1
+ 2x + 1
− 3x − 2
x2 x
44
1
(j)* If x + = 5, calculate the value of
x
1 1
(1) x2 + 2 (2) x3 +
x x3
( x)
2
1 1 1
(3) x− (4) x 2 − 2 if x >
x x
(k)* If x + y = 2 and x 2 + y 2 = 8, where x > y, calculate the value of
(1) xy (2) x3 + y3
(3) x −y (4) x4 − y4
(l)* Three numbers a, b and c are as follows:
a = x2 + y2
b = (x + y)2
LE
c = (x − y)2
Arrange these numbers in ascending order if
(1) x < 0 and y < 0 (2) x > 0 and y < 0
(m)* If a 2 + b 2 = 7 and c 2 + d 2 = 6, calculate the value of (a c + bd )2 + (a d − bc)2.
(This question was contributed by Mr Ihsaan Doola.)
(n)* What is the sum of the digits of the result of the calculation 999 999 999 9992 − 1?
P
(o)** Prove the following statements:
(1) The product of two consecutive odd numbers is one less than the square of the even
number between them.
M
(2) When a two digit number is such that the sum of the digits is less than 10, the
number can be multiplied by 11 by inserting the sum of the two digits between them.
(E.g. 53 × 11 = 583)
(3) To square a two digit number of which the units digit is 5, multiply the tens digit by
the number that is 1 more than the tens digit and write down the result followed by
the two digits 25. (E.g. 252 = 625)
A
S
45
CHAPTER TWO
——————————————————————————————
Equations and Inequalities

————————————————————————————————————————
Solving equations and inequalities are important skills that are used in Mathematics and many other
subjects. In this chapter, we will study the methods used to find the solutions of equations and
inequalities of various types.
LINEAR EQUATIONS
A linear equation is an equation in which the variable never has an exponent greater than 1. To
solve a linear equation, we perform the same operation(s) on both sides of the equation in order to
LE
transpose all terms containing the variable to one side of the equation and all constant terms to the
other side. We then divide both sides by the coefficient of the variable so as to isolate the variable:
EXAMPLE 1
Solve for x:
(a) 3x − 6 = x + 2 (b) 4 − 3(x + 1) = 2(x + 8)

3 x +3
2x − (x − 2) = 3 −
(c)
2
P 4
Solution
(a) 3x − 6 = x + 2 (b) 4 − 3(x + 1) = 2(x + 8)

M
∴ 3x − x = 2 + 6 ∴ 4 − 3x − 3 = 2x + 16
∴ 2x = 8 ∴ 1 − 3x = 2x + 16
2x 8 ∴ 1 − 16 = 2x + 3x
∴ = ∴ −15 = 5x
2 2
∴x =4 −15 5x
∴ =
5 5
A
∴ −3 = x
3 x +3
(c) 2x − (x − 2) = 3 −
2 4
S
3(x − 2) 4 x +3 4
∴ 2x × 4 − × =3×4− × Multiply both sides by 4 (the LCD)
2 1 4 1
∴ 8x − 6(x − 2) = 12 − (x + 3)
∴ 8x − 6x + 12 = 12 − x − 3
∴ 2x + 12 = 9 − x
∴ 2x + x = 9 − 12
∴ 3x = −3
3x −3
∴ =
3 3
∴ x = −1
46
EXERCISE 1
Solve for x:
(a) 4x = 6x + 10 (b) 6x + 6 = 7x + 11
(c) 9x − 17 = 8x − 12 (d) 5 − 2x = 9 + 2x
(e) 2(x + 2) = 6 (f) 2(2x + 1) = 3(3 − x)

(g) 5 − 2(x − 4) − 3x = 28 (h) (x + 1)2 = (x − 1)(x + 5)
2 5x x −2
(i) x− =−1 (j) 3− =2
3 8 5
3 x −6 x −2 x −1 5
(k) (x + 2) = (l) + =2
2 6 2 3 6
LE
3−x 3 2x − 4 x −1 x −2 x −4
(m) = − (n) − = −1
2 4 6 4 8 2
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
A quadratic equation is an equation in which the variable is squared in at least one term and the
variable never has an exponent greater than 2. To solve a quadratic equation, we transpose all terms
to one side of the equation in order to have the value 0 on the other side. We then factorise the
P
expression that is equal to 0 and use the zero factor law to obtain solutions:
Zero factor law : If a ⋅ b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
EXAMPLE 2
M
Solve for x:
(a) x2 − 4 = 0 (b) x 2 + 3x = 4
(c) (4x + 1)(2x + 3) = 3 (d)* 6x 3 − x 2 − 2x = 0
Solution
A
(a) x2 − 4 = 0 (b) x 2 + 3x = 4
∴ (x − 2)(x + 2) = 0 ∴ x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0
∴ x − 2 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 ∴ (x + 4)(x − 1) = 0
∴ x = 2 or x = −2 ∴ x + 4 = 0 or x − 1 = 0
∴ x = − 4 or x = 1
S
Alternatively: x2 = 4
∴x =± 4
∴ x =±2
(c) (4x + 1)(2x + 3) = 3 (d) 6x 3 − x 2 − 2x = 0

∴ 8x 2 + 12x + 2x + 3 = 3 ∴ x (6x 2 − x − 2) = 0
∴ 8x 2 + 14x = 0 ∴ x (3x − 2)(2x + 1) = 0
∴ 2x(4x + 7) = 0 ∴ x = 0 or 3x − 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0
∴ 2x = 0 or 4x + 7 = 0 2 1
7 ∴ x = 0 or x = or x = −
∴ x = 0 or x = − 3 2
4
47
EXERCISE 2
(a) Solve for x:

(1) 2x 2 + 4x = 0 (2) 8x = −12x 2 (3) 4x 2 − 9 = 0
(4) 16x 2 = 64 (5)* x 3 = 36x (6)* 4x 3 − x = 0
1
(7) 2 − x2 = 0 (8)* 3x 2 − 15 = 0 (Round to two decimal places.)
2
(b) Solve for x:
(1) x 2 + 2x − 3 = 0 (2) x 2 + 12 = 7x (3) −x 2 + x + 6 = 0
(4) 4x 2 − 8x = 32 (5) 2x 2 − 7x = 9 (6) 4x 2 + 4x + 1 = 0
(7) 6x 2 + 17x = −5 (8) 8x 2 + 6x = 9 (9) 3x 2 + 5x = 2
1
LE
(10) x 2 = x + 5 (11) 2x − 5x 2 + 7 = 0 (12)* x 3 − 3x 2 − 18x = 0
2
(c) Solve for x:
(1) (x − 4)(x − 3) = 12 (2) 2(x − 3) − (x − 4)2 = 3
(3) (6 − x)(2x − 5) + 30 = 0 (4) (x + 1)(x + 2) = (2x − 1)(2x − 10)
EQUATIONS WITH FRACTIONS

To solve equations with fractions, we multiply each term of the equation by the lowest common
denominator (LCD):
P
EXAMPLE 3
Solve for x:
M
5 2 1 x +7 x +5
(a) + =1+ (b) + =2
6x 3x 2x x −5 x −7
Solution
5 2 1
(a) + =1+ LCD: 6x
A
6x 3x 2x
5 6x 2 6x 1 6x
∴ × + × = 1 × 6x + ×
6x 1 3x 1 2x 1
∴ 5 + 4x = 6x + 3
∴ 2 = 2x
S
∴1=x
x +7 x +5
(b) + =2 LCD: (x − 5)(x − 7)
x −5 x −7
x + 7 (x − 5)(x − 7) x + 5 (x − 5)(x − 7)
× + × = 2 × (x − 5)(x − 7)
x −5 1 x −7 1
∴ (x + 7)(x − 7) + (x + 5)(x − 5) = 2(x − 5)(x − 7)
∴ x 2 − 49 + x 2 − 25 = 2(x 2 − 12x + 35)
∴ 2x 2 − 74 = 2x 2 − 24x + 70
∴ 24x = 144
∴x =6
48
When multiplying both sides of an equation with fractions by the LCD, the result is often a
quadratic equation. It is important to take note of restrictions when solving equations with
fractions. A solution (x-value) that would cause any of the denominators in the original equation to
be 0 must be rejected:
EXAMPLE 4
Solve for x:
2 2x − 3 1 7
(a) x= +2 (b) = + 2
x −1 x +4 3 − x x + x − 12
Solution
2
(a) x= +2
x −1
LE
LCD: x − 1 and Restriction: x ≠ 1
2 x −1
∴ x × (x − 1) = × + 2 × (x − 1)
x −1 1
∴ x 2 = 2 + 2x − 2
∴ x 2 − 2x = 0
∴ x (x − 2) = 0
∴ x = 0 or x = 2
(b)
2x − 3
=
1
+ 2
7
P
x +4 3 − x x + x − 12
2x − 3 −1 7
∴ = + 3 − x = −(x − 3)
M
x +4 x − 3 (x + 4)(x − 3)
LCD: (x + 4)(x − 3) and Restrictions: x ≠ −4; x ≠ 3
∴ (2x − 3)(x − 3) = −(x + 4) + 7

∴ 2x 2 − 9x + 9 = − x − 4 + 7
A
∴ 2x 2 − 8x + 6 = 0
∴ x 2 − 4x + 3 = 0
∴ (x − 3)(x − 1) = 0
∴ x = 3 or x = 1
S
N.A.
∴x =1
EXERCISE 3
Solve for x:
3 1 5 1 3
(a) (1) + = (2) −1=
x 2 x x 4x
7 5 22 1 1
(3) − = (4) =
2x 3x 3 2x x +1
49
2x + 3 1 x +5 5 3
(5) = + (6) = −2
3x + 1 4 3x + 1 x −5 5−x
5 4x + 3 2x 5 1 2
(7) − 2 = −2 (8) + =
x x +x x +1 x2 − 7x + 12 3 − x x −4
4 x +4
(b) (1) x+ =5 (2) +x = 4
x x +1
3 x x 1 3
(3) + =3 (4) − =
x +1 3 x −1 x 2
x2 − x − 9 1 1 x 2 − 5x + 13
(5) = (6) 2− =
x2 + x − 2 x +2 x −8 x 2 − 8x
8 1 x −1 2 2
LE
(7) + = −1 (8) + 2 =
x2 − x − 6 3 − x x + 4 x + 7x + 12 x +3
−6 1 x + 11 4
(9) = +1 (10) =2+
1−x 2 x −1 (3 − x) 2 x −3
1 2 2 5x − 5 4 4
(11) + 2 = −3 (12) + 2 =
2x − 1 4x − 8x + 3 3 − 2x x + 5x x + 4x
2 x +5
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
P
Simultaneous equations are a set of equations with the same variables. For example: x − 3y = 8
and 2x + y = −1. When we solve simultaneous equations, we determine which values of the
variables will satisfy both equations at the same time.
THE ELIMINATION METHOD

M
The elimination method of solving simultaneous equations is performed by adding the terms of the
two equations together, or subtracting the terms of one equation from the other, in order to
eliminate one of the variables. The resulting equation will have only one variable and can be
solved as usual. We then substitute the value we found for the one variable into one of the original
equations to determine the value of the second variable:
A
EXAMPLE 5
Solve for x and y simultaneously by using the elimination method:
(a) 3x + 2y = 7 and 5x − 2y = 17 (b) x + 2y = 10 and x − y = −2
S
Solution
(a) 3x + 2y = 7 1 (b) x + 2y = 10 1
5x − 2y = 17 2 x − y = −2 2
8x = 24 1 + 2 3y = 12 1 − 2
∴x =3 ∴y =4
Substitute x = 3 into 1 : Substituting into Substitute y = 4 into 2 :
either equation
3(3) + 2y = 7 will give the same x − (4) = −2
∴ 2y = −2 result. ∴x =2
∴ y = −1
50
If none of the variables have the same coefficient, we first multiply both sides of one (or both) of
the equations by a constant to make coefficients of one of the variables the same. The new
coefficient will be the lowest common multiple (LCM) of these two coefficients:
EXAMPLE 6
Solve for x and y simultaneously by using the elimination method:
(a) 3x + 2y = −4 and 6x + 5y = −7 (b) −4x + 5y = 8 and 3x − 2y = 1
Solution
(a) 3x + 2y = −4 1
For coefficients of x: LCM is 6
6x + 5y = −7 2
LE
2× 1 : 6x + 4y = −8
6x + 5y = −7
Subtract the equations: −y = −1
∴y =1
Substitute y = 1 into 1 :
3x + 2(1) = −4
∴ 3x = − 6
(b)
∴ x = −2
−4x + 5y = 8
P 1
3x − 2y = 1 For coefficients of y: LCM is 10
2
M
2× 1 : −8x + 10y = 16
5× 2 : 15x − 10y = 5
Add the two equations: 7x = 21
∴x =3
Substitute x = 3 into 2 :
A
3(3) − 2y = 1
∴ −2y = −8
∴y =4
S
EXERCISE 4
Solve for x and y simultaneously, using the elimination method:
(a) x + y = 7 and x − y = 1 (b) 3x + 2y = 7 and −3x + y = −1
(c) 3x + 5y = 5 and 2x + 5y = 0 (d) 3x + 2y = 13 and 3x − 4y = 1
(e) 2x − 4y = 2 and −x − 4y = −7 (f) x + 2y = 13 and 3x − y = 4
(g) x + 3y = 17 and 4x − 2y = 12 (h) 3x + 2y = 2 and 5x − y = −14
(i) 3x − 2y = 7 and −7x + 5y = −17 (j) −4x + 3y = 14 and 3x + 2y = −2
(k) 3x = y − 6 and 7x = 3y − 16 (l) 2x = 3y and 8y = 5x + 1
(m) 2x + y − 3 = 0 and 2x − 8y − 12 = 0 (n) y − 3x + 4 = 0 and 6 − 2x − y = 0
51
THE SUBSTITUTION METHOD
The substitution method of solving simultaneous equations is performed by isolating one of the
variables in one of the equations and then substituting the expression obtained for this variable
into the other equation. The resulting equation will have only one variable. It does not matter
which variable we choose to isolate, but we usually try to choose the variable (and equation) that
gives the simplest expression (avoiding fractions, where possible, for example):
EXAMPLE 7
Solve for x and y simultaneously, using the substitution method:
(a) x + y = 4 and 3x + 4y = 6 (b) 5x − 2y − 9 = 0 and y + 3x − 1 = 0
Solution
LE
(a) x +y = 4 1
3x + 4y = 6 2
Isolate x in equation 1 and substitute into equation 2:
From 1 : x = 4−y
Substitute into 2 : 3(4 − y) + 4y = 6

P
∴ 12 − 3y + 4y = 6
∴ y = −6
Substitute y = −6 into x = 4 − y:
M
x = 4 − (−6)
∴ x = 10
(b) 5x − 2y − 9 = 0 1
y + 3x − 1 = 0 2
A
Isolate y in equation 2 and substitute into equation 1:
From 2 : y = 1 − 3x
S
Substitute into 1 : 5x − 2(1 − 3x) − 9 = 0

∴ 5x − 2 + 6x − 9 = 0
∴ 11x = 11
∴x =1
Substitute x = 1 into y = 1 − 3x:
y = 1 − 3(1)
∴ y = −2
The substitution method can also be used to solve simultaneous equations which include fractions
in one or both of the equations:
52
EXAMPLE 8
x x + 7 3y − 1
Solve for x and y, using the substitution method, if + y = 4 and − = 3.
3 4 2
Solution
x
+y = 4 1
3
x + 7 3y − 1 2
− =3
4 2
From 1 : x = 12 − 3y
12 − 3y + 7 3y − 1
Substitute into 2 : − =3
4 2
LE
19 − 3y 3y − 1
∴ − =3
4 2
∴ 19 − 3y − 2(3y − 1) = 12
∴ 19 − 3y − 6y + 2 = 12
∴ −9y = −9
∴y =1
Substitute y = 1 into x = 12 − 3y:
∴ x = 12 − 3(1)
∴x =9
P
EXERCISE 5
M
(a) Solve for x and y simultaneously, using the substitution method:
(1) x + y = 2 and 2x + 3y = 9 (2) x − y = 7 and x + 2y = −2

(3) x − 2y = 1 and x + 4y = −11 (4) −x + 3y = 7 and 3x − 6y = −15
(5) −2x + y = −10 and 5x + 3y = 14 (6) 3x − 5y = 1 and 3x − y = −7
A
(7) 2x + 3y = 7 and 2x − y = −13 (8) 2x − 4y + 10 = 0 and x + 3y = 0
(9) y = 15 − 3x and y = 6x − 3 (10) x = 12 + 7y and y = 6x + 10

(b) Solve for x and y simultaneously, using the substitution method:
S
x x y x y
(1) − y = 4 and + 5y = 10 (2) x+ = 6 and − + = 2
5 5 3 4 2
3x 4y y 3 x x y
(3) + = −1 and 2x + = (4) − 3y = −3 and − = 1
2 5 2 2 2 3 2
x +8 x +y x −y
(5) = 6 and x + 5y = 12 (6) = + 1 and 2x − y = 6
y−4 3 2
x +4 2x + 2 y + 4
(7) + y = 3 and + =3
2 5 3
53
LITERAL EQUATIONS
A literal equation (equation of letters) is an equation with two or more variables (letters). You will
be required to isolate one of these letters and express the solution in terms of the other letter(s). For
example, the area of a rectangle is given by A = L × B, where A is the area, L is the length and B is
A
the breadth. If we solve for B in terms of A and L, we obtain B = .
L
EXAMPLE 9
Given P = 2(L + B), the formula for calculating the perimeter of a rectangle, solve for L in terms
of B and P.
Solution
P = 2(L + B)
LE
∴ P = 2L + 2B
∴ P − 2B = 2L
P − 2B
∴ =L
2
EXAMPLE 10
1
The kinetic energy, K, of an object is given by the formula K = mv 2, where m is the mass of the
2
object and v is the velocity.
(a)
P
Determine m in terms of K and v.
(b) What is the mass of an object with a kinetic energy of 100 Joule and a velocity of 5 m/s?
Solution
M
1 2K
(a) K= mv 2 (b) m=
2 v2
∴ 2K = mv 2 2(100)
∴m=
2K (5)2
∴ 2 =m
v ∴ m = 8 kg
A
EXAMPLE 11
Solve for the letter indicated in brackets in each of the following formulae:
S
k −n
(a) p= 3
(k) (b) M = LT 2 + C (T)
t
Solution
3 k −n (b) M = LT 2 + C
(a) p=
t ∴ M − C = LT 2
k −n M−C
∴ p3 = ∴ T2 =
t L
∴ t p3 = k − n M−C
∴T =±
∴ k = t p3 + n L
54
EXAMPLE 12
Solve for x:
(a) a x = c − 2bx (b) b2 x2 − c2 = 0
(c) x 2 − 5a x + 6a 2 = 0 (d) x 2 − a x + bx − a b = 0
Solution
(a) a x = c − 2bx (b) b2 x2 − c2 = 0

∴ a x + 2bx = c ∴ (bx + c)(bx − c) = 0
∴ x (a + 2b) = c ∴ bx + c = 0 or bx − c = 0
c c c
∴x= ∴x =− or x =
a + 2b b b
x 2 − 5a x + 6a 2 = 0 x 2 − a x + bx − a b = 0
LE
(c) (d)
∴ (x − 2a)(x − 3a) = 0 ∴ x (x − a) + b(x − a) = 0
∴ x = 2a or x = 3a ∴ (x − a)(x + b) = 0
∴ x = a or x = − b
EXAMPLE 13
Solve for x:
a 1 3 1
=b + =
(a)
x +2
Solutions
P (b)
x a c
a 1 3 1
(a) =b (b) + =
M
x +2 x a c
∴ a = b(x + 2) ∴ a c + 3cx = a x
∴ a = bx + 2b ∴ a c = a x − 3cx
∴ a − 2b = bx ∴ a c = x (a − 3c)
a − 2b ac
∴ =x ∴ =x
b a − 3c
A
EXERCISE 6
(a) Solve for the letter indicated in brackets in each of the following formulae:
1
S
(1) A= bh (b) (2) A = π r2 (r)

2
4
(3) V = π r3 (r) (4) A = π rs + π r 2 (s)
3
1
(5) v 2 + a = 2mu (v) (6) A= (a + b)h (a)
2
3 2t + g m
(7) F= (t) (8) E= +2 (m)
a r
a GmM
(9) =s (u) (10) F= (r)
u+a r2
55
(b) Solve for x:
(1) 2a x + b = cx (2) 3cx = 6b − 9a x

x2
(3) a x 2 − 9b 2 = 0 (4) = b2
a 2
(5) x 2 + 3bx + 2b 2 = 0 (6) 6x 2 − 5cx = 4c 2
(7) x 2 − 2bx + a x − 2a b = 0 (8) 9x 2 + 3a x = 3bx + a b
(9) a 2 x 2 − a bx + 3a x = 3b (10) a x + bx = 2a 2 − 2b 2 (a + b ≠ 0)
(c) Solve for x:
ax + b b2 3 1
(1) = (2) + =b
LE
2 a x a
1 3 3 1
(3) = +b (4) = +4
2x a 4cx 2x
2 3 1 x +a
(5) − − =0 (6) = −2
x a b cx − b
a b x b
(7) = (8) = +1
x −2 x +1 x −a x +1
(9)
a−2
−
2a
x −1 x +1
= 2
P
a 2 − 12
x −1
(10)
2a
−
x
x + 3a a − x
= 2
4a 2
x + 2a x − 3a 2
(d) The velocity (v) of an object after t seconds can be calculated using the formula v = u + at,
where u is the initial velocity and a is the acceleration of the object.
M
(1) Solve for t in terms of a, u and v.
(2) If the initial velocity of an object is 5 m/s and it accelerates at a rate of 3 m/s2, how
long will it take for the object to reach a velocity of 65 m/s?
( 100 )
rn
A
(e) P = A 1+ can be used to calculate the value of an investment, P, if an initial
investment, A, is invested at r % simple interest for n years.
(1) Make r the subject of the formula.

S
(2) Calculate r if A = R1000, P = R 3000 and n = 5 years.
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
An inequality is a relationship between two expressions where
• one expression is greater than another expression e.g. 2x − 3 > 3x − 2.

• one expression is greater than or equal to another expression e.g. x − 3 ≥ 3x + 1.
• one expression is less than another expression e.g. 4x + 3 < x − 1.
• one expression is less than or equal to another expression e.g. 5x − 2 ≤ 6x + 1.
56
When solving a linear inequality, we isolate the variable. This is done by
• adding or subtracting any term to both sides of the inequality, without changing the inequality.
• multiplying or dividing both sides of the inequality by a positive number, without changing
the inequality
• multiplying or dividing both sides of the inequality by a negative number, and changing the
direction of the inequality. (For example, if −x < 6 then x > −6.)
Why does the direction of the inequality change?
Consider the following number line:
−b −a 0 a b
LE
We see that a < b, but −a > −b.
EXAMPLE 14
Solve for x and represent your solution on a number line:
(a) 2x + 3 ≤ x + 1 (b) −3x < 9

x 1 − 2x
(c)
−2
−1≥3
P (d)
3
>x −3
Solution
2x + 3 ≤ x + 1 −3x < 9
M
(a) (b)
∴ 2x − x ≤ 1 − 3 −3x 9
∴ x ≤ −2 ∴ >
−3 −3
∴ x >−3
A
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
x 1 − 2x
(c) −1≥−3 (d) >x −3
−2
S
3
x
∴ ≥−2 ∴ 1 − 2x > 3(x − 3)
−2 ∴ 1 − 2x > 3x − 9
x
∴ × −2 ≤ − 2 × −2 ∴ −2x − 3x > −9 − 1
−2
∴ − 5x > −10
∴x ≤4 ∴x<2
0 1 2 3 4 −1 0 1 2 3
57
In the following example, we will solve compound inequalities. A compound inequality is a
combination of two inequalities. For example, −2 < x ≤ 3 means −2 < x and x ≤ 3.
In general:
a < x < b means a < x and x < b
EXAMPLE 15
Solve for x and represent your solution on a number line:
(a) −2 < x − 1 ≤ 2 (b) −1 ≤ 3 − 2x < 1

Solution
(a) −2 < x − 1 ≤ 2
LE
Split the compound inequality into its two parts:
Alternatively:
−2 < x − 1 and x −1≤2
−2 < x − 1 ≤ 2
∴ −2 + 1 < x and x ≤2+1
∴ −1 < x and x ≤3 ∴−2+1< x −1+1≤2+1
∴ −1 < x ≤ 3
Combine −1 < x and x ≤ 3 into one solution:
∴ −1 < x ≤ 3
P
−1 0 1 2 3
M
(b) −1 ≤ 3 − 2x < 1
−1 ≤ 3 − 2x and 3 − 2x < 1 Alternatively:
∴ −1 − 3 ≤ −2x and −2x < 1 − 3 −1 ≤ 3 − 2x < 1
∴ −4 ≤ −2x and −2x < −2
∴ −1 − 3 ≤ 3 − 2x − 3 < 1 − 3
∴2≥x and x >1
∴ −4 ≤ −2x < −2
A
∴1<x ≤2
∴2≥x >1
∴1<x ≤2
−1 0 1 2 3
S
EXERCISE 7
(a) Solve for x and represent your solution on a number line:

x
(1) 2x − 1 ≥ 5 (2) +2<5
3
2
(3) 3x + 1 > − 5 (4) x −3≤1
3
(5) 3−x <4 (6) −2x + 3 ≥ 9
x 3x
(7) − +3>−1 (8) 2− ≤8
2 4
58
(b) Solve for x:
x +8
(1) 2(x + 5) − 4 > 3(x − 2) (2) ≥4
5
5x + 2 5 − x 2x
(3) −1≤8 (4) − < x −4
3 2 3
4 − 3x x +1
(5) 3− >2+ (6) (x + 2)2 − 9 ≥ (x + 1)(x + 5)
3 5
(c) Solve for x and represent your solution on a number line:
(1) −2 ≤ 2x ≤ 4 (2) 3< x +2<6

x
(3) −5 ≤ 2x − 3 < 7 (4) 2< −1≤4
LE
2
(5) −8 ≤ − 4x < 4 (6) −1 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 4
x
(7) −1 < 3 − 2x < 11 (8) 1<3− ≤4
3
3x − 1 4 − 2x
(9) −4 ≤ <2 (10) −6 ≤ ≤4
2 3
APPLICATIONS (PROBLEM SOLVING)*

P
In this section, we will solve problems by using algebraic equations. Solving these problems
involve assigning a letter to the unknown quantity that we have to determine and then translating
the given information into an equation in terms of this letter:
M
EXAMPLE 16*
The sum of three consecutive integers is 99. What is the value of the smallest of these three
numbers?
Solution
A
Let the smallest number be x.

∴ The other two numbers are x + 1 and x + 2.
Sum of the three numbers = 99

∴ x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 99
S
∴ 3x + 3 = 99
∴ 3x = 96
∴ x = 32
The smallest number is 32.
EXAMPLE 17*
A mother is currently four times as old as her daughter. In 5 years’ time she will be three times as
old as her daughter. What is the daughter’s current age?
59
Solution
Let the daughter’s current age be x.

∴ The mother’s current age is 4x.
Now In 5 years’ time

Daughter x x +5
Mother 4x 4x + 5
Mother's age in 5 years' time = 3 × Daughter's age in 5 years' time

∴ 4x + 5 = 3(x + 5)
∴ 4x + 5 = 3x + 15
∴ x = 10
LE
The daughter is currently 10 years old.
EXAMPLE 18*
Yusuf allocated an amount of money to spend on calculators that he will donate to a charity
organisation, providing children with stationary. He considers two different calculator brands:
• Brand A calculators sell for R300 each.
• Brand B calculators sell for R500 each.
P
If he chooses brand A, he can buy 16 more calculators than he can buy if he chooses brand B.
How much money has Yusuf allocated to buy calculators?
Solution
M
Let the amount that Yusuf has allocated to buy calculators be x.
Total
Unit Price Quantity Total Amount = Unit Price × Quantity
Amount
x
A
Brand A x 300 Total Amount

300 Unit Price =
Quantity
x Total Amount
Brand B x 500 Quantity =
500 Unit Price
S
Quantity of brand A = Quantity of brand B + 16

x x
∴ = + 16 (LCD = 1 500)
300 500
∴ 5x = 3x + 24 000
∴ 2x = 24 000
∴ x = 12 000
Yusuf has allocated R12 000 to buy calculators.
60
EXAMPLE 19*
Elrike travels from town A to town C, via town B. The distance from town A to town B is 200 km
more than the distance from town B to town C. Elrike drives at the speed limit of 120 km/h between
town A and town B and reduces her speed to the new speed limit of 80 km/h between town B and
town C. The entire journey from town A to town C takes 5 hours. What is the distance from town A
to town C?
Solution
Let the distance from town B to town C be x.

∴ The distance from town A to town B is x + 200.
Distance Speed Time Distance = Speed × Time
LE
x + 200
A to B x + 200 120 Distance
120 Speed =
Time
x Distance
B to C x 80 Time =
80 Speed
Time from A to B + Time from B to C = 5 hours

x + 200 x
∴
120
+
80
=5
P (LCD = 240)
∴ 2(x + 200) + 3x = 1200

∴ 2x + 400 + 3x = 1200
M
∴ 5x = 800
∴ x = 160
Total distance = x + 200 + x = 160 + 200 + 160 = 520 km
∴ The distance from town A to town C is 520 km.
A
For some problems, it is convenient to use two different letters and to set up a system of
simultaneous equations:
EXAMPLE 20*
S
The sum of the digits of a two digit number is 10. If the digits of the number are reversed, the
resulting number is 54 less than the original number. Determine the original number.
Solution
Let the tens digit be x and the units digit y.
∴ The original number is 10x + y and the new number 10y + x.
Sum of digits = 10
∴ x + y = 10 1
New number = Original number − 54
∴ 10y + x = 10x + y − 54
∴ 9y − 9x = −54 2
61
From 1 : y = 10 − x
Substitute into 2 : 9(10 − x) − 9x = −54

∴ 90 − 9x − 9x = −54
∴ − 18x = −144
∴x =8
Substitute x = 8 into y = 10 − x:
∴ y = 10 − 8
∴y =2
The tens digit is 8 and the units digit is 2.
∴ The original number is 82.
LE
EXERCISE 8*
(a) The sum of three consecutive odd numbers is equal to 45. What are the three numbers?
(b) Eunice is 16 years older than her sister. In 4 years’ time, Eunice will be three times as old as
her sister. What are their current ages?
(c) Philasande’s age is currently a third of his father’s age. Thirteen years ago, the sum of their
ages was 54 years. How old is Philasande?
(d) Sandra sells hot dogs at R20 each and hamburgers for R25 each. On a particular day, she
P
gets R550 less for her total hot dog sales than she gets for her total hamburger sales. If she
sold 15 more hamburgers than hotdogs, how much money did she earn for the day (total
sales)?
(e) Jonah sells T-shirts. At the beginning of the month, he buys 30 T-shirts. He sells a number of
M
these T-shirts at R100 each, but after a while he notices that his T-shirts don’t sell anymore
and reduces the price to R80 each. Soon all his T-shirts are sold for a total of R2 760. How
many T-shirts did he sell at a price of R100 each?
(f) Aman drives the same route to work and back home. On the way to work his average speed
is 80 km/h and on his way back his average speed is 60 km/h. He spends 6 minutes more
A
driving back from work than he does driving to work. How far does he live from his work
place?
(g) Tammy runs at a certain speed (in m/s) for 40 seconds and then increases her speed by
2 m/s for 20 seconds. During this minute (60 seconds), she covers a distance of 400 m.
What was Tammy’s speed during the first 40 seconds?
S
(h) The sum of two numbers is twice their difference. The sum of the squares of the two
numbers is 6250. What are the two numbers?
(i) The length of a rectangle is 5 cm more than its breadth. The perimeter of the rectangle is 14
times the difference between its length and its breadth. Calculate the area of the rectangle.
(j) The difference between the digits of a two digit number is 3. The digits of the number are
reversed to form a new number. The new number is greater than the original number and the
sum of the new number and the original number is 121. Determine the original number.
Note: More questions on applications are found in questions (h) – (m) of the CONSOLIDATION
AND EXTENSION EXERCISE.
62
(a) Solve for x:

(1) 7 + 9x = 7x − 3 (2) −9 + 2x = 6 − x
(3) −6(1 − x) = 10 − 2x (4) 9(x − 3) = 5(x − 1) − 14
2 x +1 x −1 x +6
(5) (x + 2) − =3 (6) − =−2
3 5 2 3
(7) x(x − 2) + 1 = (x − 2)2 (8) (x + 2)(x − 2) = (x + 3)2 − 1
(b) Solve for x:

(1) 4x 2 = 9x (2) x 2 = 25
(3) x 2 − 5x = 14 (4) −x 2 − 4x + 12 = 0
LE
(5) 2x 2 − 5x + 3 = 0 (6) 6x 2 + 7x = 20
(7) (x − 8)(x + 2) = −24 (8) (2x − 3)(x + 1) = −2
(c) Solve for x:

1 x −2 1 2 3 7 5 1
(1) + = − (2) − − =
4 12x 2 3x 4x 8x 8 2x
3 8 2 x −1 1 2
(3) + 2 = (4) = −
x +1 x −1 x −1 x −3 x −4 3−x
(5)
2x − 3
4+x
= 2
P
7
+
x + x − 12 3 − x
1
(6)
10
x 2 − 4x − 5
+
5
x +1
+1=0
x 4 −2 4x + 5 6x
(7) + = (8) = −1
x + 1 1 − x2 x −1 x 2 + 4x + 4 2+x
M
8 x 3x 2 + 8x + 1 4x + 1 2
(9) = 2 (10) = 2 −
x +8
3 x − 2x + 4 x −1
3 x +x +1 1−x
6x − 1 7 1
(11) = 2 +
3x + 5 9x + 9x − 10 2 − 3x
(d) Solve for x and y simultaneously:
A
(1) x − y = 5 and 2x − 3y = 20 (2) x + 4y = 4 and 3x + 2y = 2

(3) 6x + 7y = −10 and 2x + y = 2 (4) 2x − y = 3 and 3x + 2y = −6
(5) 2y − 3x = 6 and 4y − 5x = 20 (6) 5x − 2y = 7 and 8x − 5y = 13
S
y x +1 y +1
(7) 5x − 3y = 11 and x − = 3 (8) − = 1 and x − 4y − 5 = 0
3 5 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2
(9)* + = 6 and − = 2 (10)* + = 2 and − = 11
x y x y x y x y
(e) Solve for the letter indicated in brackets in each of the following formulae:
1 Eg
(1) A = h(a + b) (a) (2) M= 2 (r)
2 r
c +t 1 1 1
(3) T = 3 +1 (t) (4) − = (s)
m a v s
63
(f) Solve for x:
x2
(1) x + 1 = b(b − x) (2) = b2
c2
(3) 4a x − 4bx = a 2 − 2a b + b 2 (4) x 2 + 3bx − 10b 2 = 0
x x x +a c
(5) −3=5− (6) =
a b x −b 3
a b 2x b
(7) = (8) = +2
x −1 x +2 x +a x −1
(g) Solve for x and represent your answer on a number line:
(1) 2x + 1 ≥ 13 (2) 2 − 2x ≤ 3
LE
(3) 3(x + 7) > 6 (4) 10 − 2x < 22 + 2x
1−x −5x
(5) ≤3−x (6) −1≥ x +7
2 3
(h) Solve for x and represent your answer on a number line:
(1) −4 ≤ −2x < 6 (2) −8 ≤ 4x − 12 < 0
(3) −7 ≤ 3x − 1 < 5 (4) −2 ≤ 4 − 2x ≤ 8
(5) −4 <
3x − 5
2
P
<8 (6) −5 <
1 − 2x
3
≤3
(i)* Three consecutive even numbers are such that the sum of half of the smallest number and
two thirds of the middle number equals the largest number. What are the three numbers?
M
(j)* A father is currently three times as old as his son. When the son reaches the father’s current
age, the sum of their ages will be 88. What is the son’s current age?
(k)* Keith has 20c-coins and 50c-coins in a bag. The total value of his 20c-coins exceed the total
value of his 50c-coins by R2. He has 66 coins altogether. What is the total value of all his
A
coins?
(l)* Jacob’s mother sends him to his Aunt Stella to deliver a gift. Aunt Stella lives 4 km from
them. Jacob arranges with his friend, Simon, who lives on the way to Aunt Stella’s house, to
meet him along the way to complete the delivery. Jacob leaves his mother’s house at 13:00
S
and walks at an average speed of 4 km/h to Simon’s house. Simon takes the gift from Jacob
and walks at an average speed of 6 km/h to Aunt Stella’s house to deliver the gift. Simon
arrives at Aunt Stella’s house at 13:54. How far does Simon live from Jacob?
(m)* A square and a rectangle have equal areas. The length of the rectangle is 4 cm more than the
length of the square and the perimeter of the rectangle is 4 cm more than the perimeter of the
square. What is the length of the square?
64
CHAPTER THREE
——————————————————————————————
Exponents
————————————————————————————————————————
SUMMARY OF WORK LEARNT IN EARLIER GRADES
THE LAWS OF EXPONENTS
Law Examples
LE
a m . a n = a m+n x2 . x3 = x5 2x.23 = 2x+3
am x5 3x
= a m−n = x2 = 3x−2
an x3 32
(a m )n = a mn (x 2 )3 = x 6 (32 ) x = 32x
(x y)3 = x 3y 3 (2 ⋅ 3) x = 2x ⋅ 3x
m m m
(a b) = a b
(2x y 2 )3 = 8x 3y 6 (2 ⋅ 32 ) x−1 = 2x−1 ⋅ 32x−2
P
(y) (3)
3 x
x x3 2 2x
= 3 = x
y 3
(b)
m
a am
= m
M
b 3 2
x2 x6 32x 34x
( 2y ) ( 2x+1 )
= 3 =
8y 22x+2
Note: It is very important to distinguish between the behaviour of coefficients and exponents:
A
2x 2 × 3x 3 = 6x 5 Coefficients are multiplied, but exponents are added.

6
6x
= 2x 3 Coefficients are divided, but exponents are subtracted.
3x 3
(2x 2 )3 = 8x 6 Coefficient is raised to the exponent, but exponents are multiplied.

S
DEFINITIONS OF POWERS WITH ZERO EXPONENTS AND NEGATIVE EXPONENTS
The following definitions show how to deal with exponents of zero and negative exponents:
Definition Examples
a0 = 1 x0 = 1 20 = 1 (3a b)0 = 1 3(a b)0 = 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
a −n = x −4 = 5−1 = 3−2 = = 2−x =
an x4 5 32 9 2x
65
These definitions are easily explained by applying the law for division to any number:
9 32 9
• = 2 = 32−2 = 30, but we know that =1 ∴ 30 = 1
9 3 9
24 24 1 1
• = 24−7 = 2−3, but we know that = ∴ 2−3 =
2 7 27 23 23
Note that a negative exponent does not mean that the number itself is negative.
Instead, a negative exponent indicates division.
NEGATIVE BASES
• When a negative number is raised to an odd exponent, the result is a negative number:
LE
(−a)odd number = − aodd number Example: (−2)3 = − 23 = − 8
• When a negative number is raised to an even exponent, the result is a positive number:
P
(−a)even number = + aeven number Example: (−2)4 = + 24 = 16
Be careful: −24 = −16 (Here the exponent does not apply to the −)
M
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the following expressions:
2 3 4 6x 3y 5
(a) −5x y × −3x y (b) (c) (−5a b 3)2
A
−9x y 8
2
x5
( 3y )
(d) (−3p 3q 0 )3 (e)
S
Solution
2x 2
(a) 15x 3y 7 (b) − (c) 25a 2 b 6
3y 3
3 3 x 10
(d) (−3p ⋅ 1) (e)
9y 2
= (−3p 3)3
= − 27p 9
66
EXAMPLE 2

n−3 1−n 3x+1 ⋅ 3x−3
(a) 5 ⋅5 (b) (c) 2x ⋅ 3x−1 ⋅ 23−x ⋅ 31−x
(3x−2 )2
Solution
3x+1 ⋅ 3x−3
(a) 5n−3+1−n (b) (c) 2x+3−x ⋅ 3x−1+1−x
32x−4
= 5−2 = 3x+1+x−3−2x+4 = 23 ⋅ 30
1
= = 32 = 9 =8⋅1=8
25
LE
Be careful with powers when an expression contains addition or subtraction. Exponent laws meant
for multiplication and division cannot be used for addition and subtraction, for example:
m n m+n am
• a .a = a and = a m−n But: a m + a n ≠ a m+n and a m − a n ≠ a m−n
an
(b)
m
m m m a am
• (a b) = a b and = m But: (a + b)m ≠ a m + b m and (a − b)m ≠ a m − b m
b
EXAMPLE 3

P
(a) x2 + x2 × x + x3 (b) (x − 3)2
Solution
M
(a) x 2 + x 3 + x 3 = x 2 + 2x 3 (b) (x − 3)(x − 3) = x 2 − 6x + 9
EXERCISE 1
(a) Simplify the following expressions:
A
(1) x5 × x5 × x0 (2) x5 + x5 + x0 (3) 2x 3 × 3x 3
(4) 2x 3 + 3x 3 (5) −4a 4 × 5a 5 (6) 3m n 2 × −5m 2 n 5p 0

6p 6 4x 5y 4
(7) −2x 3y 5 × −3yx 2 (8) (9)
2p 2 −8x y 8
S
−6p 3q 5r 2 3p 2 q 5p 3q 3
(10) (11) × (12) (2x 2 )3
−8p 3q 4r 5 10p 3q 4 6pq 2
(13) (−3x y 5)2 (14) 3(−2x 3y 2 )3 (15) 3(x 2 )3 − 2(x 3)2
(x 5 + x 5)2 −4(3m 3n)2 (a 2 b)4 ⋅ 6a b 3
(16) (17) (18)
x5 × x5 (−2m n 3)3 (−3a 5b 2 )2
3 2
2a 3b 2 2x 2 −6a b 2 3a 4 b
( y ) ( a 3b )
0 3
(19) 4c a ÷ (20) (21) ×
−(a 3b 3)2 4a b 3
(22) 2a 3 + 3a 2 × a (23) (2a + b)2 (24) (a + 3)0 + 3a 0
67
(b) Simplify the following expressions:
5m+n ⋅ 5m
(1) 7x−2 × 71−x × 7 (2) (3) (5n−1)2 ⋅ 53−2n
5n
3x ⋅ 2x+2 22n−3 × (2n+2 )3 2 ⋅ 3x + 5 ⋅ 3 x
(4) (5) (6)
2x−1 ⋅ 3x+1 (2n+1)5 7 ⋅ 3x
WORKING WITH NEGATIVE EXPONENTS
Remember that powers with negative exponents are defined as follows:
1
a −n =
an
LE
1
Consider this definition, written backwards: = a −n. If we replace n with a negative number,
an
1
for example n = −3, we get = a −(−3) = a 3. In general, the following rule applies:
a −3
1
P a −m
= am
We can also show that when a fraction is raised to a negative exponent, the fraction can be
M
(b) (a)
−n n
a a −n bn b
inverted and raised to a positive exponent instead: = −n = n = .
b a
(b) (a)
−n n
a b
=
A
EXAMPLE 4
S
Simplify the following, writing your answers with positive exponents:
(x) (2)
−2 −3
−3 1 1 x
(a) p (c) (c) (d)
a −2
Solution
(x)
3
1 2 2 2
(a) (a) a (b) x (d)
p3
8
=
x3
68
When powers with negative exponents appear in fractions, together with other numbers, only the
powers with negative exponents “move up or down”, for example:
a a x4 5a −2 5
= and = 2
bx −4 b 2 2a
EXAMPLE 5
Simplify the following, writing your answers with positive exponents:
−3 x −1 3x −2
(a) (b) (c)
x −4 2 −5x y
−2
(2n)−2 3x 2 y 4 8x 2 y −3 −3a −2 b 2
( 5a 3b −1 )
(d) (e) × (f)
3n −6 4x −5 9y −1
LE
Solution
1 3 3
(a) −3x 4 (b) (c) = −
2x −5x y ⋅ x 2 5x 3y
−2
n6 3x 2 y 4 x 5 8x 2 y 1 −3b 2 b 1
( 5a 3a 2 )
(d) (e) × (f)
3(2n)+2 4 9y 3
−2
=
n6
3 ⋅ 4n 2
P =
24x 9 y 5
36y 3
=
−3b 3
( 5a 5 )
2
n4 2x 9 y 2 5a 5
( −3b 3 )
= = =
M
12 3
25a 10
=
9b 6
EXAMPLE 6
A
(3) (5) (3)

2x x x+1
1 3 5
(a) 3x+1 × 3x−3 × (b) ×
S
Solution
(5) (5)
x −x−1
(a) 3x+1 × 3x−3 × (3−1)2x 3 3
(b) ×
x+1 x−3 −2x
=3 ×3 ×3
(5)
x−x−1
x+1+x−3−2x 3
=3 =
1
= 3−2 =
(5)
−1
9 3 5
= =
3
69
Be careful with negative exponents when terms are added and/or subtracted, for example:
1 1 1 1 1 4
≠ 2 + 4 . Instead: = = = = .
2−1 + 4−1 2−1 + 4−1 1
+ 1 2+1 3 3
2 4 4 4
EXAMPLE 7
x +y
Simplify the expression .
x −1 + y −1
Solution
x +y
1 1
x
+ y
x +y
LE
= y+x
xy
x +y xy
= ×
1 y +x
= xy
EXERCISE 2
(a)
P
Simplify the following expressions, writing your answers with positive exponents:
(2)
−3
−2 1 m
(1) x (2) (3)
m −2
M
1 −5
(4) 3a −3 (5) (6)
3x −5 p −2
a −3 3x −3 −5a 3
(7) (8) (9)
4 −2y 3b −4
(2a)−3 10−1p −2 ⋅ p 3 15a b 3c −1

A
(10) (11) (12)

16a −4 (5p −3)−2 20a −2 b 2 c 2
−2 −3
3a 2 b −5 6x 3y −2 x −5y 3 x y −1
( −2a −3b ) ( −2y )
(13) (14) × − (15) (2x −1y 3)2 ÷
−3x −1y −1 4y
S
(b) Simplify the following expressions, writing your answers with positive exponents:
(2) (5) (3) (2)

x 2−3a x+1 x+3
1 1 2 3
(1) 2x+2 × (2) (53)a−1 ÷ (3) ×
(c) Simplify the following expressions, writing your answers with positive exponents:
a−b p + q −1 x −2 − y −2
(1) (2) (3)
a −1 − b −1 p −1 + q x −1 + y −1
1 2p
(4) −
(p + q)
−2 q −1
70
SIMPLIFYING EXPONENTIAL EXPRESSIONS
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION TYPE
When exponential expressions involve only multiplication and division of powers, we simply
rewrite all bases in terms of prime numbers and apply the laws and definitions of exponents:
EXAMPLE 8

n+1 1
4n−1 × 8 × 2 3n+1 ⋅ 18n−2
(a) (b)
32n 27n ⋅ 2n−3
LE
Solution
(22 )n−1 × (23)n+1 × 2−1 3n+1 ⋅ (32 × 2)n−2
(a) (b)
(25)n (33)n ⋅ 2n−3
22n−2 × 23n+3 × 2−1 3n+1 ⋅ 32n−4 ⋅ 2n−2

= =
25n 33n ⋅ 2n−3
= 22n−2+3n+3−1−5n = 3n+1+2n−4−3n ⋅ 2n−2−n+3
= 20
P = 3−3 ⋅ 21
2
=1 =
M
27
EXERCISE 3
1
8x+1 ⋅ 22x−1 3n ⋅ 27n+1 5
× 125n−1
A
(a) (b) (c)

32x 92n+3 5n−2 × 25n
3m−1 ⋅ 2m+3 152a−1 28x ⋅ 14x−1
(d) (e) (f)
6 m+1 52a+1 ⋅ 9a−2 49 x−1 ⋅ 8x+1
S
27m × 2m+2 9a+2 ⋅ 33a−1 75−n+3 ⋅ 45n−2

(g) (h) (i)
18m−1 × 3m+1 3 ⋅ 3a ⋅ 99a+1 25−n ⋅ 15n+3 ⋅ 3
(8)
x+1
1
21n−1 22m−1 ⋅ 3−m
(j) (k) (l)
( 27 )
m
(3)
4−x−3 ⋅ 21−x 1
n+2 4
⋅ 9m+1
9n+1 ⋅ 7n−2 ⋅
0,5 p−1 × 12 p 0,4x−1 ⋅ 25x 0,25a+3 ⋅ 40 a+1

(m)* (n)* (o)*
18 p+1 × 3−p 10 x+1 10 a × 0,125
71
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION TYPE
When expressions include addition or subtraction, we cannot simplify them using only exponent
laws. No cancellation can take place unless the expression is factorised (written as a product). To
help us identify common factors, we often “split powers” by using the first exponent law in
reverse:
a m+n = a m ⋅ a n Example: 2n+3 = 2n ⋅ 23
EXAMPLE 9
2n + 2n+3 2x+3 + 2x+2

(a) (b)
2n 2x+1 − 2x−1
LE
Solution
(a) Split 2n+3 by rewriting it as 2n ⋅ 23 : 2 x ⋅ 23 + 2 x ⋅ 22

(b)
2x ⋅ 21 − 2x ⋅ 2−1
2n + 2n ⋅ 23 2x (23 + 22 )
=
2n 2x (21 − 2−1)
8+4
P
Take out 2n as common factor: =
2− 1
2
2n(1 + 23) 12
= 3
2n
M
2
=1+8=9 12 3 12 2
= ÷ = × = 8
1 2 1 3
When there are different bases in an expression, rewrite all the bases in terms of prime numbers
first:
A
EXAMPLE 10
4x − 22x+1
Simplify the expression:
4 x−1
S
Solution
(22 ) x − 22x+1
(22 ) x−1
22x − 22x+1
=
22x−2
22x − 22x ⋅ 21
=
22x ⋅ 2−2
22x (1 − 2) −1
= 2x −2 = 1 = − 4
2 ⋅2
4
72
EXERCISE 4
2x+2 − 2x 3x+3 + 3x+2 7n+2

(a) (b) (c)
2x 6 ⋅ 3x+1 42 ⋅ 7n + 7n+1
3m + 3m−1 2a+3 − 2a+1 5 ⋅ 2n − 2n−1
(d) (e) (f)
2 ⋅ 3m 2a−1 9 ⋅ 2n+2
2x + 2x+1 − 2x+2 5−x+1 − 5−x−1 3 ⋅ 2−x − 4 ⋅ 2−x−2
(g) (h) (i)
2x−3 5−x+2 − 5−x 2−x − 2−x−1
52x+1 − 52x 9 x+1 − 4 ⋅ 32x 21−2x − 0,25x+2

(j) (k) (l)*
25x 2 ⋅ 32x−1 + 9 x 4−2−x
LE
3 ⋅ 5x + 9 2x+2 − 16 6 x − 2x
(m) (n)* (o)*
5x+1 + 15 2 − 2x−1 3 ⋅ 2x − 2x ⋅ 3x+1
EXPRESSIONS REQUIRING MORE ADVANCED FACTORISATION*
In some expressions with addition or subtraction, the bases are all the same, but the coefficients of
the variable are not the same in all the exponents, for example:
P 31x+2 + 32x
In such cases, we make use of the following procedure:
(1) Split powers, by using the first exponent law in reverse, where necessary:
M
a m+n = a m ⋅ a n
Example: 3x+2 = 3x ⋅ 32 = 9 ⋅ 3x
Rewrite powers, where the coefficient of the variable is not 1, by using the third exponent
A
law in reverse:
a n x = (a x )n
Example: 32 x = (3x )2
S
(2) Use a special substitution:
Let a x = k
Example: Let 3x = k, then 9 ⋅ 3x + (3x )2 becomes 9k + k 2
(3) Now simplify the expression in terms of k by using the different types of factorisation
(common factor, difference of two squares, quadratic trinomial or sum/difference of two
cubes).
(4) Replace k with a x again when you write down the final answer.
73
If there are different bases in the expression, remember to rewrite all bases in terms of prime
numbers first.
EXAMPLE 11*
Simplify:
3x+2 + 32x 4x − 9
(a)* (b)*
3x + 9 2x + 3
22x − 2x+1 − 3 53x + 8
(c)* (d)*
9 − 22x 25x − 2 ⋅ 5x + 4
Solution
3x ⋅ 32 + (3x )2 (22 ) x − 9
(a) (b)
LE
3x + 9 2x + 3
Let 3x = k Let 2x = k
The expression becomes: The expression becomes:
9k + k 2 k2 − 9
k +9 k +3
k (9 + k) (k + 3)(k − 3)
= =
=k
k +9
P =k −3
k +3
= 3x = 2x − 3
M
(2x )2 − 2x ⋅ 2 − 3 53x + 8
(c) (d)
9 − (2x )2 (52 ) x − 2 ⋅ 5x + 4
Let 2x = k (5x )3 + 8
= x2
(5 ) − 2 ⋅ 5x + 4
A
The expression becomes:

2 Let 5x = k
k − 2k − 3
9 − k2 The expression becomes:
k 2 − 2k − 3 k3 + 8
S
=
−(k 2 − 9) k 2 − 2k + 4
(k − 3)(k + 1) (k + 2)(k 2 − 2k + 4)
= =
−(k − 3)(k + 3) k 2 − 2k + 4
k +1 =k +2
=−
k +3
= 5x + 2
2x + 1
=− x
2 +3
74
EXERCISE 5*

72x − 7x 32x − 25 32x − 2 ⋅ 3x − 3
(a)* (b)* (c)*
7x − 1 3x + 5 3x + 1
23x + 1 22x + 2x+1 9 x − 16
(d)* (e)* (f)*
22x − 2x + 1 2x + 2 3x − 4
22x − 2x+2 + 3 4x − 2x+2 − 5 9 x + 3x+1 + 9
(g)* (h)* (i)*
2x − 3 2x + 1 27x − 27
121x − 3 ⋅ 11x 25x − 16 4x − 2x+2 + 3
(j)* (k)* (l)*
3 − 11x 4 − 5x 9 − 4x
25n+1 − 5n+1 − 6 32x − 3x+1 + 2 3x − 32 + 20 ⋅ 3−x
LE
(m)* (n)* (o)**
5n+1 + 2 32x + 3x − 6 1 − 4 ⋅ 3−x
22a − 32b 9b − 16a 8m + 27n
(p)** (q)** (r)**
2a + 3b 22a − 3b 2m + 3n
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
An exponential equation is an equation in which the variable is in the exponent(s).
THE BASIC TYPE

P
The most basic type of exponential equations are those consisting of a single term on each side of
the equation. (Sometimes you’ll have to transpose a term and/or divide by a common factor first.)
To solve these equations, we proceed as follows:
• Make all the bases the same (usually by rewriting them in terms of prime numbers) and
M
simplify each side to a single power using the exponent laws.
• Equate the exponents and solve the resulting equation.
EXAMPLE 12
Solve for x:
1
5 ⋅ 2x−1 = 40 32x+1 = 5x−3 = 25x ⋅ 5x+3
A
(a) (b) (c)

27
Solution
5 ⋅ 2x−1 40 1 (c) 5x−3 = 52x ⋅ 5x+3
(a) = (b) 32x+1 =
5 5 33 ∴ 5x−3 = 52x+x+3
S
∴ 2x−1 = 8 ∴ 32x+1 = 3−3

∴ x − 3 = 3x + 3
∴2 x−1 3
=2 ∴ 2x + 1 = −3
∴ − 2x = 6
∴ x −1=3 ∴ 2x = − 4
∴ x = −3
∴x =4 ∴ x = −2
THE COMMON FACTOR TYPE

When exponential equations involve the addition or subtraction of several terms, factorisation is
required. An exponential equation of the common factor type can be identified as follows:
• Look at the exponents: The coefficients of the variable are the same in all the exponents.
• There is a constant term present.
75
To help us identify common factors, we often “split powers” by using the first exponent law in
reverse:
a m+n = a m ⋅ a n Example: 3x+2 = 3x ⋅ 32
Note: If there are different bases, remember to rewrite all bases in terms of prime numbers first.
EXAMPLE 13
Solve for x:
(a) 3x+2 − 3x = 72 (b) 22x − 4x−1 = 12

Solution
(a) 3x ⋅ 32 − 3x = 72 (b) 22x − (22 ) x−1 = 12
LE
∴ 3x (32 − 1) = 72 ∴ 22x − 22x−2 = 12
∴ 3x ⋅ 8 = 72 ∴ 22x − 22x ⋅ 2−2 = 12
∴ 3x = 9 ∴ 22x (1 − 2−2 ) = 12
( 4)
∴ 3x = 32 1
∴ 22x 1 − = 12
∴x =2
3
∴ 22x ⋅ = 12
4
P ∴ 22x = 16
∴ 22x = 24
∴x =4
M
EXERCISE 6
(a) Solve for x:

(1) 3x = 27 (2) 3 ⋅ 2x−1 = 24 (3) 2 ⋅ 7x+2 − 2 = 0
(7)
x−3
1 1 1
A
x x−3
(4) 5 = (5) 3 = (6) = 49
5 9
x+1 2x−2 5x 2
(7) 3 ⋅3 =9 (8) = 25 (9) =8
52−x 24−3x
(3)
x
1
S
x+3 x−1 x−4

(10) 7 = 49 (11) 3 = (12) 0,25x−1 = 23−x × 8x+1
(b) Solve for x:

(1) 2 x + 2 x+1 = 24 (2) 3⋅ 5 x + 5 x+1 = 40
(3) 3x+1 − 2 ⋅ 3x−1 = 21 (4) 2x+2 − 2x−1 = 28
26
(5) 5x + 5x+2 = (6) 3x−1 − 3x + 3x+1 = 21
25
x−1 x+1
(7) 8 ⋅ 2 − 2 = 16 (8) 3x−1 + 2 ⋅ 3x = 63
(9) 4x+2 − 22x+2 = 48 (10) 32m−1 + 9 m−1 − 12 = 0
76
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE QUADRATIC TYPE*
As stated earlier, solving exponential equations involving the addition or subtraction of several
terms requires factorisation. In this section, we will solve equations requiring the factorisation of
quadratic expressions.
An exponential equation of the quadratic type can be identified as follows:

• Look at the exponents: The coefficients of the variable are not the same in all the exponents.
One coefficient is twice the other (x and 2x) OR the negative of the other (x and − x).
• There is a constant term present.
We often make use of the following principles:
1 am
a 2 x = (a x )2 a −n = a m+n = a m ⋅ a n a m−n =
an an
LE
Using a special substitution makes it easier to recognise and solve the quadratic equation:
Let a x = k
Note: If there are different bases, remember to rewrite all bases in terms of prime numbers first.
EXAMPLE 14*
Solve for x:
P
(a)* 32x − 4 ⋅ 3x + 3 = 0 (b)* 7x+1 + 7−x = 8
(c)* 2x + 23−x = 6 (d)* 25x − 10 = 3 ⋅ 5x
M
Solution
(a) (3x )2 − 4 ⋅ 3x + 3 = 0 1
(b) 7x ⋅ 71 + =8
7x
Let 3x = k:
Let 7x = k:
A
∴ k 2 − 4k + 3 = 0 1
∴ 7k + = 8
k
∴ (k − 3)(k − 1) = 0
2
∴ 7k + 1 = 8k
∴ k = 3 or k = 1
∴ 7k 2 − 8k + 1 = 0
S
x x
∴ 3 = 3 or 3 = 1
∴ (7k − 1)(k − 1) = 0
∴ 3x = 31 or 3x = 30
1
∴ x = 1 or x = 0 ∴k = or k = 1
7
∴ 7x = 7−1 or 7x = 70
∴ x = − 1 or x = 0
77
23
(c) 2x + =6 (d) 52x − 10 = 3 ⋅ 5x
2x
Let 2x = k: ∴ (5x )2 − 10 = 3 ⋅ 5x
8 Let 5x = k:
∴k+ =6
k
∴ k 2 − 10 = 3k
∴ k 2 + 8 = 6k
∴ k 2 − 3k − 10 = 0
∴ k 2 − 6k + 8 = 0
∴ (k − 5)(k + 2) = 0
∴ (k − 4)(k − 2) = 0
∴k =5 or k = − 2
∴ k = 4 or k = 2
∴ 5x = 51 or 5x = − 2
∴ 2x = 22 or 2x = 21
∴x =1 N.A.
∴ x = 2 or x = 1
LE
Note: A power with a positive base cannot equal a negative number, hence 5x = − 2 has no
solution in equation (d) above.
EXERCISE 7*
Solve for x:
(a)* 22x − 3 ⋅ 2x + 2 = 0 (b)* 32x − 8 ⋅ 3x = 9
(c)* 52x + 25 = 10 ⋅ 5x (d)* 3x − 2 + 3−x = 0
(e)*
(g)*
22x − 5 ⋅ 2x+1 = − 16
3x+1 + 3−x = 4
P (f)*
(h)*
2x − 23−x = 2
22x+1 + 2 = 5 ⋅ 2x
(i)* 9 x + 27 = 12 ⋅ 3x (j)* 4x − 9 ⋅ 2x−1 + 2 = 0
M
RATIONAL EXPONENTS
Exponents can also be fractions. We will now use the exponent laws to simplify expressions with
rational exponents. (Remember that rational numbers include fractions and integers.) The real
meaning of rational exponents will be discussed in Grade 11.
To calculate the value of a power with a rational exponent, we first rewrite the base in terms of
A
prime numbers and then apply the exponent laws:
EXAMPLE 15
Calculate the following without the use of a calculator:
S
1 3 1
(a) 92 (b) 16 4 (c) 27− 3
2
( 27 )
8 3 3
· −3
(d) (e) (0,25) 2 (f)* (0,4) 2
Solution
1 3
(3 ) 2
1
(2 ) 4 (3 )
3 −3
2 4
(a) (b) (c)
1 3
= 32× 2 = 24× 4 = 33×− 3
1
= 31 = 3 = 23 = 8 1
= 3−1 =
3
78
2
( 27 )
8 3 3 · − 32
(d) (e) (0,25) 2 (f) ( )
0, 4
3 − 32
(4) (9)
2
3 1 2 4
23
( 33 )
= =
=
3 3
( 22 ) (4)
2 1 2 9 2
23× 3 = =
= 2
33× 3
3 3
12 2 2
( 22 )
22 4 = 3
= = 2× 32
=
32 9 2 1anything = 1
3
1 ∴ 12 = 1
LE
3
= 3 32× 2
2 = 3
22× 2
1
=
8 33
=
23
27
=
8
EXAMPLE 16
P
M
− 32 1 5 x x
16x 4 y −4
( 9x −2 y −2 )
a3 × a2 2 2 ⋅ 32 6
(a) (b) 5
(c) x
a6 16 3
Solution
x
A
− 32 x
4 2 2 2 2 ⋅ (25) 6
( 9y 4 )
16x x y (b)
1 5 5
a3 + 2 − 6 (c)
(a) x
2 + 15 − 5 (24) 3
=a 6
− 32 x 5x
24 x 6 22 ⋅ 2 6
( 32 y 2 )
12
= = a6 = a2 =
S
4x
23
3 x 5x 4x
2 2 2 = 22 + 6 −
( 24 x 6 )
3
3 y
=
3x + 5x − 8x
=2 6
3 3
32× 2 ⋅ y 2× 2 = 20 = 1
= 3 3
24× 2 ⋅ x 6× 2
33 ⋅ y 3 27y 3
= =
26 ⋅ x 9 64x 9
79
EXPRESSIONS WITH RATIONAL EXPONENTS REQUIRING FACTORISATION*
Remember, when expressions involve the addition or subtraction of several terms, factorisation is
required.
Using a special substitution is often useful:

1 2
• When one exponent is twice the other, e.g. if x 3 and x 3 occur in the expression,
1 2 1
let x 3 = k, then x 3 = (x 3 )2 = k 2.
1
• When one exponent is three times the other, e.g. if x 3 and x 1 occur in the expression,
1 1
let x 3 = k, then x 1 = (x 3 )3 = k 3.
EXAMPLE 17*
LE
2 1 1 3
x3 − 4 x 2 + 3x 4 + 2 x2 − 1
(a)* 1
(b)* 1
(c)* 1
x3 −2 x4 +2 x + x2 + 1
Solution
1 1 1
(a) Let x 3 = k (b) Let x 4 = k (c) Let x 2 = k
2 1 1 1 3
∴ x 3 = (x 3 )2 = k 2 ∴ x 2 = (x 4 )2 = k 2 ∴ x = k 2 and x 2 = k 3
2
x3 − 4
P 1
x 2 + 3x 4 + 2
1 3
x2 − 1
1 1 1
x3 − 2 x4 + 2 x + x2 + 1
k2 − 4 k 2 + 3k + 2 k3 − 1
M
= = = 2
k −2 k +2 k +k +1
(k − 2)(k + 2) (k + 2)(k + 1) (k − 1)(k 2 + k + 1)
= = =
k −2 k +2 k2 + k + 1
=k +2 =k +1 =k −1
A
1 1 1
= x3 + 2 = x4 + 1 = x2 − 1
EXERCISE 8
S
(a) Calculate the following without the use of a calculator:

1 2 1 3
(1) 25 2 (2) 83 (3) 32− 5 (4) 25− 2
1 3 − 34 − 12
( 27 ) ( 16 ) ( 81 ) ( 4)
1 3 9 2 16 1
(5) (6) (7) (8) 6
1 5 1 − 32
(9) (0,04) 2 (10) (0,25) 2 (11) (0,09)− 2 (12) (2,25)
3 1
· 1 · −3 1 2 12 2 ⋅ 49 3
(13)* (0,4) 2 (14)* (0,1) 2 (15) 23 × 54 3 (16) 1 5
32 ⋅ 73
80
(b) Simplify the following expressions, writing answers with positive exponents:
1 2 − 12
(16x y ) 2 (27x ) 3 (49k l )
16 8 −9 4 −16
(1) (2) (3)
3 − 14
2 2
(125p 6 q −3) 3 25x 6 16a 6 b −2
( 49y 2 ) ( 81a −2 b 2 )
(4) 1
(5) (6)
5( p −9) 3
3 2 3 1
m2 × m3 1 4 (9x) 2 ⋅ x − 6
(7) 1
(8) (8a 8 3 ) × a3 (9) 1
m6 27x ⋅ (x 4 ) 3
x x x m
4 3 ⋅ 32 6 18 2 (0,125)− 3
(10) x (11) x (12)
82 2− 2 ⋅ 3x−1 2m − 2m−1
LE
1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1
(13)* a 2 (a 2 + a − 2 ) (14)* (a 2 − a − 2 )(a 2 + a − 2 ) (15)* (a 2 − a − 2 )2 + 2
(c)* Simplify the following expressions:

1 2 1 3
x2 − 1 x 3 + 5x 3 − 6 x5 + 1
(1)* 1
(2)* 1
(3)* 2 1
x4 + 1 x3 + 6 x5 − x5 + 1
1 1 1
x −9 x 2 − 4x 4 + 3 x2 − 8
(4)* 1
(5)* 1
(6)* 1
x2 − 3
P 1 − x4 x6 − 2
EQUATIONS WITH RATIONAL EXPONENTS
In this section, we will solve equations with rational exponents.

M
THE BASIC TYPE
m
Generally, to solve an equation of the form x n = a, we simply raise both sides of the equation to
the reciprocal of the exponent, i.e. mn :
A
m
xn =a
m n n
∴ (x n ) m = a m
n
∴ x = am
S
There are exceptional cases where equations of this form have no solution or two solutions. We will
deal with such cases in Grade 11.
EXAMPLE 18
Solve for x:
3 3
(a) x 2 = 27 (b) 24x − 5 − 3 = 0
81
Solution
3
(a) x 2 = 27 3
3 2 2 (b) 24x − 5 − 3 = 0
∴ (x 2 ) 3 = 27 3
3 3
2 ∴ x− 5 =
∴x =( ) 33 3 24
3 1
∴ x = 32 = 9 ∴ x− 5 =
8
− 53
(8)
3 5 1
∴ (x − 5 )− 3 =
5
∴ x = (8) 3
LE
5
∴ x = (23) 3
∴ x = 25 = 32
THE QUADRATIC TYPE*
Equations with rational exponents can also be of the quadratic type. This type is identified by the
fact that the exponent in one term is twice the exponent in another (or the negative of the exponent
in another):
EXAMPLE 19*
P
Solve for x:
2 1 1 1
(a)* x 3 − 3x 3 + 2 = 0 (b)* x 2 + 9x − 2 = 6
M
Solution
1 1 1
(a) Let x 3 = k (b) x 2 + 9x − 2 = 6
2
∴ x 3 = k2 1 9
∴ x2 + =6
A
1
x2
k 2 − 3k + 2 = 0
1
∴ (k − 2)(k − 1) = 0 Let x 2 = k
∴ k = 2 or k = 1 9
S
∴k+ =6
1 1 k
∴ x 3 = 2 or x 3 = 1
3 3
∴ k 2 + 9 = 6k
∴ x = 2 or x = 1
∴ k 2 − 6k + 9 = 0
∴ x = 8 or x = 1
∴ (k − 3)2 = 0
∴k =3
1
∴ x2 = 3
∴ x = 32 = 9
82
EXERCISE 9
(a) Solve for x:

3 1 1 2
(1) x2 = 8 (2) x− 2 = 7 (3) x3 =
3
3 8 1 5
(4) x− 2 = (5) x2 − 5 = 0 (6) 3x 2 = 96
27
1 1 2 5 3
(7) 3
x3 = 3
(8) 64 − 2x − 3 = 0 (9) 4 = 32x 5
3 6 3
(10) 2x − 4 = 0,25 (11) 1
=2 (12) 25 − 3x − 5 = 250
x3
3 1 8 3 2
(13) (4x) 2 = 53 (14) 4x 6 = 2 3 (15) 0,2x 2 = 125 3
LE
(b)* Solve for x:
2 1 1 1
(1)* x 3 − 4x 3 + 3 = 0 (2)* x 2 − 3x 4 = − 2
1 1 1
(3)* x + 6 = 7x 2 (4)* x 3 + 6x − 3 = 5
1 2 4
(5)* x −1 − 7x − 2 + 12 = 0 (6)* x− 3 + 3 = 1
x3
(7)*
1
4x − 2 + x 2 − 4 = 0
1
P (8)* 2x − 5 ⋅ 2 2 x = 24
1

M
(a) Simplify the following expressions and write your answers with positive exponents:
6x 6 y 3
(1) 4a 3b 2 × a 4 b × 3a b 3 (2)
2x 2 y 5
( b2 )
3
3 2 −3a
(3) (−2x y ) (4)
A
(5) 2x 2 y − 3x y 3 + yx 2 (6) 3x y + x y × y + y 2 x
(7) 7x y 0 − 5x (8) 3x 0 + 30 x + (3x)0

S
2x −1 −2x
(9) (10)
−3y 2 3y −2
( 3y 2 ) ( 3y −2 )
−1 −2
2x 2x
(11) (12)
6a 2 b −3c 2
(13) −6m −4 n 3 × −3m 5n −6 (14)
−9a −3b 2 c 5
(15) (−4a 3)2 × (−2a −4 )3 (16) (3x 2 y 4 )2 × 2(3x y 4 )−3
83
−3
−5x −3 −2a 3b −5
( a −2 b −3 )
(17) (18)
(−5x)−3
2m 2 n −2 × −8m −5n 8
(19) (20) 2x + x ⋅ (x − x −1)2 − x −1
(−2m −2 n 4 )2
a −1 − b −1 4x −1 − 5 + x
(21) (22)
b −2 − a −2 x −1 − 1
(b) Simplify the following expressions:

16n 2m+2 − 2m+1 5 ⋅ 2x + 10
(1) (2) (3)
2−n ⋅ ( 12 )
n+2 3 ⋅ 2m 2x+3 + 16
⋅ 43n
LE
9a−1 ⋅ 8a ⋅ 2a−4 3x − 3x−1 3−n ⋅ 5n
(4) (5) (6)
122a−3 3x + 3x+2 25n ⋅ 15−n−1
4x − 22x+1 (2 ⋅ 3x+1)3 ⋅ 23−2x 3x+2 − 9
(7) (8) (9)
4 x−1 81x ⋅ 122−x 3x − 1
5 ⋅ 2x − 4 ⋅ 2x−2 9 x + 32x+1 32a − 3a
(10) (11) (12)*
2x − 2x−1 18x ⋅ (0,5) x 3a−1
49a − 9 9 x − 3x+2 + 20 27x + 1
(13)*
3 + 7a
P (14)*
4 − 3x
(15)*
9 x − 3x + 1
3 ⋅ 54a − 2 ⋅ 53a 16 p − 0,01 9x − 4y
(16)* (17)* (18)*
3 ⋅ 5a − 2 4 p + 0,1 3x + 2 y
M
(c) Solve for x:
1
(1) 23x−1 = 8 (2) 2x + 2x+3 = 18 (3) 5x−4 =
5x
2−4x
(4) 3x+1 − 3x−2 = 26 (5) ax =1 (6) 27 ⋅ 9 x − 1 = 0
A
(3)
x
2x 2 4
(7) 4⋅5 = 0,16 (8) 3⋅ = (9) 42x+1 = 8x−5
3
(3)
x−5
1
(10) = 9 x+1 (11) 162x − 322x−6 = 0 (12) 9 x+1 + 32x = 90
S
32
(13) (0,25)3−x = (14)* 32x − 18 = 7 ⋅ 3x (15)* 4x − 2x+2 − 32 = 0
2x+2
(16)* 36 x − 2 ⋅ 6 x = 24 (17)* 5x − 6 + 51−x = 0 (18)* 10 x + 101−x = 11
(d) Calculate the following without the use of a calculator:

− 23
( 64 )
2 3 1 − 23 27
(1) 125 3 + 16 4 (2) 92 −8 (3)
1 1 3
3
· − 32 5 2 × 20 4 × 2 2
(4) (0,25) 2 (5) (0,4) (6) 3
54
84
(e) Simplify the following expressions:
− 34
x y −3
( 16x −3y 5 )
2 4 3
(1) (8a −3b 6) 3 (2) (16x 3 y −2 )− 2 (3)
2 5 3 1 x x
x3 ⋅ x6 (4x) 2 ⋅ x 3 9 4 × 27 2
(4) (5) (6)
1
x2 −(8x − 12 13
) 9 x − 2 ⋅ 32x−1
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
(7)* 3x 2 (x 2 − 2x − 2 ) (8)* (x 2 + 1)(x 2 − 1) (9)* (x 2 + x − 2 )2
2 1 1
16x 3 − 4 x2 + x4 − 2 a+1
(10)* 1
(11)* 1
(12)* 1
2 − 4x 3 x4 + 2 a3 + 1
(f) Solve for x:
LE
5 3 3
(1) x 2 = 32 (2) 2x − 2 = 54 (3) 16x 4 − 2 = 0
3 3 1 1
(4) 8x − 2 = 27 (5) x 2 = 0,125 (6) 4 3 x+ 3 = 2−x
2 1 1 1 1 1
(7)* x 3 − 7x 3 + 10 = 0 (8)* 2x 2 + 3 = 7x 4 (9)* x 2 + 4x − 2 = 4
(g) The area of a rectangle is 4x + 6 ⋅ 2x + 5. The breadth is 2x + 1.

(1) Determine the length in terms of x.
(2)
P
Determine the perimeter of the rectangle in terms of x.
(h)* If 5x = k, determine the following in terms of k:
(1) 5x+1 (2) 52x (3) 125x

M
(4) 9 ⋅ 5−2x (5) 5x−2 (6) 625−x
(7) 8−x ⋅ 103x
(i)* Solve for x and y if: 8x = 42+y and 9 ⋅ 3y = 27x

1 1 7
(j)* If 125 7 = a , 16− 7 = b and x 3 = 10, solve for x in terms of a and b.
A
a b c b2 b
(k)* If 3 = 7 and 7 = 21 , show that a = .
c −b
(l)* Calculate the value of the following:
S
52019 × 22021 52021 − 52020 52021 − 52019

(1) (2) (3)
10 2022 52020 52022
(m)* What is
(1) half of 21000 ? (2) a third of 3300 ? (3) half of 8100 ?
(n)* Which number is greater?

(1) 23000 or 32000 (2) 4180 or 5120
2 1
(o)* Without using a calculator, determine which of the numbers 2 3 or 3 2 is greater.
(p)* Determine the sum of the digits of the product of 22018 and 52021.
85
CHAPTER FOUR
——————————————————————————————
Number Patterns
————————————————————————————————————————
In the previous grades, you have learnt about number patterns. Remember that the terms of a
number pattern are labelled as follows:
T1 represents the first term.
T2 represents the second term.
T3 represents the third term.
Tn represents the n-th term (also called the general term).
LE
In Grade 10, we will focus on linear number patterns:
LINEAR NUMBER PATTERNS
A linear number pattern is a pattern in which the difference between consecutive terms remains
constant.
In a linear number pattern, the difference between terms is constant.

P
Consider, for example, the number pattern 3; 7; 11; 15; 19; …
Let us calculate the difference between consecutive terms (T2 − T1 , T3 − T2 , T4 − T3 etc.):

M
3 7 11 15 19
4 4 4 4
Notice that the difference between consecutive terms is always 4. This means that this is an
A
example of a linear number pattern.
NUMBER PATTERNS WITH DESCENDING TERMS
The difference between consecutive terms can also be a negative number. In this case, the terms of
the pattern will descend.
S
Consider the number pattern 25; 20; 15; 10; … for example.
Let us calculate the difference between consecutive terms (T2 − T1 , T3 − T2 , T4 − T3 etc.):
25 20 15 10
−5 −5 −5
The difference between consecutive terms is always −5. This is a linear number pattern with
descending terms.
86
THE GENERAL TERM OF A LINEAR NUMBER PATTERN
The general term (or the n-th term) of a linear number pattern is given by
Tn = bn + c
If we use this formula to calculate the first three terms, we get:
T1 = b(1) + c = b + c
T2 = b(2) + c = 2b + c
T3 = b(3) + c = 3b + c
Let us calculate the difference between consecutive terms:
b +c 2b + c 3b + c
LE
b b
Note the first term of a linear number pattern is b + c and the constant difference is b.
In a linear number pattern:

First term = b + c
P Constant difference = b
General term: Tn = bn + c
M
EXAMPLE 1
Given the linear number pattern: 3; 7; 11; 15; 19; …

(a) Determine the general term (Tn ).
(b) Determine the 20th term.
A
(c) Which term in the number pattern equals 399?

Solution
(a) b +c = 3 7 11 15 19 b +c =3 b=4
∴4+c =3
S
∴c =−1
b= 4 4 4 4
Tn = bn + c
∴ Tn = 4n − 1
(b) Tn = 4n − 1 (c) Tn = 399

∴ T20 = 4(20) − 1 = 79 ∴ 4n − 1 = 399
∴ 4n = 400
∴ n = 100
The 100th term is 399.
87
EXAMPLE 2
Given the linear number pattern: 25; 20; 15; 10; …

(a) Determine the general term (Tn ).
(b) Determine the 15th term.
(c) Which term in the number pattern equals −220?
Solution
(a) b + c = 25 20 15 10 b + c = 25 b = −5
∴ − 5 + c = 25
b = −5 −5 ∴ c = 30
−5
∴ Tn = − 5n + 30
Tn = − 5n + 30 Tn = − 220
LE
(b) (c)
∴ T15 = − 5(15) + 30 = −45 ∴ − 5n + 30 = −220
∴ − 5n = −250
∴ n = 50
The 50th term is −220.
EXERCISE 1
(a) Write down the next two terms of each of the following linear number patterns:
(1)
(3)
P
3; 8; 13; 18; . . .
2; 0; −2; −4; . . .
(2)
(4)
100; 97; 94; 91; . . .
1,9; 2,1; 2,3; 2,5; . . .
1 1 3
(5) 9; 8 ; 7 ; 6 ; . . . (6) x + 3y; 3x + 7y; 5x + 11y; . . .
4 2 4
M
(b) Determine the general term (Tn ) of each of the following linear number patterns:
(1) 5; 7; 9; 11; . . . (2) 9; 14; 19; 24; . . .
(3) 21; 17; 13; 9; . . . (4) 46; 36; 26; 16; . . .
(5) 90; 270; 450; 630; . . . (6) −2; 2; 6; 10; . . .
(7) −1; −4; −7; −10; . . . (8) −11; −4; 3; 10; . . .
A
1 1 1
(9) 4,6; 4,9; 5,2; 5,5; . . . (10) 4 ; 4; 3 ; 3; 2 ; . . .
2 2 2
(c) Given the linear number pattern 7; 13; 19; 25; . . .
(1) Write down the values of T5 and T6.
S
(2) Determine the general term (Tn ).

(3) Determine the 25th term.
(4) Determine the position of the term whose value is 259.
(5)* Which term in the pattern is the first to be greater than 400?
(d) Given the linear number pattern 8; 3; −2; . . .

(1) Write down the next two terms.
(4) Which term in the number pattern is equal to −492?
88
(e) The first term of a linear number pattern is 4 and the third term is 10.
(1) What is the second term?
(f)* Determine the two missing terms of the linear number pattern 5; ; ; 17.
(g)* The constant difference of a linear number pattern is −3 and the twentieth term is −53.
(2) Write down the first three terms of the number pattern.
LINEAR NUMBER PATTERNS WITH UNKNOWN/VARIABLE TERMS
In examples that include unknown terms, we use the fact that the difference is constant to form an
LE
equation. We can then solve the equation to determine the unknown:
EXAMPLE 3
3x + 1; 2x; 3x − 7; . . . is a linear number pattern. Determine the value of x and hence write down
the first three terms of the number pattern.
Solution
3x + 1 2x
P 3x − 7 −x − 1 = x − 7
∴ − 2x = − 6
3x − 7 − 2x ∴x =3
2x − (3x + 1)
M
= 2x − 3x − 1 ∴ T1 = 3(3) + 1 = 10
= x −7
= −x −1 T2 = 2(3) = 6
T3 = 3(3) − 7 = 2
∴ Number pattern: 10; 6; 2; . . .
Since this is a linear number pattern,
A
we know that these two are equal.

(constant difference)
EXERCISE 2
S
(a) 4; x; 32; . . . is a linear number pattern.

(1) Determine the value of x.
(b) Determine the value of x such that x + 3, 2x + 1 and 5x + 2 are consecutive terms of a
linear number pattern.
(c) x + 3; 3x + 2; 6x − 1; . . . is a linear number pattern.

(2) Write down the numerical values of the first three terms of the number pattern.
(3) Write down the fourth term of the number pattern.
89
(d)* 3x − 7, 2x and 3x + 1 are the fifth, sixth and seventh terms of a linear number pattern.
(1) Determine the value of x and hence determine the constant difference.
(2) Determine the general term of the number pattern.
(3) Which term in the pattern is the first to be greater than 200?
(e)* Consider the linear number pattern 6; 6 + x; 6 + 2x; 6 + 3x; . . .

(1) Write down the fifth term of the number pattern in terms of x.
(2) Determine the 100th term of the number pattern in terms of x.
(3) If the 100th term is 303, determine the value of x.
APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR NUMBER PATTERNS
LE
EXAMPLE 4
Tembi prepares for a road race. In the first week, she runs 12 km, in the second week 16 km et
cetera. Each week she increases the distance that she runs by 4 km.
(a) Determine a formula for the distance Tembi runs in the n-th week.
(I.e. determine the general term of the pattern of distances run.)
(b) Determine the distance she will run in the 15th week.
P
Solution
(a) b + c = 12 16 20 24 b + c = 12 b=4
∴ 4 + c = 12
∴c =8
M
b= 4 4 4
∴ Tn = 4n + 8
(b) T15 = 4(15) + 8 = 68 km
EXAMPLE 5
A
The following diagram shows how a pattern of squares is built up in a row by using matches:
S
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage3

1 square 2 squares 3 squares
(a) How many matches will be required to build a pattern of

(1) four squares? (2) five squares?
(b) Determine a formula for the number of matches required to build n squares.
(c) Use the formula in (b) to calculate the number of matches required to build 50 squares.
(d) How many squares can be built with 241 matches?
90
Solution
(a) (1) (2)
13 matches 16 matches
(b) b +c = 4 7 10 13 b +c = 4 b =3
∴3+c = 4
3 3 ∴c =1
b= 3
∴ Tn = 3n + 1
(c) T50 = 3(50) + 1 = 151 matches.
LE
(d) Tn = 241
∴ 3n + 1 = 241
∴ 3n = 240
∴ n = 80 squares.
EXERCISE 3
(a) A coin is dropped from a very tall tower. It travels a distance of 5 m in the first second, 15 m
(1)
P
in the next second, 25 m in the third second et cetera.
What is the distance travelled by the coin during the fourth second?
(2) Determine a formula for the distance travelled by the coin in the n-th second.
M
(b) Lesego decides to start saving money. He saves R150 in the first month, R170 in the second
month, R190 in the third month et cetera. He maintains this pattern for 3 years.
(1) How much money does Lesego save in the fifth month?
(2) Determine a formula for the amount of money Lesego saves in the n-th month.
(3) How much money will Lesego save in the 20th month?
A
(4) In which month will Lesego save R730?
(c) The following table shows the number of sides and the sum of the interior angles of various
polygons:
S
Type of polygon Number of sides Sum of interior angles
Triangle 3 180°
Quadrilateral 4 360°
Pentagon 5 540°
(1) What is the sum of the interior angles of

(i) a hexagon (6 sides)? (ii) a heptagon (7 sides)?
(iii) an octagon (8 sides)
(2)* Calculate the sum of the interior angles of an icosagon (20 sides).
91
(d) The following diagram shows how a pattern of triangles is built up by using pencils:
Stage 1 Stage2 Stage 3

1 triangle 2 triangles 3 triangles
(1) How many pencils will be required in

(i) stage 4? (ii) stage 5?
(2) Determine a formula for the number of pencils required in stage n.
(3) Calculate the number of pencils required in stage 10 of the pattern.
LE
(4) How many triangles can be built with 71 pencils?
(e) Consider the following pattern of figures constructed using squares:
P
M
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
(1) Write down the number pattern that represents the number of squares in each figure.
(2) Determine the general term of this number pattern.
(3) How many squares will be required for figure 15?
A
(4) Which figure will consist of 97 squares?
(f) The owner of a restaurant arranges square tables and chairs in rows as illustrated in the
diagrams below:
S
(1) If there are five tables in a row, how many chairs will be needed to go with them?
(2) How many chairs will be needed to go with n tables?
(3) The owner needs to host a function for 50 people. How many tables will be required?
92
(a) Determine the missing terms and the general term (Tn ) of each of the following linear
number patterns:
(1) −4; 0; ; ; 12; . . . (2) 1; 8; ; 22; ; . . .
(3) ; 17; 13; ; 5; . . . (4) 52; ; 36; ; 20; . . .
(5)* 11; ; ; 26; . . . (6)* 25; ; ; ; 13; . . .
(b) Given the linear number pattern 10; 17; 24; 31; . . .
(1) Determine the general term (Tn ) of the pattern.
(3) Which term of the number pattern equals 227?
LE
(4)* Which term in the pattern is the first to be greater than 300?
(c) Given the linear number pattern 3; −1; −5; −9; . . .

(1) Determine the sixth term of the pattern.
(3) Determine the position of the term which equals −77.
(4)* How many terms of the pattern are greater than −100?
(d)
(1)
P
Consider the finite linear number pattern 20; 17; 14; . . . ; −103
Write down the fourth term of the pattern.
(3) Calculate the number of terms in the pattern. (−103 is the last term.)
M
(4)* Which term is the first to have a negative value?
(e) x + 2; 4x; 6x + 4; . . . is a linear number pattern.

(2) Write down the numerical values of the first three terms of the number pattern.
A
(f)* x − 1, 2x − 1 and x + 9 are the tenth, eleventh and twelfth terms of a linear number pattern
respectively.
S

(2) What is the constant difference between the terms of the number pattern?
(3) Determine the first three terms of the number pattern.
(g)* Consider the linear number pattern 2x + 1; 3x + 3; 4x + 5; . . .

(1) Write down the fourth term of the number pattern in terms of x.
(2) Express the general term (n-th term) in terms of x and n.
(3) If the 15th term is 109, determine the value of x.
(4) If x = 5, determine the largest value of n for which Tn < 158.
93
(h) The rings in the trunk of a tree can be used to determine the age of a tree. Each year
a new ring is added. The distance between rings remains constant throughout the tree’s
lifetime.
For a particular tree, the distance in centimetres from the centre of the trunk to each
ring is as follows:
LE
Distance to the first ring: 5 cm
Distance to the second ring: 8 cm
Distance to the third ring: 11 cm
(1) Determine a formula for the distance between the centre of the trunk and the n-th
ring. (The general term Tn of the sequence of distances.)
(2) Calculate the distance between the centre of the trunk and the 20th ring.
(3) After how many years will the distance between the centre of the trunk
(i)
P
and the ring formed that year be 107 cm?
An organisation elects a new governing body every three years. The first election was
held in 2014, the second election in 2017, the third election in 2020 et cetera.
(1) In which years will the fourth and fifth elections be held?
M
(2) Determine a formula for the year in which the n-th election will be held.
(3) If this pattern continues, in which year will the 15th election be held?
(4)* Will there be an election in 2090 if this pattern continues?
(j) Patterns of pentagons are built up using matches as shown in the following diagram:
A
S
Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern3
(1) How many matches will be needed to build

(i) pattern 4? (ii) pattern 5? (iii) pattern 6?
(2) Determine a formula for the number of matches required to build n pentagons.
(3) How many matches are required to build a pattern with 23 pentagons?
(4) How many pentagons can be built with 181 matches?
94
(k) Consider the following pattern of figures constructed using dots:
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4
(1) How many dots will figure 5 consist of?

(2) How many dots will the n-th figure consist of?
(3) How many dots will the 100th figure consist of?
(4) Which figure will consist of 77 dots?
LE
(l)* An exercise in a Maths textbook contains 80 questions. The questions are arranged as
follows in the exercise:
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8. et cetera
A Maths teacher instructs her learners to do only the questions of which the question
numbers are terms of the linear number pattern given by Tn = 4n − 1.
(1)
P
All the questions that the learners have to do appear in the same column of the
exercise. Which column must the learners do?
(2) What is the question number of the 12th question that they must do?
(3) How many questions do they have to do?
M
(4) What is the question number of the last question they have to do?
(m)* Jayshal writes down the sequence of letters: VolumeVolumeVolumeVolume …

(1) The first “m” is in the fifth position. In what position will the 93rd “m” be?
(2) If the pattern continues in this way, what will the 370th letter be?
A
(n)** Consider the following triangular arrangements of numbers:
(1) 1 (2) 1 (3) 1

1 3 3 5 1 1
S
1 3 5 7 9 11 1 2 1
1 3 5 7 13 15 17 19 1 3 3 1
1 3 5 7 9 21 23 25 27 29 1 4 6 4 1
For each of these arrangements …

(i) write down the next row (the sixth row).
(ii) determine a formula for the sum of the numbers in the n-th row.
95
CHAPTER FIVE
——————————————————————————————
Functions
————————————————————————————————————————
A function can be briefly described as a rule (or formula) linking two variables (usually x and y).
It takes an input (x-value) and produces an output (y-value) by applying a certain mathematical
procedure.
Input (x) Rule Output (y)
FUNCTION NOTATION
LE
In function notation, the output (y-value) is replaced by f (x) (or g(x) etc.). For example, we write
f (x) = 2x − 1 instead of y = 2x − 1.
x Rule f (x)
Function notation helps us to avoid confusion when dealing with more than one function at the
same time. For example: f (x) = 3x + 8 and g(x) = − 2x + 5. We can also replace the x in the
container bracket with any specific input value. For example, f (2) represents the y-value when
x = 2. In general:
P
y = f (x)
M
EXAMPLE 1
Given that f (x) = 5x − 6, calculate the value of each of the following expressions:
(a) f (3) (b) f (−1) (c) f (−6)
Solution
A
(a) y = f (3) (b) y = f (−1) (c) y = f (−6)

= 5(3) − 6 = 9 = 5(−1) − 6 = − 11 = 5(−6) − 6 = − 36
EXAMPLE 2
S
Given that g(x) = −2x + 3, determine the value of x if
(a) g(x) = −1 (b) g(x) = 17
Solution
(a) g(x) = −1 (b) g(x) = 17

∴ −2x + 3 = −1 ∴ −2x + 3 = 17
∴ −2x = − 4 ∴ −2x = 14
∴x =2 ∴ x = −7
96
DOMAIN AND RANGE
The domain of a function is the set of all x-values that a function uses as inputs and the range of a
function is the set of all y-values that a function produces as outputs.
Domain: Set of all inputs (x-values) Range: Set of all outputs (y-values)
EXAMPLE 3
The graph of the function f (x) = 3x − 6 is sketched alongside. y

f
(a) Write down the domain and range of f.
(b) Calculate the value of a.

b x
LE
(c) Calculate the value of b.
a
Solution
(a) Domain: x ∈ ℝ There are no restrictions (b) a = f (0)

Range: y ∈ ℝ on x and y in this case. = 3(0) − 6 = − 6
(c) f (b) = 0
∴ 3b − 6 = 0
∴b =2
P
EXAMPLE 4
y
M
The graph of the function g(x) = x is sketched alongside. a g
(a) Write down the domain and range of g.
(b) Calculate the value of a.

4 x
A
Solution
(a) Domain: x ≥ 0 x is never negative for g (b) a = g(4)

= 4
Range: y ≥ 0 y is never negative for g
=2
S
Alternatively:
x ∈ [0 ; ∞)
y ∈ [0 ; ∞)
EXAMPLE 5 y
b x
The graph of the function h(x) = −x 2 is sketched alongside.
(a) Write down the domain and range of g.
(b) Determine the value of b. −9

h
97
Solution
(a) Domain: x ∈ ℝ x is not restricted for h (b) h(b) = −9

∴ −b 2 = −9
Range: y ≤ 0 y is never positive for h
∴ b2 − 9 = 0
∴ (b − 3)(b + 3) = 0
Alternatively:
∴ b = 3 or b = −3
y ∈ (−∞ ; 0]
N.A.
∴ b = −3
b is negative based on the sketch
EXERCISE 1
LE
(a) Consider the function f (x) = −x + 5.
(1) Calculate the value of each of the following:
(i) f (4) (ii) f (−3) (iii) f (−1)
(2) Determine the value of x if
(i) f (x) = 20 (ii) f (x) = −8 (iii) f (x) = x
(b) Given that g(x) = 2x − 8,
(1)
P
calculate the value of
(2)
1
(i) g(5) (ii) g(−6) (iii) g
M
(2) determine the value of x if
(i) g(x) = 2 (ii) g(x) = −16 (iii) 2g(x) = 3x

y
(c) The graph of the function h(x) = −3x + 9 is sketched alongside.
A
(1) Write down the domain of h. a
(2) What is the range of h?
(3) Calculate the value of a. b x

S
(4) Calculate the value of b.

h
y
f
2
(d) In the diagram alongside, f (x) = 2x . 8
(1) Write down the domain and range of f.
(2) Calculate the value of a.
(3) Determine the value of b. a
−1 b x
98
y
(e) The graph of g(x) = −x is sketched alongside. g a
(1) What is the domain and range of g?
(2) Calculate the value of a.

−9 x
(3)* If g(x) = 5, determine the value of x.
THE LINEAR FUNCTION (STRAIGHT LINE)
A linear function is a polynomial function in which the highest exponent of x is 1. The graph of a
linear function is a straight line.
y
y=x
The most basic linear function is y = x. 2
This is called the mother function of the
1
LE
linear functions.
−2
As you will see later in this chapter, there 1 2 x
is a mother function (most basic function)
for each different type of function.
−2
GRADIENT AND ORIENTATION
When the function formula of the mother linear function is multiplied by a constant, we obtain a
function of the form y = a x.
P
The sign of a affects the orientation of the graph:
Value of a a>0 a<0

M
y y
Orientation x x
A
The value of a determines the gradient of the straight line graph:

y
S
y
y = 2x
y=x
1
y= x
2
x x
1
y =− x
2
y = −x
y = −2x
99
SKETCHING LINEAR FUNCTIONS OF THE FORM y = ax
The graph of a linear function of the form y = a x is a straight line passing through the origin. To
sketch these graphs:
• Determine the coordinates of any other point on the graph of the function and plot this point on
the Cartesian plane.
• Connect this point to the origin with a straight line.
EXAMPLE 6
Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions:

2
(a) g(x) = −3x (b) y= x
3
LE
Solution
(a) Thought process: Final sketch:
• The graph passes through the origin. y

g
• Determine any other point on the graph:
Let x = 1:
y = g(1)
= −3(1)
= −3
P x
∴ (1 ; −3) is a point on the graph

(1 ; −3)
M
(b) Thought process: Final sketch:
• The graph passes through the origin. y

2
y= x
A
• Determine any other point on the graph:

3
Let x = 3: (3 ; 2)
2
y= (3)
3 x
S
=2
∴ (3 ; 2) is a point on the graph
VERTICAL SHIFTS
When we add a constant q to the function formula, we obtain a function of the form y = a x + q.
Adding a q-value shifts the graph up or down. The numerical value of q (ignoring the sign)
indicates the number of units the graph is shifted.
• If q > 0, the graph shifts up.

• If q < 0, the graph shifts down.
100
The standard form of the equation of a straight line is
y = ax + q
where
• a is the gradient of the straight line.
• q is the y-coordinate of the y-intercept of the straight line.
To sketch the graph of a linear function of the form y = a x + q, we plot the x-intercept and
y-intercept of the graph on the Cartesian plane and connect these two points with a straight line:
EXAMPLE 7
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:

1
LE
(a) y = 2x − 6 (b) f (x) = − x + 2
3
(c) 5x + 3y = 15
Solution
(a) Thought process: Final sketch:
• y-intercept: y = − 6 y
y = 2x − 6
• x-intercept (y = 0):
2x − 6 = 0
P
∴ 2x = 6
∴x =3
3 x
M
−6
A
(b) Thought process: Final sketch:

S
• y-intercept: y = 2 y
• x-intercept ( f (x) = 0):

2
1
− x +2=0
3
1
∴ − x = −2 6 x
3
f
∴x =6
101
(c) Thought process: Final sketch:
y
• y-intercept (x = 0):
5x + 3y = 15
5(0) + 3y = 15
∴ 3y = 15 5
∴y =5
• x-intercept (y = 0):
5x + 3(0) = 15 x
3
∴ 5x = 15
∴x =3
LE
VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINES
Equation Graph
y
Vertical Line x = c (c is a constant)

c x
P
y
c
M
Horizontal Line y = c or f (x) = c (c is a constant) x
A
EXAMPLE 8
(a) x = −1 (b) y =3 (c) h(x) = −2

S
Solution
(a) y (b) y (c) y

x = −1 3 y =3
O x O x O x
−1
h
−2
102
EXERCISE 2
(a) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:

1
(1) y = 2x (2) f (x) = − 4x (3) y= x
3
1 3 2
(4) y =− x (5) g(x) = − x (6) h(x) = x
2 2 5
(b) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
1
(1) y = 2x + 4 (2) y = −x − 5 (3) f (x) = x −3
2
1
(4) g(x) = −5x + 5 (5) y = 3x − 9 (6) h(x) = − x + 2
4
1 3 4
LE
(7) y=x− (8) f (x) = − x − 6 (9) y = x +8
2 2 3
(c) Sketch the graph of each of the following:
(1) x =5 (2) y = −3 (3) g(x) = 4
3
(4) x = −6 (5) h(x) = (6) x +2=0
2
(d) Sketch the graph of each of the following:
(1)
(4)
2x − 4y = 8
4x + 3y = 24
P (2)
(5)
3x + 5y = 30
2y − 7 = 1
(3)
(6)
3x − 6y = 18
5x − 10 = 0
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

M
When the y-intercept and one other point is given, we can find the equation of a straight line
(y = a x + q) by replacing q with the y-coordinate of the y-intercept and then substituting the
coordinates of the other point into the equation and solving for a:
EXAMPLE 9
y
A
Find the equation of the linear function sketched alongside.
Solution 8
y = ax + q q =8 (−1 ; 4)
S
∴ y = ax + 8
∴ 4 = a(−1) + 8 Substitute (−1 ; 4) x
∴ −4 = −a
∴a=4
Equation: y = 4x + 8
When two points (x1 ; y1) and (x 2 ; y2 ) are given, we find a, the gradient of the line, by using the
formula
y2 − y1
a=
x 2 − x1
103
Along with the a-value, we then substitute one of the given points into the equation and solve for q:
EXAMPLE 10 y
h
In the diagram alongside, the graph of h(x) = a x + q is sketched. (−2 ; 5)
(1 ; −4) and (−2 ; 5) are two points on the graph of h.
Determine the equation of h.

x
Solution
y2 − y1 5 − (−4) (1 ; −4)
a= = =−3
x 2 − x1 −2 − 1
∴ h(x) = − 3x + q
LE
Substitute (1 ; −4): −4 = − 3(1) + q We could also have substituted (−2 ; 5)
∴ q =−1
Equation: h(x) = −3x − 1
When the graph of a linear function passes through the origin, we substitute a given point into
y = a x to find the value of a:
EXAMPLE 11 y
P
Determine the equation of the function sketched alongside.
(−3 ; 6)
Solution
x
M
Substitute (−3 ; 6) into y = a x: 6 = −3a
∴ a = −2
Equation: y = −2x
The equation of a vertical line is x = c and the equation of a horizontal line is y = c.

The value of c is found by using the applicable coordinate from any point on the line:
A
EXAMPLE 12
Determine the equations of the following straight lines:

(a) y (b) y
(2 )
S
1
;2
O x O x
(2 ; −1)
Solution
1
(a) y = −1 (b) x=
2
104
THE DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A LINEAR FUNCTION
The domain and range of all linear functions are:
Domain: x ∈ ℝ Range: y ∈ ℝ
THE POINT OF INTERSECTION OF TWO FUNCTIONS
To determine the point of intersection of two functions, we equate the function formulae and then
solve for x. To find y, we substitute the x-value obtained into one of the two function formulae:
EXAMPLE 13 y
f
The graphs of f (x) = 2x + 4 and g(x) = −x + 1
LE
are sketched alongside.
(a) Write down the domain of f.
(b) What is the range of g? C

A
(c) Determine the coordinates of B
x
(1) A (2) B (3) C
g
Solution
P
(a) x∈ℝ (b) y∈ℝ
M
(c) (1) A is the y-intercept of g (2) B is the x-intercept of f
y = g(0) = −(0) + 1 y = g(x) = 0

∴y =1 ∴ 2x + 4 = 0
∴ 2x = −4
∴ A(0 ; 1) ∴ x = −2
A
∴ B(−2 ; 0)
(3) C is the point of intersection of f and g

S
f (x) = g(x)
∴ 2x + 4 = −x + 1
∴ 3x = −3
∴ x = −1
y = f (−1)
= 2(−1) + 4 = 2 We could also have calculated g(−1)
∴ C(−1 ; 2)
105
EXERCISE 3
(a) Determine the equation of each of the following straight lines:
(1) y (2) y
(2 ; 5)
1 x x
(−1 ; −1)
LE
(3) y (4) y
(−2 ; 10)
(3 ; 2)
O x x
P
(5) y (6) y
M
x O x
(−4 ; −1)
A
(2 ; −4)
(−5 ; −3)
S
(7) y (8) y
(6 ; 2)
x 3 x
−9
106
(9) y (10) y
O x O x
(4 ; −2) (−5 ; −1)
(b) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f (x) = 3x − 4 y

f
and g(x) = − 2x + 6 are drawn.
(1) Write down the domain and range of g.
LE
A
(2) Determine the coordinates of the following
points:
(i) A (ii) B C D
x
(iii) C (iv) D
(3) Determine the coordinates of the point of B

g
intersection of f and g.
(c)
P
In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f y
and g are drawn. The x-intercept of f is 3
and the y-intercept of f is −6. (−4 ; 1) f
and (4 ; −3) are two points on the graph
M
(−4 ; 1)
of g.
A 3 x
(1) Determine the equation of B
C (4 ; −3)
(i) f (ii) g
g
A
(2) What is the domain of g?

−6
(3) Write down the range of f.
(4) Determine the coordinates of

S
(i) A (ii) B (iii) C
THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION (PARABOLA)
A quadratic function is a polynomial function in which the highest exponent of x is 2. The graph of
a quadratic function is a type of curve called a parabola. The mother quadratic function is
y = x2
To establish the shape of the mother parabola, we will initially use a table. Once we have
established the shape of the mother parabola, we will be able to sketch the graphs of quadratic
functions without the use of a table.
107
THE SHAPE OF THE MOTHER PARABOLA
Consider the following table for y = x 2:
1 1
x −3 −2 −1 − 0 1 2 3
2 2
1 1
y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
4 4
The graph of y = x 2 is obtained by plotting the points for these coordinates and connecting them
with a smooth curve:
y
y = x2
LE
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
P 3
2
1
x
M
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
The mother parabola is symmetrical about the y-axis and has a turning point at (0 ; 0).
VERTICAL STRETCHES / SQUASHES
If the function formula of the mother parabola is multiplied by a constant, we obtain a function of
A
the form y = a x 2. The greater the value of a (ignoring the sign), the steeper the graph becomes:
y 1 2 y y
y= x y = x2 y = 2x 2
2
S
x x x
If a > 1, the graph is stretched away from the x-axis and if 0 < a < 1 the graph is squashed
towards the x-axis. We will consider the effect of negative a-values later.
To sketch a graph of a function of the form y = a x 2, where a > 0, we remember that the function
has the same shape as the mother parabola, but is stretched or squashed. To show the effect of the
stretch or squash, we will show the coordinates of one point on the graph:
108
EXAMPLE 14
Sketch the graph of y = 3x 2, showing all relevant details.
Solution
Thought process:
• Mother function:
• a = 3: The graph is stretched.
LE
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = 3(1)2 = 3
∴ (1 ; 3) is a point on the graph.
Final sketch:
y
y = 3x 2
P
M
(1 ; 3)
A
REFLECTIONS
S
When a is negative, the graph of the function is reflected about the x-axis:
y y
2
y=x x
x y = −x 2
109
EXAMPLE 15
1
Sketch the graph of f (x) = − x 2, showing all relevant details.
2
Solution
Thought process:
1
• a =− : The graph is reflected about the x-axis.
2
LE
1 1
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = f (1) = − (1)2 = −
2 2
( 2)
1
∴ 1;− is a point on the graph.
Final sketch:
P
y
x
M
( 2)
1
1;−
A
S
VERTICAL SHIFTS
When we add a constant q to the function formula of a parabola, we obtain a function of the form
y = a x 2 + q. Adding a q-value shifts the graph up or down. The numerical value of q (ignoring the
sign) indicates the number of units the graph has been shifted.

110
The standard form of the equation of a parabola is y = a x2 + q
a>0 a<0
a → shape and orientation: q → turning point: (0 ; q)
EXAMPLE 16
Sketch the graph of g(x) = 2x 2 + 1, showing all relevant details.
Solution
Thought process:
LE
• q = 1: The graph is shifted up 1 unit and the turning point is (0 ; 1).

P
1
M
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = g(1) = 2(1)2 + 1 = 3
Final sketch: y
g
A
(1 ; 3)
S
EXAMPLE 17
Sketch the graphs of the following functions, showing all relevant details:
(a) y = −x 2 + 1 (b) h(x) = 2x 2 − 8

111
Solution
(a) y = −x 2 + 1
Thought process:
• a = −1: The graph is reflected about the x-axis.
LE
• q = 1: The graph is shifted up 1 unit and the turning point is
(0 ; 1).
1
;
P Note: The function has two x-intercepts
• x-intercepts (y = 0): −x 2 + 1 = 0
∴ x2 − 1 = 0
M
∴ (x + 1)(x − 1) = 0
∴ x = −1 or x = 1
Final sketch:
y
A
−1 1
x
S
y = − x2 + 1
112
(b) h(x) = 2x 2 − 8:
Thought process:
• q = −8: The graph is shifted down 8 units and the turning point
is (0 ; −8).
LE
;
−8
• x-intercepts (y = 0): 2x 2 − 8 = 0
∴ x2 − 4 = 0
∴ (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
Final sketch:
P ∴ x = −2 or x = 2
y
h
M
−2 2 x
A
S
−8
EXERCISE 4

1 2
(1) y = 2x 2 (2) h(x) = x (3) y = 4x 2
3
1
(4) f (x) = −3x 2 (5) y = − x2 (6) g(x) = −6x 2
4
113
1 2
(1) f (x) = x 2 + 1 (2) y= x +4 (3) y = 2x 2 + 4
2
1
(4) y = −4x 2 − 1 (5) g(x) = −2x 2 − 5 (6) y = − x2 − 2
2
(c) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
(1) y = x2 − 1 (2) y = −x 2 + 4 (3) f (x) = − x 2 + 9
(4) g(x) = 2x 2 − 18 (5) y = 3x 2 − 12 (6) y = 4x 2 − 1
(7) y = −5x 2 + 20 (8) h(x) = −2x 2 + 2 (9) y = −9x 2 + 1

1 2 1 1 9
LE
(10) f (x) = x −3 (11) y = − x2 + 8 (12) y = − x2 +
3 2 4 4
(d)* Draw a rough sketch of y = a x 2 + q if
(1) a > 0 and q < 0. (2) a < 0 and q < 0. (3) a < 0 and q > 0.
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A PARABOLA
The standard form of the equation of a quadratic function is

P y = a x2 + q
If we are given the vertical shift (turning point) and another point, we can find the equation of a
parabola by replacing q with the vertical shift (y-value of the turning point) and substituting the
M
other point to find the value of a:
EXAMPLE 18 y
Determine the equation of the quadratic function
sketched alongside. (−1 ; 5)
A
Solution
y = a x2 + q q = −4 x
∴ y = a x2 − 4 −4
S
∴ 5 = a(−1)2 − 4 Substitute (−1 ; 5)

∴a =9
Equation: y = 9x 2 − 4
If we are given the two x-intercepts (x1 and x 2) of a parabola, together with another point, we use
the following formula to find the equation of the quadratic function:
y = a(x − x1)(x − x 2 )
We first substitute the two x-intercepts into x1 and x 2 in the formula and then substitute the
coordinates of the other point into the formula and solve for a:
114
EXAMPLE 19
The graph of a quadratic function f, with x-intercepts at (−2 ; 0) y

and (2 ; 0) is sketched alongside. (3 ; −15) is a point on
the graph. Determine the equation of f.
Solution −2 2
x
y = a(x − x1)(x − x 2 ) x1 = −2 and x 2 = 2
∴ y = (x − (−2))(x − 2) (3 ; −15)
∴ y = a(x + 2)(x − 2) f
∴ −15 = a(3 + 2)(3 − 2) Substitute (3 ; −15)
∴ −15 = 5a
LE
∴ a = −3
y = −3(x + 2)(x − 2)
∴ y = −3(x 2 − 4)
∴ y = −3x 2 + 12
Equation: f (x) = − 3x 2 + 12
THE TURNING POINT

P
For a quadratic function of the form y = a x 2 + q, the turning point is
(0 ; q)
At the turning point, a quadratic function changes from decreasing to increasing, or from increasing
M
to decreasing:
Turning
point
Dec
ings
rea
Dec
ing
rea
sing
Inc
A
s
rea
rea
sing
Inc
Turning
point
THE DOMAIN AND RANGE
S
For all quadratic functions, the domain is all real numbers.
Domain: x ∈ ℝ
y y
a > 0: a < 0: q
x
q x
Range: y ≥ q or y ∈ [q ; ∞) Range: y ≤ q or y ∈ (−∞ ; q]
115
THE AXIS OF SYMMETRY
An axis of symmetry is a line that divides a graph into two halves in such a way that the two halves
are mirror images of each other.
The axis of symmetry of a parabola of the form y = a x 2 + q is the y-axis:
x =0
EXAMPLE 20
y
In the diagram alongside, the graph of g(x) = −x 2 + 9 has
been drawn.
(a) What is the domain of g?
LE
(b) Write down the range of g. A B
x
(c) Write down the coordinates of the turning point of g.
(d) What is the axis of symmetry of g?

g
(e) Determine the coordinates of A and B.
Solution
(a)
(c)
x∈ℝ
(0 ; 9)
P (b)
(d)
y≤9
x =0
(e) A and B are the x-intercepts of g

M
y = g(x) = 0
∴ −x 2 + 9 = 0
∴ x2 − 9 = 0
∴ (x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
∴ x = −3 or x = 3
A
A(−3 ; 0) and B(3 ; 0)
EXERCISE 5
S
(a) Determine the equation of each of the following graphs:
(1) y (2) y
(2 ; 11)
3
x x
−1
(3 ; −10)
116
(3) (4) y
y
(2 ; 12)
(3 ; 5)
−4 4
x
−2 2 x
(5) y (6) y
(−2 ; 18)
LE
x −3 3 x
(−2 ; −10)
(7) y (8) y
(−1 ; 5)
P 32
3 3
−
2 2 −4
x
M
x
A
(b) In the diagram alongside, the graph of y

f (x) = −x 2 + 1 is shown.
(1) What is the domain of f ?

S
(2) Write down the range of f. A B

x
(3) Write down the coordinates of the
turning point of f.
(4) What is the axis of symmetry of f ?

f
(5) Determine the coordinates of A and B.
117
y
2
(c) The graph of y = 4x − 16 is shown alongside. y = 4x 2 − 16
(1) What are the domain and range of this

function?
(2) Write down the equation of the axis of A B x

symmetry of y = 4x 2 − 16.

C
(i) A (ii) B (iii) C
(d) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of y

f and g are drawn. f
(3 ; 10)
(1) Determine the equation of
LE
(i) f (ii) g
(2) What is the domain of f ? x

−2 2
(3) What is the range of g? −5
(4) Write down the coordinates of the (−2 ; −9)
turning point of f.
g
(5)
P
What is the equation of the axis of
symmetry of g?
(6) Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection of f and g.

M
THE RECIPROCAL FUNCTION (HYPERBOLA)
In a reciprocal function, the input variable (x) appears in the denominator of a fraction. The graph of
a reciprocal function is called a hyperbola. The mother reciprocal function is
1
y=
x
A
THE SHAPE OF THE MOTHER HYPERBOLA

1
Consider the following table for y = :
x
S
1 1 1 1
x −4 −2 −1 − − 0 1 2 4
2 4 4 2
1 1 Unde- 1 1
y − − −1 −2 −4 4 2 1
4 2 fined 2 4
1
Since y = is undefined at x = 0, the graph will have two separate halves. To sketch the graph,
x
we plot the points on the Cartesian plane. The points with negative x-values are then
connected with a smooth curve, and the points with positive x-values with another smooth curve:
118
y
1
−4 −3 −2 −1
1 2 3 4
x
−1
−2
LE
−3
−4
As the x-values of the mother hyperbola tend closer to 0, the y-values tend further away from 0.
This causes the graph to approach the y-axis. We say that the mother hyperbola has a vertical
asymptote at x = 0.
P
As the x-values tend further away from 0, the y-values tend closer to 0. This causes the graph to
approach the x-axis. We say that the mother hyperbola has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
VERTICAL STRETCHES / SQUASHES AND REFLECTIONS
When the function formula of the mother hyperbola is multiplied by a constant, we obtain a
M
a
function of the form y = . The greater the value of a (ignoring the sign) the more the graph
x
is stretched away from its asymptotes:
y y 2 y 3
1 y= y=
y= x x
x
A
x x x
S
If a is negative, the graph is reflected about the x-axis:

y y
1
y=
x
x x
−1
y=
x
119
To show the effect of the stretch or squash, we will show the coordinates of one point on the graph:
EXAMPLE 21
2 −3
(a) y= (b) f (x) =
x x
Solution
(a) Thought process:
LE
2
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = =2
1
P ∴ (1 ; 2) is a point on the graph.
Final sketch:
y
2
M
y=
x
(1 ; 2)
A
x
S
(b) Thought process:

120
• a = − 3: The graph is stretched and reflected.
−3
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = f (1) = = −3
1
∴ (1 ; − 3) is a point on the graph.
Final sketch:
y
LE f
x
P
(1 ; − 3)
M
VERTICAL SHIFTS
When we add a constant q to the function formula of the hyperbola, we obtain a function of the
A
a
form y = + q. Adding a q-value shifts the graph up or down. The numerical value of q (ignoring
x
the sign) indicates the number of units that the graph has been shifted.
• If q > 0 the graph shifts up.

If q < 0 the graph shifts down.
S
•
a
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola is y= +q
x
a>0 a<0
a → shape and orientation: q → horizontal asymptote: y = q
When sketching a hyperbola that has been shifted up or down, the horizontal asymptote has to be
indicated on the graph using a dotted line, as shown in the following example:
121
EXAMPLE 22
6 2
(a) y= −2 (b) g(x) = − +1
x x
Solution
LE
• q = −2: The graph is shifted down 2 units and the horizontal

asymptote is y = −2.
Note: The function has an x-intercept

P −2
6
x-intercept (y = 0): −2=0
M
• x
6
∴ =2
x
∴ 6 = 2x
∴x =3
A
Final sketch:
y
S
3 x
6
y = −2
x
−2
122
2
(b) g(x) = − + 1:
x
Thought process:
• a = −2: The graph is stretched and reflected.
LE
• q = 1: The graph is shifted up 1 unit and the horizontal
asymptote is y = 1.
P
2
• x-intercept (g(x) = 0): − +1=0
M
x
2
∴1=
x
∴x =2
Final sketch:
A
y
S
1
g
2 x
123
EXERCISE 6

4 −2 5
(1) y= (2) h(x) = (3) y=
x x x
8 3 4
(4) f (x) = − (5) y= (6) y =−
x x x
8 5 4
(1) y = −4 (2) y =− +1 (3) g(x) = +2
x x x
−6 3 9
(4) h(x) = −2 (5) y = −1 (6) y= +3
x x x
1 4 1
LE
(7) y =− +1 (8) f (x) = − − 1 (9) y = +2
x x x
−3 2 3
(10) g(x) = −2 (11) y = − + 4 (12) y = −6
x x x
(c)* Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
3x + 6 8−x x −4
(1) y= (2) y= (3) g(x) =
x x x
a
(d)* Draw a rough sketch of y = + q if
(1) a > 0 and q < 0.

P x
(2) a < 0 and q < 0. (3) a < 0 and q > 0.
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA

M
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola is
a
y= +q
x
To find the equation of a hyperbola, we replace q with the vertical shift (horizontal asymptote) and
substitute the coordinates of a given point into the equation to determine the value of a:
A
EXAMPLE 23
y
Determine the equation of the hyperbola sketched alongside.
S
Solution
a
y= +q q=4
x 4
a (−3 ; 3)
∴y = +4
x
a x
∴3= +4 Substitute (−3 ; 3)
−3
a
∴ −1 =
−3
3
∴a =3 Equation: y = +4
x
124
THE EQUATIONS OF THE ASYMPTOTES
a
The equations of the asymptotes of a hyperbola, y = + q, are
x
Vertical Asymptote: x = 0 Horizontal Asymptote: y = q

a
For all hyperbolas of the form y = + q, the domain is all the real numbers except 0 and the range
x
is all the real numbers, except for q:
Domain: x ≠ 0; x ∈ ℝ Range: y ≠ q; y ∈ ℝ
LE
THE AXES OF SYMMETRY
The mother hyperbola has two axes of symmetry, y = x and y = −x:

y
y=x
x
P
y = −x
M
When the graph is shifted up or down, the axes of symmetry also shift up or down:
y
y = x +q
A
x
S
y = −x + q
a
In general, the equations for the two axes of symmetry of y = + q are
x
y = x +q
and
y = −x + q
125
EXAMPLE 24
y
5
In the diagram alongside, the graph of f (x) = − − 1
x
has been sketched.
A
(a) What is the domain of f ? x
(b) Write down the range of f. f
(c) What are the equations of the axes of symmetry of f ?
(d) Write down the equation of the vertical asymptote of f.
(e) What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote of f ?
LE
(f) Determine the coordinates of A.
Solution
(a) x ≠ 0; x ∈ ℝ (b) y ≠ −1; y ∈ ℝ
(c) y = x − 1 and y = − x − 1 (d) x =0
(e) y = −1 (f) A is the x-intercept of f
y = f (x) = 0
P ∴−
5
−1=0
x
5
∴− =1
M
x
∴ −5 = x
A(−5 ; 0)
EXERCISE 7
A
(a) Determine the equation of each of the following graphs:
(1) y (2) y
S
(1 ; 5)
−1 x
2
(−4 ; −3)
x
126
(3) y (4) y
x
(−2 ; −2)
4
(1 ; 3) −3
(5) y (6) y
LE
(2 ; 6) (−2 ; 3)
x
x
(7) y (8) y
P
2 x
M
−2 3
3 x
4
In the diagram alongside, the graph of g(x) = +1 y
A
(b)
x
is shown.
(1) Write down the equation of the vertical

asymptote of g. g
S
(2) What is the equation of the horizontal A x

asymptote of g?
(3) What is the domain of g?
(4) What is the range of g?
(5) Write down the equations of the axes of symmetry of g.
(6) Determine the coordinates of A.
(7)* One of the axes of symmetry of g intersects the graph of g. Determine the
coordinates of the point(s) of intersection.
127
8 y
(c) In the diagram alongside, the graph of h(x) = − −4
x
is shown.
(1) Write down the domain and range of h. A x
(2) What are the equations of the vertical and
horizontal asymptotes of h? h
(3) Write down the equation of the axis of symmetry
of h that has a positive gradient.
(5) The axis of symmetry of h with a negative gradient intersects the graph.
(i) Write down the equation of this axis of symmetry.
LE
(ii)* Determine the x-coordinate) of the point) of intersection.
THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
In an exponential function, the input variable (x) appears in the exponent of a power with a constant
base. A mother exponential function is of the form
y = bx
b > 0 and b ≠ 1
P
There are many different mother exponential functions, for example
(2 ) (3 ) (4 )
x x x
x x x 1 1 1
y =2, y =3, y=4, y= , y= and y =
M
THE SHAPES OF THE MOTHER EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Let us sketch a few of the mother functions with tables to determine commonalities in the shapes of
the graphs:
(2 )
x
1
A
x
y =2 y=
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
S
1 1 1 1
y 1 2 4 y 4 2 1
4 2 2 4
y y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2
128
(3 )
x
x 1
y =3 y=
x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2
1 1 1 1
y 1 3 9 y 9 3 1
9 3 3 9
y y
9 9
8 8
LE
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1
P x
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2
In general, if b > 1 the graph has a "J-shape" and if 0 < b < 1 the graph has a "reverse J-shape".
M
b > 1: 0 < b < 1:
y y
A
1 1
x x
S
In both cases, the graphs have:
• a y-intercept at y = 1, since b 0 = 1 for all values of b.

• a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 (the x-axis).
Note that there is a difference between the steepness of the J-shapes of y = 2x and y = 3x. Similarly
(2 ) (3 )
x x
1 1
there is a difference between the steepness of the reverse J-shapes of y = and y = . In
general, we see the following:
129
b > 1: 0 < b < 1:
The greater the value of b, the "flatter" the The closer the value of b gets to 0, the
graph starts and the "steeper" it ends. (The J- "steeper" the graph starts and the "flatter" it
shape gets more "upright".) ends. (The reverse J-shape gets more
y "upright".) y
x x
y y
As b As b
increases gets closer
to 0.
LE
x x
y y
x x
P
To sketch a function of the form y = b x, we first determine whether the graph has a J-shape or a
reverse J-shape by considering the value of b. We show the y-intercept and one other point on the
graph:
M
EXAMPLE 25
Sketch the graphs of the following functions, showing all relevant details on the sketch:
(4 )
x
1
(a) y = 5x (b) f (x) =
A
Solution

S
• J-shape:
• y-intercept: y =1
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = 51 = 5
130
Final sketch:
y
y = 5x
(1 ; 5)
LE
x
(4 )
x
1
(b) f (x) = :
Thought process:
• Reverse J-shape:
P
M
• y-intercept: y =1
(4 )
−1
1
• Point on the graph: Let x = −1: y = f (−1) = =4
∴ (−1 ; 4) is a point on the graph.

A
Final sketch:
y
S
(−1 ; 4)
1
f
x
131
VERTICAL STRETCHES / SQUASHES AND REFLECTIONS
When the function formula of the exponential function y = b x is multiplied by a constant, we

obtain a function of the form y = a⋅b x. The greater the value of a (ignoring the sign), the more the
graph is stretched away from its asymptote:
y y y y = 3⋅2x
y = 2⋅2x
y = 2x
(1 ; 6)
(1 ; 4) 3
1 (1 ; 2) 2
LE
x x x
EXAMPLE 26
Sketch the graph of g(x) = 2⋅3x, showing all relevant details on the sketch.
Solution
Thought process:
• J-shape:
P
M
• y-intercept (x = 0): y = g(0) = 2⋅3 0 = 2

• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = g(1) = 2⋅31 = 6
A
Final sketch:
y
g
S
(1 ; 6)
132
If a < 0, the graph is also reflected about the x-axis. For example:
y y
(2 )
x
y = 2x 1
y=
(1 ; 2) (−1 ; 2)
1
1
x x
y y
x −1 x
LE
−1 (1 ; −2) (−1 ; −2)
(2)
x
1
y = −2 x y =−
(2) (2 )
x x
x x 1 1
Note: −2 = −1⋅2 Note: − = −1⋅
EXAMPLE 27
P
(3 )
x
1
Sketch the graph of f (x) = − 2⋅ , showing all relevant details on the sketch.
M
Solution
Thought process:
A

S
(3)
0
1
• y-intercept (x = 0): y = f (0) = −2 = −2
(3)
−1
1
• Point on the graph: Let x = −1: y = f (−1) = −2 = −6
∴ (−1 ; −6) is a point on the graph.
133
Final sketch: y
f x
−2
(−1 ; −6)
VERTICAL SHIFTS
LE
When we add a constant q to the function formula of the exponential function, we obtain a function
of the form y = a⋅b x + q. Adding a q-value shifts the graph up or down. The numerical value of q
(ignoring the sign) indicates the number of units the graph has been shifted.

The standard form of the equation of an exponential function is y = a bx + q
a and b → shape and orientation:

P q → horizontal asymptote: y = q
b>1 0<b<1
J-shape Reverse J-shape
M
a > 0 → Original shape
a < 0 → Reflect
A
EXAMPLE 28
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, showing all relevant details on the sketch:
S
(2 )
x
1
(a) h(x) = +1 (b) y = −3x − 2
Solution
(a) Thought process
134
• q = 1: The graph is shifted 1 unit up.
(2 )
0
1
• y-intercept (x = 0): y = h(0) = +1=2
(2 )
−1
1
• Point on the graph: Let x = −1: y = h(−1) = +1=3
∴ (−1 ; 3) is a point on the graph.
LE
Final sketch: y
(−1 ; 3)
P 2
h
1
x
M
(b) y = −3x − 2
Thought process:
• J-shape:
A
• a = −1: The graph is reflected.

S
• q = − 2: The graph is shifted 2 units down.
−2
135
• y-intercept (x = 0): y = −30 − 2 = −3
• Point on the graph: Let x = 1: y = −31 − 2 = − 5
∴ (1 ; −5) is a point on the graph.
Final sketch:
y
x
−2
−3
(1 ; −5)
LE
y = −3x − 2
If a graph is vertically shifted, it may be necessary to calculate x-intercepts:
EXAMPLE 29
P
M
(2 )
x
x 1
(a) y = 3⋅2 − 6 (b) f (x) = −2⋅ +8
Solution

A
• J-shape:
S
• q = −6: The graph is shifted 6 units down.
Note: The function has an x-intercept
−6
136
• x-intercept (y = 0): 3⋅2x − 6 = 0
∴ 3⋅2x = 6
∴ 2x = 2
∴x =1
• y-intercept (x = 0): 3⋅20 − 6 = −3
Final sketch:
y
y = 3⋅2x − 6
LE
1 x
−3
−6
P
(2 )
x
1
(b) f (x) = −2⋅ +8
M
Thought process:
A

S
• q = 8: The graph is shifted 8 units up.

8
137
(2 )
x
1
• x-intercept (f (x) = 0): −2⋅ +8=0
(2 )
x
1
∴ −2⋅ = −8
(2 )
x
1
∴ =4
∴ 2−x = 22
∴ −x = 2
∴ x = −2
(2 )
0
1
• y-intercept (x = 0): y = f (0) = −2⋅ +8=6
LE
Final sketch:
y
8
f
P 6
−2 x
M
EXERCISE 8
A
(3 ) (5 )
x x
1 x 1
(1) y= (2) f (x) = 4 (3) y=
S
(2 )
x
x 1
(4) g(x) = 3⋅2 (5) y = 4⋅ (6) y = 2⋅5x
(4)
x
x 1
(7) y = −3 (8) h(x) = − (9) y = −5x
(2 )
x
x 1 1
(10) y = −2⋅3 (11) y = −3⋅ (12) f (x) = − ⋅2x
2
138
(2 )
x
x 1
(1) y =2 +1 (2) y= +2 (3) f (x) = 3x + 3
(4) (3 )
x x
1 1
(4) g(x) = − − 4 (5) y =− −1 (6) y = −4x − 2
(2 )
x
x x 1
(7) y = 3⋅2 + 5 (8) y = −2⋅3 − 1 (9) h(x) = −4⋅ −2
(c) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
(3 )
x
1
(1) y = 2x − 4 (2) f (x) = −9 (3) y = 3x − 27
LE
(4) (2)
x x
1 1
(4) y =− +4 (5) y =− +8 (6) f (x) = −3x + 1
(3 )
x
x x 1
(7) y = 2⋅3 − 18 (8) y = 5⋅2 − 10 (9) g(x) = 2⋅ −6
(3 ) (2 )
x x
1 x 1
(10) y = −2⋅ +6 (11) h(x) = −4⋅5 + 4 (12) y = −4⋅ + 16
(d)*
P
Consider the function f (x) = 2x+3 − 16.
(1) Write f in the form a⋅b x + q.

M
(2) Sketch the graph of f.
(3)
x−1
1
(e)* Consider the function g(x) = −2 + 6.
(1) If g(x) = a⋅b x + q, determine the values of a, b and q.

A
(2) Sketch the graph of g.
(f)* Draw a rough sketch of y = a⋅b x + q if
(1) a > 0, 0 < b < 1 and q > 0.

S
(2) a < 0, b > 1 and q < 0.
(3) b > 1, q < 0 and a + q = 0.
FINDING THE EQUATION OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
The standard form of the equation of an exponential function is
y = a⋅b x + q
139
To find the equation of an exponential function, we replace q with the vertical shift (horizontal
asymptote) and substitute a point to determine any other unknown in the equation:
EXAMPLE 30 y
In the diagram alongside, the graph of y = a⋅2x + q 2
is shown. Determine the equation of the
function. (−2 ; 1)
x
Solution
y = a⋅2x + q q =2
x
∴ y = a⋅2 + 2
−2
y = a⋅2x + q
∴ 1 = a⋅2 +2 Substitute (−2 ; 1)
LE
a
∴ −1 =
4
∴ a = −4
Equation: y = −4⋅2x + 2
EXAMPLE 31 y
The graph of f (x) = 2⋅b x + q is shown alongside.
Determine the equation of f.
P −1 x
Solution
y = f (x)
M
∴ y = 2⋅b x + q q = −6
∴ y = 2⋅b x − 6 f
−6
∴ 0 = 2⋅b −1 − 6 Substitute (−1 ; 0)
∴ 2⋅b −1 = 6
A
∴ b −1 = 3
1
∴ =3
b
∴ 1 = 3b
1
S
∴b=
3
(3 )
x
1
Equation: f (x) = 2⋅ −6
It is possible to determine the equation of an exponential graph with a, b and q unknown when the
y-intercept, the vertical shift and another point is given. To determine the equation:
• First replace q with the vertical shift (horizontal asymptote).
• Next, we substitute the coordinates of the y-intercept to determine the value of a.
• Finally, we substitute the other point to determine the value of b.
140
EXAMPLE 32
y
Determine the equation of the exponential function 1
sketched alongside.
Solution x
y = a⋅b x + q q =1
∴ y = a⋅b x + 1
∴ 0 = a⋅b 0 + 1 Substitute y-intercept (0 ; 0) (2 ; −3)
∴ a = −1
∴ y = −1⋅b x + 1 Substitute (2 ; −3)

∴ −3 = −1⋅b 2 + 1
LE
∴ −4 = −1⋅b 2
∴ b2 = 4
∴ b2 − 4 = 0
∴ (b + 2)(b − 2) = 0
∴ b = −2 or b = 2
N.A. b>0
∴b =2
Equation: y = −2x + 1
P
THE EQUATION OF THE ASYMPTOTE
M
An exponential function y = a⋅b x + q has a horizontal asymptote:
Horizontal Asymptote: y = q

A
For all exponential functions, the domain is all real numbers.
Domain: x ∈ ℝ
S
a > 0: y a < 0: y
q
x x
Range: y > q or y ∈ (q ; ∞) Range: y < q or y ∈ (−∞ ; q)
141
EXAMPLE 33
y
(2 )
x
1
The graph of h(x) = −3⋅ + 12 is sketched alongside. h
A
(a) Write down the domain of h.
(b) What is the range of h?
(c) What is the equation of the asymptote of h?
(d) Determine the coordinates of A.

B x
(e) What are the coordinates of B?
Solution
LE
(a) x∈ℝ
(b) y < 12 Alternatively: y ∈ (−∞ ; 12)
(c) y = 12
(d) A is the y-intercept of h
y = h(0)
P
(2 )
0
1
= − 3⋅ + 12
=9
M
∴ A(0 ; 9)
(e) B is the x-intercept of h
(2 )
x
1
A
−3⋅ + 12 = 0
(2 )
x
1
∴ −3⋅ = −12
(2 )
x
1
S
∴ =4
∴ 2−x = 22
∴ −x = 2
∴ x = −2
∴ B(−2 ; 0)
142
EXERCISE 9
(a) Determine the equation of f (x) = a⋅3x + q in each of the following graphs:
(1) y (2) y
f
(2 ; 22) 1
x
(1 ; − 5)
4
x f
LE
(2 )
x
1
(b) Determine the equation of g(x) = a⋅ + q in each of the following graphs:
(1) y (2) y
x
−2 g
( 2)
x 7
1;−
−1
P g
−3
M
(c) Determine the equation of h(x) = 2⋅b x + q in each of the following graphs:
(1) y (2) y
h
2 x (−1 ; 4)
A
h
−18 −4
S
y
(d) In the diagram alongside, the graph of
x
y = −b x + q is shown.
−2
(1) Determine the equation of the function.
(2) What is the domain and the range of the

function? (1 ; −6)
(3) Write down the equation of the asymptote of
the function. y = −b x + q
143
(e) Determine the equation of f (x) = −3⋅b x + q in each of the following diagrams:
(1) y (2) y
f
9
(1 ; 2)
2 x
(f) Determine the equation of each of the following exponential functions:
LE
(1) y (2) y
(1 ; 7)
−1 x
4
−6
1
P x
−8
(3) y (4)* y
4
M
1
(−1 ; 2)
1 x
x
(−1 ; −3)
A
(g) In the diagram alongside, the graph of f (x) = 3⋅2x − 12 y

is shown. f
S

B
(2) Write down the range of f.
(3) What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote

of f ?
A
(i) A (ii) B
144
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
A transformation refers to a change made to a function. We will study transformations that change
the position, orientation or shape of a graph. The type of graph will not change. (Parabolas will stay
parabolas, hyperbolas will stay hyperbolas etc.)
Any transformation involves changing both the equation and the graph of a function. A change in
the equation will result in a change in the graph and vice versa.
The following table shows all the transformations you have to know:
Function Notation Effect on the Equation Effect on the Graph
Translation Vertical shift

(Shift) A constant (q) is added The graph shifts
f (x) + q
Change in position to the function formula. • up when q > 0.
LE
• down when q < 0.
The sign of the entire Reflection in the x-axis
function formula The graph flips about the x-axis
Reflection
Change in orientation −f (x) changes. (The sign of
every term in the
formula changes.)
Vertical stretch/squash
The graph is
The entire function • stretched away from the x-axis
formula is multiplied by
Stretch/Squash
Change in shape
P
a f (x) a constant (a). (Every
term of the formula is
multiplied by a.)
if a > 1 or a < −1.
• squashed towards the x-axis if
if −1 < a < 1.
If a is negative, the graph is also
reflected in the x-axis
M
EXAMPLE 34
Given f (x) = x 2 + 1. In each of the following cases, determine the equation of g and describe the
transformation from f to g in words:
(a) g(x) = f (x) − 2 (b) g(x) = − f (x)

A
(c) g(x) = 3 f (x)
Solution
(a) g(x) = x 2 + 1 − 2 (b) g(x) = −[x 2 + 1]

S
∴ g(x) = x 2 − 1 ∴ g(x) = −x 2 − 1
f is shifted 2 units down to produce g. f is reflected in the x-axis to produce g.
(c) g(x) = 3[x 2 + 1]

∴ g(x) = 3x 2 + 3
f is vertically stretched, by a factor of 3, to produce g.
145
EXAMPLE 35
Given g(x) = 3x − 2. In each of the following cases, determine the equation of h and describe the
transformation from g to h in words:
(a) h(x) = −g(x) + 4 (b) h(x) = −4 g(x)
Solution
(a) h(x) = −[3x − 2] + 4 (b) h(x) = −4[3x − 2]

∴ h(x) = −3x + 2 + 4 ∴ h(x) = −4⋅3x + 8
∴ h(x) = −3x + 6 g is vertically stretched by a
g is reflected in the x-axis factor of 4, and then reflected in the x-
and shifted 4 units up to produce h. axis to produce h.
LE
EXAMPLE 36
−2
Given the function y = + 1. Write down the equation of the resulting function when the given
x
function is
(a) reflected in the x-axis. (b) shifted 3 units down.
(c) vertically stretched by a factor of 2.
Solution
P
[ x ]
−2 −2
(a) y =− +1 (b) y= +1−3
x
M
2 −2
∴y = −1 ∴y = −2
x x
[ x ]
−2
(c) y =2 +1
A
−4
∴y = +2
x
EXERCISE 10
S
4
(a) Given f (x) = + 1. In each of the following cases, determine the equation of g and
x
describe the transformation from f to g in words:
(1) g(x) = f (x) + 2 (2) g(x) = − f (x) (3) g(x) = 2 f (x)
(b) f (x) = 3x 2 + 2. In each of the following cases, determine the equation of g and describe the
transformation from f to g in words.
(1) g(x) = f (x) − 1 (2) g(x) = 3 f (x) − 1 (3) g(x) = −4 f (x)
146
(c) Given f (x) = 2x + 1. Determine the equation of g if g is produced by
(1) shifting f 2 units down. (2) reflecting f about the x-axis.
(3) Vertically stretching f by a factor of 3.

4
(d) Given the function f (x) = − − 1.
x
4
(1) If h(x) = + 3, describe the transformation from f to h in words.
x
(2) If y = f (x) + t has a horizontal asymptote at y = − 4, determine the value of t.
(e) Given f (x) = x 2 + 4.
LE
(1) Determine the coordinates of the turning point of g(x) = f (x) − 2.
(2) Determine the range of h if h(x) = − f (x) − 2.
(f)* In each of the following cases, the graph of g is obtained by transforming the graph of f.
Describe the transformation from f to g in words.
[x ]
3 1
(1) f (x) = −1 g(x) = 3 −1
x
(2)
(3)
f (x) = x 2 − 5
f (x) = 4x + 1
P g(x) = 2(x − 1)(x + 1)
g(x) = 4x+1 − 3
GRAPH INTERPRETATION
M
In this final section of the chapter, you will be required to analyse and interpret pre-drawn graphs,
using everything you have learnt so far.
Exponential
Straight Line Parabola Hyperbola
Function
A
Function a
y = ax + q y = a x2 + q y= +q y = a⋅b x + q
Formula x
Domain x∈ℝ x∈ℝ x ≠ 0; x ∈ ℝ x∈ℝ

S
a positive: y ≥ q a positive: y > q

Range y∈ℝ y ≠ q; y ∈ ℝ
a negative: y ≤ q a negative: y < q
Turning point N.A. (0 ; q) N.A. N.A.
Axes of y = x +q
N.A. x =0 N.A.
symmetry y = −x + q
x =0
Asymptotes N.A. N.A. y =q
y =q
147
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GRAPH INTERPRETATION
x-intercept(s) Let y = 0 and solve for x.
y-intercept Let x = 0 and calculate y.
LE
Equate the function formulae (e.g. f (x) = g(x))
and solve for x. Then substitute the x-value(s)
into any one of the two functions to find y.
point(s) of intersection between two graphs
OR
Solve the two equations simultaneously.

P
You may also have to apply any of the following transformations to the graph:
Transformation Function formula

M
Vertical shift f (x) + q
Reflection about the x-axis −f (x)

A
Vertical stretch or squash a f (x)
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

S
In graph interpretation, we deal with horizontal and vertical distances between two points.
y y
ytop
ybottom
xleft xright x x
Horizontal distance = xright − xleft Vertical distance = ytop − ybottom
148
EXAMPLE 37
y
In the diagram alongside, f (x) = 16 − x 2 and g(x) = a x + b C g
are shown.
(a) Determine the length of OC. P

D
(b) Determine the length of AB.
(c) Determine the values of a and b. 8
(d) Determine the coordinates of D. Q

(e) If OR = 1, determine the length of PQ.
(f) If PQ = 8, determine the length of OR. A B

R O x
LE
(g) Consider the function h(x) = f (x) − 7.
f
(1) Describe the transformation from f to h.
(2) Write down the turning point of h.
(3) Determine the x-intercept(s) of h.
(h) What is the equation of the axis of symmetry of f ?
Solution
P
(a) OC is a vertical length: (b) f (x) = 0 x-intercepts of f
OC = yC − yO ∴ 16 − x 2 = 0
M
∴ (4 + x)(4 − x) = 0
= 16 − 0 ∴ x = −4 or x = 4
= 16 units
AB = xB − xA Horizontal length
AB = 4 − (−4)
= 8 units
A
(c) b =8 (d) D is a point of intersection:
y = ax + 8 f (x) = g(x)
0 = −4a + 8 Substitute (−4 ; 0)
∴ 4a = 8 ∴ 16 − x 2 = 2x + 8
S
∴a =2 ∴ x 2 + 2x − 8 = 0
∴ (x + 4)(x − 2) = 0
∴ x = −4 or x = 2
N.A.
Substitute x = 2 into g :
y = g(2)
= 2(2) + 8
= 12
∴ D(2 ; 12)
149
(e) OR = 1 (f) PQ = 8
∴ xR = −1 ∴ yp − yQ = 8
∴ 16 − x 2 − (2x + 8) = 8
Note: xP = xQ = xR
∴ 16 − x 2 − 2x − 8 = 8
∴ − x 2 − 2x = 0
For P: y = f (−1)
∴ x (x + 2) = 0
= 16 − (−1)2 ∴ x = 0 or x = −2
= 15
OR = 0 − (−2)
For Q: y = g(−1)
= 2 units
= 2(−1) + 8
=6
PQ = yp − yQ
LE
= 15 − 6
= 9 units
(g) (1) f has been shifted 7 units (2) (0 ; 9)

down to form g.
(3) h(x) = 16 − x 2 − 7 (h) x =0

= 9 − x2
9 − x2 = 0
P
∴ (3 + x)(3 − x) = 0
∴ x = −3 or x = 3
M
INEQUALITIES
If you are required to solve an inequality in the context of functions, you should try to use a
graphical approach, rather than an algebraic approach.
A
To solve the inequality … Look for the values of x for which …
f (x) > 0 f is above the x-axis

S
f (x) < 0 f is below the x-axis
f (x) > g(x) f is above g
f (x) < g(x) f is below g
Sometimes the equal sign is included with the inequality sign (≥ or ≤ ). Unless there are
restrictions on x, this would simply require that your solution also include the equal sign.
150
EXAMPLE 38
y
In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f, a g
hyperbola and g(x) = 2x − 4 are shown.
(a) Determine the coordinates of A.

A
(b) What are the coordinates of C? x
(c) Determine the equation of f.

C f
(d) Find the coordinates of B.
(e) Write down the equation of the axis of

symmetry of f that has a positive gradient.
B
LE
(f) For which values of x is
(1) g(x) < 0? (2) f (x) ≥ 0?
(3) f (x) > g(x)? (4) f (x) ≤ g(x)?
Solution
(a) g(x) = 0 (b) C(0 ; −4)

∴ 2x − 4 = 0
∴ 2x = 4
∴x =2
P
∴ A(2 ; 0)
M
a (d) f (x) = g(x)
(c) y= +q
x 8
a ∴ − 4 = 2x − 4
∴y = −4 x
x
8
Substitute A: ∴ = 2x
x
A
a ∴ 8 = 2x 2
0= −4
2
a ∴ 4 = x2
∴ =4
2 ∴ x2 − 4 = 0
∴a =8 (x + 2)(x − 2) = 0
S
8 x = −2 or x = 2
Equation: f (x) = −4 N.A.
x
g(−2) = 2(−2) − 4
= −8
∴ B(−2 ; −8)
(e) y = x −4
151
(f) (1) x<2 y
g(x) < 0 : g is below the x-axis
2 x
y
(2) 0<x ≤2 f (x) ≥ 0 : f is above the x-axis 2
x
LE
y
g
(3) x < −2 or 0 < x < 2 f (x) > g(x) : f is above g −2 2
x
f
(4) −2 ≤ x < 0 or x ≥ 2 f (x) ≤ g(x) : f is below g
MORE ADVANCED INEQUALITIES*

P
To solve the inequality … Look for the values of x for which …
M
f and g have the same sign (Both are above the
f (x)⋅g(x) > 0
x-axis or both are below the x-axis)
f and g have opposite signs ( f is above the x-

f (x)⋅g(x) < 0 axis and g is below the x-axis or f is below the x-
axis and g is above the x-axis)
A
EXAMPLE 39* y
The diagram alongside shows the graphs of

f (x) = − x 2 + 9 and g(x) = x − 3.
S
(a) Determine the coordinates of A and B. g
(b) For which values of x is

A B x
(1) f (x)⋅g(x) ≥ 0?
(2) f (x)⋅g(x) < 0?
f
152
Solution
(a) f (x) = 0
∴ −x 2 + 9 = 0
∴ (x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
∴ x = −3 or x = 3
∴ A(−3 ; 0) and B(3 ; 0)
(b) +
−3 − 3
LE
− −
−
f (x) − + −
g(x) − − +
f (x)⋅g(x) + − −
P
(1) x ≤ −3 or x = 3 (2) −3 < x < 3 or x > 3
EXERCISE 11
M
y
(a) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of S g
f (x) = −x + 6 and g(x) = x + 4 are
sketched. P
C E
A
(2) Determine the length of D F
(i) AB (ii) CD Q
(iii) DF A O RB U x
S
T f
(3) Determine the coordinates of E.
(4) If OR = 5 units, determine the length of PQ.
(5) If ST = 8 units, determine the length of OU.
(6) Given h(x) = − f (x) + 2.
(i) Describe the transformation from f to h in words.
(ii) Write down the coordinates of the x-intercept and the y-intercept of h.
(iii) Write down the domain and range of h.
153
(b) The diagram alongside shows the graphs of y
f
f (x) = 2x 2 − 8 and g(x) = a x + b.
R
(1) Determine the length of A O B x
(i) OD (ii) AB Q
(2) Determine the values of a and b. −4
(3) Determine the coordinates of C. C

P
(4) If OR = 1 unit, determine the length of PQ.
g
D
(5) Write down the equation of the axis of symmetry of f .
LE
(7) h is obtained by vertically stretching f by a factor of 2 and shifting it up 6 units.
(i) Write down the equation of h.
(ii) What is the turning point of h?
(8) For which values of x is
(i) g(x) < 0? (ii) f (x) > 0? (iii) f (x) ≥ g(x)?
(c)
(iv)*
P
f (x)⋅g(x) ≤ 0?
In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f,

y
1
a hyperbola, and g(x) = − x − 2 are shown.
2 −1
M
(1) Determine the lengths of OA and OB. A O x
C E
(2) Determine the equation of f. B f
(3) Determine the coordinates of C. D
g
(4) Calculate the length of DE.
A
(6) Write down the equations of the axes of symmetry of h if h(x) = f (x) + 3.
S
(i) f (x) < 0? (ii) f (x) ≤ g(x)? (iii)* f (x)⋅g(x) ≥ 0?
(8)* One of the axes of symmetry of f intersects the graph of f. Determine the
x-coordinates of the points of intersection.
3x − 2
(9)* Consider the function k (x) = .
x
(i) Describe the transformation from f to k in words.
(ii) What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote of k?
154
y
(d) The graphs of f (x) = a⋅b x + q and g(x) = x − 1 f
are shown alongside.
(1) Determine the lengths of OA and OB. g
(2) Determine the values of a, b and q.

P O B x
(3) Calculate the length of OP.
(4) The graph of h(x) = − f (x) + t passes A

through the origin.
(i) Determine the value of t. R −3
(ii) What is the range of h?
LE
(5) What is the equation of the asymptote of k if k (x) = 2⋅f (x) + 1?
(i) f (x) ≥ 0? (ii) g(x) < 0? (iii) f (x) > g(x)?
(iv) f (x) ≤ g(x)? (v)* f (x) > −1?

y
(e) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f
f (x) = x 2 − 9, g(x) = a x 2 + q and
G A(0 ; 18)
(1)
P
h(x) = − 3x + 9 are shown.
Determine the length of

H
E
(i) AL (ii) BC
M
(2) Write down the coordinates of D. L
I
(3) What is the range of g?
B O J C x
(4) Write down the equation of the
axis of symmetry of f.
h
F
A
(5) Determine the values of a and q.

D K
(6) If IJ = 6 units, determine the
length of HK. g
(7) Determine the coordinates of G.

S
(8) Calculate the length of EF.
(9) Describe the transformation from f to g in words.
(i) f (x) > 0? (ii) g(x) > 0? (iii) h(x) ≥ f (x)?

f (x)
(iv) h(x) ≤ g(x)? (v)* f (x)⋅h(x) < 0? (vi)* = 1?
h(x)
155
(a) Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
(2)
x
9 1
(1) y = 5x − 5 (2) y =− −3 (3) y =− + 16
x
4
(4) y = 9x 2 − 1 (5) x =2 (6) f (x) = +1
x
1
(7) y = − 2⋅3x + 6 (8) y = 2x 2 + 4 (9) y =− x
3
(4 )
x
10 1
(10) y= −5 (11) y= +4 (12) y = −2x 2 + 18
x
LE
2
(13) y = −4 (14) y =− −4 (15) y = 5⋅2x − 5
x
y g
(b) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f and g are
shown. (4 ; 5)
(1) Determine the equation of

B
−3
(2)
(i) f
P (ii)
What is the domain of f ?

g
(−4 ; −3)
C
A x
(3) Write down the range of g.

M
(4) Determine the coordinates of −6
(i) A (ii) B (iii) C f
(c) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of y

A
f and g are drawn. f
(1) Determine the equation of (−2 ; 9)
(i) f (ii) g A B
5
S
(2) What is the domain of g? −2 2 x

(3) What is the range of f ?
(3 ; −10)
(4) Write down the coordinates of the g
turning point of f.
(5) Write down the equation of the axis of symmetry of g.
(6) Determine the coordinates of A and B.
156
4
(d) In the diagram alongside, the graph of h(x) = −2 y
x
is shown.
(1) Write down the domain and range of h.

A x
(2) What are the equations of the vertical and h
horizontal asymptotes of h?
(3) Write down the equations of the axes of symmetry

of h.
(5)* One of the axes of symmetry of h will intersect the graph of h. Determine the
coordinates of the points of intersection.
LE
y
(e) In the diagram alongside, the graph of f, an exponential
function, is shown. 4
f
(1) Determine the equation of f. (1 ; 2)

(3) Write down the equation of the asymptote of f.
(4)
P
g is obtained by reflecting f in the x-axis and shifting it
down 4 units.
(i) Determine the equation of g.
(ii) Determine the coordinates of the x-intercept of g.

M
(5) Given h(x) = 2⋅f (x) − 6.
(i) Describe the transformation from f to h in words.
(ii) What is the range of h?

A
(f) In the diagram alongside, the graphs of f (x) = − x 2 + 9 and y

g
g(x) = a⋅b x + q are shown. PQ = 2 units.
(1) Determine the length of

(1 ; 15)
S
(i) OQ (ii) AB
P
(2) Write down the range of g. Q
(3) Determine the values of a, b and q.
(4) If the graph of h(x) = g(x) + t passes through

the origin, determine the value of t.
A O B x
(5) If h(x) = − f (x) + 4, write down the range of h.
f
157
x
(g) The graph of f, a hyperbola, and g(x) = − +1 y
4
are sketched alongside. K
(1) Determine the lengths of OA and OB. P

L
(2) Write down the equations of the B
asymptotes of f. f
(3) Determine the equation of f. M O A x
(4) If OM = 8 units, determine the length of KL. g
(5) Determine the coordinates of P.
LE
(i) f (x) ≥ 0? (ii) g(x) < 0? (iii) f (x) ≤ g(x)?
f (x)
(iv)* f (x)⋅g(x) < 0? (v)* ≤ 0?
g(x)
(h)** In each of the following cases, the graph of g is obtained from the graph of f. Describe the
transformation from f to g in words.
2 2 + 3x
(1) f (x) = −
x
−1
P g(x) =
x
(2 )
x
1
(2) f (x) = −1 g(x) = 21−x + 1
M
(3) f (x) = 4x + 1 g(x) = 22x+2 − 2
(i)** The graph alongside shows the height y (in metres) y

of a rugby ball, x seconds after it was kicked.
The flight path of the ball can be modelled by the
parabola y = −x 2 + 8x.
A
(1) What point on the graph represents the

ball being kicked?
(2) After how many seconds will the ball

B x
S
land? A
(3) At what time will the ball reach its maximum height?
(4) What will the maximum height be?
158
CHAPTER SIX
——————————————————————————————
Trigonometry
————————————————————————————————————————
Trigonometry is about the relationships between sides and angles in triangles. In Grade 10, we will
study these relationships in right-angled triangles.
LABELING OF TRIANGLES
The sides of triangles are labeled based on their positions relative to a specific angle (θ in this
diagram):
LE
● The longest side (opposite the 90° angle) is
called the hypotenuse.
● The side next to the specified angle is called hypotenuse opposite
the adjacent side.
● The side opposite the specified angle is called
the opposite side. θ
adjacent
Note that we often use Greek letters (α, β, θ etc.) to denote angles in trigonometry.
P
RATIOS BETWEEN SIDES OF SIMILAR TRIANGLES
As an example, consider the following two similar triangles: P

M
C
(hypotenuse) 6
(hypotenuse) 2 1(opposite) 3 (opposite)
30°
A B
3
A
(adjacent)
30°
M N
27
(adjacent)
S
The ratios between the sides of these two triangles (relative to the 30° angle) are:
BC opposite 1 PN opposite 3 1
= = = = =
AC hypotenuse 2 MP hypotenuse 6 2
AB adjacent 3 MN adjacent 27 3
= = = = =
AC hypotenuse 2 MP hypotenuse 6 2
BC opposite 1 PN opposite 3 1
= = = = =
AB adjacent 3 MN adjacent 27 3
159
Notice that each of the different ratios remains constant for these two similar triangles. These ratios
will remain constant for all right-angled triangles with a 30° angle.
opposite adjacent
In all right-angled triangles with the same set of angles, the ratios , and
hypotenuse hypotenuse
opposite
will remain constant. These ratios are called the sine ratio, the cosine ratio and the
adjacent
tangent ratio respectively.
DEFINITION OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
We define the three trigonometric ratios as follows:
Sine Cosine Tangent
LE
opposite adjacent opposite
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
P θ
adjacent
M
In the following examples, we will write down the values of the trigonometric ratios:
EXAMPLE 1
C
In the sketch alongside, Â = 60°, AB = 1 unit, BC = 3 units and AC = 2 units.
Use the sketch to write down the values of the following trigonometric ratios:
A
2 3
(a) sin 60° (b) cos 60° (c) tan 60°
60°
A B
1
S
Solution
First label the sides of the triangle:
C opposite 3
(a) sin 60° = =
hypotenuse 2
adjacent 1
(hypotenuse) 2 3 (opposite) (b) cos 60° = =
hypotenuse 2
opposite 3
60° (c) tan 60° = = = 3
A B adjacent 1
1
(adjacent)
160
EXAMPLE 2
L
In the diagram alongside, M̂ = θ, LN = 3 cm and MN = 4 cm.
(a) Write down the value of tan θ.

3 cm
(b) Determine the value of cos θ.
(c) Write down the value of sin θ .
θ
M N
4 cm
Solution
(a) L
LE
opposite 3
3 cm (opposite) tan θ = =
adjacent 4
θ
M N
4 cm
(adjacent)
(b) LM2 = MN2 + LN2 (Pythagoras)

∴ LM2 = 42 + 32
∴ LM2 = 25
P
∴ LM = 5 cm
L
M
adjacent 4
(hypotenuse) 5 cm 3 cm (opposite) cos θ = =
hypotenuse 5
θ
A
M N
4 cm
(adjacent)
opposite 3
(c) sin θ = =
5
S
hypotenuse
EXAMPLE 3
T
In the sketch alongside, TR = 13 units and
RS = 12 units.
13
Write down the value of
(a) cos T (b) sin T (c) tan T
R S
12
161
Solution
T (a) TR2 = TS2 + RS2 (Pythagoras)

∴ 132 = TS2 + 122
(hypotenuse) 13 ∴ TS2 = 25
(adjacent)
∴ TS = 5 units
adjacent 5
R S cos T = =
12 hypotenuse 13
(opposite)
opposite 12 opposite 12
(b) sin T = = (c) tan T = =
hypotenuse 13 adjacent 5
LE
EXAMPLE 4
The right-angled triangle alongside has sides with lengths x, y x

α
and z. The angles α and β are shown.
(a) Write down, in terms of x, y and z, the value of y

(1) cos α (2) sin α (3) tan α z
β
(b) Write down, in terms of x, y and z, the value of
(1) cos β (2) sin β (3) tan β
Solution
P
(a) Label the sides with respect to α.
M
x (adjacent) adjacent x
(1) cos α = =
α hypotenuse z
opposite y
y (2) sin α = =
hypotenuse z
(hypotenuse) z
A
(opposite)
β opposite y
(3) tan α = =
adjacent x
S
(b) Label the sides with respect to β.
adjacent y
x (opposite) (1) cos β = =
α hypotenuse z
opposite x
y (2) sin β = =
hypotenuse z
(hypotenuse) z (adjacent)
β opposite x
(3) tan β = =
adjacent y
162
EXERCISE 1
(a) In the triangle alongside, N̂ = 30°, MN = 8 units, MP = 4 units M

and NP = 48 units.
Use the sketch to write down the values of the following 8

4
trigonometric ratios. Simply the ratios as far as possible.
(1) sin 30° (2) cos 30°
(3) tan 30° N
30°
P
48
A
(b) In the sketch alongside, Ĉ = θ, AB = 8 cm and
BC = 15 cm.
LE
(1) Calculate the length of AC.
(2) Determine the values of the following 8 cm
trigonometric ratios:
(i) sin θ (ii) cos θ
(iii) tan θ B θ
C
15 cm
8
(c) In ΔRST, RS = 8 units and RT = 10 units. R S
Determine the value of
(1) sin R
P (2) tan R
(3) cos R
10
M
T
(d) The sides of the right-angled triangle alongside have lengths
29 units, 21 units and 20 units. The angles θ and β are shown. β
Write down the value of
A
(1) cos θ (2) sin θ 29

(3) tan θ (4) cos β 20
(5) sin β (6) tan β
θ
21
S
(e) In the sketch alongside, two of the sides of the triangle

have lengths 5 units and 3 units. The angles α and β
β are indicated on the sketch. Determine the values
of the following trigonometric ratios: 5 3
(1) tan α (2) cos α
(3) sin α (4) tan β α
(5) cos β (6) sin β
163
(f) The right-angled triangle alongside has sides of length
a, b and c units. The angles α and θ are shown. θ
Write down the values of the following trigonometric a

b
ratios in terms of a, b and c:
(1) sin θ (2) cos θ (3) tan θ
(4) sin α (5) cos α (6) tan α α
c
CALCULATING SIDES IN TRIANGLES
It is possible to calculate the values of the trigonometric ratios for any angle with a calculator.
For example: sin 40° = 0,6427876097

cos 65° = 0,4226182617
LE
tan 25° = 0,4663076582
In the following examples, we will use the values of the trigonometric ratios to determine unknown
sides in triangles.
EXAMPLE 5 U
In ΔUVW alongside, V̂ = 35° and UV = 12 units.
Determine the length of the following sides correct to two decimals: 12

(a)
(b)
VW
UW
P
35° W
V
M
Solution
(a) Label the sides with respect to the given angle:
U
A
(hypotenuse) 12 (opposite)
35°
S
V W
(adjacent)
Use the ratio between the side given and the side required.
adjacent
= cos 35°
hypotenuse
VW
∴ = cos 35°
12
∴ VW = 12 cos 35°
∴ VW = 9,83 units
164
(b) UV2 = VW2 + UW2 (Pythagoras)
∴ (12)2 = (9,83)2 + UW2
∴ 144 = 96,6298 + UW2
∴ UW2 = 47,3702
∴ UW = 6,88 units
EXAMPLE 6
A
In the sketch alongside, Â = 53° and BC = 7 m.
53°
Determine the length of side AC. Give your answer correct to one
decimal place.
B C
7m
LE
Solution
A opposite
= tan 53°
adjacent
53°
7
(hypotenuse) (adjacent) ∴ = tan 53°
AC
∴ 7 = AC tan 53°
B C 7
7m ∴ AC =
(opposite)
P tan 53°
∴ AC = 5,3 units
EXERCISE 2
M
(a) Calculate the length of the side labeled with x in each of the following right-angled
triangles. Round your answers to two decimal places.
(1) (2)
8
A
x 11
25°
x 48°
S
x
(3) (4)
58°
4 13
63°
165
(b) Determine the length of AC in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to one
decimal place.
(1) B A (2) A
42°
32°
6 km
C
C B
3m
LE
(c) Determine the length of PQ in each of the following triangles. Round your answer to three
decimal places.
(1) 15 (2) P Q
P R 73°
29°
10 cm
P
Q
M
R
CALCULATING ANGLES IN TRIANGLES

A
It is possible to determine the angle for which a trigonometric ratio will have a specific value by
using the inverse trigonometric functions (sin−1, cos−1 and tan−1) on the calculator .
(2)
1 1
For example, if sin θ = , then θ = sin−1 = 30°.
2
S
EXAMPLE 7
D
In the triangle alongside, DF = 7 units, DE = 10 units and Ê = θ.
Determine the size of θ correct to two decimal places. 10 7
θ
E F
166
Solution
Label sides with respect to θ :
D
opposite
= sin θ
hypotenuse
(hypotenuse) 10 7
∴ = sin θ
7 (opposite) 10
( 10 )
7
∴ θ = sin−1
θ
E F
(adjacent) ∴ θ = 44,43°
LE
EXERCISE 3
(a) Determine the size of the angle labeled θ in each of the following triangles. Give your
answers correct to two decimal places.
(1) P (2)
15 17 cm 24 cm
θ θ
13
M
(3) θ (4)
θ
15
18 m 16 m
A
30
S
(b) In the triangle alongside AB = 5 units and AC = 9 units. A
Determine the size of Ĉ . Round your answer to

one decimal place. 9
5
B C
167
(c) In ΔMNP sketched alongside, MN = 14 km M 14 km N
and MP = 12 km.
Determine the size of N̂ . Round your answer

to one decimal place. 12 km
PROBLEMS INVOLVING MORE THAN ONE TRIANGLE
When there are two or more triangles in a problem, we usually start by solving for the common side
between the two triangles:
LE
EXAMPLE 8
In the diagram below, Â = 35°, AC = 10 m and CD = 15 m.

C 15 m D
10 m
P
35°
A B
M
Determine the size of D̂ .
Solution
C In ΔABC:
BC
sin 35° =
AC
A
(hypotenuse) 10 BC
(opposite) ∴ sin 35° =
10
∴ BC = 10 sin 35∘
35° ∴ BC = 5,74 m
S
A B
15 (adjacent) In ΔBCD:
C D
BC
tan D =
CD
5,74 5,74
∴ tan D =
(opposite) 15
( 15 )
5,74
∴ D = tan−1
B ∴ D = 20,94°
168
EXERCISE 4
In this exercise, round all answers to two decimal places.
(a) In the diagram below, Â = 42°, AB = 20 cm and BD = 24 cm. Determine the size of B̂ 1.
C D
24 cm
LE
42°
A 20 cm B
(b) In ΔFGH, FG = 12 units, EH = 4 units, F̂ = 51° and GE ⊥ FH. Determine the size of Ĥ .
G
P 12
51°
F E 4 H
M
(c) In ΔPQR, P̂ = 48° and Q̂ = 90°; and in ΔQRS, QS = 11 m, Ŝ = 63° and QRS
̂ = 90°.
Determine the length of PR.
P
A
48°
S
Q R
11 m
63°
S
169
(d) In the diagram below, ACB̂ = 25°, BCD
̂ = 63°, CBA
̂ = CDB
̂ = 90° and CD = 7 cm.
Calculate the length of AB.
C A
25°
63°
7 cm
D B
(e) In ΔKLM, K̂ = α and K ML

̂ = β. KM = ML = 20 m and KL = 30 m. MN ⊥ KL.
LE
M
β
20 m 20 m
α
K L
N
P 30 m
Calculate
(1) α (2) β
M
(f)* In ΔEFG, Ê = 58°, F̂ = 40° and EF = 20 units. H is a point on EF such that GH ⊥ EF.
EH = x.
G
A
S
58° 40°
E x H F
20
20 tan 40°
(1) Show that x = .
tan 58° + tan 40°
(2) Hence, calculate the length of EG.
170
(g)* In ΔABC, Â = α, A BC ̂ = 90°.
̂ = 90° and AB = x. In ΔBCD, D̂ = θ and BCD
A x B
α
LE
C D
x tan α
(1) Show that BD = .
sin θ
(2) If α = 71°, θ = 64° and x = 15 units, calculate the length of BD.
CALCULATING TRIGONOMETRIC EXPRESSIONS ON THE CALCULATOR

P
The values of many trigonometric expressions can be calculated using a calculator.
EXAMPLE 9
Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two decimal places:
M
(a) sin 40° + sin 15° (b) cos(35° + 20°) (c) tan 50° + 3
Solution
(a) 0,90 (b) 0,57 (c) 4,19

A
EXAMPLE 10
Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to one decimal place:
(a) 3 sin 42° (b) cos 2(36°) (c) tan 28° sin 15°
S
Solution
(a) 3 × sin 42° = 2,0 (b) cos(2 × 36°) = 0,3 (c) tan 28° × sin 15° = 0,1
Exponents of trigonometric ratios are often written after the ratio name and before the angle. For
example sin2 θ = (sin θ )2 = sin θ × sin θ.
In general
sinn θ = (sin θ )n
cosn θ = (cos θ )n
tann θ = (tan θ )n
171
EXAMPLE 11
Calculate the values of following expressions, correct to two decimal places.
(a) cos2 55° (b) tan4 42° (c) sin 14°
Solution
(a) (cos 55°)2 = 0,33 (b) (tan 42°)4 = 0,66 (c) sin 14° = 0,49
EXAMPLE 12
If A = 51° and B = 28°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two decimal
places.
(a) sin(A + B) (b) cos(A − B) (c) tan 2B + 1
3
(d) sin A cos B (e) cos B (f) sin2 A + cos3 B
LE
4
(g)
tan A
Solution
(a) sin(51° + 28°) = 0,98 (b) cos(51° − 28°) = 0,92 (c) tan(2 × 28°) + 1 = 2,48
3
(d) sin 51° × cos 28° = 0,69 (e) cos 28° = 0,96 (f) (sin 51°)2 + (cos 38°)3
= 1,29
4
(g)
tan 51°
= 3,24
P
EXERCISE 5
(a) Calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to one decimal place:
M
(1) sin 74° + cos 41° (2) tan(28° + 12°) (3) cos 25° + 4
(4) 2 cos 35° (5) sin 3(18°) (6) 4 tan 25° − 1
(7) tan2 72° (8) sin 54° (9) 4 cos3 12°
(10) tan(83° − 16°) (11) cos 80° − tan 35° (12) 3 − sin 43°
1 tan 28° 8
A
(13) (14) (15)

sin 28° 4 5 cos 67°
tan 35°
(16) sin 25° cos 12° (17) (18) tan 87° sin 3° − cos 87°
cos 70°
( 2 )
56° 1
tan cos 40° 2 sin 35° + sin 2(35°)
S
(19) (20) (21)

3
( 5 )
50° 3 sin2 25°
(22) 3 sin2 (23) cos 80° − 1 (24) −3
2 cos 10°
(b) If A = 83° and B = 32°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
decimal places:
(1) tan(A + B) (2) cos A + cos B (3) sin A tan B
(2)
tan A B
(4) (5) sin (6) cos2 B − 1
cos B
sin3(3B − A)
(7) 2 tan A (8) cos(A − 2B) (9) +1
2
172
CALCULATING UNKNOWN ANGLES IN EQUATIONS
To determine an unknown angle in an equation, we will first get the trigonometric ratio by itself on
one side of the equation. We will then use the inverse trigonometric functions to calculate the
angle:
EXAMPLE 13
Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round to two decimal places.
(The angle is acute in each case.)
2
(a) sin x = (b) 4 cos x = 3 (c) 2 tan x − 1 = 0
3
5
(d) sin 2x = (e) 5 cos 3x − 4 = 0 (f) 2 tan(x − 10°) = 5
LE
8
Solution
2 (b) 4 cos x = 3 (c) 2 tan x − 1 = 0

(a) sin x =
3 3 ∴ 2 tan x = 1
∴ cos x =
(3)
2 4 1
∴ x = sin−1 ∴ tan x =
(4)
3 2
∴ x = cos−1
(2)
∴ x = 41,81° 1
P ∴ x = 41,41°
∴ x = tan−1
∴ x = 26,67°
5 5 cos 3x − 4 = 0 2 tan(x − 10°) = 5

M
(e) (f)
(d) sin 2x =
8 4 5
∴ cos 3x = ∴ tan(x − 10°) =
(8)
5 5 2
∴ 2x = sin−1
(5)
4 ∴ x − 10° = 68,20°
∴ 3x = cos−1
∴ 2x = 38,68218745° ∴ x = 68,20° + 10°
∴ 3x = 36,86989765°
A
∴ x = 19,34° ∴ x = 78,20°
∴ x = 12,29°
EXERCISE 6
S
(a) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations if 0° ≤ x ≤ 90°.

Round to two decimal places.
4 8
(1) sin x = (2) cos x = 0,4 (3) tan x =
13 7
(4) 5 tan x = 3 (5) 6 sin x = 4 (6) 8 cos x = 5
(7) 6 cos x − 1 = 0 (8) 11 sin x − 5 = 0 (9) 7 tan x − 2 = 0
173
(b) Determine the value of θ in each of the following equations. Round to one decimal place.
The angle is acute in each case.
4
(1) tan 2θ = 4 (2) cos 3θ = (3) sin 2θ = 0,375
11
(4) 7 cos 3θ = 3 (5) 2 tan 2θ − 6 = 0 (6) 9 sin 4θ − 7 = 0
(7) tan(θ − 30°) = 0,8 (8) 6 sin(θ − 25°) = 3 (9) 11 cos(2θ − 5°) − 3 = 0
ANGLES GREATER THAN 90° (WORKING ON THE CARTESIAN PLANE)
Up to now, we have only worked with angles smaller than 90° (angles of a right-angled triangle).
By placing the angle on the Cartesian plane, the definition of the trigonometric ratios can be
expanded to include angles greater than 90°.
LE
Consider a line segment of length r , drawn from the origin, that forms an acute angle θ with the
positive x-axis:
In the right-angled triangle formed in this sketch:

y (x ; y)
opposite y
● sin θ = =
hypotenuse r
r adjacent x
● cos θ = =
hypotenuse r
θ
x
y
P ● tan θ =
opposite
adjacent
=
y
x
x
It is also possible to draw similar diagrams for angles greater than 90°:
M
(x ; y) θ θ
y x x
r r r
θ
A
x y
(x ; y) y (x ; y)
In general for all angles, θ, on the Cartesian plane we define the trigonometric ratios as follows:
S
y x y
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
r r x
It is also important to be aware of the following fact:
x2 + y2 = r 2
● x and y can be either positive or negative based on the position of x and y on the Cartesian
plane.
● r is always positive.
174
EXAMPLE 14
Calculate the values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in each of the following sketches without the use of a
calculator.
(a) y (b) y
(3 ; 4) (−12 ; y)
13
θ
θ
x x
y y
(c) θ (d) θ
LE
x x
17 10
(x ; −15) (8 ; y)
Solution
(a) x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ 32 + 42 = r 2
P (b) x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ (−12)2 + y 2 = 132
∴ r 2 = 25 ∴ y 2 = 25
∴r =±5 ∴y =±5
M
∴r =5 r >0 ∴y =5 y > 0 (from the sketch)
y 4 y 5
sin θ = = sin θ = =
r 5 r 13
x 3 x −12 12
cos θ = = cos θ = = =−
r 5 r 13 13
A
y 4 y 5 5
tan θ = = tan θ = = =−
x 3 x −12 12
(c) x2 + y2 = r 2 (d) x2 + y2 = r 2
S
∴ x 2 + (−15)2 = 172 ∴ 82 + y 2 = 10 2
∴ x 2 = 64 ∴ y 2 = 36
∴ x =±8 ∴y =±6
∴ x =−8 x < 0 (from the sketch) ∴y =−6 y < 0 (from the sketch)
y −15 15 y −6 6
sin θ = = =− sin θ = = =−
r 17 17 r 10 10
x −8 8 x 8
cos θ = = =− cos θ = =
r 17 17 r 10
y −15 15 y −8 8
tan θ = = = tan θ = = =−
x −8 8 x 6 6
175
In the previous example, you would have noticed that some of the trigonometric ratios were
negative. The following diagram illustrates where the different ratios are positive or negative:
y
y + y +
sin θ = = =+ sin θ = = =+
r + x− x+ r +
x − x +
cos θ = = =− y+ y+ cos θ = = =+
r + r +
r+ r+
y + y +
tan θ = = =− tan θ = = =+
x − x +
x
y − y −
sin θ = = =− x− sin θ = = =−
r + x+ r +
LE
x − y− y− x +
cos θ = = =− cos θ = = =+
r + r+ r+ r +
y − y −
tan θ = = =+ tan θ = = =−
x − x +
We can summarise this in the so-called CAST diagram:
90°
P II I
S A
180° 0° / 360°
M
T C
III IV
270°
The letters A, S, T and C indicate which ratio(s) are positive in each quadrant:
A
In quadrant I: All trig ratios are positive.

In quadrant II: Sin is positive and all other ratios are negative.
In quadrant III: Tan is positive and all other ratios are negative.
In quadrant IV: Cos is positive and all other ratios are negative.
S
We can use the CAST diagram, together with the definitions of the three ratios, to determine the
values of trigonometric expressions, without using a calculator:
EXAMPLE 15
4
If cos θ = − and θ ∈ (0° ; 180°), determine the value of 4 tan θ − 5 sin θ without the use of a
5
calculator and with the aid of a diagram.
176
Solution
Identify the quadrant

90∘
4 II I
● cos θ = − which is negative.
5 ✔✪ ✪
cos is negative in II and III (✔) S A
180∘ 0∘ /360∘
● θ ∈ (0° ; 180°). ✔
T C
This is true in I and II (✪) III IV
270∘
Draw the diagram in II and determine the values of x, y and r

y
5 (r)
LE
4 x
● cos θ = − . x = − 4 and r = 5. 3
● Calculate y: x2 + y2 = r 2
5
∴ (−4)2 + y 2 = (5)2
∴ y2 = 9 θ
∴y =±3
−4 x
∴y =3 P
Use the diagram to calculate the value of 4 tan θ − 5 sin θ
4 tan θ − 5 sin θ
( −4 ) (5)
3 3
M
=4 −5
=−6
EXAMPLE 16
A
12
If 5 tan θ − 12 = 0 and sin θ < 0, determine the value of + 169 cos2 θ, without the use of a
sin θ
calculator and with the aid of a diagram.
Solution
S
Identify the quadrant
● 5 tan θ − 12 = 0 90∘
12 II I
∴ tan θ = which is positive. ✔
5 S A
tan is positive in I and III (✔) 180∘ 0∘ /360∘
✔✪
T C ✪
● sin θ < 0
This is true in III and IV (✪) III IV
270∘
177
Draw the diagram in III and determine the values of x, y and r .
y
θ
−5
5 (x)
12 y x
● tan θ = . x = − 5 and y = − 12.
13
● Calculate r: x2 + y2 = r 2
∴ (−5)2 + (−12)2 = r 2
∴ r 2 = 169 −12
∴ r = ± 13
∴ r = 13
Use the diagram to calculate the value of the expression asked :
LE
12
+ 169 cos2 θ
sin θ
( 13 )
2
12 −5
= −12
+ 169
13
( 169 )
−12 25
= 12 ÷ + 169
13
13
= 12 ×
−12
+ 25
P
= − 13 + 25
= 12
M
EXERCISE 7
(a) Calculate the values of sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in each of the following sketches without the
use of a calculator:
(1) y (2) y
A
(8 ; 6) θ
x
S
θ
x (1 ; 3)
(3) y (4) y
(−4 ; y) θ
x
5
13
θ
x
(−12 ; y)
178
(5) y (6) y
θ θ
x x
17 2
(x ; − 8) (x ; − 3)
(7) y (8) y
(5 ; y) (x ; 4)
13 5
LE
θ
θ
x x
12
(b) If tan A = and A ∈ (0° ; 180°), determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
5
aid of a diagram, the value of
(1) sin A
P (2) 1 − cos2 A (3) 13cos Α + 5 tan Α
−8
(c) If sin B = and 90° < B < 270°, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
17
M
(1) cos B (2) 17 cos B − 15 tan B (3) cos2 B − sin2 B
4
(d) If cos θ = and θ ∈ (180° ; 360°), determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
5
A
3
(1) 5 sin θ + 4 tan θ (2) + 5 cos θ
sin θ
(e) If 2 tan β = − 1 and 0° < β < 180°, determine, without the use of a calculator and with
the aid of a diagram, the value of
S
(1) cos β (2) sin2 β + 1 (3) 5 sin β − 5 cos2 β
(f) If 13 sin α − 5 = 0 and cos α < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
(1) cos α − tan α (2) 169(cos2 α − sin2 α)
(g) If 15 tan x − 8 = 0 and sin x < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the
15 1
(1) 17 sin x − (2) tan2 x +
cos x cos2 x
179
SPECIAL ANGLES
The trigonometric ratios for most angles cannot be calculated precisely (in terms of fractions,
decimals or surds). There are some angles for which the values of the trigonometric ratios can be
calculated exactly and without using a calculator. These angles are called the special angles:
0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°
The following diagram shows the (x ; y) coordinate pairs at 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. On this
diagram r = 2 everywhere:
y
( 0; 4)
LE
90° ( 1; 3)
60° ( 2; 2) r =2
45°
( 3; 1)
P 30°
0° ( 4; 0)
x
M
This diagram, along with the definition of the trigonometric ratios on the Cartesian plane, can be
used to calculate the values of the trigonometric ratios of the special angles:
EXAMPLE 17
Calculate the values of the following trigonometric ratios without the use of a calculator.
A
(a) sin 45° (b) cos 30° (c) tan 60°
Solution
S
(a) At 45°: (b) At 30°: (c) At 60°:

x= 2 x= 3 x =1
y= 2 y =1 y= 3
r =2 r =2 r =2
y 2 x 3 y 3
sin 45° = = cos 30° = = tan 60° = = = 3
r 2 r 2 x 1
180
The ratios of the special angles can be used to simplify more complex expressions:
EXAMPLE 18
Calculate the value of the following expressions without the use of a calculator.
sin2 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°

(a) (b)
cos2 45° − 1 sin 90°
Solution
sin2 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°

(a) (b)
cos2 45° − 1 sin 90°
( )
2 3 3
LE
3 ×
1 2
2 = 2
=
( )
2 2
2
2
−1 3
2
=
3 1
4
= 2 3
−1 =
4 2
3
= 4
1
−2
P
3 −2
= ×
4 1
M
3
=−
2
EXERCISE 8
A
(a) Calculate the values of the following trigonometric ratios without the use of a calculator:
(1) sin 0° (2) cos 45° (3) tan 30°

(4) sin 30° (5) cos 90° (6) tan 0°
(7) sin 90° (8) cos 0° (9) tan 45°
sin 60° cos 60° tan 90°
S
(10) (11) (12)
(b) Calculate the values of the following expressions without the use of a calculator:
(1) tan 45° + sin 30° − cos2 60° cos 30°

(2)
tan 60°
sin 60° ⋅ cos 60° tan 45° ⋅ sin 30° ⋅ cos 30°
(3) (4)
tan 60° ⋅ tan2 30° tan 30°
sin 45° ⋅ cos 45° sin 60° + cos 30°
(5) (6)
tan 30° ⋅ tan 60° tan 60° ⋅ cos 30°
181
THE RECIPROCAL RATIOS
There are three more trigonometric ratios called the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent, defined
as follows:
Cosecant Secant Cotangent

hypotenuse r hypotenuse r adjacent x
cosec θ = = sec θ = = cot θ = =
opposite y adjacent x opposite y
y (x ; y)
hypotenuse
LE
opposite r
θ θ
x
adjacent
From the definitions above, it is clear that the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent are the
reciprocals of the sine, the cosine and the tangent respectively:
cosec θ =
1
sin θ
P sec θ =
1
cos θ
cot θ =
1
tan θ
Because of this fact, the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent are called reciprocal ratios.
M
We can apply the definitions above to determine the values of the reciprocal ratios in triangles:
EXAMPLE 19
M
In the sketch alongside, P̂ = θ, MN = 7 units, NP = 24 units
A
and MP = 25 units.
7 25
Write down the values of the following trigonometric ratios:
(a) cosec θ (b) sec θ (c) cot θ θ

S
N 24 P
Solution
(a) cosec θ (b) sec θ (c) cot θ

hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
= = =
opposite adjacent opposite
25 25 24
= = =
7 24 7
182
We can also evaluate expressions that include the reciprocal ratios of special angles, by using the
special angles diagram and the definitions:
y
r
cosec θ =
( 0; 4) r=2 y
90° ( 1; 3)
60° ( 2; 2) r
sec θ =
45° ( 3; 1) x
30°
x
cot θ =
0° ( 4 ; 0 ) y
LE
x
EXAMPLE 20
Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:
sec 45° ⋅ cot 30° cosec 60° ⋅ sin 90°

(a) (b)
sin 45° ⋅ tan 60° tan 30° ⋅ sec 60°
Solution
sec 45° ⋅ cot 30°
P cosec 60° ⋅ sin 90°
(a) (b)
sin 45° ⋅ tan 60° tan 30° ⋅ sec 60°
2 2
2 3 ×
M
× 1 3 2
=
2 = 1 2
2 3 × 1
2
× 1
3
( 3 ) ( 3 )
2 1
( 2 1 )
2 3 2⋅ 3 = ×1 ÷ ×2
= × ÷
2
A
2 2
2 3 2 = ÷ =1
= × =2 3 3
2 2⋅ 3
S
Although the calculator doesn’t have cosec, sec and cot buttons, we can use the fact that these ratios
are the reciprocals of sin, cos and tan to calculate expressions containing these ratios:
1 1 1
cosec θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
EXAMPLE 21
Calculate the values of the following trigonometric expressions. Round your answer to two decimal
places.
(a) sec 34° (b) cosec 67° + sec 28° (c) cot2 42°
183
Solution
(a) sec 34° (b) cosec 67° + sec 28° (c) cot2 42°
( tan 42° )
2
1 1 1 1
= = + =
cos 34° sin 67° cos 28°
= 1,21 = 2,22 = 1,23
We can also solve equations containing the reciprocal ratios:
EXAMPLE 22
Determine the value of θ in each of the following equations. Round your answers to one decimal
place. The angle is acute in each case.
9
LE
(a) cot θ = 2 (b) cosec 2θ = (c) 2 sec(θ − 20°) = 3
7
Solution
(a) cot θ = 2 9 (c) 2 sec(θ − 20°) = 3

(b) cosec 2θ =
1 7 2
∴ =2 1 9 ∴ =3
tan θ ∴ = cos(θ − 20°)
∴ 1 = 2 tan θ sin 2θ 7
∴ 2 = 3 cos(θ − 20°)
1 ∴ 7 = 9 sin 2θ
2
∴ tan θ = 7 ∴ cos(θ − 20°) =
2
∴ θ = 26,6°
P ∴ sin 2θ =
9
3
∴ θ − 20° = 48,1896°
∴ 2θ = 51,05755°
∴ θ = 68,2°
∴ θ = 25,5°
M
EXERCISE 9
(a) In sketch alongside, T̂ = α, ST = 6 units and R

RS = 8 units.
(1) Calculate the length of RT.
A
(2) Determine the values of the following

6
trigonometric ratios:
(i) cosec α (ii) sec α
(iii) cot α α
S T
8
S
(b) In the sketch alongside, two of the sides of the triangle

have lengths 5 units and 13 units. The angles β and θ
θ are indicated on the sketch. Determine the values
of the following trigonometric ratios:
(1) cot β (2) sec β 5
13
(3) cosec β (4) cot θ
(5) sec θ (6) cosec θ β
184
(c) The right-angled triangle alongside has sides of lengths m
α
m, n and p units. The angles α and β are shown.
Write down the values of the following trigonometric n

ratios in terms of m, n and p: p
(1) cosec α (2) sec α (3) cot α β
(4) cosec β (5) sec β (6) cot β
(d) If A = 76° and B = 15°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
decimal places:
(1) sec(A + B) (2) cosec A − cosec B (3) cot A cot B
( 2 )
sec A 3B
(4) (5) cosec (6) 3 − cot2 A
cot B
LE
3
(7) 4 sec B (8) cosec (2A − 3B)
(e) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round your answers to three
decimal places. The angle is acute in each case.
12 6
(1) cosec x = (2) cot x = (3) 3 sec 2x = 5
7 7
(4) 9 cot 3x − 4 = 0 (5) 2cosec (x + 25°) = 3 (6) 2 sec(4x − 10°) − 7 = 0
(f)
P
Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:
cosec 45° ⋅ cot 60° cosec 30° ⋅ sec 60°
(1) (2)
cos 45° ⋅ tan 60° cot 45° ⋅ sec 0°
cosec 60° ⋅ sec2 60° cot 60° ⋅ cot2 30°
M
(3) (4)
cot 30° ⋅ cosec 90° cosec 60° ⋅ sec 60°
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY IN TWO DIMENSIONS
ANGLES OF DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION

A
The following diagrams illustrate the meaning of the terms angle of depression and angle of
elevation:
S
A A
Angle of depression of B from A
Angle of elevation of A from B

B B
We will now apply the trigonometric ratios, as well as the concepts of angle of depression and angle
of elevation to practical problems in two dimensions:
185
EXAMPLE 23
In the diagram below, two people, one standing at C and one standing at D, look up at a 10 m tall
flagpole. The angle of elevation of the top of the flag pole (A) from C is 42°. The angle of
depression of D from the top of the flag pole (A) is 23°.
A E
23°
10 m
LE
42°
B C D
(a)
(b)
P
Determine the size of D̂ .
Calculate the distance CD between the two people, correct to two decimal places.
Solution
M
(a) D̂ = 23° (alt ∠'s; AE ∥ BD)
(b) In ΔABD : In ΔABC :
AB AB
tan 23° = tan 42° =
A
BD BC
10 10
∴ tan 23° = ∴ tan 42° =
BD BC
10 10
∴ BD = ∴ BC =
S
tan 23° tan 42°

∴ BD = 23,57 m ∴ BC = 11,11 m
CD = BD − BC
= 23,57 − 11,11
= 12,46 m
∴ The distance between the two people is 12,46 m.
186
EXERCISE 10
Round all answers to two decimal places in this exercise.
(a) The angle of elevation of the top of a cliff (L) from L

a child playing on the beach at M is 27°.
After the child runs x metres to N,
the angle of elevation is 65°.
The height of the cliff is 30 m. 30 m
Calculate the value of x,
the distance the child ran. 27° 65°
M N P
x
(b) The angle of elevation from
LE
a sailboat at T to the top of a R
100 m tall cliff (R) is 58°. 17°
The angle of depression
from the top of the cliff
to another sailboat at U 100 m
is 17°.
(1) Determine the size 58°

of Û . S T U
(2)
P
Calculate the distance TU
between the two ships.
(c) Large ships must drop more than one anchor A

M
to remain stationary. At this point, the ocean 35° 40°
is 200 m deep. The angle of depression from
a ship at A to its first anchor at B is 35°
200 m
and the angle of depression to its
second anchor at C is 40°.
A
(1) Calculate the lengths of the B C D

two anchor ropes AB and AC.
(2) Calculate the distance BC between the two anchors.

S
(d) In the diagram alongside, a person at W

T
is standing 35 m away from the base
of a cliff at V. The angle of elevation of
the top of the cliff (U) from the person is 28°.
U
The angle of elevation to the top of a light
house (T) from the person is 39°.
(1) Calculate the length a zip line would

have to be to reach from the top of
39° 28°
the cliff at U to the person at W. W V
35 m
(2) Calculate the height UT of the tower.
187
(e) The angle of elevation from a diver at I F G H
to a swimmer on the surface at G is 66°. 31°
The distance between the diver and this
swimmer is 16 m. The angle of depression 16 m
from a swimmer at F to the diver at I is 31°.
(1) Calculate the depth HI of the diver below

the surface of the water.
(2) Calculate the distance between the diver at I 66°
I
and the swimmer at F.
(3) Calculate the distance FG between the two swimmers.
LE
(a) In ΔABC, Â = α, Ĉ = β, AB = 21 units and A 21 B
α
AC = 29 units. Determine the value of
(1) sin α (2) tan α
(3) cos α (4) cosec β
(5) cot β (6) sec β 29
β
(b) In sketch alongside, R̂ = θ, T̂ = γ, RS = a units, R
C
ST = b units and RT = c units. Write down the θ
values of the following trigonometric ratios in
terms of a, b and c:
(1) sin γ
P (2) cos γ
a c
(3) tan γ (4) cosec θ

(5) sec θ (6) cot θ γ
S T
b
M
(c) Determine the length of PR in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to one
decimal place.
13 Q
(1) Q P (2)
48°
A
64°
S
R P R
(d) Determine the size of α in each of the following triangles. Round your answers to two
decimal places.
(1) P 14 Q (2) P
α
7
23
α
Q R
R 12
188
(e) In the diagram below CBD ̂ = 22°, CAB ̂ = 46°, CD = 5 cm, AB ⊥ BC and BC ⊥ CD.
Calculate the length of AC, correct to two decimal places.
A B
46°
22°
C 5 cm D
(f) In the diagram below, Â = β, Ĉ = α, DC = 12 cm, AC = 15 cm, AB = 10 cm and
LE
AD ⊥ BC.
A
β
10 cm 15 cm
α
B C
P D 12 cm
Calculate the sizes of α and β, correct to one decimal place.
(g) If A = 71° and B = 32°, calculate the values of the following expressions, correct to two
M
decimal places:
(1) tan(A + B) (2) sin A − sin B (3) cos 2B − 2
3
(4) 3 cos A tan B (5) sin A (6) tan2 B + cos3 A
2
(7) (8) cosec A + sec B (9) cot 3B
sin B
A
(10) 2 sec A − 1 (11) cosec 2 B (12) sec A

1 cosec A cot A
(13) (14) (15)
cot B 3 sec B
(h) Determine the value of x in each of the following equations. Round your answers to two
S
decimal places. The angle is acute in each case.

4
(1) sin x = (2) 2 tan x = 3 (3) 9 cos x − 5 = 0
11
1
(4) cos 2x = (5) tan(x − 15°) = 3 (6) 3 tan(2x + 12°) − 5 = 0
4
11
(7) 3 sin(x + 10°) = 2 (8) 2 cos 4x − 1 = 0 (9) sec x =
10
9
(10) 3cosec x = 4 (11) 4 cot x − 9 = 0 (12) cosec 3x =
7
(13) sec(x − 30°) = 4 (14) 3cosec 2x − 5 = 0 (15) 2 cot(x + 20°) − 7 = 0
189
(i) If 5 cos θ − 3 = 0 and θ ∈ (180° ; 360°), determine, without the use of a calculator
and with the aid of a diagram, the value of 5 sin θ + 9 tan2 θ.
(j) If 2 tan x − 1 = 0 and cos x < 0, determine, without the use of a calculator and with the aid
4
of a diagram, the value of 5 cos x + .
sin2 x
(k) Calculate the values of the following expressions, without the use of a calculator:
sin 90° ⋅ sin 45° tan 45° − cos 60°
(1) (2)
cos 45° ⋅ tan2 30° sin 60° ⋅ cos 30°
tan 30° ⋅ cosec2 45° sec 60° ⋅ cot 45°
(3) (4)
cos 0° ⋅ cot 60° sin 30° + cosec 90°
LE
(l) A person standing at the top of a U
building at U looks down at two 47°
of her friends standing at S and T.
The angle of depression of S from
U is 47° and the angle of elevation
50 m
of U from T is 38°. The distance
between the top of the building and
the person at S is 50 m. 38°
R S T
(1)
(2)
P
Calculate the height RU of the building, correct to two decimal places.
Determine the distance ST between the two people on the ground, correct to two
decimal places.
b
M
(m)* If tan θ = and 0° < θ < 90°, determine the value of cos θ in terms of a and b.
b2 − a2
t 1
(n)* If cosec α = + and α ∈ (0° ; 90°), determine the value of sec α + tan α in terms
2 2t
of t.
A
(o)* If cos x + sec x = p, determine the value of the following in terms of p:
(1) cos2 x + sec2 x (2) cos3 x + sec3 x (3) cos x − sec x

̂ = 90°. P
(p)* In the diagram alongside, P̂ = α and PQR
QS = x units, Ŝ = β and QRS ̂ = 90°. α
S
x sin β
(1) Show that PQ = .
tan α
(2) Calculate the length of PQ,
correct to two decimal places,
if α = 52°, β = 39° and x = 12 units. Q R
x
β
S
190
CHAPTER SEVEN
——————————————————————————————
Trigonometric Functions
————————————————————————————————————————
A trigonometric function is a function where the input (x-value) is an angle and the output (y-value)
is based on the value of a trigonometric ratio of that angle. The three basic trigonometric functions
are:
y = sin x y = cos x y = tan x
THE GRAPH OF THE SINE FUNCTION
LE
Consider the following table for y = sin x:
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
y 0 0,5 0,87 1 0,87 0,5 0 −0,5 −0,87 −1 −0,87 −0,5 0
The graph of y = sin x is obtained by plotting points for these coordinates and connecting them
y
1
0,87
P
0,5
M
30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360° x
−0,5
−0,87
−1
A
Trigonometric functions are periodic functions. This means that the same pattern (cycle) is repeated
at regular intervals. If we plot the graph of y = sin x for more angles, we see the cycle is repeated
S
every 360°:
y
1
−720° −360° 360° 720°

x
−1
191
The length of the interval that contains exactly one cycle is called the period of the graph.
The period of y = sin x is 360°
1
The amplitude of a function is [maximum y -value − minimum y -value].
2
1
The amplitude of y = sin x is [1 − (−1)] = 1
2
The range of a function is the set of all possible y-values (outputs).
The range of y = sin x is y ∈ [−1 ; 1] or −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
LE
THE GRAPH OF THE COSINE FUNCTION
Consider the following table for y = cos x:
x 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
y 1 0,87 0,5 0 −0,5 −0,87 −1 −0,87 −0,5 0 0,5 0,87 1
The graph of y = cos x is obtained by plotting points for these coordinates and connecting them
y
P
1
0,87
M
0,5
x
30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
−0,5
A
−0,87
−1
The function y = cos x has the following properties:

S
Period: 360° Amplitude: 1 Range: y ∈ [−1 ; 1] or −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
GRAPH OF THE TANGENT FUNCTION
Consider the following table for y = tan x:
x 0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
y 0 1 undefined −1 0 1 undefined −1 0
192
tan x is undefined at x = 90° and x = 270°. The graph of the function will have vertical
asymptotes at these values. Taking this into account, we can plot the graph of y = tan x:
1
x
LE
45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
−1
P
The function y = tan x has the following properties:
M
Period: 180° Amplitude: not defined Range: y ∈ ℝ
SUMMARY OF THE THREE BASIC GRAPHS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
When sketching the graphs of trigonometric functions, we have to show certain important values.
A
We normally plot
• a sine or cosine graph, using intervals of 90°.
• a tangent graph, using intervals of 45°.
S
The basic graphs, showing the relevant values, are:

y y y
1 1 1
x x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360° 45° 90° 135° 180°
−1 −1 −1
193
The basic properties of y = sin x , y = cos x and y = tan x are summarised below:
y ∈ [−1 ; 1] y ∈ [−1 ; 1]
Range OR OR y ∈ℝ
−1 ≤ y ≤ 1 −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
1 1 N.A.
(1 − (−1)) (1 − (−1)) tan doesn’t have a
Amplitude 2 2
maximum or minimum
=1 =1 y-value
LE
Period 360° 360° 180°
AMPLITUDE CHANGES
We will now consider graphs of the form
y = a sin x
P y = a cos x y = a tan x
• The numerical value of a (ignoring the sign) gives the amplitude of a sin or cos graph.
• The numerical value of a determines the steepness of the tan graph.
M
• The a-value is also called the vertical stretch factor as it causes the basic graph to stretch
vertically with respect to the x-axis.
EXAMPLE 1
Consider the function y = 2 sin x.

A
(a) Sketch the graph of the function for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].

(b) Write down the range of the function.
(c) What is the amplitude of the function?
(d) What is the period of the function?
S
Solution
(a) Thought Process:

• Start with a basic sin graph:
y
1
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
−1
194
• a = 2. The amplitude of the graph is 2:
Final Sketch:
y
90° 180° 270° 360° x

−1
−2
LE
(b) y ∈ [−2 ; 2] or −2 ≤ y ≤ 2 (c) 2 (d) 360°
EXAMPLE 2
1
Consider the function y = tan x.
2
(a) Sketch the graph of the function for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].
(b) Write down the range of the function.
(c)
P
What is the period of the function?
Solution

M
• Start with a basic tan graph:
y
1
x
A
45° 90° 135° 180°

−1
1
S
• a= . The steepness of the graph decreases. When x = 45°, the y-value is 0,5:
2
y
Final Sketch:
0,5
x
−0,5 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
(b) y∈ℝ (c) 180°
195
REFLECTIONS
If a < 0 in functions of the form y = a sin x, y = a cos x or y = a tan x, the graphs are
reflected across the x-axis:
EXAMPLE 3
Consider the function f (x) = − 3 cos x.
(a) Sketch the graph of f for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].

(b) Write down the range of f.
(c) What is the amplitude of f ?
(d) What is the period of f ?
Solution:
LE
• Start with a basic cos graph: • a < 0. The graph is reflected across the x-axis:
y y
1 1
90° 180°
P
270° 360°
x
90° 180°
x
270° 360°
−1 −1
M
• The numerical value of a (ignoring the sign) is 3. The amplitude of the graph is 3:
Final Sketch: y
3
A
1
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
S
−1
−2
−3
(b) y ∈ [−3 ; 3] or −3 ≤ y ≤ 3 (c) 3 (d) 360°
196
EXAMPLE 4
Consider the function g(x) = − 2 tan x.

(a) Sketch the graph of g for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].
(b) What is the range of g?
(c) Write down the period of g.
Solution
• Start with a basic tan graph: • a < 0. The graph is reflected across the x-axis:
y y
LE
1 1
x x
45° 90° 135° 180° 45° 90° 135° 180°
−1 −1
• The numerical value of a (ignoring the sign) is 2. The steepness of the graph increases.
When x = 45°, the y-value is −2:
Final Sketch: y
P
2
M
1
x
45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
−1
A
−2
(b) y∈ℝ (c) 180°

S
EXERCISE 1
For each of the functions:
(1) Sketch the graph of the function for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].
(2) Write down the period of the function.
(3) Write down the amplitude of the function (if applicable).
(4) Write down the range of the function.
(a) y = 2 cos x (b) y = 3 sin x

1
(c) y = tan x (d) y = sin x
4
197
2 1
(e) h(x) = tan x (f) y= cos x
3 2
(g) y = − cos x (h) y = − 3 tan x
1
(i) y = − 2 sin x (j) y = − tan x
4
1
(k) g(x) = − sin x (l) f (x) = − 4 cos x
2
VERTICAL SHIFTS
We will now consider graphs of the form:
y = sin x + q y = cos x + q y = tan x + q
LE
q represents a vertical shift.
• If q > 0 the graph shifts up.
• If q < 0 the graph shifts down.
The numerical value of q determines how much the graph shifts.
EXAMPLE 5
Consider the function y = cos x + 1.

(a)
(b)
P
Sketch the graph of the function for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].
Write down the range of the function.
(c) What is the amplitude of the function?
(d) What is the period of the function?
M
Solution
• Start with a basic cos graph:

y
A
1
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
−1
S
• q = 1. The graph is shifted up 1 unit:

y
Final Sketch:
2
1
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
(b) y ∈ [0 ; 2] or 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 (c) 1 (d) 360°
198
EXAMPLE 6
Consider the function f (x) = tan x − 2.
(a) Sketch the graph of f for x ∈ [0° ; 360°].

(b) What is the range of f ?
(c) Write down the period of f .
Solution
• Start with a basic tan graph:

y
LE
1
x
45° 90° 135° 180°
−1
• q = − 2. The graph is shifted down 2 units:

Final Sketch: y
P
1
x
M
45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
−1
−2
−3
A
(b) y∈ℝ (c) 180°
THE STANDARD FORMS

S
The standard forms of the trigonometric functions are:
y = a sin x + q y = a cos x + q y = a tan x + q
• When the numerical value of a increases (ignoring the sign), the amplitude of the sin and cos
graphs increase. The numerical value of a determines the steepness of the tan graph.
• If a is negative, the graphs are all reflected across the x-axis.
• q shifts the graphs up (q > 0) or down (q < 0).
199
EXAMPLE 7
Sketch the graphs of the following functions for x ∈ [0° ; 360°]:
(a) f (x) = 2 sin x − 1 (b) y = − tan x + 1
Solution
• Start with a basic sin graph: • a = 2. The amplitude is 2:
y
y 2
LE
1 1
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°
−1 −1
−2
• q = − 1. The graph is shifted down 1 unit:

Final Sketch:
P y
1
M
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
−1
−2
−3
A
(b) Thought Process:

S
• Start with a basic tan graph: • a < 0. The graph is reflected across the x-axis:
y y
1 1
x x
45° 90° 135° 180° 45° 90° 135° 180°
−1 −1
200
Final Sketch: y
1
x
45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 360°
−1
LE
SKETCHING FOR DIFFERENT INTERVALS
Graphs of trigonometric functions can also be sketched for intervals other than [0° ; 360°]. We
sketch the graph as usual, except that we stop the graph at the end point of the interval and not at
360°:
EXAMPLE 8
Sketch the graphs of the following functions for the given interval:
(a) y = − 3 cos x + 1;
P
x ∈ [0° ; 270°]
(b) y = 2 tan x − 2; x ∈ [0° ; 180°]
Solution
M
• Start with a basic cos graph: • a = − 3. The graph is reflected across the
x-axis and the amplitude is 3:
A
y
3
y 2
S
1 1
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°
−1 −1
−2
−3
201
Final Sketch: y
2
Remember to sketch for the
1 interval [0° ; 270°].
∴ Stop sketching at 270°.
x
90° 180° 270°
−1
LE
−2
(b) Thought Process:
• Start with a basic tan graph: • a = 2. When x = 45°, the y-value is 2:
y
P 2
1 1
M
x x
45° 90° 135° 180° 45° 90° 135° 180°
−1 −1
−2
A
• q = − 2. The graph has shifted down 2 units:
Final Sketch: y
x
S
45° 90° 135° 180°

−1 Remember to sketch for the
interval [0° ; 180°].
−2 ∴ Stop sketching at 180°.
−3
−4
202
EXERCISE 2
(a) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions for x ∈ [0° ; 360°]:
(1) y = sin x + 1 (2) f (x) = tan x − 3

(3) g(x) = cos x − 2 (4) h(x) = tan x + 1
1
(5) y = cos x + 3 (6) y = sin x −
2
(b) For each of the functions:
(i) Sketch the graph of function for the given interval.
(ii) Write down the period of the function.
(iii) Write down the amplitude of the function (if applicable).
(iv) Write down the range of the function.
LE
(1) y = 2 sin x + 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (2) y = − 2 cos x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]
(3) y = − tan x + 2; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (4) f (x) = 2 tan x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]
1
(5) y = − cos x + 2; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (6) y = 3 sin x − 2; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]
2
(7) y = − 3 tan x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (8) h(x) = 4 cos x − 3; x ∈ [0° ; 180°]
3
(9) g(x) = − sin x − 2; x ∈ [0° ; 270°] (10) y = 2 tan x + ; x ∈ [0° ; 90°]
4
(11)
P
y = 2 cos x + 3; x ∈ [0° ; 270°] (12) f (x) = 2 sin x − 2; x ∈ [0° ; 180°]
FINDING THE EQUATION OF A TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
In the following examples, we will determine the equation of a trigonometric function when the
M
graph of the function is given:
EXAMPLE 9
Determine the equation of the trigonometric function represented by each of the following graphs:
A
(a) y (b) y
1
3
2
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 45° 90° 135° 180°
S
1
− −3
2
(c) y
1
x
90° 180° 270° 360°
203
Solution
(a) This is a sin graph.

1 1
• The amplitude is and the graph has not been reflected, therefore a = .
2 2
• The graph has not been shifted vertically, therefore q = 0.
1
Equation: y = sin x
2
(b) This is a tan graph.
• The graph has been reflected across the x-axis and stretched by a factor of 3 (the y-value
is −3 at x = 45°), therefore a = − 3.
• The graph has not been shifted vertically, therefore q = 0.
Equation: y = − 3 tan x
LE
(c) This is a cos graph.
1
• The amplitude is (2 − 0) = 1 and the graph has not been reflected, therefore a = 1.
2
• The graph has shifted 1 unit up, therefore q = 1.
Equation: y = cos x + 1
EXAMPLE 10
(a)
P
Determine the equation of the trigonometric function represented by each of the following graphs:
y (b) y
1 3
M
x 2
90° 180° 270° 360°
−1 1
x
45° 90° 135° 180°
−3
A
Solution
(a) This is a sin graph.

S
1
• The amplitude of the graph is (1 − (−3)) = 2 and the graph has not been reflected,
2
therefore a = 2.
• The graph has been shifted down 1 unit, therefore q = − 1.
Equation: y = 2 sin x − 1
(b) This is a tan graph.

• The graph has been reflected in the x-axis and has not been been stretched, therefore
a = − 1.
• The graph has been shifted up 2 units, therefore q = 2.
Equation: y = − tan x + 2
204
GRAPH INTERPRETATION
EXAMPLE 11
The graphs of f (x) = 2 cos x and g(x) = sin x − 1, for x ∈ [0º ; 360º] are sketched below.
A and B are the y-intercepts of f and g respectively. C is a turning point of g and D is a turning
point of f. The graphs of f and g intersect at C and 216,87º.
y
f
A
C 216,87º x
LE
g
B
(a) What is the period of f ?
(b) What is the amplitude of f ?
(c)
(d)
P
What is the range of g?
What is the maximum value of f ?
(e) Calculate the length of AB.

M
(f) Write down the coordinates of D.
(g) What is the range of h if h(x) = − 2 g(x) + 1?
(h) Write down the equation of j if j is obtained by reflecting f in the x-axis and shifting it 1
unit down.
A
(i) For which value(s) of x is

(1) g(x) = 0? (2) f (x) ≤ 0?
(3) g(x) > f (x)? (4) f (x) ⋅ g(x) ≤ 0?
Solution
S
(a) 360º (b) 2
(c) −2 ≤ y ≤ 0 (d) 2
(e) AB = 2 − (−1) = 3 (f) D(180º ; −2)
(g) 1≤y≤5 (h) j(x) = − 2 cos x − 1

(i) (1) x = 90º (2) 90º ≤ x ≤ 270º
(3) 90º < x < 216,87º (4) 0º ≤ x ≤ 90º or 270º ≤ x ≤ 360º
205
EXERCISE 3
(a) Determine the equation of the trigonometric function represented by each of the following
graphs:
(1) y (2) y
1
1 3
x x
90° 180° 270° 360° 45° 90° 135° 180°
1
−1 −
3
LE
(3) y (4) y
2 x
45° 90° 135° 180°
x −1
90° 180° 270° 360°
−2 −2
(5) y
P (6) y
2
2
x
M
1 90° 180° 270° 360°
x −2
90° 180° 270° 360°
−6
A
(7) (8) y
y
2
S
3
2
1
x
x 90° 180° 270° 360°
45° 90° 135° 180°
−1
206
(9) y (10)* y
3
3
30º x
330º
1 −1
x
45° 90° 135° 180°
−1
LE
(b) The graphs of f (x) = 2 cos x + 1 and g(x) = sin x, for x ∈ [0º ; 360º], are sketched
below. A is the y-intercept of f. C is a turning point of g. The graphs of f and g intersect
at C and 216,87º.
f
A P C
216,87º x
g
M
(1) What is the period of g?
A
(2) What is the amplitude of f ?
(3) What is the minimum value of f ?

(4) Write down the coordinates of A.
S
(5) What is the range of f ?
(6) What is the maximum value of h if h(x) = 2 g(x) − 1?
(7) Write down the equation of j if j is obtained by reflecting f in the x-axis and
shifting it 2 units up.
(8) For which value(s) of x is

(i) g(x) = 0? (ii) f (x) ≤ 0 ?
(iii) g(x) > f (x)? (iv) f (x) ⋅ g(x) ≤ 0?
207
(c) The graphs of f (x) = − 4 tan x and g(x) = 2 sin x − 1, for x ∈ [0º ; 360º] are sketched
below. C and 150º are x-intercepts of g. D is a turning point of g. The graphs of f and g
intersect at 9,54º and 204,62º. AB is parallel to the y-axis with A on g and B on f.
y
A f
9,54º 204,62º x
C 60º 150º
LE
D
B
(1) What is the period of f ? (2) Write down the range of f.

(3) What is the maximum value of g? (4) What is the amplitude of g?
(5) Determine the coordinates of D. (6) Calculate the length of AB.
(7) Determine the coordinates of C.
(8) Write down the equations of the vertical asymptotes of f.
(9) Determine the range of h if h(x) = 2 g(x) + 2.
(10)
(11)
P
Let j(x) = 4 tan x + 1. Describe the transformation from f to j in words.
For which value(s) of x is
(i) g(x) = 0? (ii) f (x) ≥ 0?
(iii) g(x) ≤ f (x)? (iv) f (x) ⋅ g(x) > 0?
M
(d) The graphs of f (x) = a sin x and g(x) = − 2 cos x + q are sketched below for
x ∈ [0º ; 360º]:
y
4
A
g
x
S
(1) Determine the values of a and q. (2) What is the period of g?

(3) Write down the amplitude of f. (4) What is the minimum value of g?
(5) What is the range of h if h(x) = − 3 f (x) + 1?
(i) f (x) = 0? (ii) g(x) > 0?
f (x)
(iii) f (x) < g(x)? (iv)* ≥ 0?
g(x)
208
(e) The graphs of f (x) = a cos x and g(x) = b tan x + q are sketched below for
x ∈ [0º ; 360º]. (45º ; 3) is a point on g. The graphs intersect at 223,53º and 302,45º.
The maximum value of f is 4.
1
302,45º x
45º 223,53º
LE
g f
(1) Determine the values of a, b and q. (2) What is the minimum value of f ?
(3) What is the period of g? (4) What is the period of f ?
(5) What is the amplitude of f ? (6) What is the range of g?
(7)
P
If j is obtained by vertically stretching f by a factor of 3 and shifting it
down 2 units, what is the minimum value of j ?
(8) Let h(x) = − 2 tan x − 3. Describe the transformation from g to h in words.
M
(i) g(x) ≥ 0? (ii) g(x) ≥ f (x)?
(iii) f (x) ⋅ g(x) ≤ 0? (iv)* −f (x) ⋅ [g(x)]2 ≤ 0?
(a) For each of the functions:

(i) Sketch the graph of the function for the given interval.
A
(ii) Write down the period of the function.

(iii) Write down the amplitude of the function (if applicable).
(iv) Write down the range of the function.
(1) y = 4 sin x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (2) y = 2 cos x + 3; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]

S
(3) y = − 2 tan x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (4) f (x) = 3 tan x + 1; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]

1
(5) y = − cos x + 2; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (6) y = 2 sin x − 4; x ∈ [0° ; 360°]
4
(7) y = − tan x + 2; x ∈ [0° ; 360°] (8) h(x) = 2 cos x − 3; x ∈ [0° ; 180°]
1
(9) g(x) = − sin x + 1; x ∈ [0° ; 270°] (10) y = 3 tan x + ; x ∈ [0° ; 90°]
2
1
(11) y = 3 cos x − 3; x ∈ [0° ; 270°] (12) f (x) = sin x − 1; x ∈ [0° ; 180°]
2
209
(b) The graphs of f (x) = a sin x and g(x) = b cos x + q for x ∈ [0º ; 360º] are sketched
below. The maximum value of f is 4 and the maximum value of g is 1. g has x-intercepts at
120º and 240º. The graphs intersect at 166,36º and 320,48º. P is a turning point of f.
y
4
1
120º 240º 320,48º x
30º 166,36º
f
−3
LE
N g
(1) Determine the values of a, b and q. (2) What is the amplitude of g?

(3) What is the period of f ? (4) Write down the coordinates of P.
(5) Calculate the length of MN.
(6) What is the range of h if h(x) = 2 g(x) + 1?
(7) If j is obtained by reflecting f in the x-axis and shifting it up 3 units, what is the
(8)
P
minimum value of j ?
Let h(x) = 2 cos x + 3. Describe the transformation from g to h in words.
(i) g(x) ≤ 0? (ii) g(x) ≤ f (x)?
(iii) f (x) ⋅ g(x) > 0? (iv)* [ f (x)]2 ⋅ g(x) < 0?
M
(c) The graphs of f (x) = a cos x and g(x) = b tan x + q for x ∈ [0º ; 360º] are sketched
below. The y-intercepts of f and g are 2 and 1 respectively. g has x-intercepts at C
and 206,57º. The graphs intersect at 229,04º and 336,98º. B is a turning point of f and AB
is a vertical line. (45º ; −1) is a point on g.
A
y
g
f
2
S
1 A
C 45º 229,04º x
206,57º 336,98º
−1
(1) Determine the values of a, b and q. (2) What is the period of g?

(3) What is the amplitude of f ? (4) Calculate the length of AB.
210
(5) Determine the coordinates of C. (6) What is the range of f ?
(7) Write down the equations of the vertical asymptotes of g.
(8) What is the range of j if j(x) = − f (x) + 2?
(i) f (x) ≥ 0? (ii) f (x) ≤ g(x)?
f (x)
(iii) f (x) ⋅ g(x) ≤ 0? (iv)* ≥ 0?
[g(x)]2
(d) Sound waves can be modelled using the sine function. The amplitude of the sine graph
represents the volume of the sound. Consider the following sine functions:
1
y= sin x y = 100 sin x y = 1000 sin x
100
One of these graphs represents a sound that will cause hearing damage, another represents a
LE
whisper in a quiet room and another a conversation at a noisy social event. Choose from
these functions the one most likely to represent a sound wave that
(1) will cause hearing damage.

(2) represents a whisper in a quiet room.
(3) represents a conversation at a noisy social event.
(e)* The average number of hours of sunlight that Cape Town receives per day each month forms
a cyclical pattern. In March and September, Cape Town receives on average 11 hours of
sunlight per day and in June it receives on average 8 hours of sunlight per day.
P
The average number of hours daily sunlight that Cape Town receives each month can be
modelled with the cosine function h = a cos(30t) + q, where h is the average number of
hours of sunlight per day and t is the month (t = 1 represents January).
M
(1) Determine the values of a and q.
(2) How many hours of sunlight would you expect Cape Town to receive per day in
October?
A
S
211
CHAPTER EIGHT
——————————————————————————————
Analytical Geometry
————————————————————————————————————————
Analytical Geometry establishes a relationship between Geometry and Algebra. Using Analytical
Geometry, we can solve geometric problems by solving algebraic equations or substituting into
algebraic expressions.
DISTANCE FORMULA
The distance between any two points A(xA ; yA) and B(xB ; yB ) is given by
B(xB ; yB )
LE
AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2
A(xA ; yA)
Where does this formula come from?

y B(xB ; yB )
In ΔABC:
P yB − yA
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
2 2 2
(Pythagoras)
∴ AB = (xB − xA) + (yB − yA)
∴ AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2

M
A(xA ; yA) C
xB − xA
x
EXAMPLE 1
A
Calculate the distance between the following points on the Cartesian plane:
(Give your answers in surd form.)
(a) A(2 ; 6) and B(8 ; 14) (b) (1 ; −2) and (−1 ; −6)
S
Solution
(a) AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2 (b) Label the points: A(1 ; −2) and B(−1 ; −6)
∴ AB = (8 − 2)2 + (14 − 6)2 AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2
∴ AB = 10 units ∴ AB = (−1 − 1)2 + (−6 − (−2))2
∴ AB = 2 5 units
The distance formula can be used to calculate the length of a line segment:
212
EXAMPLE 2
R(−8 ; −2)
In the sketch alongside, RS is a line segment with R(−8 ; −2)
and S(−4 ; −6).
Calculate the length of RS, correct to two decimal places.

S(−4 ; −6)
Solution
RS = (xR − xS )2 + (yR − yS )2 Write the formulas in terms of R and S.
∴ RS = (−4 − (−8))2 + (−6 − (−2))2

∴ RS = 5,66 units
If the distance is given, the distance formula can be used to determine unknown values in the
LE
coordinates of the points:
EXAMPLE 3
(a) L is the point (1 ; 6) and M is the point (k ; 3). Determine the possible values of k if
LM = 10 units.
(b) Consider E(−4 ; y) and F(8 ; 2). Determine the value of y if EF = 15 units and y < 0.
(c) The distance between (2 − t ; −12) and (t ; −10) is 13 units. Determine the value(s) of t.
Solution
P
(a) LM = 10 (b) EF = 15
∴ EF2 = 225
M
∴ (xM − xL )2 + (yM − yL )2 = 10 ∴ (xF − xE )2 + (yF − yE )2 = 225
∴ (xM − xL )2 + (yM − yL )2 = 10 ∴ (8 − (−4))2 + (2 − y)2 = 225
∴ (k − 1)2 + (3 − 6)2 = 10 ∴ 144 + 4 − 4y + y 2 = 225
∴ k 2 − 2k + 1 + 9 = 10 ∴ y 2 − 4y − 77 = 0
∴ k 2 − 2k = 0 ∴ (y − 11)(y + 7) = 0
A
∴ k (k − 2) = 0 ∴ y = 11 or y = −7
∴ k = 0 or k = 2 N.A.
∴ y = −7
(c) Label the points: A(2 − t ; −12) and B(t ; −10)

S
AB = 13
2
∴ AB = 13
∴ (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2 = 13
∴ (t − (2 − t))2 + (−10 − (−12))2 = 13
∴ (2t − 2)2 + 4 = 13
∴ 4t 2 − 8t + 4 + 4 = 13
∴ 4t 2 − 8t − 5 = 0
∴ (2t − 5)(2t + 1) = 0
5 1
∴t = or t = −
2 2
213
EQUIDISTANCE
Point P is said to be equidistant from A and B if the distance from P to A is the same as the distance
from P to B:
A B
AP = BP
In the following examples, we will prove that a point is equidistant from two other points by
comparing the distances between the points:
EXAMPLE 4
LE
In the diagram alongside, A(4 ; 18), B(11 ; −5) and P(−4 ; 3) A(4 ; 18)
are shown. AP and BP are drawn.
Prove that P is equidistant from A and B.

P(−4 ; 3)
B(11 ; −5)
Solution
AP =
P
(xP − xA)2 + (yP − yA)2 BP = (xP − xB )2 + (yP − yB )2
∴ AP = (−4 − 4)2 + (3 − 18)2 ∴ BP = (−4 − 11)2 + (3 − (−5))2

M
∴ AP = 17 units ∴ BP = 17 units
AP = BP
∴ P is equidistant from A and B.

A
EXAMPLE 5
Show that C(−6 ; 1) is equidistant from D(−1 ; −1) and E(−8 ; 6).
Solution
S
CD = (xD − xC )2 + (yD − yC )2 CE = (xE − xC )2 + (yE − yC )2
∴ CD = (−1 − (−6))2 + (−1 − 1)2 ∴ CE = (−8 − (−6))2 + (6 − 1)2

∴ CD = 29 units ∴ CE = 29 units
CD = CE
∴ C is equidistant from D an E.
Given equal distances, we can also solve for unknowns in the coordinates of points:
214
EXAMPLE 6
(3 ; t) is equidistant from (−1 ; −11) and (8 ; −2). Calculate the value of t.
Solution
Label the points: P(3 ; t), A(−1 ; −11) and B(8 ; −2)
AP = BP
∴ (xA − xP )2 + (yA − yP )2 = (xB − xP )2 + (yB − yP )2
∴ (−1 − 3)2 + (−11 − t)2 = (8 − 3)2 + (−2 − t)2
∴ 16 + 121 + 22t + t 2 = 25 + 4 + 4t + t 2
∴ 18t = − 108
∴t =−6
LE
EXERCISE 1
(a) Calculate the distance between the following points on the Cartesian plane:
(Round your answers to two decimal places.)
(1) A(6 ; 2) and B(3 ; 6) (2) M(−3 ; 5) and N(−2 ; 3)

(3) (4 ; −1) and (16 ; −6) (4) (1 ; 2) and (−1 ; −3)
(b)
P
Calculate the length of the following line segments:
(Leave your answers in surd form.)
(1) C(−3 ; 6) (2) L(2 ; 3)

M
D(5 ; −9) K(−2 ; −2)
(3) (−6 ; −5) (4) (−2 ; −1)

A
(−2 ; −6)
(−10 ; −7)
(c) Determine the value(s) of k in each of the following cases:
S
(1) S is the point (4 ; 2), T is the point (1 ; k) and ST = 5 units.
(2) The distance between (k ; 7) and (−1 ; 3) is 20 units.
(3) The points D(−6 ; 2) and E(2 ; k) are such that DE = 10 units and k < 0.
(4) The distance between (k ; −2) and (−1 ; −5) is 34 units and k > 0.
(5) The distance between P(k ; −5) and Q(−3 ; 5k − 3) is 13 units.
(6) (k + 1 ; −1) and (3k ; k − 4) are two points. The distance between these two
points is 10 units and k > 0.
215
(d) Show that P is equidistant from A and B in each of the following diagrams:
(1) B(3 ; 10) (2) A(3 ; 11)
B(10 ; 4)
P(2 ; 6)
A(−2 ; 5) P(−2 ; −1)
(e) Prove that
(1) R(−6 ; −5) is equidistant from S(− 4 ; 1) and T(−12 ; −7).
(2) (2 ; −4) is equidistant from (−3 ; −1) and (5 ; 1).
(f) Determine the value of p in each of the following cases:
LE
(1) A( p ; 6) is equidistant from B(1 ; 5) and C(9 ; −1).
(2) (2 ; p) is equidistant from (−2 ; 4) and (−6 ; −8).
(3) M(2 ; 2p) is equidistant from N(3 ; 3p + 2) and P(−2 ; p + 3).
(4) ( p ; −3) is equidistant from (2p + 5 ; 2) and (1 − p ; −6). p is an integer.
(g)* Consider A(2k ; 3k − 1) and B(4k + 1 ; 5k + 7). If AB = 6k + 1 and k > 0, determine the
(h)*
value of k.
P
Prove that ( p ; p + 2) is equidistant from (4p + 1 ; 3p + 1) and (3p − 1 ; 4p + 3) for all
values of p.
M
MIDPOINT OF A LINE SEGMENT
The coordinates of the midpoint M(xM ; yM ) of a line segment AB, with A(xA ; yA) and B(xB ; yB ),
are given by
A (xA ; yA)
xA + xB yA + yB
xM = yM =
A
M(xM ; yM )
2 2
B(xB ; yB )
EXAMPLE 7
S
B(5 ; 7)
In the diagram alongside, M is the midpoint of the line segment AB
with A(1 ; 3) and B(5 ; 7). Determine the coordinates of M.
M
Solution
A(1 ; 3)
x + xB y + yB
xM = A yM = A
2 2
1+5 3+7
∴ xM = ∴ yM =
2 2
∴ xM = 3 ∴ yM = 5
∴ M(3 ; 5)
216
We can use this formula to calculate the midpoint of the line segment connecting two points even if
no sketch is given:
EXAMPLE 8
Determine the midpoint of the line segment connecting the following points:
(a) P(−1 ; −2) and Q(−5 ; 1) (b) (6 ; −3) and (−8 ; −4)
Solution
(a) Write the formulas in terms of P and Q. (b) Label the points: A(6 ; −3) and B(−8 ; −4)
xP + xQ yP + yQ xA + xB yA + yB
xM = yM = xM = yM =
2 2 2 2
LE
−1 + (−5) −2 + 1 6 + (−8) −3 + (−4)
∴ xM = ∴ yM = ∴ xM = ∴ yM =
2 2 2 2
∴ xM = −3 1 ∴ xM = −1 7
∴ yM = − ∴ yM = −
2 2
( 2) ( 2)
1 7
∴ M −3 ; −
P ∴ M −1 ; −
If the coordinates of the midpoint and one of the end points of a line segment are given, we can
determine the coordinates of the other end point:
EXAMPLE 9
M
In the diagram alongside, A and B(2 ; −2) are the end points A
( 2)
1
( 2)
1 M −1 ; −
of the line segment. M −1 ; − is the midpoint of the line
segment. B(2 ; −2)

A
Determine the coordinates of A.
Solution
xA + xB yA + yB
xM = yM =
2 2
S
x +2 1 y + (−2)
∴ −1 = A ∴− = A
2 2 2
∴ −2 = xA + 2 ∴ −1 = yA − 2
∴ xA = − 4 ∴ yA = 1
∴ A(−4 ; 1)
In the next example, we will use the midpoint formula to determine unknown values in the
coordinates of the midpoint and one of the end points of a line segment:
217
EXAMPLE 10
( p ; 6) is the midpoint of the line segment connecting (−4 ; 3) and (−1 ; q). Determine the values
of p and q.
Solution
Label the points: M( p ; 6), A(−4 ; 3) and B(−1 ; q)
xA + xB yA + yB
xM = yM =
2 2
− 4 + (−1) 3+q
∴p= ∴6=
2 2
5 ∴ 12 = 3 + q
LE
∴p=−
2 ∴q =9
EXERCISE 2
(a) Determine the midpoint M of the following line segments:
(1) A(5 ; 10)

P (2) K(2 ; −1)
M M
B(3 ; 6) L(4 ; −7)

M
(b) Determine the midpoint of the line segment connecting the following points:
(1) A(−4 ; −1) and B(2 ; 3) (2) (5 ; 2) and (4 ; 3)
(2 3) (2 3)
1 1 3 1
(3) R(−3 ; −6) and S(−4 ; −2) (4) ;− and ;
A
(c) Determine the coordinates of A in each of the following sketches:
(1) B(3 ; 8) (2) A
(2 2)
7 9 B(8 ; −6)
S
M(−1 ; 6) M ;−
A
(d) Determine the value of p and q in each of the following cases:
(1) M( p ; −1) is the midpoint of the line segment connecting U(6 ; −3) and V(10 ; q).
(2) ( p ; 4) and (10 ; 3) are the end points of a line segment. The midpoint of the line
segment is (2 ; q).
(3) M( p ; 2) is the midpoint of the line segment connecting E(−4 ; q) and

F(3p + 1 ; q − 4).
218
(e) In the diagram alongside, A(x ; 3) and C(2 ; −5) y
are the end points of the line segment AC. B is a A(x ; 3)
point such that AB = BC. AC = 10 units.
Determine x
B
(1) the value of x.
(2) the coordinates of B. C(2 ; −5)
y
(f) In the diagram alongside, (2 ; −1) is the midpoint
of the line segment connecting ( p ; −6) and (8 ; q). (8 ; q)
Determine the length of the line segment. Round
LE
your answer to two decimal places. (2 ; −1) x
( p ; − 6)
(g)* In the diagram alongside, C(−3 ; 4) is the centre of y

the circle. A is a point on the circumference of the
circle such that ACO is a diameter of the circle.
A
Determine
P
B is one of the x-intercepts of the circle.
C(−3 ; 4)
(1) the radius of the circle.
M
(2) the coordinates of A. O x
B
(3) the coordinates of B.
GRADIENT OF A LINE
For any two points A(xA ; yA) and B(xB ; yB ) on a straight line AB, the gradient of the line is given
A
by
B(xB ; yB )
yB − yA
mAB =
xB − xA
S
A(xA ; yA)
EXAMPLE 11
Calculate the gradient of the straight line through the following points:
(a) A(3 ; −6) and B(2 ; −4) (b) (−1 ; 6) and (3 ; −4)
( 2)
1
(c) E 1; and F(−3 ; −2)
219
Solution
yB − yA (b) Label the points: A(−1 ; 6) and B(3 ; −4)
(a) mAB =
xB − xA
−4 − (−6) yB − yA
∴ mAB = mAB =
2−3 xB − xA
∴ mAB = −2 −4 − 6
∴ mAB =
3 − (−1)
5
∴ mAB = −
2
(c) Write the formula in terms of E and F:
yF − yE
mEF =
LE
xF − xE
1
−2 − 2
∴ mEF =
−3 − 1
5
∴ mEF =
8
We can determine an unknown value in the coordinates of a point if the coordinates of another point
and the gradient of the line connecting these points are known:
EXAMPLE 12
P
8
The gradient of the line connecting G(−4 ; 6) and H(k ; −2) is − . Determine the value of k.
9
M
Solution
8
mGH = −
9
yH − yG 8
∴ =−
xH − xG 9
A
−2 − 6 8
∴ =−
k − (−4) 9
−8 8
∴ =−
k +4 9
S
∴ −72 = −8(k + 4)
∴ −72 = −8k − 32
∴ −8k = − 40
∴k =5
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES
The following are always true for the gradients of all horizontal and vertical lines:
Horizontal Line: m = 0 Vertical Line: m is undefined
220
Why is this the case?
Horizontal Line: Vertical Line:

y y − yA y yB − yA
mAB = B mAB =
xB − xA B xB − xA
A B
but yB = yA but xB = xA
A
0 y − yA
x ∴ mAB = x ∴ mAB = B
xB − xA 0
∴ mAB = 0 ∴ mAB is undefined
PARALLEL LINES
LE
When two lines AB and CD are parallel their gradients are equal:
A C
mAB = mCD
B D
P
In the next example, we will prove that two lines are parallel by proving that their gradients are
equal:
EXAMPLE 13
M
A(1 ; 6), B(−3 ; −2), C(−4 ; 1) and D(2 ; 13) are given. Show that AB ∥ CD.
Solution
yB − yA yD − yC
mAB = mCD =
A
xB − xA xD − xC
−2 − 6 13 − 1
∴ mAB = ∴ mCD =
−3 − 1 2 − (−4)
∴ mAB = 2 ∴ mCD = 2
S
∴ mAB = mCD
∴ AB ∥ CD
If we know that lines are parallel, we can determine unknown values in the coordinates of points by
equating the gradients of the lines:
EXAMPLE 14
E(k ; −5) and F(4 ; −11) are two points on the line EF. P(−3 ; 6) and Q(−4 ; 9) are two points on
the line PQ. Determine the value of k if EF ∥ PQ.
221
Solution
mEF = mPQ
y − yE yQ − yP
∴ F =
xF − xE xQ − xP
−11 − (−5) 9−6
∴ =
4−k −4 − (−3)
−6
∴ = −3
4−k
∴ −6 = −3(4 − k)
∴ −6 = −12 + 3k
∴ 3k = 6
LE
∴k =2
PERPENDICULAR LINES
When two lines AB and CD are perpendicular, the product of their gradients equals −1:
A C
mAB × mCD = −1
P D B
We can prove that two lines are perpendicular by proving that the product of their gradients is equal
to −1:
M
EXAMPLE 15
A(1 ; −3) and B(7 ; 1) are two points on the line AB. C(−2 ; 5) and D(4 ; −4) are two points on the
line CD. Prove that AB ⊥ CD.
A
Solution
yB − yA yD − yC
mAB = mCD =
xB − xA xD − xC
1 − (−3) −4 − 5
∴ mAB = ∴ mCD =
S
7−1 4 − (−2)
2 3
∴ mAB = ∴ mCD = −
3 2
mAB × mCD
2 3
= ×−
3 2
= −1
∴ AB ⊥ CD
222
If we know that two lines are perpendicular, we can determine unknown values in the coordinates of
the points by multiplying the two gradients and equating the product to −1:
EXAMPLE 16
E(−3 ; 2), F(2 ; −2), G(1 ; −6) and H( p ; −1) are given. Determine the value of p if EF ⊥ GF.
Solution
mEF × mGH = −1
y − yE yH − yG
∴ F × = −1
xF − xE xH − xG
−2 − 2 −1 − (−6)
∴ × = −1
2 − (−3) p−1
LE
−4 5
∴ × = −1
5 p−1
−4
∴ = −1
p−1
∴ −4 = −p + 1
∴p=5
COLLINEAR POINTS
P
Points are said to be collinear if they are on the same straight line.
If A, B and C are collinear points then

C
M
B
mAB = mBC = mAC
A
To prove that points A, B and C are collinear, we calculate any two of these gradients and show that
A
they are equal:
EXAMPLE 17
Prove that A(−6 ; 5), B(3 ; −1) and C(9 ; −5) are collinear points.
S
Solution
yB − yA yC − yB
mAB = mBC =
xB − xA xC − XB
−1 − 5 −5 − (−1)
∴ mAB = ∴ mBC =
3 − (−6) 9−3
2 2
∴ mAB = − ∴ mBC = −
3 3
∴ mAB = mBC We could have proven that mAB = mAC or mBC = mAC instead.
∴ A, B and C are collinear points.
223
We can use the fact that points are collinear to determine the values of unknowns in the coordinates
of the points:
EXAMPLE 18
(t − 2 ; 4), (t + 1 ; 5) and (9 − t ; 7) are collinear points. Determine the value of t.
Solution
Label the points: A(t − 2 ; 4), B(t + 1 ; 5) and C(9 − t ; 7)
mAB = mBC
y − yA y − yB
∴ B = C
xB − xA xc − xB
LE
5−4 7−5
∴ =
t + 1 − (t − 2) 9 − t − (t + 1)
1 2
∴ =
3 8 − 2t
∴ 8 − 2t = 6
∴ −2t = −2
∴t =1
EXERCISE 3
P
(a) Calculate the gradient of the straight line connecting the following points:
( 2 )
3
M
(1) A(−1 ; 3) and B(3 ; −7) (2) − ; −8 and (−3 ; −10)
(3) U(−5 ; 2) and V(−2 ; 2) (4) (4 ; −7) and (4 ; −11)
(b) Determine the value of k in each of the following cases:

6
G has coordinates (6 ; −1), H has coordinates (20 ; k) and mGH =
A
(1) .
7
5
(2) (k ; −12) and (−2 ; 3) are two points on a straight line with a gradient of − .
4
(c) Prove that PQ ∥ ST if
S
(1) P(2 ; −3), Q(8 ; 7), S(−6 ; −4) and T(−3 ; 1).
(2) P(−5 ; 2), Q(1 ; −2), S(4 ; −3) and T(−5 ; 3).
(d) Determine the value of p in each of the following cases:
(1) AB ∥ CD with A(3 ; −5), B(5 ; −8), C(−2 ; p) and D(−6 ; 0).
(2) ( p ; 4) and (10 ; 6) are two points on the line EF. (2 ; −5) and (7 ; −3) are two points
on the line GH. EF ∥ GH.
(3) The line passing through the points (4 ; 3) and (6 − p ; 9) is parallel to the line
passing through the points ( p − 1 ; 11) and (−1 ; 2).
224
(e) Show that KL ⊥ MN if
(1) K(−3 ; 6), L(−4 ; 2), M(2 ; −5) and N(10 ; −7).
(2) K(1 ; −4), L(−6 ; 1), M(−3 ; −6) and N(7 ; 8).
(3) K(2 ; −1), L(2 ; 6), M(−3 ; −4) and N(8 ; −4).
(f) Determine the value(s) of t in each of the following cases:
(1) D(−2 ; −1), E(−3 ; t), F(−2 ; 5), G(2 ; 4) and DE ⊥ FG.
(2) (−8 ; −2) and (−3 ; 2) are two points on the line PQ. (t ; −1) and (9 ; −6) are two
points on the line ST. PQ ⊥ ST.
(3) The line passing through (2t − 1 ; 2) and (1 ; −5) is perpendicular to the line
passing through (2 ; −1) and (7 − t ; 5).
LE
(g) Prove that T, U and V are collinear if
(1) T(3 ; 10), U(6 ; 4) and V(8 ; 0). (2) T(−9 ; 5), U(−4 ; 2) and V(6 ; −4).
(h) Determine the value of n in each of the following cases:
(1) A(n ; 7), B(3n ; 4) and C(4n − 2 ; 1) are collinear points.
(2) (2 − n ; n), (n ; 5) and (7 ; 2n + 1) are collinear points and n < 0.

(i)*
P
The points A(2k ; −8), B(k 2 + 4 ; k 3), C(2 ; 4) and D(k ; k 2 ) are given. Prove that
AB ∥ CD for all values of k (k ≠ 2).
(j)* The line through the points (−1 ; p) and (1 ; q) is parallel to the line through the points
(4 ; 1) and (6 ; 2p + 1), and perpendicular to the line through the points (q − 5 ; 2) and
M
(3 ; 1). Determine the values of p and q.
APPLICATIONS - TRIANGLES
In this section, we will use Analytical Geometry techniques to solve problems involving triangles.
A
To determine … use …
the length of line segment AB. AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2
the midpoint, M, of the line segment AB. xA + xB yA + yB

xM = and yM =
2 2
S
y − yA
the gradient of the line AB. mAB = B
xB − xA
To show that … prove …
P is equidistant from A and B AP = BP
AB ∥ CD mAB = mCD
AB ⊥ CD mAB × mCD = −1
A,B and C are collinear points mAB = mBC or mAB = mAC or mBC = mAC
225
EXAMPLE 19 y
B(6 ; 2)
In the diagram alongside, ΔABC is an isosceles
triangle with AB = BC. The coordinates
of A, B and C are (−2 ; −4), (6 ; 2) x
and (12 ; q) respectively. D is a
point on the line AC and BD
is drawn. A(−2 ; −4)
D
(a) Determine the value of q. C(12 ; q)
(b) Given that D is the midpoint of AC,
(1) determine the coordinates of D.
(2) prove that BD ⊥ AC.
(c) Calculate the perimeter of ΔABC, correct to two decimal places.
LE
(d) Calculate the area of ΔABC.
Solution
(a) AB = BC
∴ AB2 = BC2
∴ (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2 = (xC − xB )2 + yC − yB )2
∴ (6 − (−2))2 + (2 − (−4))2 = (12 − 6)2 + (q − 2)2
P
∴ 100 = 36 + q 2 − 4q + 4
∴ q 2 − 4q − 60 = 0
∴ (q − 10)(q + 6) = 0
M
∴ q = 10 or q = − 6
N.A.
q has to be negative based on the sketch.
∴ q = −6
xA + xC yA + yB
(b) (1) xD = yD =
2 2
A
12 + (−2) −6 + (−4)
∴ xD = ∴ yD =
2 2
∴ xD = 5 ∴ yD = −5
S
∴ D(5 ; −5)
yC − yA yD − yB
(2) mAC = mBD =
xC − xA xD − xB
−6 − (−4) −5 − 2
∴ mAC = ∴ mBD =
12 − (−2) 5−6
1 ∴ mBD = 7
∴ mAC = −
7
1
mAC × mBD = − × 7 = −1
7
∴ AC ⊥ BD
226
(c) AB = (xB − xA)2 + (yB − yA)2 AC = (xC − xA)2 + (yC − yA)2
∴ AB = (2 − (−4))2 + (6 − (−2))2 ∴ AC = (12 − (−2))2 + (−6 − (−4))2

∴ AB = 10 units ∴ AC = 10 2 units
Perimeter ΔABC = AB + BC + AC = 10 + 10 + 10 2 AB = BC
= 34,14 units
1
(d) BD = (xD − xB )2 + (yD − yB )2 Area ΔABC = × base × ⊥ height
2
1
∴ BD = (5 − 6)2 + (−5 − 2)2 ∴ Area ΔABC = × AC × BD
2
LE
1
∴ BD = 5 2 units ∴ Area ΔABC = × 10 2 × 5 2
2
∴ Area ΔABC = 50 units2
EXERCISE 4
y
(a) In the diagram alongside, ΔABC has vertices
A(6 ; 3), B(3 ; −4) and C(−1 ; 6). D is a point C(−1 ; 6)
on BC and AD is drawn. CD = DB.
(1)
P
Show that ΔABC is an isosceles triangle. A(6 ; 3)
(2) Determine the coordinates of D.
D
M
(3) Prove that BC ⊥ AD. x
(4) Calculate the perimeter of ΔABC. Round your
answer to two decimal places.
B(3 ; −4)
(5) Calculate the area of ΔABC.
A
(b) In the diagram alongside, ΔPQR has vertices P(7 ; 4)

P(7 ; 4), Q(2 ; −1) and R(x ; 2). M(4 ; y) is M(4 ; y)
a point on PR such that PM = MR.
( 2)
3 R(x ; 2)
N k;
( 2)
is a point on PQ. 3
S
N k;
(1) Determine the values of x and y.
(2) Prove that ΔPQR is a right-angled triangle.

Q(2 ; −1)
(3) Given that RQ ∥ MN, determine
(i) the value of k
(ii) the perimeter of ΔPQR, correct to two decimal places.
(iii) the area of ΔPQR.
227
(c) In the diagram alongside, A(6 ; 7), B(2 ; −1) y
A(6 ; 7)
and C(−3 ; 4) are joined to form ΔABC.
M and P are points on AB.
1
CP ⊥ AB and BM = AB.
2 C(−3 ; 4)
M
(1) Calculate the gradient of CP.
(2) Calculate the length of AM. Give P
your answer in surd form. x
(3) Determine the coordinates of M. B(2 ; −1)
(4) Calculate the perimeter of ΔAMC correct to two decimal places.
(5) If P has coordinates (k + 2 ; k) and CP = 45 units, determine
LE
(i) the value of k.
(ii) the area of ΔABC.
(d) In the diagram alongside, S, T and U(−1 ; −1) are S

vertices of ΔSTU. P(−3 ; 4) is the midpoint of SU
and Q(4 ; 1) is the the midpoint of TU. UD ⊥ ST D
and Ŝ = T̂ .
P(−3 ; 4)
(1) Determine the coordinates of S and T. T
(2)
(3)
P
Determine the gradient of UD.
Show that 2PQ = ST.
Q(4 ; 1)
U(−1 ; −1)
(4) Prove that PQ ∥ ST.
M
(5) Determine the coordinates of D.
y
(6) Calculate the area of ΔSTU.
P(4 ; 8)
(e) In the diagram alongside, ΔPQR is sketched. P has coordinates

(4 ; 8) and Q has coordinates (−2 ; −4). QR is a horizontal
line and PS ⊥ QR. The line PR cuts the x-axis at 5.
A
(1) Calculate the gradient of PR. 5 x

(2) Determine the coordinates of R.
(3) Write down the coordinates of S. Q(−2 ; −4) S R
S
(4) Calculate the area of ΔPQR.

y
(f)* In the diagram alongside, AC is a diameter of the circle. B
AB cuts the x-axis at −3 and the y-axis at 3. The y-axis
bisects AB and AB ⊥ BC.
3
Determine the radius and the coordinates of the A C
centre of the circle. −3 x
228
APPLICATIONS - QUADRILATERALS
The following table shows the properties of the different quadrilaterals studied in earlier grades:
Quadrilateral Properties
Trapezium
• One pair of opposite sides parallel
Parallelogram
• Both pairs of opposite sides parallel
LE
• Both pairs of opposite sides equal
• Both pairs of opposite angles equal
• Diagonals bisect each other
Rhombus
• All four sides equal
• Diagonals are perpendicular to each other
• Diagonals bisect the angles
(In addition to this, the rhombus also inherits
P all the properties of the parallelogram)
Rectangle
• All four angles are 90°
M
• Diagonals are equal in length
(In addition to this, the rectangle also inherits
all the properties of the parallelogram)
Square In a square, all four sides are equal and all four
45° angles are 90°.
A
(The square inherits ALL the properties of

BOTH the rhombus and rectangle, and
therefore also those of the parallelogram.)
S
Kite • Two pairs of adjacent sides equal

• Diagonals are perpendicular to each other
• The main diagonal bisects the other diagonal
• The main diagonal bisects angles
• The angles opposite the main diagonal are
equal
In the next example, we will combine these properties with the distance, midpoint and gradient
formulae to answer questions about a given quadrilateral:
229
EXAMPLE 20
In the diagram alongside, ABCD is a rhombus. B

The coordinates of A is (−3 ; 1) and the A(−3 ; 1)
coordinates of C is (9 ; −3). The diagonals T
of ABCD intersect at T.
Determine C(9 ; −3)

D
(a) the coordinates of T.
(b) the gradient of BD.
Solution
(a) T is the midpoint of AC. (diagonals of a rhombus)
LE
xA + xC yA + yB
xT = yT =
2 2
−3 + 9 1 + (−3)
∴ xT = yT =
2 2
∴ xT = 3 yT = − 1
∴ T(3 ; −1)
(b) mAC =
yC − yA
xC − xA
P
−3 − 1
∴ mAC =
9 − (−3)
M
1
∴ mAC = −
3
AC ⊥ BD (diagonals of a rhombus)
∴ mAC × mBD = −1
A
1
∴ − × mBD = −1
3
∴ mBD = 3
S
NAMING CONVENTION
It is important to be aware of a convention that is always followed

when naming a quadrilateral. We always “go around the shape”. P side A
This helps us to know what the sides and diagonals of the
quadrilateral are. Getting this wrong will lead to incorrect answers.
side
side
Note that the quadrilateral is not always named in

alphabetical order. For instance, the quadrilateral R
M side
alongside is named PARM.
diagonal diagonal
230
FINDING THE FOURTH VERTEX
We use the fact that the diagonals bisect each other to find the fourth vertex of a parallelogram,
rhombus, rectangle or square.
EXAMPLE 21
y
In the diagram alongside, A(2 ; −1), B(1 ; 3) and C(6 ; 5) C(6 ; 5)
are three points on the Cartesian plane.
B(1 ; 3)
Determine
(a) the coordinates of D if ABCD is a parallelogram.

x
(b) the coordinates of E if ABEC is a parallelogram. A(2 ; −1)
LE
(c) the coordinates of F if AFBC is a parallelogram.
Solution
(a) C(6 ; 5)
The midpoint of AC is also the midpoint of BD.
Midpoint of AC: B(1 ; 3)
2+6 −1 + 5 D
xM = =4 yM = =2
2
P 2
A(2 ; −1)
Midpoint of BD:
1 + xD 3 + yD
M
=4 =2
2 2
∴ xD = 7 ∴ yD = 1
∴ D(7 ; 1)
E
A
(b) The midpoint of BC is also the midpoint of AE.
Midpoint of BC:
C(6 ; 5)
6+1 7 3+5
xM = = yM = =4
S
2 2 2 B(1 ; 3)
Midpoint of AE:
2 + xE 7 −1 + yE
= =4
2 2 2 A(2 ; −1)
∴ xE = 5 ∴ yE = 7
∴ E(5 ; 7)
231
(c) The midpoint of AB is also the midpoint of CF. C(6 ; 5)
Midpoint of AB: B(1 ; 3)
2+1 3−1
xM = yM = =1
2 2
3 A(2 ; −1)
∴ xM = ∴ yM = 1
2
F
Midpoint of CF:
6 + xF 3 5 + yF
= =1
2 2 2
LE
∴ xF = −3 ∴ yF = −3
∴ F(−3 ; −3)
EXERCISE 5
y
(a) In the diagram alongside, ABCD is a parallelogram with
vertices A(−1 ; 7), B(1 ; 3), C(k ; −2) and D. M is the A(−1 ; 7)
point of intersection of AC and BD, the diagonals of
ABCD.
P
(1) Calculate the gradient of CD.
M B(1 ; 3)
(2) Given that AD = 29 units, determine D
M
(i) the value of k
x
(ii) the coordinates of M.
C(k ; −2)
(iii) the coordinates of D.
A
y
(b) In the diagram alongside, RHBS is a rhombus with
vertices R(2 ; p), H(−2 ; −8), B and S(1 ; 7). S(1 ; 7)
M is the point of intersection of BR and HS.
Determine
S
(1) the coordinates of M. B

M R(2 ; p) x
(2) the gradient of BR.
(4) the value of p. H(−2 ; −8)
232
(c) In the diagram alongside, RECT is a rectangle. The
C(−1 ; 7)
coordinates of C is (−1 ; 7) and the coordinates of
E is (−7 ; 5). A(t ; 0) is the point of intersection E(−7 ; 5)
of CR and ET.
Determine
A(t ; 0)
(1) the gradient of ER.
(2) the length of RT.

T
(3) the value of t.
R
(4) the length of CR.
y
(d) In the diagram alongside, VIER is a square. VIER
LE
1V
intersects the x-axis at 3 and the y-axis at 1. E has
coordinates (2 ; k). IR is a diagonal of VIER. I
Determine 3 x
(1) the gradient of RE.
(2) the length of VR. R

(3) the value of k.
(4) the length of IR.

P E(2 ; k)
I( p ; 12)
(e) In the diagram alongside, K, I( p ; 12), T(1 ; 4) and E
M
are the vertices of kite KITE. KT and IE, the diagonals
of KITE, intersect at M(−2 ; 6). K
M(−2 ; 6)
Determine
T(1 ; 4)
(1) the coordinates of K.
A
(2) the gradient of IE.
(3) the value of p.

E
S
(f) In the diagram alongside, D(2 ; 2), E(−2 ; 1) and y

F(−4 ; 6) are three points on the Cartesian plane. F(−4 ; 6)
Determine the coordinates of
(1) G if DEFG is a parallelogram.

D(2 ; 2)
(2) H if DEHF is a parallelogram.
E(−2 ; 1)
(3) J if DJEF is a parallelogram. x
233
(g)* In the diagram alongside, OABC is an y
isosceles trapezium with OC = AB. E is
B
a point on the x-axis such that BE is a vertical C
line. A has coordinates (a ; 0), AE = b units and
BE = c units. c
Determine the following in terms of a,

b and c: O A(a ; 0) E x
(1) the coordinates of B. b
(2) the area of OABC.
PROVING THAT A QUADRILATERAL IS OF A SPECIFIC TYPE
LE
To prove that a given quadrilateral is a parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square etc. we have to
show that certain minimum conditions are met. The most effective methods are given in the
following table:
To prove that a quadrilateral is a … show that …
trapezium one pair of opposite sides are parallel

P
parallelogram diagonals bisect each other
M
rhombus it is a parallelogram AND diagonals are
perpendicular to each other
A
rectangle it is a parallelogram AND one angle is 90°

S
it is a rhombus AND one angle is 90°

square OR
it is a rectangle AND diagonals are
perpendicular to each other
kite one diagonal is bisected by the other at 90°
Note that other combinations of properties than those listed here may be used. These are generally
the quickest to apply, using analytical methods.
234
EXAMPLE 22
Quadrilateral EFGH with vertices E(−3 ; 2), F(2 ; 4), F(2 ; 4)

G(4 ; −1) and H(−1 ; −3) is shown in the
diagram alongside.
E(−3 ; 2)
Prove that EFGH is a
(a) parallelogram.
G(4 ; −1)
(b) rhombus.
(c) square.
H(−1 ; −3)
Solution
LE
(a) Determine the midpoint of EG: Determine the midpoint of FH:
−3 + 4 2 + (−1) 2 + (−1) 4 + (−3)

x= y= x= y=
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
∴x= ∴y = ∴x= ∴y =
2 2 2 2
(2 2 ) (2 2 )
1 1 1 1
∴ Midpoint of EG = ; ∴ Midpoint of FH = ;
P
∴ EG and FH bisect each other.
∴ EFGH is a parallelogram. (diagonals bisect each other)
M
(b) EFGH is a parallelogram. (proven)
Determine the gradient of EG: Determine the gradient of FH:

−1 − 2 3 −3 − 4 7
mEG = =− mFH = =
4 − (−3) 7 −1 − 2 3
A
3 7
mEG × mFH = − × = −1
7 3
∴ EG ⊥ FH
∴ EFGH is a rhombus. (parm with ⊥ diagonals)
S
(c) EFGH is a rhombus. (proven)
Determine the gradient of EF: Determine the gradient of FG:
4−2 2 −1 − 4 5
mEF = = mFG = =−
2 − (−3) 5 4−2 2
2 5
mEF × mFG = ×− =−1
5 2
∴ F̂ = 90°
∴ EFGH is a square. (rhombus with a 90° ∠)
235
EXERCISE 6
C(3 ; 7)
(a) In the diagram alongside, quadrilateral ABCD
has vertices A(−1 ; −1), B(−3 ; 5),
B(−3 ; 5)
C(3 ; 7) and D(5 ; 1).
Prove that ABCD is a
(1) parallelogram. D(5 ; 1)
(2) rhombus.
A(−1 ; −1)
(3) square.
H(−2 ; 5)
(b) Quadrilateral EFGH with vertices E(4 ; 3),
LE
F(2 ; −3), G(−4 ; −1) and H(−2 ; 5)
is sketched alongside. E(4 ; 3)
Prove that EFGH is a

G(−4 ; −1)
(1) parallelogram.
(2) rectangle.
F(2 ; −3)
(3) square.
P P(3 ; 5)
(c) In the diagram alongside, PQRS is a quadrilateral

with vertices P(3 ; 5), Q(4 ; 1), R(1 ; −3) and Q(4 ; 1)
M
S(−6 ; −7).
Prove that PQRS is a trapezium. R(1 ; −3)
(d) In the diagram alongside, LMNP is a S(−6 ; −7)

quadrilateral with vertices L(1 ; −3),
A
M(−2 ; −2), N(−1 ; 1) and P(6 ; 2). P(6 ; 2)

N(−1 ; 1)
Q is a point on LN such that
LQ = QN.
(1) Calculate the coordinates Q

S
of Q. M(−2 ; −2)
(2) Show that M, Q and P are
collinear points. L(1 ; −3)
S(6a − 3 ; 3a)
(3) Explain why LMNP is a kite.
R(a − 2 ; a + 1)
(e)* RSTU, sketched alongside, is a quadrilateral
with vertices R(a − 2 ; a + 1), S(6a − 3 ; 3a), T(3a ; a − 1)
T(3a ; a − 1) and U(1 − 2a ; −a).
Prove that RSTU is a parallelogram.

U(1 − 2a ; −a)
236
(a) Calculate
(1) the distance between P(−8 ; 9) and Q(4 ; 14).
(2) the length of AB if A(−2 ; −3) and B(−5 ; 4). Leave your answer in surd form.
(3) the length of the line segment with (−6 ; −3) and (2 ; 1) as its endpoints. Round
your answer to two decimal places.
(b) Calculate
(1) midpoint of the line segment CD if C(−3 ; −2) and D(6 ; 7).
(2) the coordinates of R if T(4 ; 6) is the midpoint of RS and S(−2 ; 3).
LE
(c) Calculate the gradient of
(1) RS, if R(−2 ; 5) and S(6 ; −1).
(2) the straight line with (−3 ; − 6) and (1 ; 4) two points on the line.
(d) Prove that
(1) C(−1 ; 4) is equidistant from D(−9 ; 11) and E(6 ; −4).
(2)
P
the straight line passing through (−2 ; −4) and (2 ; −10) is parallel to the straight
line passing through (−1 ; 11) and (3 ; 5).
(3) MN ⊥ PQ if M(−3 ; −5), N(−7 ; −6), P(7 ; 4) and Q(5 ; 12).

M
(4) (−12 ; 9), (−5 ; 3) and (2 ; −3) are collinear points.
(e) Determine the value(s) of p if
(1) U(−5 ; p), V(−1 ; 4) and UV = 17 units .

2
(2) the gradient of the straight line connecting ( p ; 5) and (−2 ; 9) is − .
A
3
(3) K(−3 ; p) is equidistant from L(−6 ; 2) and M(−1 ; 7).
(4) CD ∥ EF with C(−4 ; 2), D(6 ; 6), E(3 ; p) and F(−2 ; −3).
(5) the line passing through (−7 ; 2) and ( p ; − 6) is perpendicular to the line passing
S
through (2 ; −8) and (10 ; −2).
(6) G(−7 ; −6), H( p ; −4) and I(8 ; −3) are collinear points.
(f) Determine the value of k if
(1) (−2 ; 5) is equidistant from (2 ; 3k − 1) and (−5 ; k − 2) with k > 0.

(2) CD ⊥ EF with C(k ; 2), D(2k + 3 ; 4), E(k − 5 ; 7) and F(1 ; −2). k ≤ 0.
(3) A(−7 ; − 3), B(k + 1 ; k + 3) and C(3 ; 2) are collinear points.
237
(g) Prove that the points (x 2 ; x), (5x − 6 ; 2) and (9 ; −3) are collinear for all value of x
(x ≠ 2 and x ≠ 3).
(h) In the diagram alongside, ΔPQR has vertices P(−4 ; −4), Q(−1 ; 3)
Q(−1 ; 3) and R(3 ; −7). T is the midpoint of QR and PT
is drawn.
(1) Show that ΔPQR is an isosceles triangle.
(2) Determine the coordinates of T. T
(3) Prove that PT ⊥ QR. P(−4 ; −4)

(4) Calculate the perimeter of ΔPQR. Round your
answer to two decimal places.
R(3 ; − 7)
LE
(5) Calculate the area of ΔPQR . y
(i) In the diagram alongside, ABCD is a rectangle with C

vertices A(−1 ; −2), B, C and D(2 ; − 1). M is the B
point of intersection of BD and AC.
Determine
M
(1) the length of BC.
(2)
P
the gradient of CD. x
D(2 ; −1)
(3) the coordinates of C if BD = 50 units.
A(−1 ; −2)
M
(5) the area of ABCD.
(j) In the diagram alongside, K, L(x ; 3), M and N(2 ; − 1)

M
are the vertices of kite KLMN. T(1 ; y) is the point L(x ; 3)
of intersection of KM and LN.
A
Determine
T(1 ; y)
(1) the values of x and y.
K
(2) the gradient of KM.
N(2 ; −1)
S
(k) In the diagram alongside P(2 ; −1), Q(−2 ; −2) y

and R(−4 ; 3) are three points on the Cartesian R(−4 ; 3)
plane.
Determine the coordinates of
(1) S if PQRS is a parallelogram.

x
(2) T if PQTR is a parallelogram. P(2 ; −1)
(3) V if PVQR is a parallelogram.
Q(−2 ; −2)
238
(l) Quadrilateral TUVW with vertices T(−4 ; 2), U(−1 ; 4), U(−1 ; 4)
V(1 ; 1) and W(−2 ; −1) is sketched alongside.
Prove that TUVW is a

T(−4 ; 2)
(1) parallelogram.
V(1 ; 1)
(2) rhombus.
(3) square.
W(−2 ; −1)
(m)* In the diagram alongside, the centre of the circle is

y
C(5 ; 3) and the radius of the circle is 5 units. A and B
are the x-intercepts of the circle.
LE
Determine
C(5 ; 3)
(1) the coordinates of A and B.
(2) the area of ΔABC.

B A x
(n)* A(5 ; −1), B(k − 2 ; −k) and C(−1 ; −4) are three points on the Cartesian plane such that
P
BC : AC = 1 : 3. Determine the possible values of k.
M
A
S
239
CHAPTER NINE
——————————————————————————————
Euclidean Geometry
————————————————————————————————————————
Euclidean Geometry is a form of geometry invented by the Greek mathematician Euclid, who
taught in Alexandria, Egypt around 300 BC. It is a system based on logical deduction and is
regarded as being among the first formal mathematics in the history of humanity.
THEOREMS
A theorem is a mathematical statement that is always true. All theorems of Mathematics have been
proven by mathematicians and are accepted as valid throughout the world. Once proven, a theorem
LE
can be used to do calculations or to prove further facts. We will study the proofs of some theorems
at the end of this chapter, but will use many others without actually proving them first.
REASONS
When we use a theorem to make a statement about a geometrical drawing, it is expected that we
write down a suitable reason, based on the information given. Each theorem has its own proper
reason and you should study these reasons well.
STRAIGHT LINE THEOREMS

P
Theorem Information given Conclusion Reason
M
Q
Adjacent angles on a
straight line are P̂ 1 + P̂ 2 = 180° ∠s on a str ln
supplementary. 1 2
A P B
A
Vertically opposite O
1 2 Ô 1 = Ô 2 vert opp ∠s
angles are equal.
S
O
1
2 3
Angles round a point
Ô 1 + Ô 2 + Ô 3 = 360° ∠s round a pt
add to 360°.
240
PARALLEL LINE THEOREMS
Parallel lines given
A B
1
If lines are parallel,
corresponding C D Â 1 = Ĉ 1 corresp ∠s ; AB ∥ CD
1
angles are equal.
A B
LE
1
alternate angles are B̂ 1 = Ĉ 1 alt ∠s ; AB ∥ CD
equal. 1
C D
A B
1
co-interior angles Â 1 + Ĉ 1 = 180° co-int ∠s ; AB ∥ CD
are supplementary.
P
C
1
D
Proving that lines are parallel

M
A B
If corresponding
angles are equal, C D AB ∥ CD corresp ∠s =
A
lines are parallel
A B
S
If alternate angles
are equal, lines are AB ∥ CD alt ∠s =
parallel.
C D
A B
x
If co-interior angles
are supplementary, AB ∥ CD co-int ∠s suppl
180° − x
lines are parallel
C D
Â + Ĉ = 180°
241
TRIANGLE THEOREMS
A
The interior angles
of a triangle are Â + B̂ + Ĉ = 180° ∠s of Δ
supplementary.
B C
A
An exterior angle of
a triangle equals the
B̂ 1 = Â + Ĉ ext ∠ of Δ
sum of the opposite
interior angles. 1
LE
D B C
In an isosceles A
triangle, the angles
B̂ = Ĉ ∠s opp = sides
opposite the equal
sides are equal. B C
Sides opposite equal A

angles in a triangle AB = AC sides opp = ∠s
are equal. B
P C
SIMILARITY
M
If the three angles
of one triangle equal
A D
the three angles of
ΔABC ||| ΔDEF ∠∠∠
another triangle,
A
then the two

E F ∴ AB = AC = BC ||| Δs
triangles are similar
DE DF EF
and hence the B C
corresponding sides
are in proportion.
S
If the corresponding A D
sides of two
x y
triangles are in the kx ky ΔABC ||| ΔDEF sides of Δs in prop
same proportion, E z F
then the triangles are ∴ Â = D̂ , B̂ = Ê and
similar and hence B
kz
C Ĉ = F̂ ||| Δs
the corresponding
angles are equal. AB AC BC
= =
DE DF EF
242
CONGRUENCY
A
If the three sides of
one triangle equal
the three sides of B C
another triangle, ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF SSS
D
then the two
triangles are
congruent.
E F
LE
If two sides and the A
included angle of
one triangle equal
two sides and the B C
included angle of ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF S∠S
another triangle, D
then the two
triangles are
congruent. E
P F
A
If two angles and a
side of one triangle
M
equal two angles and
the corresponding B C
ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF ∠∠S
side of another D
triangle, then the
two triangles are
congruent.
A
E F
If the hypotenuse A
and one other side
S
of a right angled
triangle equals the
B C
hypotenuse and one
D ΔABC ≡ ΔDEF RHS
other side of another
right angled triangle,
then the two right
angled triangles are E F
congruent.
Note: If it is known that two triangles are congruent, we can conclude that all the corresponding
sides and angles are equal. (Use reason: ≡ Δs)
243
THE THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
In a right angled A
triangle, the square
of the hypotenuse
AC2 = AB2 + BC2 Pythagoras
equals the sum of
the squares of the
other two sides. B C
EXAMPLE 1
In the sketch alongside, AF = FD and EF = FC. H G
LE
FG ∥ BH. Â 1 = 55°, Â 2 = 25° and B̂ = 75°.
(a) Determine the size of

Â 4 Â 3
4
(1) (2) A 3
(3) F̂ 2 (4) F̂ 1 1 2
55° 25°
(b) Prove that ED ∥ BC.
(c) Prove that ΔAEF ||| ΔABC. 1 1 2 3 2

E D
(d) Prove that ΔAEF ≡ ΔDCF.
P 2 F 4 1
(e) Calculate the size of Ĉ 3.

75° 2 1
B
C
M
Solution 3
(a) (1) Â 4 = 55° (vert opp ∠s)
(2) Â 3 + Â 2 + Â 1 = 180° (∠s on a str ln)

∴ Â 3 + 25° + 55° = 180°
∴ Â 3 = 100°
A
(3) F̂ 2 = 55° (alt ∠s ; FG ∥ BH)
(4) D̂ 2 = 25° (∠s opp = sides)

F̂ 1 = Â 2 + D̂ 2 (ext ∠ of Δ)
S
∴ F̂ 1 = 25° + 25°
∴ F̂ 1 = 50°
(b) Ê 1 + F̂ 1 + Â 1 = 180° (∠s of Δ)

∴ Ê 1 + 50° + 55° = 180°
∴ Ê 1 = 75°
but B̂ = 75° (given)
∴ Ê 1 = B̂
∴ ED ∥ BC (corresp ∠s =)
244
(c) In ΔAEF and ΔABC:
Â 1 = Â 1 (common)
Ê 1 = B̂ (proven)
F̂ 1 = Ĉ 2 (3rd ∠ of Δ)
∴ ΔAEF ||| ΔABC (∠∠∠)
(d) In ΔAEF and ΔDCF:

AF = FD (given)
EF = FC (given)
F̂ 1 = F̂ 4 (vert opp ∠s)
∴ ΔAEF ≡ ΔDCF (S∠S)
(e) Ĉ 1 = Ê 1 = 75° (≡ Δs)
LE
Ĉ 2 = F̂ 1 = 50° (proven)
Ĉ 3 + Ĉ 2 + Ĉ 1 = 360° (∠s round a pt)
∴ Ĉ 3 + 50° + 75° = 360°
∴ Ĉ 3 = 235°
EXAMPLE 2
A
In the sketch alongside, AC ⊥ BE.
AB = 9 cm, BC = 8 cm and
AE = 15 cm.
P 9 cm
15 cm
(a) Calculate the length of BE.

B
(b) Given that ΔABE ||| ΔDBC, D E
M
determine
(1) the length of BD. 8 cm
(2) ̂ if BAE
the size of BCD ̂ = 53°.
C
Solution
A
(a) AB2 + BE2 = AE2 (Pythagoras)

∴ 92 + BE2 = 152
∴ BE2 = 152 − 92
∴ BE2 = 144
∴ BE = 12 cm
S
AB BE
(b) (1) = ( ||| Δs)
DB BC ΔA B E ||| ΔD B C
9 12
∴ = AB BE AE
BD 8 = =
∴ 12BD = 72 DB BC DC
72
∴ BD = = 6 cm
12
(2) Ê = 37° (∠s of Δ)
̂ = Ê = 37°
BCD ( ||| Δs)
245
EXERCISE 1
In this exercise, you are expected to give valid reasons for all geometry statements.
(a) Determine, with reasons, the sizes of the angles marked a to c:
b 70°
120° 100°
80° a c
40°
(b) Determine, with reasons, the sizes of the angles marked a to m:
LE
A B
62°
R
b
S
P
C a D 130°
Q
P
M K
M
c 45°
140°
A B
C d
e D
N
A
F B
S
A B m
42° h
E F
30°
f g k
C D l O H
j
E
G
A
160° i
G
246
(c) Determine, with reasons, the sizes of the angles marked a to i:
52° b
70° 140°
41°
60° a
c 65°
LE
f g i
100°
68° d 55° h
(d) In the sketch alongside, AB ∥ CD and P S

P
PE = PF. P̂ 3 = 50° and F̂ 5 = 80°.
A 1 2 3 50° 1 2 B
(1) Determine the size of Ê 2.

F
1 2 3
(2) Prove that EP ∥ RS. C
1 2
6 5 4 D
E
M
80°
(3) Prove that PF = SF.
R Q
(e) In the sketch alongside, RU ∥ SQ and

PR = PU. Û 2 = 6x + 30°, Q̂ = x + 10°, P U Q
Û 1 = y and P̂ = z. z y1 2
A
6x + 30° x + 10°
(1) Calculate the values of x, y and z.

1
2
(2) If R̂ 3 = 2x − 10°, prove that 3 R S T
PQ ∥ RT.
S
(f) (1) In the sketch alongside, W

prove that ΔWXY ≡ ΔWZY. 1 2
X Z
Y
247
(2) In the sketch alongside, A
prove that ΔABC ≡ ΔAED.
B E
C D
(3) In the sketch alongside, P S

prove that ΔPQR ≡ ΔSTR.
1 2
R
LE
Q T
K L
(4) In the sketch alongside, 2
1
37° 1
2
prove that ΔKPN ≡ ΔLMN. 10 cm 10 cm
106°
2 3
P 1 M
N
(g)
P
In the sketch alongside, AD = AE and A
B̂ 1 = Ĉ 1.
Prove that
M
(1) AB = AC
(2) BO = OC D E
1
O 2
(3) ΔDOB ≡ ΔEOC
1 1
2 2
B C
A
(h) (1) In the sketch alongside, C

prove that ΔABC ||| ΔAED. E
2
1
S
1 2
A B
D
S
(2) In the sketch alongside,
P
prove that ΔPQR ||| ΔTSR.
1
2
R
Q
T
248
A
(3) In the sketch alongside,
prove that ΔABC ||| ΔDEF.
D
10
6
5 3
E 4,5 F
B 7,5 C
M1
(4) In the sketch alongside, N
prove that ΔMRP ||| ΔQNP.
12 15
9
LE
R 8 Q 12 P
A
(i) In the sketch alongside, ΔABC ||| ΔFED.
AC = 27 units, DE = 16 units and
DF = 12 units. 27
(1) Calculate the length of BC.

(2)
P
Prove that AB ∥ EF. B D 1 16 2 E C
12
M
A F
(j) In the sketch alongside, BE ⊥ AD and
AC ⊥ CD. AE = 12 cm, ED = 14 cm
and BE = 5 cm.
12 cm
(1) Calculate the length of AB.
E
A
(2) Prove that ΔABE ||| ΔADC. 1

2
(3) Calculate the length of 1 5 cm

B 2
14 cm
(i) CD
(ii) BC
S
C D
(k) In the sketch alongside, T̂ = Û = 90°.
T
PQ = 10 m, RS = 7 m, QU = 30 m,
UR = 16 m, and TS = 24 m.
U
(1) Calculate the length of 24 m
(i) QR 30 m 16 m
(ii) PT
2 1 1 2
(2) Prove that PT ∥ QU. P 10 m Q R7m S
249
THE MIDPOINT THEOREM
The midpoint theorem states that “the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and equal to half the length of the third side”:
A
The line joining the
midpoints of two
sides of a triangle is PQ ∥ BC and
parallel to the third P Q 1
PQ = BC midpt thm
side and equal to 2
half the length of the
LE
third side.
B C
Another theorem, related to the midpoint theorem, states that “the line drawn from the midpoint of
one side of a triangle, parallel to another side, bisects the third side”:
A
The line drawn
through the
P
midpoint of one side
of a triangle, parallel P Q AQ = QC line through midpt ∥ 2nd side
M
to another side,
bisects the third
side.
B C
A
EXAMPLE 3
A
In the sketch alongside, AE = EB and
AF = FD. BD = 4 cm, FG = 3 cm
and AC = 10 cm. B̂ = 63°.
S
EFG and BDC are straight lines.

F 10 cm
(a) Determine the size of Ê 1. E 1 G
2 3 cm
(b) Determine the length of
(1) EF
(2) AG
(3) DC 63°
(c) Determine the size of Ĉ . B 4 cm D C
Solution
(a) AE = EB and AF = FD (given)

∴ EF ∥ BD (midpt thm)
∴ Ê 1 = 63° (corresp ∠s ; EF ∥ BD)
250
1
(b) (1) EF = BD (midpt thm)
2
∴ EF = 2 cm
(2) AF = FD (given)
and FG ∥ DC (EF ∥ BD proven)
∴ AG = GC (line through midpt ∥ 2nd side)
∴ AG = 5 cm
(3) AF = FD (given)
and AG = GC (proven)
∴ DC = 2FG (midpt thm)
∴ DC = 6 cm
(c) BC = BD + DC
= 4 cm + 6 cm = 10 cm
LE
∴ AC = BC (both = 10 cm)
∴ BAĈ = B̂ = 63° (∠s opp = sides)
∴ Ĉ = 54° (∠s of Δ)
EXAMPLE 4 P Q
In the sketch alongside, PQ ∥ ST.
U
PS = SR and SU = UQ.
T
Prove that
(a)
(b)
UT ∥ SR
PR = 4UT
P S
R
Solution
M
(a) PS = SR and PQ ∥ ST (given)
∴ QT = TR (line through midpt ∥ 2nd side)
and QU = US (given)
∴ UT ∥ SR (midpt thm)
(b) SR = 2UT (midpt thm)
A
and PR = 2SR (PS = SR given)

∴ PR = 2(2UT)
∴ PR = 4UT
EXERCISE 2
S
(a) In the sketch alongside, AP = PB and A

AQ = QC. BC = 8 cm and B̂ = 69°.
Determine
the size of P̂ 1. Q
1
(1) P 2
(2) the length of PQ.
69°
B C
8 cm
251
(b) In the sketch alongside, PQ ∥ AB. R
PA = 18 m, AR = 18 m, AB = 10 m B
and QB = 12 m. 12 m
Q
Determine the length of 10 m 18 m
(1) BR
(2) PQ A
18 m
A
(c) In the sketch alongside, DP = PF and
LE
EQ = QF. AB = 6 cm and DE = 3 cm. 55°
Â = 55° and D̂ 2 = 75°.
(1) Determine the length of PQ. 6 cm

D 1 3 cm E
Determine the size of P̂ 1.
2
(2) 3 75°
(3) If AE = EC, determine

(i) the length of AD.
1 2
(ii) the length of BC. B C
the size of B̂ . P Q
(iii)
P
F
M
(d) In the sketch alongside, PQ ∥ SV and
P T 4m Q
TU = UR. QV = 6 m, TQ = SU = 4 m
and Q̂ = 110°. 110°
6m
(1) Determine the length of
A
(i) QR 1 4m U 1
(ii) UV S 2 2
V
(2) Show that ΔPQR is isosceles.
(3) Calculate the size of Ŝ 2.

S
(e) In the sketch alongside, Ĉ = 90° and E

BG = GE. AF = FE = 13 units, 13
BC = 10 units and FG = 7 units.
Determine the length of F 7 G D

(1) AB 13
(2) EC
(3) ED
A C
B 10
252
(f) In the sketch alongside, AB ∥ EF, A B
AE = ED and DG = GC.
Prove that BC ∥ FG.
E F
D G C
(g) In the sketch alongside, AB ∥ PQ, B

BC ∥ QR and AP = PO.
1
LE
Prove that PR = AC. Q
2
O
R
P
A C
(h)
LY = YM and Ŷ 1 = M̂ .
P
In the sketch alongside, KW = WM, K
(1) Prove that

(i) KX = XL X 1 1 W
M
2
(ii) XW = YM 3 2
(2) If Ŷ 1 = 40°, calculate the size of Ŵ 2.

1 2
L Y M
A
A
(i) In the sketch alongside, AF = FC,
EG = GC, BC = CD and Â 1 = Ĉ 2. 1 2
S
Prove that
(1) AE = ED
1 F E
(2) FG = AD
4
G
2
1 3
B C D
253
(j) In the sketch alongside, PA = AQ, P
PB = BR and AD = DC. DE ∥ QR.
Prove that
(1) BE = EC
(2) QR = 4DE A B
D E
Q C R
(k)* In the sketch alongside, AE = EB, D
LE
AF = FD, BH = HC and FE ∥ IH.
Prove that F I
(1) DI = IC
(2) FG = GH
G
A 1 2
C
E H
P
B
QUADRILATERALS
M
A quadrilateral is a flat shape enclosed by four straight line segments. A quadrilateral is always
named by “going around the shape”:
T
C The quadrilateral alongside can be named

A
K KTCM or MCTK for example, but not KTMC.
M
The sum of the interior angles of any quadrilateral is 360°:
S
B
The sum of the
C
interior angles of a A Â + B̂ + Ĉ + D̂ = 360° ∠s of quad
quadrilateral is 360°.
D
254
TRAPEZIUMS
Definition: A trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.
EXAMPLE 5 B
The sketch alongside shows quadrilateral 3x + 20°

A
ABCD with the angles as shown. 3x − 10° x C
(a) Determine the value of x.
(b) Show that AB ∥ DC. x + 30°
(c) What type of quadrilateral is ABCD?
Explain your answer. D
Solution
LE
(a) Â + B̂ + Ĉ + D̂ = 360° (∠s of quad)
∴ 3x − 10° + 3x + 20° + x + x + 30° = 360°
∴ 8x + 40° = 360°
∴ 8x = 320°
∴ x = 40°
(b) Ĉ = x = 40°
P
B̂ = 3x + 20° = 3(40°) + 20° = 140°
∴ B̂ + Ĉ = 180°
∴ AB ∥ DC (co-int ∠s suppl)
M
(c) ABCD is a trapezium since it has a pair of parallel sides.
The area of a trapezium
The area of a trapezium is given by half of the sum of the parallel sides, multiplied by the
perpendicular height (i.e. the perpendicular distance between the parallel sides):
a
A
1
⊥h Area = (a + b) × ⊥ h
2
S
A a B Area of trapezium ABCD = Area of ΔABC + Area of ΔADC
1 1
⊥h = a × ⊥h + b × ⊥h
2 2
D C
1
b = (a + b) × ⊥ h
2
255
EXAMPLE 6 P 10 m Q
The sketch alongside shows trapezium PQRS
with PQ ∥ SR. PT is drawn perpendicular to 5m
SR. PQ = 10 m, PS = 5 m, ST = 3 m and
TR = 12 m. Calculate the area of trapezium PQRS. S 3m T 12 m R
Solution
PT2 + 32 = 52 (Pythagoras)
∴ PT2 = 52 − 32 = 16
∴ PT = 4 m
1
Area of PQRS = ( PQ + SR) × PT
2
1
= (10 + 15) × 4 = 50 m2
LE
2
PARALLELOGRAMS
Definition: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
The properties of a parallelogram
Property Information given Conclusion Reason
The opposite sides

A
P B
of a parallelogram AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC opp sides of parm

are parallel. D C
M
ABCD is a parm.
A B
The opposite sides
of a parallelogram
AB = DC and AD = BC opp sides of parm
are equal.
A
D C
ABCD is a parm.
A B
The opposite angles
S
of a parallelogram
Â = Ĉ and B̂ = D̂ opp ∠s of parm
are equal.
D C
ABCD is a parm.
A B
The diagonals of a O
parallelogram bisect AO = OC and DO = OB diags of parm
each other. D C
ABCD is a parm.
256
Summary of the properties of a parallelogram
• Opposite sides are parallel.

• Opposite sides are equal.
• Opposite angles are equal.
• Diagonals bisect each other.
Where do these properties come from?
(1) By definition, the opposite sides are parallel.
(2) Draw in one diagonal:
A B A B
LE
ΔABD ≡ ΔCDB (∠∠S)
D C D C
Alternate angles are equal By congruency:

because of parallel lines AB = DC and AD = BC
and DB is common to Â = Ĉ and B̂ = D̂
ΔABD and ΔCDB. ∴ Opposite sides and angles
are equal.
(3) Draw in both diagonals:
A
P
B A B
O ΔAOB ≡ ΔCOD (∠∠S) O

M
D C D C
Opposite sides are equal By congruency:
and alternate angles are equal AO = OC and DO = OB
because of parallel lines. ∴ Diagonals bisect each
other.
A
The formal proofs of these properties are found at the end of this chapter.
EXAMPLE 7
In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A P 3 cm B

S
parallelogram. AP = AD. 1 2
DC = 8 cm, PB = 3 cm and D̂ 1 = 32°.
(a) Determine the size of
(1) D̂ 2
(2) Ĉ 2
1 32°
(b) Determine the length of BC. D 8 cm C
Solution
(a) (1) AB ∥ DC (opp sides of parm)
∴ P̂ 1 = 32° (alt ∠s ; AB ∥ DC)
∴ D̂ 2 = 32° (∠s opp = sides)
257
(2) Â = 116° (∠s of Δ)
∴ Ĉ = 116° (opp ∠s of parm)
(b) AB = AB = 8 cm (opp sides of parm)
∴ AP = 8 cm − 3 cm = 5 cm
∴ AD = 5 cm (AD = AP given)
∴ BC = 5 cm (opp sides of parm)
EXAMPLE 8 K L
In the sketch alongside, KLMN is a
parallelogram. OE ∥ NM. 4m
KN = 8 m, KO = 4 m and NO = 6 m.
8m O E
(a) OM
LE
6m
(b) NL
(c) LE
N M
Solution
(a) OM = KO = 4 m (diags of parm)

(b) OL = NO = 6 m (diags of parm)
∴ NL = 12 m
(c) LM = KN = 8 m (opp sides of parm)
OL = NO
and OE ∥ NM
P (proven)
(given)
∴ LE = EM (line through midpt ∥ 2nd side)
1 1
∴ LE = LM = (8) = 4 m
M
2 2
The area of a parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram is given by the product of the base and the perpendicular height of
the parallelogram:
A
⊥h
Area = b × ⊥ h
S
A b B Area of parallelogram ABCD = Area of ΔABC + Area of ΔADC
⊥h 1 1
= b × ⊥h + b × ⊥h
2 2
D b C
= b × ⊥h
258
EXAMPLE 9
A B
In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a parallelogram.
BE is drawn perpendicular to AB, with E on DC.
17 cm
BE = 8 cm and AE = 17 cm. 8 cm
Calculate the area of parallelogram ABCD.
D E C
Solution
AB2 + 82 = 172 (Pythagoras)

∴ AB2 = 172 − 82 = 225
∴ AB = 15 cm
Area of ABCD = AB × BE
LE
= 15 × 8 = 120 cm2
EXERCISE 3
(a) The sketch alongside shows quadrilateral Q
QUAD with the angles as shown. 60° U
Calculate the size of Û .
P A
70°
M
D
P
(b) The sketch alongside shows quadrilateral

PQRS with the angles as shown.
a − 10°
A
(1) Determine the value of a.

(2) What type of quadrilateral is PQRS?
Q
Motivate your answer. 3a − 50°
S
2a − 20°
a + 20° R
S
(c) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a
parallelogram. PC = BC, AD = 3 m A P B
and D̂ = 65°.
1 2
(1) Determine the length of PC. 3m

(2) Determine the size of
(i) Ĉ 1
(ii) Ĉ 2 65° 2 1
(iii) Â D C
259
P 4 cm Q
(d) The sketch alongside shows parallelogram
PQRS. TS = SR = TR, PQ = 4 cm and 2 cm
QT = 2 cm.
1 T
(1) Determine the length of PS. 2
(i) T̂ 1
(ii) P̂
(iii) Ŝ 2
2
1
S R
(e) The sketch alongside shows parallelogram

P A
PARM. PM = PO, MO = 30 mm and
OR = 25 mm.
LE
O
(1) OP 25 mm
(2) AR 30 mm
(3) MA M R
(f) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A B

parallelogram. AO = OP = DP,
AC = 6 m and Â 1 = 40°.
P 2 1
40°
O
1
2
(1) Determine the length of OP.

1
P̂ 1 2
M
(i) 1 2 1 1 2
(ii) B̂ 1 D P C
(g) In each of the following sketches, ABCD is a parallelogram. Calculate the values of x and y
in each case:
A
(1) A E D
1 2
y
S
x
3x + 20° x + 10° 2 1
B C
(2) A E B
y 2 1
x
x + 30° 2
1
D C
260
(3) A B
2x + 80°
5x + 50°
1
D 2
C
y
E
(4)
A E B
y
LE
2 1 1 2
5x 25°
1 2
2x 1
2
D P C
P
(h) In the sketch alongside, KLMN is a
parallelogram. KP ∥ OS, KM = 10 cm,
NO = 8 cm and PS = 7 cm. K
M
L
(1) OL
(2) KO S
(3) PM O
A
N M
S
(i) In the sketch alongside, BAPC and A

AEDO are parallelograms.
(1) Prove that OP ∥ CD.
(2) If BE = 9 units, determine the
length of O P E
B
(i) OP
(ii) CD
C D
261
(j) Calculate the area of quadrilateral ABCD in each of the following cases:
(1) AB = 10 cm and DC = 15 cm. (2) 8m

A B
A 10 cm B
4m 5m
5 cm
D 15 cm C D P C
(3) AB = 13 cm, BP = 5 cm and (4)

PC = 20 cm. 21 cm
A B
LE
A 13 cm B
10 cm
5 cm
P
D 15 cm C
20 cm
D C
P
(5) AE = 15 cm, EB = 25 cm and (6) AD = 13 m, BP = 12 m and
DC = 32 cm. DP = 20 m.
M
A B A B
15 cm 13 m 12 m
25 cm
A
D E F C D C P
32 cm 20 m
S
(k) In the sketch alongside, BCDE is a E 18 cm D

parallelogram. AE = 16 cm,
ED = 18 cm and DC = 20 cm.
(1) Determine the length of F 20 cm

(i) AB 16 cm
(ii) EF
(2) Calculate the area of

(i) parallelogram BCDE. A B C
(ii) trapezium AEDC.
262
SPECIAL PARALLELOGRAMS
There are three special parallelograms: the rhombus, the rectangle and the square.
RHOMBUSES
Definition: A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.

Any rhombus is also a parallelogram and therefore all the properties of a parallelogram are also
properties of a rhombus. In addition to this, the rhombus has three further properties:
• All four sides are equal. (By definition)
• The diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
• The diagonals bisect the angles.
The properties of a rhombus
LE
A B
All four sides of a
rhombus are equal. AB = BC = DC = AD sides of rhombus
D C
ABCD is a rhombus.
The opposite sides

P
A B
of a rhombus are AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC opp sides of rhombus

parallel. C
D
M
ABCD is a rhombus.
A B
The opposite angles
of a rhombus are
Â = Ĉ and B̂ = D̂ opp ∠s of rhombus
equal.
A
D C
ABCD is a rhombus.
A B
S
The diagonals of a
O
rhombus bisect each AO = OC and DO = OB diags of rhombus
other.
D C
ABCD is a rhombus.
A B
The diagonals of a 1
rhombus are 4O2
3 Ô 1 = Ô 2 = Ô 3 = Ô 4 = 90° diags of rhombus
perpendicular to
each other. D C
ABCD is a rhombus.
263
A B
2 1
1 2
The diagonals of a
Â 1 = Â 2 and B̂ 1 = B̂ 2 and
rhombus bisect the diag of rhombus
Ĉ 1 = Ĉ 2 and D̂ 1 = D̂ 2
2 1
1 2
angles. D C
ABCD is a rhombus.
Summary of the properties of a rhombus
• All four sides are equal.

• Opposite angles are equal.
LE
• Diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
• Diagonals bisect the angles.

(1) By definition, all four sides are equal.
(2) Draw in one diagonal:
A B A B
1
2
P ΔABD ≡ ΔCDB (SSS)
1
2
2 2
1 1
C C
M
D D
All four sides of the By congruency:
rhombus are equal and B̂ 1 = D̂ 1 and D̂ 2 = B̂ 2
DB is common to ΔABD ∴ AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC
and ΔCDB. ∴ The rhombus is a parm. (Opp sides ∥)
∴ All the properties of a parm apply.
A
Note: We are concluding that rhombus ABCD is a parallelogram by using the definition of
a parallelogram here. Later in this chapter, we will discuss other ways of showing
that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
S
A B A B
2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
1 ΔAOD ≡ ΔAOB 1
4 O2 ≡ ΔCOD ≡ ΔCOB (SSS) 4 O2
3 3
2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2
D C D C
All four sides of the By congruency:
rhombus are equal and Â 1 = Â 2 and Ĉ 1 = Ĉ 2
diagonals bisect each D̂ 1 = D̂ 2 and B̂ 1 = B̂ 2
other (parm property). Ô 1 = Ô 2 = Ô 3 = Ô 4 = 90°
∴ Diagonals bisect the angles.
and are perpendicular to each other.
264
EXAMPLE 10
A B
In the sketch alongside, ABDE and FBCD are 31° 1
2
rhombuses. B̂ 1 = 31°.
F 1
Determine the size of 3 2 1
4
2O
(a) Ô 1 3
(b) F̂ 1 C
(c) D̂ 1 2 2 3
1 1
E D
Solution
(a) Ô 1 = 90° (diags of rhombus)
(b) B̂ 2 = 31° (diag of rhombus)
∴ F̂ 1 = 59° (∠s of Δ)
LE
(c) F̂ 2 = 59° (diag of rhombus)
∴ BFD ̂ = 118°
AB ∥ ED (opp sides of rhombus )
∴ Ê 1 = 31° (alt ∠s ; AB ∥ ED)
∴ D̂ 1 = 87° (ext ∠ of Δ)
EXAMPLE 11 P Q
Calculate the length of SQ.

P
In the sketch alongside, PQRS is a rhombus.
PR = 30 units and SR = 17 units.
4
3
O2
1
R
M
S 17
30
Solution
OR = 15 units (diags of rhombus)
A
Ô 1 = 90° (diags of rhombus)

SO2 + 152 = 172 (Pythagoras)
∴ SO2 = 172 − 152 = 64
∴ SO = 8 units
S
∴ SQ = 16 units (diags of rhombus)
The area of a rhombus

Since the rhombus is a special parallelogram, the area of a rhombus can be calculated using the
formula for the area of a parallelogram (the product of the base and the perpendicular height):
⊥h Area = b × ⊥ h
b
265
EXAMPLE 12
K L
In rhombus KLMN alongside, PM ⊥ KN.
KP = 8 cm and NM = 13 cm. 8 cm
Calculate the area of rhombus KLMN.
P
N M
13 cm
Solution
KN = 13 cm (sides of rhombus)
∴ PN = 5 cm
LE
PM2 + 52 = 132 (Pythagoras)
∴ PM2 = 132 − 52 = 144
∴ PM = 12 cm
Area of KLMN = KN × PM
= 13 × 12 = 156 cm2
P
RECTANGLES
Definition: A rectangle is a quadrilateral with all four angles equal to 90°.
Any rectangle is also a parallelogram and so all the properties of a parallelogram are also
M
properties of a rectangle. In addition to this, the rectangle has two further properties:
• All four angles are equal to 90°. (By definition)

• The diagonals are equal in length.
The properties of a rectangle
A
A B
All four angles of a
Â = 90° and B̂ = 90° and
S
rectangle are equal

D C Ĉ = 90° and D̂ = 90° ∠ of rect
to 90°.
ABCD is a rectangle.
A B
The opposite sides
of a rectangle are AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC opp sides of rect
D C
parallel.
266
A B
The opposite sides
of a rectangle are AB = DC and AD = BC opp sides of rect
D C
equal.
A B
The diagonals of a O
rectangle bisect each AO = OC and DO = OB diags of rect
D C
other.
LE
A B
The diagonals of a
rectangle are equal AC = DB diags of rect
D C
in length.
Summary of the properties of a rectangle
• All four angles equal 90°.

P • Opposite sides are parallel.
• Opposite sides are equal.
• Diagonals are equal in length.
M
(1) By definition, all four angles equal 90°:
A B A B
A
Co-interior angles
are supplementary
C D D C
All four angles of the ∴ AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC
rectangle are 90°.
S
∴ The rectangle is a parm. (Opp sides ∥)

∴ All the properties of a parm apply.

A B A B
ΔABD ≡ ΔBAC (S∠S)
D C D C
The angles of the rectangle By congruency:
are 90° and the opposite sides AC = BD
are equal (parm property). ∴ Diagonals are equal in length.
267
SQUARES
Definition: A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal and all four angles equal
to 90°.
Any square is both a rhombus and a rectangle (and therefore also a parallelogram). All the
properties of a rhombus, a rectangle (and a parallelogram) are also properties of a square.
The properties of a square
A B
All four sides of a
square are equal. AB = BC = DC = AD sides of square
D C
LE
ABCD is a square.
A B
All four angles of a
Â = 90° and B̂ = 90° and
square are equal to
Ĉ = 90° and D̂ = 90° ∠ of square
90°. D C
ABCD is a square.
A B
The opposite sides
of a square are
parallel. D
P C
AB ∥ DC and AD ∥ BC opp sides of square
ABCD is a square.
M
A B
The diagonals of a
O AO = OC and DO = OB diags of square
square bisect each
other. D C
ABCD is a square.
A B
A
The diagonals of a
1
square are 4O2
3 Ô 1 = Ô 2 = Ô 3 = Ô 4 = 90° diags of square
perpendicular to
D C
each other.
ABCD is a square.
S
A B
The diagonals of a
Â 1 = Â 2 and B̂ 1 = B̂ 2 and
2 1
1 2
square bisect the
2 1 Ĉ 1 = Ĉ 2 and D̂ 1 = D̂ 2 diag of square
angles (forming 45° 1 2
D C (All these angles = 45°)
angles).
ABCD is a square.
A B
The diagonals of a
square are equal in AC = DB diags of square
length. D C
ABCD is a square.
268
Summary of the properties of a square
• All four sides are equal.

45° 45° • All four angles equal 90°.
45° 45°
45° 45°
45° 45° • Diagonals bisect the angles (forming 45° angles).
• Diagonals are equal in length.
LE
All the properties of a square are properties of either the rhombus or the rectangle.
EXAMPLE 13
In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a square and E

DEBF is a rectangle. DO = 5 m and B̂ 3 = 20°.
1
A B
2
(a) Determine the length of
3 4
(1) OB
(2)
(3)
FE
OF
P 3
2
O1
20°
4
(b) Determine the size of
(1) Ô 1
M
5m
(2) B̂ 1
D 1
C
2
F
A
Solution
(a) (1) OB = 5 m (diags of rect)
(2) DB = 10 m
∴ FE = 10 m
S
(diags of rect)
(3) OF = 5 m (diags of rect)
(b) (1) F̂ 1 = 20° (∠s opp = sides)

∴ Ô 1 = 140° (∠s of Δ)
(2) ̂ = 90°
A BC (∠ of square)
∴ B̂ 2 = 45° (diag of square)
̂ = 90°
EBF (∠ of rect)
∴ B̂ 1 = 25°
269
EXERCISE 4
(a) Determine, with reasons, the sizes of the angles marked a to n:
ABCD is a rhombus. ABCD is a square.
A A B
B
b 70° e
25°
c
a
f
d
D C D C
LE
PQRS is a rectangle. KLMN is a square.
K P L
P Q k l
g j
n
m
M
42° O
h
i
S
P R
N M
(b) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A B

rectangle. OC = 5 cm and AD = 6 cm.
M
Calculate the length of 6 cm O
(1) DB 5 cm
(2) AB
D C
T
A
(c) In the sketch alongside, TSLN is a rhombus.

NO = 20 m and TL = 42 m.
Calculate the length of TS.
N 20 m 1 2 S 42 m
O
3 4
S
L
A B
(d) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a square. 2
AE = DE and Â 1 = 50°.
1
50° P
3
4 2
Determine the size of 1 1
(1) P̂ 1 2 E
D̂ 2
3
(2)
1 2
3
D C
270
(e) In the sketch alongside, ABCE is a rhombus A B
and OBCD is a parallelogram. ODC ̂ = 36°. 1 2
1
Determine the size of 1
(1) B̂ 2 O
(2) Â 1
E C
36°
D
(f) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a rectangle
and PBQC is a rhombus. D̂ 2 = 50° and A B
P̂ 3 = 110°. (DPB is not a straight line.) 1
2 3
(1) Prove that AB ∥ PQ.
LE
P 1 1 2 1
(2) Determine the size of 3 2 4
O3 2 Q
(i) Ĉ 1 50° 110°
(ii) P̂ 1 2
1 1
2 3
(iii) Q̂ 2 D C
B C
(g) In the sketch alongside, ABDE is a rectangle
1 2 3
and BCDO is a rhombus. BC = BD.
(1)
(i)
(ii) B̂ 1
P
Determine the size of
B̂ 3 A O D
(2) If CD = 1 m, calculate the length of

AB correct to two decimal places.
M
E
B C
(h) In the sketch alongside, ABOE is a rhombus
and BCDO is a square. Ê 2 = 36°. A
Determine the size of P
(1) Ô 1 3
A
4 2
Ô 4
1
(2) 2
(3) Ê 1 1 O
3
36° 4 1 D
2 1
E
S
(i) In the sketch alongside, ABEF and PCDE are A B

rhombuses. B̂ 1 = Ĉ 1, CD = 37 m and 3
1
FO = 70 m. 2
(1) Determine the length of BP. 5 P

4 1
(2) Prove that OP ∥ FE. O2
3
(3) Calculate the length of AE. 70 m
1
2 C
F
E 37 m
271
(j) Calculate the values of x, y and z in each of the following cases:
(1) ABCD is a rhombus: (2) PQRS is a rectangle:

A B
1 y 1
2 2x + 18° P Q
z 1 x − 21°
2
z 3
y 2
2 2
3O 1 3 O 1
4 4 2
1
A x
1
1
2 x + 12° 2 S R
D C
(3) KLMN is a square and PLRM is a rhombus:
LE
K L
1
3 4
2
3
P 4O2
R
Q 11
2
z y
2 3x − 5°
N
P 1
3 4
M
5 4x
M
(k) Calculate the area of rhombus ABCD in each of the following cases:
(1) A B (2) P (3) A B

3m
A B
7 cm 12 m 10 m
C 4m
D
A
10 cm D P C
D C
(4) A B (5) A B (6)
A
17 cm
S
77 cm B D
P
D 36 cm P D C 9 cm
C C
7m 24 m
P
(l)* In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a rhombus. A B
AP ⊥ DC. AP = 4 units, PC = x and
AD = 2x + 1.
(1) Calculate the value of x. 2x + 1 4
(2) If x = 2 units, calculate the area of
rhombus ABCD.
D P x C
272
KITES
Definition: A kite is a quadrilateral whose four sides can be grouped into two pairs of equal
adjacent sides.
In a kite, the diagonal connecting the two vertices where the equal sides meet is called the main
diagonal (indicated in bold in each of the following sketches):
You would have noticed that the main diagonal is not always the longer diagonal.
LE
Note: All rhombuses (and therefore all squares) are also kites.
The properties of a kite
Two pairs of D B AB = AD and CB = CD given

adjacent sides are
equal.
P (the equal sides will
always be indicated in
the case of a kite)
C
M
A
Diagonals are 1 2
D 4O3
B
perpendicular to Ô 1 = Ô 2 = Ô 3 = Ô 4 = 90° diags of kite
each other.
A
The main diagonal D O B

bisects the other DO = OB diags of kite
S
diagonal.
A
1 2
The main diagonal D B

Â 1 = Â 2 and Ĉ 1 = Ĉ 2 diag of kite
bisects the angles. 1 2
273
A
The angles opposite D B

the main diagonal D̂ = B̂ ∠s opp main diag of kite
are equal.
Summary of the properties of a kite

• Two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
• The main diagonal bisects the other diagonal.
LE
• The main diagonal bisects the angles.
• The angles opposite the main diagonal are equal.

(1) By definition, two pairs of adjacent sides are equal.
(2) Draw in the main diagonal:
A
P A
1 2
D B D B
ΔADC ≡ ΔABC (SSS)
M
1 2
C C
Adjacent sides of kite are By congruency:
equal and DC is common Â 1 = Â 2 and Ĉ 1 = Ĉ 2
to ΔADC and ΔABC. D̂ = B̂
A
∴ Main diagonal bisect the angles

and angles opposite the main
diagonal are equal.
(3) Draw in both diagonals
A A
S
1 2 1 2
D O B D O B
ΔADO ≡ ΔABO (S∠S)
C C
By congruency:
Adjacent sides of kite are DO = OB and Ô 1 = Ô 2 = 90°
equal, main diagonal bisects ∴ Main diagonal bisects other diagonal
angle and AO is common to and diagonals are perpendicular to
ΔADO and ΔABO. each other.
274
EXAMPLE 14 K
In the sketch alongside:
• KITE is a kite with KI = KE and TI = TE.

• KIAB is a kite with IK = IA and BK = BA. I 2
110° E
1
Ê = 110° and Â 1 = 80°. 2
1 B
(a) I ̂1
B̂ 2
2
(b)
A 1 80°
LE
T
Solution
(a) ̂ = 110°
K IT (∠s opp main diag of kite)
∴ I 1̂ = 55° (diag of kite)
(b) B̂ 1 = 25° (ext ∠ of Δ)

∴ B̂ 2 = 25° (diag of kite)
The area of a kite

P
The area of a kite is given by half of the product of the diagonals of the kite:
M
1
d2 Area = (d × d 2)
d1 2 1
A
Note: Since a rhombus is a special type of kite, this formula can also be used to calculate the area
of a rhombus if the lengths of its diagonals are known.
S
A Let AC = d1 and DB = d 2.
Area of kite ABCD = Area of ΔADC + Area of ΔABC

D O B 1 1
= AC × DO + AC × OB
2 2
1
= AC × ( DO + OB)
2
1 1
= AC × DB = (d1 × d 2 )
2 2
C
275
EXAMPLE 15 A
In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a kite
with AB = BC and AD = CD.
AC = 24 cm, AB = 13 cm and 13 cm
OD = 20 cm.
Calculate 1 2 20 cm
24 cm B O3 D
(a) the length of BD. 4
(b) the area of kite ABCD.
LE
Solution
(a) AO = 12 cm (diags of kite)

Ô 1 = 90° (diags of kite)
122 + BO2 = 132 (Pythagoras)
∴ BO2 = 132 − 122 = 25
∴ BO = 5 cm
∴ BD = 25 cm
(b) Area of ABCD =

1
2
P
(AC × BD)
1
= (24 × 25) = 300 cm2
2
M
EXAMPLE 16
Calculate the area of rhombus PQRS in the following sketch:
P Q
A
8m
5m
8m
5m
S
S R
Solution
Since any rhombus is also a kite, we can calculate the area of a rhombus using the formula for
the area of a kite if the lengths of the diagonals of the rhombus are known.
1
Area of PQRS = ( PR × SQ)
2
1
= (16 × 10) = 160 m2
2
276
EXERCISE 5
A
(a) In the sketch alongside, ABCD and CDEF
are kites. AC ∥ DF. Â 1 = 34°, B̂ = 120° 1 2
̂
and reflex F = 238°. ADE is not a straight line. 34°
(1) Â 2 B 120° 1 D
(2) D̂ 1 23
(3) D̂ 3
(4) Ê 1
(5) F̂ 1
(6) Ĉ 4 12
3 1 2 1
O E
LE
C 4 4 3 2
12
F
238°
(b) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a square

A B
and DOTS is a kite. Ŝ = 110°.
(1) D̂ 3 O
(2) Ô 2 1 2
R
(3)
(4)
T̂ 2
R̂ 1
P D
1
2
3
1 2
2
1 3
C
1
2
T
110°
M
S
(c) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a rhombus B
and EFCD is a kite. D̂ = 76°
Determine the size of F 3
(1) F̂ 2 1
2
F̂ 3 2
A
(2)
A
(3) F̂ 1 2
1 C
(4) Ê 1 1
E
76°
S
D
(d) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a kite. A
AC = 17 cm, BD = 24 cm and D̂ 1 = 45°. 1 2
(1) Prove that OC = OD. 2 3 2 2

B O
4 1
D
1 1
(2) Calculate the length of AD.
1 2
C
277
(e) In the sketch alongside, KITE is a kite I
with KI = KE and TI = TE. OP ∥ IT.
KI = 17 m, KO = 15 m and OT = 6 m. 17 m
Calculate the length of
15 m 1 2 6m
(1) OE K O
5 3
T
(2) TP 4
(f) Calculate the values of x, y and z in each of the following cases: E

(1) ABCD is a kite: (2) PQRS is a kite:
A
P
LE
x + 25° 1 2
x z
B 2x y D
z x − 8° 1 2
y
1 1
Q 2 O 50° 2 S
4 3
E
x + 5°
1 2
R
C
P
(3) ABCD is a rectangle and BOCP is a kite:
A B
M
1 1
2 2 3
z 6x + 1°
1 Q x + 13°
5 O 2
3
y 1 2 1
P
2
4
4 3
2x + 3°
2 2 3
A
1 1
D C
(g) Calculate the area of kite ABCD in each of the following cases:
(1) A (2) A
S
29 cm
B D
31 cm
B 1 2 D
O
10 m 4 3
10 cm
C
6m
278
(h) Calculate the area of rhombus PQRS: (i) Calculate the area of square KLMN:
P
K L
5 cm
1 2
Q O S
4 3
3m
R
N M
8 cm
A
(j) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a 20 cm
kite. BD = 24 cm and AD = 20 cm. 1 2
B 4O3
D
Calculate the length of DC if the area
of kite ABCD is 612 cm2.
LE
C
24 cm
CLASSIFICATION OF QUADRILATERALS
Based on the definitions we have given for the quadrilaterals, the following relationships apply:
•
P
All squares are rectangles and rhombuses.
• All rectangles and rhombuses are parallelograms.
• All parallelograms are trapeziums.
(A trapezium is sometimes defined as a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of opposite sides
M
parallel. Using this alternative definition, parallelograms would not be regarded as trapeziums.)
• All rhombuses are kites.
These relationships are summarised by the following diagram:
QUADRILATERALS
A
Trapeziums Kites
S
Parallelograms
Rectangles Rhombuses
Squares
279
SUMMARY OF THE PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS
QUADRILATERAL DEFINITION PROPERTIES

Trapezium
A trapezium is a
quadrilateral with a pair One pair of opposite sides parallel
of parallel sides.
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a • Both pairs of opposite sides parallel
quadrilateral with both • Both pairs of opposite sides equal
LE
pairs of opposite sides • Both pairs of opposite angles equal
parallel. • Diagonals bisect each other
Rhombus
A rhombus is a • All four sides equal
• Both pairs of opposite angles equal
quadrilateral with all • Diagonals bisect each other
four sides equal. • Diagonals perpendicular to each other
P • Diagonals bisect angles
Rectangle
M
A rectangle is a
quadrilateral with all • Both pairs of opposite sides equal
• All four angles equal 90°
four angles equal to • Diagonals bisect each other
90°. • Diagonals equal in length
A
Square
A square is a • All four sides equal
quadrilateral with all • All four angles equal 90°
45° four sides equal and all • Diagonals bisect each other
four angles equal to • Diagonals perpendicular to each other
• Diagonals bisect angles
S
90°.
• Diagonals equal in length
Kite
• Two pairs of adjacent sides equal
A kite is a quadrilateral • Diagonals perpendicular to each other
whose four sides can be • Main diagonal bisects other diagonal
grouped into two pairs • Main diagonal bisects angles
of equal adjacent sides. • Angles opposite the main diagonal
equal
* The properties shown in bold are new properties. Others are inherited from prior quadrilaterals.
280
PROVING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANGLES OR SIDES
Thus far in this chapter we have calculated the sizes of angles and the lengths of lines. We can also
use the theorems of geometry to prove that certain relationships exist between angles (or sides)
without actually knowing the numerical values of the angles (or sides). We will also use some basic
principles of mathematics in these proofs:
PRINCIPLE 1
If two things are equal to the same thing then they are equal to each other:
If a = x
and x = b
then a = b
LE
EXAMPLE 17
A P B
2 1 1 2
In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a parallelogram
and PBQC is a kite. Q
(a) Prove that D̂ = B̂ 2.

(b) If D̂ = Q̂ , prove that AD = CQ. 2 3
1
D C
Solution
(a) D̂ = B̂ 1
P
(opp ∠s of parm) (b) D̂ = Q̂ (given)
and B̂ 1 = B̂ 2 (diag of kite) and D̂ = B̂ 2 (proven)
∴ D̂ = B̂ 2 ∴ Q̂ = B̂ 2
∴ BC = CQ (sides opp = ∠s)
M
but AD = BC (opp sides of parm)
∴ AD = CQ
PRINCIPLE 2
The sums of equal things are equal:
A
If a = x
and b = y
then a + b = x + y
S
EXAMPLE 18 B
In the sketch alongside, CDEF is a rhombus. 1 2
Â 1 = B̂ 1. C
1 1 5
A 2
D
Prove that 2 3 4
(a) ̂ = BCE
ACE ̂
(b) ΔACE ≡ ΔBCE
F E
281
Solution
(a) Ĉ 2 = Ĉ 5 (vert opp ∠s)
Ĉ 3 = Ĉ 4 (diag of rhombus)
∴ Ĉ 2 + Ĉ 3 = Ĉ 5 + Ĉ 4
∴ ACE ̂ = BCE ̂
(b) In ΔACE and ΔBCE:
̂
ACE = BCÊ (proven)
AC = BC (sides opp = ∠s)
CE = CE (common)
∴ ΔACE ≡ ΔBCE (S∠S)
PRINCIPLE 3
The differences of equal things are equal:
LE
If a = x
and b = y
then a − b = x − y
EXAMPLE 19 P
In the sketch alongside, PQSR is a kite and
PKML is a rhombus.
Prove that
P Q K O L R
(a) QK = LR 1 2
(b) ΔPQK ≡ ΔPRL 4 3
M
(c) ΔKMS ≡ ΔLMS M
S
Solution
A
(a) QO = OR (diags of kite)

KO = OL (diags of rhombus)
∴ QO − KO = OR − OL
∴ QK = LR
(b) In ΔPQK and ΔPRL:
S
PQ = PR (given)
QK = LR (proven)
PK = PL (sides of rhombus)
∴ ΔPQK ≡ ΔPRL (SSS)
(c) In ΔKMS and ΔLMS:
KM = ML (sides of rhombus)
MS = MS (common)
M̂ 4 = 180° − M̂ 1 and M̂ 3 = 180° − M̂ 2 (∠s on a str ln)
but M̂ 1 = M̂ 2 (diag of rhombus)
∴ M̂ 4 = M̂ 3
∴ ΔKMS ≡ ΔLMS (S∠S)
282
EXERCISE 6
(a) In the sketch alongside, ABCD and EBGF are A E B

parallelograms.
Prove that D̂ = F̂ .
D C
F G
(b) In the sketch alongside, PARM and OATR P A
LE
are parallelograms.
Prove that PO = AT. O T
M R
(c) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a rectangle. A B

̂ .
ADE is a straight line. Ê = ACE
Prove that AE = DB.

P
` D C
M
E
(d) In the sketch alongside, PQRS is a kite and T
RTUV is a rhombus. Q
R
Prove that P̂ = R̂ 4.
A
P 1
2 3
5 4
U
V
S
(e) In the sketch alongside, ABDE is a A B

parallelogram. Ĉ 1 = D̂ 1. 1
3 2
Prove that Â 2 = Ĉ 2.
2 3
O C
1
2 1
E D
283
(f) In the sketch alongside, ABCF is a A G B
parallelogram. FG ∥ DB. 2 1 1
E 2
Prove that 2
1 3
(1) ΔABD ≡ ΔCFE 4
(2) ΔAEF ≡ ΔCDB 2
1
D
1 1
2 2
F C
(g) In the sketch alongside, ABCE is a kite A

with AB = AE and BC = EC. AEDF is 1 2
LE
a parallelogram. AG = FC. B 1 E
2 1
Prove that 2
(1) ΔABG ≡ ΔFDC

(2) Ê 1 = D̂ 1 + B̂ 2 G
1
F
2
2
P 1 D
(h) In the sketch alongside, PS = SR and P

ASTQ is a parallelogram.
M
Prove that
(1) PA = ST
(2) ΔPAS ≡ ΔSTR 3
S
A
2
1
A
Q T R
(i) In the sketch alongside, ABCE is a

S
parallelogram. Ĉ 1 = 90° and OED

̂ = D̂ 2. A B
2
1
Prove that
(1) ΔOBC ≡ ΔODC O
(2) OC ∥ ED
3 1
2
E 1
2
C
3
2 1
284
(j) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is E
a rectangle. BE = CF.
A 2
2 1 B
Prove that 1
(1) AF = DE
(2) ΔADF ≡ ΔDAE O
1 2 1 C
D 2
(k) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A

kite with AB = AD and BC = DC.
P̂ 2 = Q̂ 2 and AC bisects PAQ
̂ .
LE
1 2 3 4
Prove that
(1) Â 1 = Â 4 B D
(2) ΔABP ≡ ΔADQ
(3) CP = CQ 1
2 2 1
P 3 3 Q
P C
(l) In the sketch alongside, PARM and

M
A
PQRN are parallelograms.
Prove that ΔPMN ≡ ΔRAQ. P Q
O
A
N
R
M
S
(m) In the sketch alongside, ABCD E P Q F

is a rhombus. ED = BF.
Prove that A
(1) Ê = F̂
(2) ΔEDQ ≡ ΔFBP
1 1
2 2
D B
C
285
(n) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A B
rhombus. EB = DF.
2
Prove that E 1
(1) ΔEOB ≡ ΔFOD 4
1
(2) AE = FC O2
3
(3) ΔAEB ≡ ΔCFD 1 F
2
D C
(o) In the sketch alongside, KLMN is a K L

rhombus and LQMT is a kite. 1
2 3
NP = QL.
Q
LE
Prove that 2
1
(1) ΔNQM ≡ ΔLPM
(2) M̂ 1 = M̂ 3 T
(3) M̂ 1 = M̂ 4 P
(4) T̂ = P̂ 1 1
2
3 4
2 2
1 1
N M
P
PROVING THAT A QUADRILATERAL IS OF A SPECIFIC TYPE
Let us briefly revise the definitions of the different types of quadrilaterals:
• A trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.
M
• A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
• A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal.
• A rectangle is a quadrilateral with all four angles equal to 90°.
• A square is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal and all four angles equal to 90°.
• A kite is a quadrilateral whose four sides can be grouped into two pairs of equal adjacent sides.
In this section, we look at the minimum conditions required to prove that a quadrilateral is a
A
trapezium, parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square or kite:
TRAPEZIUM
The only way to show that a quadrilateral is a trapezium is to show that the definition of a
trapezium applies:
S
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a Information
Conclusion Reason
trapezium, we have to required
prove that
A B
one pair of opposite sides ABCD is a
1 pair of opp sides of quad ∥
are parallel. trapezium.
D C
286
PARALLELOGRAM
To prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, we can use any one of the following five ways:
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a
parallelogram, we Information required Conclusion Reason
have to prove any one
of the following:
A B
1.
ABCD is a
opp sides of quad ∥
LE
Both pairs of opposite
parallelogram.
sides are parallel.
D C
A B
2.
Both pairs of opposite ABCD is a
opp sides of quad =
sides are equal. parallelogram.
D
P C
3. A B
M
One pair of opposite
ABCD is a
sides are parallel and 1 pair of opp sides ∥ and =
parallelogram.
equal.
D C
A
A B
4.
ABCD is a
Both pairs of opposite opp ∠s of quad =
parallelogram.
angles are equal
D C
S
A B
5.
ABCD is a
The diagonals bisect diags of quad bisect each other
parallelogram.
each other.
D C
287
RHOMBUS
To prove that a quadrilateral is a rhombus, we can use any one of the following four ways:
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a
Information
rhombus, we have to Conclusion Reason
required
prove any one of the
following:
A B
1. ABCD is a
LE
all 4 sides of quad =
All four sides are equal. rhombus.
D C
A B
2.
The quadrilateral is a
ABCD is a
parallelogram with one parm with adj sides =
rhombus.
pair of adjacent sides
equal.
PD C
ABCD is a parm.
A B
M
3.
ABCD is a
parallelogram with parm with ⊥ diags
rhombus.
diagonals perpendicular D C
to each other
ABCD is a parm.
A
A B
4.
ABCD is a
parallelogram with a parm with diag bisecting ∠
rhombus.
diagonal bisecting an D C
S
angle.
ABCD is a parm.
288
RECTANGLE
To prove that a quadrilateral is a rectangle, we can use any one of the following three ways:
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a
Information
rectangle, we have to Conclusion Reason
required
prove any one of the
following:
A B
1. ABCD is a
all 4 ∠s of quad = 90°
All four angles are 90°. rectangle.
LE
D C
2. A B
The quadrilateral is a ABCD is a
parm with 90°∠
parallelogram with one D C rectangle.
angle equal to 90°.
ABCD is a parm.
3.
P
A B
ABCD is a
parallelogram with its D C parm with = diags
rectangle.
M
two diagonals equal in
ABCD is a parm.
length.
AC = DB
SQUARE
A
To prove that a quadrilateral is a square, we have to show that the quadrilateral both a rectangle
and a rhombus.
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a Information
S
Conclusion Reason
square, we have to required
prove that
A B
the quadrilateral is a ABCD is a

rhombus and rect
rhombus and a rectangle. D C square.
ABCD is a rhombus.
289
KITE
To prove that a quadrilateral is a kite, we can use any one of the following two ways:
To prove that a
quadrilateral is a kite, Information
Conclusion Reason
we have to prove any required
one of the following:
A
1.
Two distinct pairs of D B ABCD is a
adjacent sides are equal. adj sides of quad =
kite.
(The pairs may not share
LE
a side.)
C
2. D B ABCD is a
One diagonal bisects the diag bisects diag at 90°
kite.
other diagonal at 90°.
C
P
EXAMPLE 20 P
In the sketch alongside, BCEF is a
M
1 2
parallelogram. AB = ED, AD ∥ FG
and FCG ̂ = FGC ̂ .
A
(a) Prove that 1 1 2 1 B C
Q 2 5 4 3 2 3 1
2
(1) ACDF is a parallelogram. 3
A
(2) ADGF is a parallelogram.

1 2 3 1
(3) ACDF is a rectangle. 4 2
D
F 5 E 3
(b) If PA = DG and QA = AB, prove
that PBFQ is a rhombus.
S
G
Solution
(a) (1) BC = FE (opp sides of parm)

and AB = ED (given)
∴ AB + BC = FE + ED
∴ AC = FD
BC ∥ FE (opp sides of parm)
∴ AC ∥ FD
∴ ACDF is a parallelogram. (1 pair of opp sides ∥ and = )
290
(2) AD ∥ FG (given)
AF ∥ CD (opp sides of parm)
∴ AF ∥ DG
∴ ADGF is a parallelogram. (opp sides of quad ∥)
(3) AD = FG (opp sides of parm)
FG = FC (sides opp = ∠s)
∴ AD = FC
∴ ACDF is a rectangle. (parm with = diags)
(b) PA = DG (given)
and DG = AF (opp sides of parm)
∴ PA = AF
QA = AB (given)
∴ PBFQ is a parallelogram. (diags of quad bisect each other)
LE
̂ = 90°
∴ FAC (∠ of rect)
∴ PBFQ is a rhombus. (parm with ⊥ diags)
EXERCISE 7
A B
(a) In the sketch alongside, AD = DE
110°
and AE ∥ BC. Â = 110°, Ê = 44°
and Ĉ 1 = 26°.
Prove that
P 3
2 2
D C
(1) ABCD is a parallelogram. 1 26° 1
M
(2) DBCE is a parallelogram.
44°
E
(b) In the sketch alongside, PO = UT and P
Ô 3 = R̂ 2. Ô 1 = 138°, R̂ 1 = 16°, Ŝ = 122°, 1 2
A
Q̂ = 58° and T̂ 1 = T̂ 2 = 40°.

138°
Prove that 2O
1 Q
3 58°
U
(1) OQRT is a paralellogram.
40° 40°
S
(2) POTU is a rhombus. 1 2

3 2
T 4 16° 1 R
122°
S
(c) In the sketch alongside, AE = BC,
A B P
DB = DC and DB ∥ CP. Ê = D̂ 1 and 2
Â 2 = D̂ 2. 1
Prove that
(1) ABCD is a parallelogram. 1 2 3

E D C
(2) BPCD is a rhombus.
291
P B A
(d) In the sketch alongside, PARM is a 1 3 1
parallelogram. PB = CR, MB = BA 2
2
and MD ∥ BC. Â 1 = Ĉ 1. 3
2
1
Prove that O3
4
(1) BACM is a rhombus. 1

2
3 2 3 4
(2) MOCD is a rectangle. M 4 1 C R
LE
(e) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a P
parallelogram. PA = AD and 1 2
AO = CQ. P̂ 1 = D̂ .
Prove that 1 2
B
A 1
O 1
2 3
(1) PBCA is a rectangle. 3 4 2 3
(2) OBQC is a rhombus.

2 3
1 4
P D C Q
K A
M
(f) In the sketch alongside, PARM is a
parallelogram and KP = RL. P
Prove that O
(1) KALM is a parallelogram. R
(2) ΔPLM ≡ ΔRKA

A
M L
S
(g) In the sketch alongside, ABDE is a A B

paralellogram. ED = DC and Ê = Ĉ 1. 1 1
Ô 1 = 90°. 3 2 2
Prove that 1
4O 2
(1) ABCD is a parallelogram. 3
(2) ΔADE ≡ ΔADC

2 2
1 3 1
(3) ABCD is a square.
E D C
292
(h) In the sketch alongside, PQRS is a P Q
rectangle. Q̂ 1 = Ŝ 1.
2 1
1 2
C
Prove that 1
A 2 2
(1) AQBS is a parallelogram. B
1
(2) CQ = SD D
2 1
1 2
S R
(i) In the sketch alongside,

RHOM is a rhombus. R B H
1 4 1
RB = SO. 2 3
Q
2
LE
2
1
(1) Prove that HSMB 4
3
is a kite.
P3 2 1
2
(2) If BH = PS, 4
1
3 S
prove that 4
1
2
(i) BHSP is 3
4
a rhombus. O
M
(ii) ΔBPM ≡ ΔSPM
P
(j) In the sketch alongside, RECT is R E
a rectangle. RT = CQ, MN = NQ,
KL = LQ and LC ∥ QP.
M
Prove that
(1) TEPQ is a kite.
(2) KECL is a trapezium. M C

T P
A
(3) MEPQ is a rhombus.

K
N
L
S
FORMAL PROOFS
Starting with the definition of each quadrilateral, all further properties can be proven. Once proven,
the fact that a property is valid is regarded as a theorem of mathematics (a statement that is always
true). All the different ways of proving that a quadrilateral is of a specific type are also theorems.
We have been using many of these theorems throughout this chapter, but will now prove some of
them formally:
293
THEOREM 1
The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are equal.
Given: Parm ABCD. A B

1
2
Required to prove: AB = CD
AD = BC
Â = Ĉ
̂ = A DC
A BC ̂ 2
1
Proof D C
Construction: Draw diagonal DB.

AB ∥ DC (opp sides of parm – definition)
LE
AD ∥ BC (opp sides of parm – definition)
In ΔABD and ΔCDB:

DB = DB (common)
B̂ 1 = D̂ 1 (alt ∠s ; AB ∥ DC)
D̂ 2 = B̂ 2 (alt ∠s ; AD ∥ BC)
∴ ΔABD ≡ ΔCDB (∠∠S)
∴ AB = DC and AD = BC (≡ Δs)
Â = Ĉ
P (≡ Δs)
B̂ 1 + B̂ 2 = D̂ 1 + D̂ 2 (B̂ 1 = D̂ 1 and B̂ 2 = D̂ 2 – proven)

∴ A BC ̂ = A DC ̂
M
THEOREM 2
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. A B

1 1
2 2
Given: Parm ABCD.
A
O
Required to prove: AO = OC
DO = OB 2 2
1 1
Proof D C
S
Construction: Draw diagonals AC and DB.
AB ∥ DC (opp sides of parm)

AD ∥ BC (opp sides of parm)
In ΔAOB and ΔCOD:

AB = DC (opp sides of parm)
Â 1 = Ĉ 1 (alt ∠s ; AB ∥ DC)
B̂ 1 = D̂ 1 (alt ∠s ; AD ∥ BC)
∴ ΔAOB ≡ ΔCOD (∠∠S)
∴ AO = OC and DO = OB (≡ Δs)
294
THEOREM 3
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and equal, then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
A B
1
Given: Quadrilateral ABCD 2
with AB ∥ DC and AB = DC.
Required to prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.

2
Proof 1
D C
Construction: Draw diagonal DB.
In ΔABD and ΔCDB:

AB = DC (given)
LE
B̂ 1 = D̂ 1 (alt ∠s ; AB ∥ DC)
DB = DB (common)
∴ ΔABD ≡ ΔCDB (S∠S)
∴ D̂ 2 = B̂ 2 (≡ Δs)
∴ AD ∥ BC (alt ∠s are =)
∴ ABCD is a parm (opp sides of quad ∥)

P
(a) Determine, with reasons, the sizes

M
of the angles marked a to g: A Q
66°
5m
f
c d
P O g
A
e
5m
a b
S
B 10 m C
(b) Determine, with reasons, the lengths P

of the line segments marked a to d:
b 30
d
S O T
6 c
R a U 22 Q
295
(c) Determine, with reasons, the sizes of the angles marked a to m:
(1) ABCD is a parallelogram. (2) ABFE is a square.

APRQ is a kite. EBCD is a rhombus.
A P B A B
a 100° c 1
2
64°
h
Q
f e
d g b
D R C 1
2 1
E 3 2
F
4
(3) ABCD is a rectangle
i
LE
j C
A B
l k
m
130°
O
D C D
P
M
A
(d) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a kite
with AD = AB and CD = CB. A DC ̂ = 90°. 1 2
15 cm
AO = 9 cm and AB = 15 cm. 9 cm
1 1 2 1
(1) Prove that ΔAOB ||| ΔADC. D 2 4
O3 2
B
A
(2) Calculate the length of AC.
(3) Calculate the area of kite ABCD.
1 2
S
(e) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a rhombus. A B

AP = 4 m, AC = 80 m and DC = x. P̂ = 90°.
(1) Calculate the length of PC. 80 m

4m
(2) Calculate the value of x.
(3) If x = 5 m, calculate the area

of rhombus ABCD. P x C
D
296
A
(f) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is
a parallelogram. AC = 16 units,
P
DB = 24 units, PO = 5 units,
QC = 3 units and PB = 13 units.
5 13
(1) Prove that 4 1
D O2 B 16
3
(i) PBQD is a
parallelogram.
(ii) PBQD is a Q 3
rhombus.
(2) Calculate the area of the C

shaded region. 24
LE
A B
1 1
2 2
(g) In the sketch alongside,
ABCG and GOCF are
parallelograms.
GC = CD and FC ∥ ED.
P O
Prove that 1 1
2 2 C
G D
(1) B̂ 1 = D̂ 3 3 4
M
(2) FE = AO 1
2
(3) ED = GB F
E
A
A
(h) In the sketch alongside,
ED ∥ BC and AD ∥ FG.
S
EF = HG, FH = HC
and DG = GC.
Prove that F
E D
(1) AC = 4HC
2 H G
(2) BC = ED
3
B C
297
(i) In the sketch alongside, AB = BC = CD,
AP = PG and CG ∥ DR. OPG ̂ = OGP̂ A
and OG = 15 cm.
Prove that
(1) Calculate the length of DP. B P
(2) If CO = x, calculate the value of x.
(3) Prove that BPRD is a parallelogram. C O

Q G
D R
LE
A B
(j) In the sketch alongside, ABOF and P

AOEF are parallelograms.
FE = ED and EB ∥ DC.
Prove that
P F O C
(1) FBCE is a parallelogram.

M
(2) BCDE is a parallelogram.
E
A
D
S
(k) In the sketch alongside, AD = BC A P B

and PB = DQ. B̂ 2 = D̂ 2. 1 2 1 1
2 2
3 4 5
4
Prove that 3
2
1 S
(1) ABCD is a parallelogram.
(2) APCQ is a parallelogram. R1 2
3 4
3
(3) ΔPBS ≡ ΔQDR 2 5 4 2
1 1 2 1
(4) ASCR is a parallelogram D Q C
298
(l) In the sketch alongside, AOCB and A
EOCD are parallelograms. B̂ 1 = Ê 1. 1 2
Prove that
(1) AEDB is a rhombus. 1 P

2
(2) BODC is a rectangle.
2
1
1 3 1
B 6
O E
2 4 2
5
3
2
Q1 3
4
LE
1 2 3
2 1
C D
(m) In the sketch alongside, ABCD is a A P B

parallelogram. Â 1 = B̂ 1, DO = OC
2 1 2
1
2 45° 1
and PQ ∥ BC. P̂ 1 = 45°.
Prove that
P O
(1) ΔADC ≡ ΔBCD
2 1
2
(2) ABCD is a rectangle. 1 3
M
D Q C
(3) PBCQ is a square.
(n) In the sketch alongside, AP = PD, BQ = QC, A B

PQ ∥ DC and A DC ̂ = 90°.
A
(1) Prove that ABCD is a trapezium.

1
(2) Prove that PQ = (AB + DC). Q
2 P O
(3) If PQ = 9 cm and AD = 8 cm,
S
calculate the area of trapezium ABCD.
D C
299
CHAPTER TEN
——————————————————————————————
Measurement
————————————————————————————————————————
In this chapter, we discuss the surface areas and volumes of a variety of three dimensional shapes.
CONVERSION BETWEEN UNITS
The following summary shows how to convert between units of length, area, volume and capacity:
LENGTH
LE
× 1000 × 1000 × 100 × 10
km m mm m cm mm
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000 ÷ 100 ÷ 10
AREA
× 1000 2
P
× 1000 2 × 100 2 × 10 2
km2 m2 mm2 m2 cm2 mm2

M
÷ 1000 2 ÷ 1000 2 ÷ 100 2 ÷ 10 2
VOLUME
A
× 10003 × 10003 × 1003 × 103
km3 m3 mm3 m3 cm3 mm3

S
÷ 10003 ÷ 10003 ÷ 1003 ÷ 103
CAPACITY
× 1000 × 1000
kl = m3 l ml = cm3
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
300
AREAS OF TWO DIMENSIONAL SHAPES
You will need the following area formulae, from earlier grades, in this chapter:
RECTANGLE B Area = L × B
1
TRIANGLE ⊥h Area = b×⊥h
2
LE
b
r Area = π r 2
CIRCLE
(Circumference = 2π r)
P
⊥h Area = b × ⊥ h
PARALLELOGRAM
b
M
d2 1
KITE d1 Area = × d1 × d 2
A
2
S
⊥h 1
TRAPEZIUM Area = (a + b) × ⊥ h
2
b
Note: A RHOMBUS can be dealt with as a special parallelogram or as a special kite,

depending on the information given.
301
VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA
The volume of a three dimensional shape is the amount of space taken up by the shape, and the
surface area is the sum of the areas of the outer faces of the shape.
PRISMS
A prism is a three dimensional shape of which

• all the faces are polygons and
• two faces are parallel and congruent (the same shape and size).
The two parallel and congruent faces are called the bases of the prism. Any cross section of the
prism, parallel to the bases, will be congruent to the bases. All the other faces of the prism are
parallelograms. If the other faces are rectangles, the prism is called a right prism. We will only
work with right prisms in this chapter.
LE
Base
Height: Bases:
Perpendicular Two parallel, congruent
distance between shapes
bases
P Base
The perpendicular distance between the two bases of a prism is called the height of the prism (no
M
matter how the prism is turned). A prism is named according to its base. For example, if the base is
a triangle then the prism is called a triangular prism etc.
The volume and surface area of a prism are calculated as follows:
Volume of Prism = Area of Base × Height

A
Surface Area of Prism = (2 × Area of Base) + (Sum of Areas of Rectangles joining Bases)
Note : Surface Area = Sum of Areas of Faces

S
EXAMPLE 1 E
The sketch alongside shows a triangular prism.
(a) Calculate
A
(1) the volume of the prism.
(2) the surface area of the prism. D
(b) Write down 24 cm

(1) the volume of the prism in mm3. 50 cm
(2) the surface area of the prism in m2.
B 10 cm C
302
Solution
(a) (1) ΔABC is the base of the prism.

1
Area of Base (ΔABC) = × 10 × 24 = 120 cm2 E
2
50 cm
Volume of Prism = Area of Base × Height
= 120 × 50 A
= 6 000 cm3 D
26 cm
(2) AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (Pythagoras) 24 cm
50 cm
= 242 + 10 2
= 676 B 10 cm C
LE
∴ AC = 676 = 26 cm
Surface Area of Prism = (2 × Area of Base) + (Sum of Areas of Rectangles)

= [2 × 120] + [(50 × 10) + (50 × 24) + (50 × 26)]
= 3240 cm2
(b) (1) × 103 : 6 000 cm3 = 6 000 000 mm3
(2) ÷ 100 2 :
P3240 cm2 = 0,324 m2
2m
EXAMPLE 2
A B
In the sketch alongside, trapezium ABCD
M
is the base of the prism. 50 cm
C 1m D
(a) Calculate
(1) the area of the base of the 1,6 m
prism.
(2) the volume of the prism
A
in m3.
(b) Calculate the capacity of the

prism in litres.
S
Solution
1
(a) (1) Area of Trapezium = (sum of || sides) × (distance between || sides)
2
1
∴ Area of Base = × (2 + 1) × 0,5 = 0,75 m2 50 cm = 0,5 m
2
(2) Volume of Prism = Area of Base × Height
= 0,75 × 1,6
= 1,2 m3
(b) × 1000 : 1,2 m3 = 1 200 l
303
CYLINDERS
A cylinder is much like a prism, but with a circle as base:
LE
r
The volume and surface area of a cylinder are calculated as follows:
Volume of Cylinder = Area of Base Circle × Height

P V = π r 2h
Surface Area of Cylinder = 2 × Area of Base Circle + Area of Rectangle

M
SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh
2π r
A
πr 2 πr 2 2πrh h
• When a cylinder is open at one end:

S
Surface Area = Area of Base Circle + Area of Rectangle
SA = π r 2 + 2π rh
• When a cylinder is open at both ends:

Surface Area = Area of Rectangle
SA = 2π rh
304
EXAMPLE 3
10 cm
The sketch alongside shows a right cylinder.
(a) Calculate, correct to two decimals,

the volume of the cylinder. 5 cm
(b) Calculate, correct to two decimals,

the surface area of the cylinder if it is
(1) closed at both ends.

(2) open at both ends.
Solution
(a) V = π r 2h (b) (1) SA = 2π r 2 + 2π rh
LE
= π × 52 × 10 = 2π (5)2 + 2π (5)(10)
= 785,40 cm3 = 471,24 cm2
(2) SA = 2π rh
= 2π (5)(10)
= 314,16 cm2
EXAMPLE 4
P
A drinking glass has a cylindrical shape and
is is open at the top as shown in the sketch
alongside.
The diameter of the base is 50 mm and the

M
height is 150 mm.
150 mm
(a) How much water can the glass hold (in ml)?
(b) What is the outer surface area of the glass (in cm2)?
A
50 mm
Solution
S
(a) Since 1 m l = 1 cm3, (b) Cylinder is open at one end:

we convert all dimensions to cm:
SA = π r 2 + 2π rh
5
r = = 2,5 cm h = 15 cm = π (2,5)2 + 2π (2,5)(15)
2
= 255,25 cm2
V = π r 2h
= π × (2,5)2 × 15
= 294,52 cm3 = 294,52 m l
305
COMBINING SHAPES
When basic shapes are combined to form more complex shapes, we have to think carefully about
which volumes and/or areas to add/subtract to obtain the volume and/or surface area of the new
shape formed:
• To find the volume of a combined shape, the volumes of the original shapes are added (when
shapes are stacked onto other shapes) or subtracted (when shapes are removed from other
shapes).
• To find the surface area of a combined shape, the areas of all the exposed faces are added
together. To find the areas of some faces may require subtracting concealed areas.
EXAMPLE 5
8m
The shape alongside consists of a
LE
square prism and a cylinder.
Calculate, correct to two decimals, the 9m

(a) volume of the shape.
(b) surface area of the shape.

2m
Solution
P 10 m 10 m
(a) Total Volume = Volume of Prism + Volume of Cylinder

M
= L × B × H + π r 2h
= [10 × 10 × 2] + [π × 42 × 9]
= 652,39 m3
(b)
A
4m A = circle
9m B = rectangle
(circumference of circle × height)
S
C = square − circle
2m
D = rectangle (there are 4 of these)
10 m
E = square (bottom)
Surface Area = A + B + C + 4D + E
= [π (4)2 ] + [2π (4) × 9] + [10 × 10 − π (4)2 ] + [4 × 2 × 10] + [10 × 10]
= 506,19 m2
306
EXERCISE 1
(a) For each of the following prisms, calculate

(i) the volume (in m3).
(ii) the surface area (in m2).
(1) (2) B
5m
12 m
C
2m 10 m
LE
70 cm 75 cm
(3) (4)
2m
P Q
K
8m
KM =10 m
P
L
M
1,5 m M
90 cm 18 m
9m
N
R
A
(5) (6) D
24 m 12 m E
C
37 m 3m
C
S
B
O 37 m A 8m
20 m
3m
D B
A 20 m 5m
10 m
307
(b) The base of the triangular prism alongside
is an equilateral triangle.
(1) Calculate the value of h.

(2) If it is given that h = 12 m, calculate
the following, correct to two decimal
4m
places:
h 4m
(i) the area of the base of the prism.
(ii) the volume of the prism. 8m
(iii) the capacity of the prism in l. 4m
(iv) the surface area of the prism.
(c) For the following cylinders, calculate
LE
(i) the volume (in cm3). (ii) the capacity (in l ).
(iii) the surface area (in cm2).
(1) (2) 1,4 m

10 cm
54 cm
18 cm
P
M
(d) The cylinder alongside has a base diameter of
7 m and a height of 13 m.
Calculate the surface area of the cylinder, 13 m

A
correct to two decimal places, if

(1) it is open at the top.
(2) open at the top and the bottom.
S
7m
(e) The sketch alongside shows half of 8 cm

a cylinder. 20 cm
Calculate, correct to two decimal places,
(1) the capacity of the shape (in ml).
(2) the surface area of the shape (in cm2).
308
(f) The sketch alongside shows a triangular
prism on top of a rectangular prism.
(1) Calculate the volume of the

shape.
x
(3) If it is given that x = 17 m, x 12 m

calculate the surface area of the 20 m
shape.
40 m
30 m
LE
9 cm
(g) The sketch alongside shows a
cylinder with a smaller
cylinder removed along
its entire length.
Calculate, correct to 6 cm 10 cm
two decimal places,
(1)
(2)
P
the remaining volume.
the total exposed surface
area.
M
2m
(h) The shape alongside consists of a
cylinder and a square prism.
A
Calculate, correct to two decimals, the

5m
(1) volume of the shape.
(2) surface area of the shape.

S
4m
6m
309
PYRAMIDS
A pyramid is a three dimensional shape formed by joining each vertex of a polygon (the base) to a
point (the apex), using straight lines. (The apex cannot be in the same plane as the base.)
Any cross section of the pyramid, parallel to the base, will be similar to the base. All the other faces
of the pyramid are triangles. If the base is a regular polygon and the other faces are congruent
isosceles triangles, the pyramid is called a right pyramid. We will only work with right pyramids in
this chapter.
Apex
Height
LE
Base
The perpendicular distance between the apex and the base of a pyramid is called the height of the
pyramid (no matter how the pyramid is turned).
A pyramid is named according to its base.

P
The volume and surface area of a pyramid are calculated as follows:
1
Volume of Pyramid = × Area of Base × Height
3
M
Surface Area of Pyramid = (Area of Base) + (Sum of Areas of Triagles joining Base to Apex)
Note : Surface Area = Sum of Areas of Faces

A
EXAMPLE 6
The sketch alongside shows a right square pyramid.

The length of the side of the base square is 6 m
and the height of the pyramid is 4 m. 4m
S
Calculate
(a) the volume of the pyramid.
(b) the surface area of the pyramid. 6m
Solution
1
(a) Volume of Pyramid = × Area of Base × Height
3
1
= × 36 × 4 The base is a square: Area of Base = 6 × 6 = 36 m2
3
= 48 m3
310
(b) To find the areas of the triangles joining the base to the apex, we need the slant height of
the pyramid:
4 s
3
6 This is the slant height of the
6 pyramid. It is also the
perpendicular height of the
This is the direct distance triangular face:
from the base edge to the s 2 = 32 + 42 (Pythagoras)
LE
centre of the base. In this ∴s =5
case, it is clearly half the
length of the base square.
1
Area of Triangular Face = × base × ⊥ height
2
1
= ×6×5
2
P = 15 m2
Total Surface Area = (Area of Square Base) + (4 × Area of Triangular Face)
= [6 × 6] + [4 × 15]
M
= 96 m2
CONES
A cone is much like a pyramid, but with a circle as base:
A
Apex
r = radius
h = height
S
h s
s = slant height
s2 = r 2 + h2 ∴ s = r 2 + h2
r
Base
The volume and surface area of a cone are calculated as follows:
1 2
Volume: V= πr h
3
311
Surface Area: SA = π r 2 + π rs , where s = r 2 + h2
If the circular base is excluded, the surface area is calculated as follows:
SA (excluding base) = π rs , where s = r 2 + h2
EXAMPLE 7
The sketch alongside shows a cone with a base
diameter of 30 cm and a height of 36 cm.
LE
Calculate, correct to two decimal places, 36 cm
(a) the volume of the cone.
(b) the surface area of the cone.
30 cm
Solution
(a) V=
1 2
3
πr h
P (b) s= r 2 + h2 = 152 + 362 = 39 cm
1
= π × 152 × 36 SA = π r 2 + π rs
3
M
= 8482,30 cm3 = π (15)2 + π (15)(39)
= 2544,69 cm2
A
EXAMPLE 8
The sketch alongside shows a structure

formed by stacking a cone on top of a
cylinder. The dimensions are as shown 13 m
in the sketch.
S
(a) the volume of the structure.
(b) the surface area of the structure. 9m
5m
312
Solution
(a) First, we have to calculate the height of the cone:
s2 = r 2 + h2 s = 13 m
h
2 2 2
∴ 13 = 5 + h
∴ h 2 = 132 − 52
∴ h = 12 m 5m
Total Volume = Volume of Cylinder + Volume of Cone
1 2
= π r 2 hcylinder + π r hcone
3
LE
[3 ]
1
= [π × 52 × 9] + × π × 52 × 12
= 1021,02 m3
(b) Total Surface Area = SA of Cylinder (excl one circle) + SA of Cone (excl base)
= (π r 2 + 2π rh) + π rs
= [π (5)2 + 2π (5)(9)] + [π (5)(13)]
P
= 565,49 m2
EXERCISE 2
M
(a) For each of the following square pyramids, calculate
(i) the volume (in m3).
(ii) the surface area (in m2).
(1) (2)
14 m
A
14 m
S
12 m
25 m
10 m
10 m
313
(b) The sketch alongside shows a right triangular
pyramid and its base. The length of a side
of the base triangle is 6 cm and the height 6 cm 6 cm
of the pyramid is 7 cm. h
x x
It can be shown that the slant height of
6 cm
the pyramid is 52 cm.
(1) Show that the area of the 7 cm

52 cm
base of the pyramid is
9 3 cm2.
(2) Calculate, correct to

two decimal places, 6 cm
(i) the volume
LE
of the pyramid. 6 cm
(ii) the surface area
of the pyramid.
(c) For the following cones, calculate

(i) the volume (in m3). (ii) the surface area (in m2).
(1) (2)
P 2,4 m
4m
M
3,5 m
3m
A
(3)
1m
S
2600 mm
(d) The sketch alongside shows a conical 16 cm

container (open at the top).
(1) the outer surface area of the

container. 15 cm
(2) the capacity of the container

(in l ).
314
(e) The sketch alongside shows half of
a cone.
Calculate, correct to two decimal places, 13 m

(1) the volume of the shape. 13 m
(2) the surface area of the shape.
10 m
(f) The sketch alongside shows a cube

with a right pyramid on top of it.
The cube has a side length of 12 m
LE
and the total height of the shape,
from the base of the cube up to the
apex of the pyramid, is 20 m.
Calculate 20 m
(1) the volume of the shape. 12 m
P 12 m
(g) The sketch alongside shows a cylinder

with a cone cut out of it.
M
52 mm
(1) the volume of the shape (in cm3).
(2) the surface area of the shape (in cm2).

4 cm
A
(h) The shape alongside consists of a

cylinder and a square pyramid.
The radius of the base of the

S
cylinder is 20 cm and the height of

the cylinder is 90 cm.
The length of a side of the square

base of the pyramid is 72 cm and
the slant height of the pyramid
is 85 cm.
(1) the volume of the shape.
315
SPHERES
A sphere is a three dimensional shape with one outer surface on which every point is the same
distance (the radius) from a given point (the centre). A sphere can be seen as the three dimensional
counterpart of the two dimensional circle.
LE
The volume and surface area of a sphere are calculated as follows:
4 3
Volume: V= πr
3
Surface Area:
P SA = 4π r 2
EXAMPLE 9
A sphere has a radius of 2 m. Calculate, correct to two decimal places,

(a) the volume of the sphere. (b) the surface area of the sphere.
Solution
M
4 3
(a) V= πr (b) SA = 4π r 2
3
4
= π × 23 = 4π × 22
3
= 33,51 m3 = 50,27 m2
A
EXAMPLE 10
The sketch alongside shows a hemisphere (half of a sphere).

S

(a) the volume of the hemisphere. 16 cm
(b) the surface area of the hemisphere.
Solution
1
(a) Volume of Hemisphere = × Volume of Sphere
2
1 4
= × π r3
2 3
1 4
= × π (8)3 = 1072,33 cm3
2 3
316
1
(b) Surface Area of Hemisphere = × Surface Area of Sphere + Area of Circle
2
(2 )
1
= × 4π r 2 + π r 2
[2 ]
1
= × 4π (8)2 + [π (8)2 ]
= 603,19 cm2
EXAMPLE 11
The sketch alongside shows a hemisphere on top 8 cm

of a cone. The dimensions are as shown in the
sketch. Calculate, correct to two decimal places,
LE
(a) the volume of the shape.
(b) the surface area of the shape.

15 cm
Solution
(a)
P
Volume = Volume of Hemisphere + Volume of Cone
8
(2 3 ) 3
1 4 3 1
= × π r + π r 2h 8
M
[2 3 ] [3 ]
1 4 1
= × π (8)3 + π (8)2(15)
15
= 2077,64 cm3
A
(b) Calculate the slant height of the cone:

8
s= r 2 + h2
S
8
= 82 + 152 = 17 cm
SA = SA of Hemisphere + SA of Cone (excl base) 17 15
(2 )
1
= × 4π r 2 + π rs
[2 ]
1
= × 4π (8)2 + [π (8)(17)]
= 829,38 cm2
317
EXERCISE 3
(a) For the following spheres, calculate
(1) (2)
5m
LE
80 cm
(b) The sketch alongside shows a hemisphere

(half of a sphere). 10 cm
(1) the volume of the hemisphere.
(2)
P
the surface area of the hemisphere.
(c) The sketch alongside shows a capsule consisting

M
of a cylinder with hemispheres at the ends.
Calculate, correct to two decimal places, 3 mm

(1) the volume of the capsule (in mm3).
(2) the surface area of the capsule (in mm2).

A
1,2 cm
(d) The sketch alongside shows a hemisphere on top

of a cone. The dimensions are as shown in the
sketch.
S

53 cm
318
(e) The sketch alongside shows a cone with
a hemisphere cut out. The dimensions are 1 cm
as shown in the sketch.
(1) the volume of the shape. 4 cm

5 cm
(f) The sphere alongside has a volume of 36π units3.
LE
Calculate the surface area of the sphere.
(Round your answer to two decimal places.)
r
(g)
P
The hemisphere alongside has a total outer
surface area of 27π units2. r
M
Calculate the volume of the hemisphere.
(Round your answer to two decimal places.)
A
SCALE FACTORS
When ALL the dimensions of a three dimensional shape are multiplied by a scale factor k,
• the surface area of the resulting shape is increased by a factor k 2 and

S
• the volume is increased by a factor k 3 .
When multiplying ALL dimensions by a scale factor k:
New Area = k 2 × Original Area
New Volume = k 3 × Original Volume
Note: Remember, when k > 1 the shape is enlarged and when 0 < k < 1 the shape is reduced.
319
EXAMPLE 12
A prism has a volume of 48 m3 and a surface area of 80 m2 . If the entire prism is enlarged by a
factor 2, determine
(a) the volume of the new prism. (b) the surface area of the new prism.
Solution
(a) New Volume = k 3 × Original Volume (b) New Area = k 2 × Original Area
∴ New Volume = 23 × 48 = 384 m3 ∴ New Area = 22 × 80 = 320 m2
EXAMPLE 13
r
A sphere with radius r has a volume V and surface area is A. If the radius is decreased to ,
3
LE
express
(a) the volume of the new sphere in terms of V.
(b) the surface area of the new sphere in terms of A.
Solution
1 1
The scale factor is . (The sphere is reduced by factor in all three dimensions.)
3 3
(a) New Volume = k 3 × Original Volume (b) New Area = k 2 × Original Area
∴ New Volume =
(3)
1
×V =
PV
27
3
∴ New Area =
(3)
1
×A=
A
9
2
WORKING BACKWARDS
M
If the effect of a scale factor on the surface area or volume of a three dimensional object is known,
we can determine the scale factor by using the formulae:
New Area New Volume

k2 = k3 =
Original Area Original Volume
A
EXAMPLE 14
A three dimensional object with surface area 8 cm2 is enlarged by a scale factor k. The new surface
area is 18 cm2. Determine
S
(a) the value of k.

(b) the ratio of the original volume to the new volume.
Solution
(2)
3
New Area 18 9 New Volume 3 27
(a) k2 = = = (b) = k3 = =
Original Area 8 4 Original Volume 8
9 3 Original Volume 8
∴k = = ∴ =
4 2 New Volume 27
∴ Original Volume : New Volume = 8 : 27
320
CHANGING ONLY SOME DIMENSIONS
Sometimes a scale factor is applied to only one or two of the dimensions of a three dimensional
shape. The resulting change depends on the role of the affected dimensions in the formulae for the
surface area and volume of the shape:
EXAMPLE 15
A rectangular prism has a volume of 24 cm3. The length is doubled, the breadth is trebled (factor 3),
and the height remains unchanged. What will the volume of the resulting prism be?
Solution
Let the original length of the prism be L, the original breadth B and the original height H.
∴ The new length is 2L, the new breadth 3B and the height remains H.
LE
Original Volume = L × B × H = L BH = 24 cm3
New Volume = 2L × 3B × H
= 6 × L BH
= 6 × Original Volume
= 6 × 24 = 144 cm3
EXAMPLE 16
P
How is the volume of a cylinder affected if
(a) the height is doubled, but the radius of the base remains unchanged?
(b) the radius of the base is doubled, but the height of the cylinder remains unchanged?
M
Solution
Let the original radius of the base of the cylinder be r and the original height h.
∴ Original Volume = π r 2 h
A
(a) The new height is 2h and the radius remains r.
New Volume = π r 2 × (2h)
= 2 × π r 2h
S
∴ The volume is doubled.
(b) The new radius is 2r and the height remains h.
New Volume = π (2r)2 × h
= 4 × π r 2h
∴ The volume is quadrupled (increased by a factor 4).
321
EXERCISE 4
(a) A prism has a volume of 4 m3 and a surface area of 18 m2 . If the entire prism is enlarged
by a factor 3, determine
(1) the volume of the new prism.

(2) the surface area of the new prism.
1
(b) A scale factor is applied to a cone with a surface area of 100 units2.
5
(1) What will the surface area of the new cone be?
(2) What effect does this change have on the volume of the cone?
(c) The radius of a sphere is increased from r to 4r.

(1) What is the scale factor?
LE
(2) What is the effect of the surface area?
(3) What is the effect on the volume?
1
(d) A sphere has a radius r, surface area A and volume V. If a scale factor is applied to the
2
sphere, express
(1) the new radius in terms of r.
(2) the new surface area in terms of A.
(3) the new volume in terms of V.
(e)
P
A three dimensional object with surface area 22 cm2 and volume 6 cm3 is enlarged by a
scale factor k. The new volume is 6 000 cm3. Determine
(1) the value of k. (2) the new surface area.
M
(f) A scale factor is applied to a prism with surface area 92 m2 and volume 30 m3.
The new surface area is 23 m2. Determine
(1) the scale factor. (2) the new volume.
64
(g) When applying a scale factor k to a pyramid object, its volume changes from V to V.
27
A
(1) Determine the value of k.

(2) What is the ratio of the original surface area to the new surface area?
(h) A scale factor is applied to a three dimensional object such that the ratio of its original
surface area to the new surface area is 9 : 1. Determine
(1) the scale factor.
S
(2) the ratio of the original volume to the new volume.
(i) A rectangular prism has a volume of 40 cm3. If the length is quadrupled (factor 4) and the
height is increased by a factor 5, but the breadth remains unchanged, what will the volume
of the resulting prism be?
(j) How is the volume of a square pyramid affected if

(1) the height of the pyramid is doubled, but the base remains unchanged?
(2) the area of the base is doubled, but the height remains unchanged?
(3) the side lengths of sides of the base square are doubled, but the height remains
unchanged?
322
(k) A cylinder, open at both ends, has a volume V and a surface area S.
(1) If the height is quadrupled (factor 4), but the radius of the base remains unchanged,
express
(i) the new volume in terms of V.
(ii) the new surface area in terms of S.
(2) If the radius of the base is trebled (factor 3), but the height remains unchanged,
express
(i) the new volume in terms of V.
(ii) the new surface area in terms of S.
(a) For the following prisms, calculate
LE
(1) Rectangular prism: (2) Triangular prism:
9m
3m
P 400 mm
4m x
1,2 m
M
80 cm
(b) For each of the following shapes, calculate

(i) the volume (in cm3). (ii) the surface area (in cm2).
A
(1) Cylinder: (2) Half of a cylinder:
40 mm 7 cm
S
22 cm
15 cm
323
(c) Calculate the outer surface area of each of the following shapes in cm2:
(1) Cylinder, open at both ends: (2) Cylinder, open at the top:
1,1 m
80 cm
8 cm
LE
10 cm
(d) For the following shapes, calculate
(1) Square pyramid: (2) Square pyramid:
6m
P 6m
15 m
M
5m
16 m
16 m
A
(3) Cone: (4) Half of a cone:

S
36 m
6m
2,5 m
30 m
324
(5) Sphere: (6) Hemisphere:
7m 2 400 mm
(e) For each of the following containers, calculate
LE
(i) the capacity (in ml) (ii) the outer surface area (in cm2).

(1) Cone, open at the top: (2) Hemisphere, open at the top:
20 cm
150 mm
P 24 cm
M
(f) A rectangular swimming pool
gradually gets deeper, as shown
4m
in the sketch alongside.
A
Calculate the capacity

of swimming pool in litres. 6m
90 cm
1,5 m
S
(g) The sketch alongside shows a square pyramid.

The length of the sides of the base square 6m
is 6 m and the length of all the other
edges of the pyramid is 34 m as shown s 34 m
in the sketch. Calculate, correct to two
decimals,
(1) the slant height s of the pyramid. 6m
(2) the surface area of the pyramid.
(3) the height of the pyramid.
(4) the volume of the pyramid.
325
(h) The sketch alongside shows a hexagonal prism.
The base is a regular hexagon.
(1) The base can be divided into six
equilateral triangles:
2 cm 2 cm
h
8 cm
2 cm
Calculate the area of one of these
triangles and hence calculate the area
of the base of the prism, correct to two
2 cm
decimal places.
2 cm
LE
(2) Calculate the volume of the prism, 2 cm
correct to two decimal places.
(3) Calculate the surface area of the prism,
correct to two decimal places.
10 m
(i) The sketch alongside shows a pyramid
on top of a square prism. Calculate
(1)
P
the surface area of the
shape.
7m
M
12 m
12 m
(j) The sketch alongside shows a combination

of a hemisphere and a cone. The dimensions
are as shown in the sketch. Calculate
A
(1) the radius of the hemisphere.

(2) the volume of the shape, correct to
two decimal places.
74 cm 70 cm
(3) the surface area of the shape, correct to
two decimal places.
S
4 cm
(k) In the shape alongside, half of a cylinder
was removed from a rectangular prism.
The dimensions are as shown in the
sketch. Calculate, correct to two 5 cm
decimal places,

(2) the surface area of the shape. 15 cm
6 cm
326
(l) The sketch shows a hemisphere on top of a
smaller cylinder. Calculate, correct to two
decimal places,
(1) the volume of the shape. 24 cm

10 cm
22 cm
(m)* The sketch alongside shows a sphere with an
LE
eighth of the sphere cut out. Calculate, 2m
correct to two decimal places,
(1) the volume of the shape. 2m 2m

(n)* The sketch alongside shows a frustum.

A frustum is a portion of a cone that lies
P
between two planes, parallel to the base
of the cone. It is formed by removing a 4 cm
15 cm
cone from a larger cone.

r
(1) Calculate r, the radius of the
M
smaller cone.
16 cm
(2) Calculate, correct to two decimal
places,
(i) the volume of the frustum.
(ii) the surface area of the frustum.
A
(o)* A square pyramid is cut out of a sphere as shown in the A

sketch alongside. (All the vertices of the pyramid
are on the surface of the sphere.) The radius of P
S
the sphere is 3 m. The diagonal (AB) of the

base square of the pyramid is 2 5 m. B
(1) Calculate the volume of the pyramid.

(Hint: The area of a square can be O
calculated using the formula for
the area of a kite.)
(2) After the pyramid is cut from the

sphere, the remaining material is
discarded. Calculate the percentage
waste, correct to the nearest percent.
C
327
(p) Paralellogram ABCD alongside is the base A D
of a right prism with volume 900 cm3.
In the sketch, BE = 5 cm, EC = 10 cm
and AE = 12 cm.
12 cm
Calculate
(1) the height of the prism.
(2) the surface area of the prism.
B 5 cm E 10 cm C
(q) The height of a cylinder (closed at both ends) is 7 units and its surface area is 36π units2.
Calculate
(1) the radius of the cylinder.
(2) the volume of the cylinder, correct to two decimal places.
LE
SCALE FACTORS
(r) A prism has a volume of 80 m3 and a surface area of 136 m2. The entire prism is enlarged
3
by a scale factor .
2
(1) Calculate the volume of the new prism.

(2)
(3)
P
Calculate the surface area of the new prism.
By what factor is
(i) the height of the prism increased?
(ii) the base area of the prism increased?
M
(s) A scale factor k is applied to a prism with surface area 52 cm2 and volume 24 cm3
The new surface area is 0,13 m2.
Determine
(1) the value of k.
(2) the new volume (in cm3).
A
(t) A scale factor is applied to a three dimensional object such that the ratio of its original
volume to the new volume is 27 : 8.
Determine
S
(1) the scale factor.

(2) the ratio of the original surface area to the new surface area.
(u) The sketch alongside shows a triangular prism

with dimensions as shown. The volume of the
prism is V.
1
If b is multiplied by a factor and H is multiplied
3
by a factor 6, while h remains unchanged, express h
the volume of the new prism in terms of V. H
.
b
328
(v) Two cylinders, P and Q, have the same
height, but the radius of the base of Q is
half of the radius of the base of P.
(1) What is the ratio of
(i) the area of the base of P to
the area of the base of Q?
(ii) the volume of P to
the volume of Q?
(2)* A third cylinder R has 9 times the
P Q
volume of cylinder P. What is the
ratio of
(i) the area of the base of P to
the area of the base of R?
LE
(ii) the radius of the base of P to
the radius of the base of R?
(w)* Two cylinders, X and Y, both open at both

ends, have the same base diameter, but
container Y encloses 4 times the volume X
that X does. What is the ratio of
(1) the height of cylinder X to
(2)
P
the height or cylinder Y?
the outer surface area of X Y
to the outer surface area of Y?
M
(x)* Two conical containers, A and B, both open at the top, have the same height:
A
A B
S
(1) If the ratio of the base radius of container A to the base radius of container B is 2 : 5,
determine the ratio between the capacities of the containers.
(2) In container A, the ratio between the base radius and the height is 3 : 4. Determine
the ratio between the outer surface areas of the containers if the base radius of
1
container B is 2 times the base radius of container A.
2
(Hint: To avoid fractions, let the base radius of A be 6x and the height 8x.)
329
CHAPTER ELEVEN
——————————————————————————————
Financial Mathematics
————————————————————————————————————————
SIMPLE INTEREST AND COMPOUND INTEREST
• When simple interest is used, interest is calculated only on the original amount invested or
borrowed. The value of the investment (or loan) will keep increasing by the same amount in
each period. The following formula is used to do calculations where simple interest applies:
A = P(1 + in)
LE
• When compound interest is used, interest is added after every period. The interest for each new
period is calculated on the new total. This means that compound growth is achieved by earning
‘interest on interest’, i.e. the investment keeps growing by higher amounts - and the formula
for compound interest is exponential:
A = P(1 + i )n
In both the formulae above, the meaning of the symbols are as follows:
P P is the original (principal) amount
A is the final (accumulate) amount
r
i is the interest rate per year (per annum or p.a.) i = r % =
100
M
n is the number of periods (normally years in Grade 10)
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF GROWTH DUE TO INTEREST
The graphs below show how an investment of R1000 grows over 3 years, at 10% p.a, using simple
and compound interest respectively:
A
Simple Interest Compound Interest

Increases by the same amount each year Increases by ever higher amounts
A A
S
R1331
R1300 R121
R100 R1210
R1200
R100 R110
R1100 R1100
R1000 R100 R100
R1000
1 2 3 n n
1 2 3
Note that simple growth renders a straight line, while compound growth gives an exponential graph.
330
We can use the formulae for simple and compound interest to calculate the final accumulated
amount in each of the two scenarios illustrated in the graphs above:
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the final accumulated amount if an amount of R1 000 is invested for 3 years at 10% p.a.
(1) using simple interest. (2) using compound interest.
Solution
(1) A = P(1 + in) (2) A = P(1 + i )n
( ) ( 100 )
3
10 10
∴ A = 1000 1 + ×3 ∴ A = 1000 1 +
100
∴ A = 1000(1 + 0,10 × 3) ∴ A = 1000(1 + 0,10)3
LE
∴ A = R1 300 ∴ A = R1 331
The amount of interest earned on an investment is calculated by subtracting the original amount
from the final amount:
P Amount of interest = A − P
EXAMPLE 2
Your grandmother invested R10 000 for you when you were born. She intended the investment to
pay for your studies. ABC bank offered her a 9% p.a. fixed interest rate (i.e. the interest rate was
guaranteed not to change over the period of the investment).
M
(a) What will the value of this investment be on your 18th birthday if
(1) simple interest was used? (2) compound interest was used?
(b) Calculate the amount of interest earned in each case.
Solution
A
(a) (1) A = P(1 + in) (2) A = P(1 + i )n

∴ A = 10 000(1 + 0,09 × 18) ∴ A = 10 000(1 + 0,09)18
∴ A = R26 200 ∴ A = R47 171,20
(b) Using simple interest:
S
Amount of interest = A − P = R26 200 − R10 000 = R16 200.
Using compound interest:

Amount of interest = A − P = R47 171,20 − R10 000 = R37 171,20.
Sometimes, we need a specific return on an investment (final amount A), and we have to determine
exactly how much to invest (original amount P) to render this return . To find this original amount,
we will use the same simple and compound interest formulae, but we will work backwards from the
final amount (A) to obtain the original amount (P):
331
EXAMPLE 3
Your brother needs a car to attend university this year. A small second hand car currently costs
around R80 000. What amount of money should your parents have invested at 8,5% p.a. 18 years
ago, to ensure that the value of this investment would be sufficient to provide for this purchase, if
(a) simple interest was used? (b) compound interest was used?
Solution
(a) A = P(1 + in) (b) A = P(1 + i )n
∴ 80 000 = P(1 + 0,085 × 18) ∴ 80 000 = P(1 + 0,085)18

80 000 80 000
∴P= ∴P=
(1 + 0,085 × 18) (1 + 0,085)18
LE
∴ P = R31 620,55 ∴ P = R18 422,76
We can also calculate an unknown interest rate if the original amount (P), the final amount (A) as
well as the investment period (n) are known.
It is important to distinguish between the amount of interest earned and the interest rate. The next
example shows the difference:
EXAMPLE 4
P
Thulani needs furniture to the amount of R20 000 when she moves into her new apartment. Both the
furniture store and Omega Bank are willing to finance the transaction, on the condition that the
amount to be paid back after 2 years is R30 000. Calculate
M
(a) the amount of interest she will have to pay.
(b) the interest rate used by
(1) the furniture store, who works with simple interest.
(2) Omega Bank, who do their calculations using compound interest.
Solution
A
(a) Amount of interest

= A−P
= R30 000 − R20 000
= R10 000
S
(b) (1) A = P(1 + in) (2) A = P(1 + i )n
∴ 30 000 = 20 000(1 + i × 2) ∴ 30 000 = 20 000(1 + i )2

30 000 30 000
∴ = 1 + 2i ∴ = (1 + i )2
20 000 20 000
∴ 2i + 1 = 1,5 ∴1+i = 1,5
0,5
∴i= = 0,25 ∴i= 1,5 − 1 = 0,2247
2
The simple interest rate is: The compound interest rate is:
0,25 × 100 = 25 % p.a. 0,2247 × 100 = 22,47% p.a.
332
Investors often wish to double the value of their investment in a specified period of time. It is
possible to calculate the interest rate required to achieve this goal without knowing specific values
for P and A:
EXAMPLE 5
Alpha Bank promises that R5 000 will accumulate to R10 000 over a period of 6 years using simple
interest. Bravo Bank simply states that they will double the value of any amount over that same
period of time, using compound interest. Calculate the interest rate used by
(a) Alpha Bank (b) Bravo Bank
Solution
(a) A = P(1 + in) (b) A = P(1 + i )n

∴ 10 000 = 5 000(1 + i × 6) ∴ 2P = P(1 + i )6
LE
10 000 2P
∴ = (1 + 6i ) ∴ = (1 + i )6
5 000 P
∴ 2 = 1 + 6i ∴ 2 = (1 + i )6
6
∴ 6i = 1 ∴1+i = 2
1 6
∴ i = = 0,16666... ∴i= 2 − 1 = 0,12246...
6
Simple interest rate: 16,67% p.a. Compound interest rate: 12,25% p.a.
EXERCISE 1
P
(a) You invest R7 500 for 5 years at a simple interest rate of 12% p.a.
(1) What will your investment be worth at the end of the 5 year period?
M
(2) What amount of interest will you receive on your investment?
(b) R20 000 is invested for 8 years at 7% p.a. compound interest.

(1) Calculate the accumulated value of this investment after 8 years.
(2) How much interest has been earned?
A
(c) Which option would give the best returns on an amount of R12 000 invested for 20 years:
10% p.a. simple interest or 5,8% p.a. compound interest?
(d) Nikita Mabale is in Grade 5 and dreams of one day becoming a pilot. Her mom does
the necessary research and discovers that she will need R300 000 to pay for pilot training at
the Flight School. How much should Mrs Mabale invest now to have the required funds in
S
7 years’ time, if she decides to invest at

(1) African Bank, who offers her 9,25% p.a. compound interest?
(2) Bafana Bank, who pays 11,5% p.a. on a simple interest investment?
(e) Mpho doesn’t want to tell his sister how much money their grandfather gave him for his 15th
birthday. He does tell her that it is enough to make him a millionaire by his 50th birthday,
provided he gets 15,25% p.a. compound interest on his money. His sister is now able to
calculate the amount. Show how she arrives at the answer, to the nearest thousand rand.
(f) Katrien is very excited to find out that an amount of R8 000 that she invested 10 years ago,
has more than doubled, and actually earned R8 488,25 interest. What was the annual,
compound interest rate that rendered this growth on her investment?
333
(g) A new housing development project promises to double the value of your investment in 4
years. What interest rate at a financial institution will give you similar growth using
(1) simple interest? (2) compound interest?
(h) Mr Baloyi has R150 000 available as start-up capital for a new business venture. After
meeting with prospective business partners, he realises that he will need triple that amount.
How long would he have to invest his money at a simple interest rate of 25% p.a. to reach
the desired amount?
(i) Raquel deposits R7 000 in a savings account and it grows by 75% in 5 years’ time.
(1) How much interest did her investment earn?
(2) Calculate the annual compound interest rate given on the savings account.
(j)* Philip needs to borrow R10 000 just until he gets his bonus in 3 months’ time. Bank X asks
a simple interest rate of 20% p.a, bank Y offers to lend him the money at 21% p.a.
LE
compound interest and money lender Z says that they charge only 2 % every month. Which
option should he choose? Support your answer by showing all working.
(k)* If R25 000 accumulates to R34 252,17 when invested at k % p.a. compound interest over a
period of 5 years, what would an investment of R30 000 be worth after 6 years at an annual
interest rate of 2k %?
HIRE PURCHASE
A Hire Purchase Agreement (HP) is a short-term loan. Household appliances and furniture are often
P
bought on HP. The buyer signs an agreement with the seller to pay a certain amount each month,
which is called the instalment. This instalment is based on the loan amount with simple interest
added. To calculate the total loan amount with interest for an HP agreement, we always use the
simple interest formula:
M
A = P(1 + in)
P is the loan amount without interest

A is the loan amount with interest
A
i is the interest rate per year (per period), and

n is the number of years (periods)
The instalment is then calculated by dividing the amount with interest by the number of instalments:
S
A
Instalment amount =
number of instalments
The amount of interest paid in a HP loan is given by A − P.
EXAMPLE 6
Your parents want to buy a refrigerator advertised for R8 000. They cannot afford to pay for it in
cash and ask to sign a Hire Purchase agreement, which requires that the loan has to be repaid in
monthly instalments over 2 years using an interest rate of 5 % p.a. Calculate
(a) what the the monthly instalment amount will be.
(b) the amount of interest paid.
334
Solution
(a) A = P(1 + in)

∴ A = 8 000(1 + 0,05 × 2)
∴ A = R8 800
Number of instalments = 2 years × 12 = 24
A R8 800
∴ The instalment amount = = = R366,67.
number of instalments 24
(b) Amount of interest = A − P = R8 800 − R8 000 = R800
It is possible to reduce the instalment by making an initial, once-off payment called a ‘deposit’. In
this case, interest is only calculated on the remaining balance after the deposit has been subtracted:
LE
P = Cash price − Deposit
The following example illustrates the benefit of a deposit in a Hire Purchase agreement:
EXAMPLE 7
When the total cash price is financed, the monthly instalment for a refrigerator of R8000 bought on
HP, is R366,67. This instalment is based on an interest rate of 5% and a repayment period of 2
P
years. Another customer prefers a lower monthly instalment and pays a deposit upfront, which
amounts to 15 % of the cash price of the refrigerator.
(a) How much does this customer pay as deposit?
(b) Determine the new monthly instalment.
(c) What was the amount of interest paid?
M
Solution
15
(a) Deposit = 15 % of R8 000 = × 8 000 = R1 200.
100
(b) Loan amount: P = Cash price − Deposit = R8 000 − R1 200 = R6 800.
A
A = P(1 + in)
∴ A = 6 800(1 + 0,05 × 2)
∴ A = R7 480
R7 480
∴ Monthly instalment = = R311,67
24
S
(c) Amount of interest = A − P = R7 480 − R6 800 = R680
In the following example, we will calculate the total amount paid as well as the cash price (original
price) of an item, when the instalment and the deposit, along with the values of i and n, are given.
Note:
A = Instalment amount × number of instalments
Cash price = Deposit + P
Total amount paid = Deposit + A
335
EXAMPLE 8
Zanele sees the perfect genuine leather lounge suite at Furniture Warehouse. The label on the lounge
suite in the shop mentions the cash price, which is way above her means. She notices however that
the deposit required on a Hire Purchase contract is R2 700 and that the monthly HP instalment over
a period of 4 years is R663,75, which she feels more comfortable with.
(a) What will Zanele pay in total for the lounge suite if she signs this HP contract?
(b) Determine the cash price of the lounge suite, if the interest rate on the loan is 4,5 % p.a..
(c) How much interest will Zanele pay?
Solution
(a) 4 years × 12 = 48 months.
∴ Amount with interest: A = 48 × R663,75 = R31 860.
Total amount Zanele paid: Deposit + A
LE
= R2 700 + R31 860
= R34 560
(b) A = P(1 + in)
∴ 31 860 = P(1 + 0,045 × 4)
31 860
∴ =P
(1 + 0,045 × 4)
∴ P = R27 000
(c)
P
∴ Cash price = Deposit + P = R 2 700 + R 27 000 = R 29 700
Amount of interest = A − P = R31 860 − R27 000 = R4 860
In the next example, we will determine the interest rate, using all the other necessary information
M
normally involved in a Hire Purchase deal:
EXAMPLE 9
Ayesha wants to start her own beauty salon from her home. She estimates the start-up costs,
including equipment and supplies, to be R90 000. The supplier determines that the total amount
A
owed is to be repaid by Hire Purchase, calculating the monthly instalment to be R2 500 over a
period of 5 years.
(a) How much will she pay in total over 5 years?
(b) How much interest will she pay.
(c) What is the interest rate involved?
S
Solution
(a) 5 years × 12 = 60 months. Amount paid in instalments A = 60 × R2 500 = R150 000.
(b) Amount of interest paid = A − P = R150 000 − R90 000 = R60 000
(c) A = P(1 + in)
∴ 150 000 = 90 000(1 + i × 5)
15
∴ = 1 + 5i
9
6
∴ 5i = ∴ i = 0,1333, and the interest rate r = 100 × i = 13,33 %
9
336
EXERCISE 2
(a) Sam and Jono are moving into their new home and visit the Discount Warehouse to buy a
television set priced at R6 999. They finance the deal by a Hire Purchase agreement over 3
years, and the interest rate charged by the store is 7,2 % p.a.
(1) What will the monthly instalment be?
(2) How much interest will they pay?
(b) After Sofi’s matric exams, her grandfather rewards her efforts by buying her an e-bike to the
value of R86 000. He has to decide between two payment options: a loan paid back after 2
years with a compound interest rate of 9% p.a. or a Hire Purchase agreement paid monthly
over the same period at 10% p.a. Do the necessary calculations to show which option
will cost him the least.
(c) The new Smart mobile phone is available and Estelle would really love to own one. It costs
LE
R18 000, but is available on HP subject to a 10 % deposit. The duration of the contract
period is 4 years and the interest rate is set at 8,2% p.a..
(1) How much would Estelle have to pay as deposit?
(2) What is her monthly instalment?
(3) How much will the phone cost her in total?
(d) When Carmen opts for Hire Purchase to finance her new sound system, the store informs her
that a deposit of 15% of the cash price has to be paid upfront. In case of possible damage
to the system, a monthly insurance premium of R32 is charged on top of every monthly
P
instalment. The sound system has been marked down to R5 249 and the interest rate to
finance the deal is set at 10,5 % p.a. She chooses a repayment period of 60 months.
(1) How much will the deposit be?
(2) What is the loan amount with interest?
(3) Calculate the total monthly instalment.
M
(4) What will Carmen pay for the sound system in total, excluding the insurance
premium?
(5) How much of what Carmen paid towards the sound system was interest?
(e) Joshua sees an advertisement on the PC website for a gaming computer. He can get it on HP
for R329 per month over 36 months. The current Hire Purchase interest rate is 11,6 % p.a.
A
(1) What was the cash price of the computer?

(2) How much of the total amount that Joshua will pay for the computer is pure interest?
(f) Siya wants to get engaged as soon as possible and is researching prices of diamond rings. He
realises that he will have to buy the ring on HP and calculates that he can afford a maximum
monthly instalment of R800. Determine the cash price of the most expensive ring he can
S
afford if his budget allows him to keep up with the instalments for 18 months, and the
jeweller charges 7,25% p.a. interest.
(g) Mr and Mrs Williams need a new tumble dryer. They can choose between paying the cash
price of R4 599 or R259,00 per month on Hire Purchase for 2 years.
(1) Calculate the interest rate charged by the supplier.
(2) Calculate the amount of interest charged.
(h) Claire is setting up her new Photography Studio and needs new digital equipment. The
Camera Warehouse quotes her R72 242,42 for all her basic needs, and allows her to settle
this amount on HP over 30 months. If the monthly instalment comes to R2 980, determine
the interest rate the warehouse is charging.
337
(i) Aimee signs up for a Web Design course for which she will need to buy a special desktop
PC. She searches online for the best offers and decides on a Hire Purchase deal that
requires a deposit of R1 200. An interest rate of 10,5% p.a. is charged to repay the
outstanding balance by 18 monthly instalments of R720.
(1) How much has Aimee paid for the PC in total?
(2) How much of the total amount she paid was interest?
(3) What was the cash price of the PC?
(4) Calculate the value of a monthly instalment if she doubles her deposit.
MORE FINANCIAL CONCEPTS
Exchange rates and inflation are proof that the value or the buying power of your money is greatly
influenced by place and time.
EXCHANGE RATES
LE
You are already familiar with the fact that the value of money differs greatly from one country to
the other. A simple example involving basic exchange rate conversions will show how amounts of
money change according to place:
EXAMPLE 10
The exchange rates from US Dollars and British Pounds to Rands are:
$1 = R15,33 and £1 = R 21,05.
(a)
(b)
P
How much will you pay in ZA Rand for $200?
What amount in British Pounds will you get for R850?
(c) What amount in US Dollar will be equal to £370?
(d) Complete:
(1) $1 = £ . . . (2) £1 = $ . . .
M
Solution
(a) 200 × 15,33 = R3 066

(b) 850 ÷ 21,05 = £40,38
(c) 370 × 21,05 = R7 788,50 and 7 788,50 ÷ 15,33 = $508,06
A
∴ £370 = $508,06
(d) (1) $1 = R15,33 (2) £1 = R 21,05
15,33 ÷ 21,05 = £0,73 21,05 ÷ 15,33 = $1,37
∴ $1 = £0,73 ∴ £1 = $1,37
S
Alternatively, using the answer in (1):

1 ÷ 0,73 = $1,37
Foreign exchange rates (Forex) have a huge impact on a country’s imports and exports and
consequently also on the inflation rate. When, for example, the Rand (ZAR) gets ‘stronger’ against
the British Pound, the advantage is that we pay less Rands for every British Pound when we
import. However, a ‘strong rand’ disadvantages our export sector, as our local manufacturing
sector now receives less Rands, i.e. less income, for every GBP (pound).
In the next example, we will use fluctuating exchange rates to illustrate how time influences the
value or the buying power of money:
338
EXAMPLE 11
The following table accompanied a September 2021 newspaper article with the heading:
“ THE RAND IS ON A STRONG RUN”
£1 (British pound) R1 (ZA Rand)

July 2021 R 20,79 £0.0481
August 2021 R 20,00 £0,0500
September 2021 R 19,12 £0,0523
Answer the following questions using the table above:

(a) Your mother imports cameras from the U.K. at a price of £150 each, to sell locally. Show
LE
how much she pays in ZA Rand for 50 cameras per month during the above 3-month period.
(b) Your father has a contract to export 5 ship containers full of oranges to the U.K. per month
for the same 3-month period. If a contract was signed for £1 000 per container, show how
his income is affected over these same 3 months.
(c) Explain the effect of the stronger rand on import vs. export companies.
(d) Use only the last column to calculate the:
(1) value of £7 500 to the nearest Rand in July 2021.
(2)
Solution
P
value of R95 600 to the nearest Pound in September 2021.
(a) 50 × £150 = £7 500

M
July: 7 500 × 20,79 = R155 925
August: 7 500 × 20,00 = R150 000
September: 7 500 × 19,12 = R143 400
(b) July: 5 000 × 20,79 = R103 950

August: 5 000 × 20,00 = R100 000
September: 5 000 × 19,12 = R 95 600
A
(c) A stronger rand makes importing cheaper but at the same time it disadvantages exports, as
the income is less for the same products.
(d) (1) 7 500 ÷ 0,0481 = R155 925

S
(2) 95 600 × 0,0523 = £5 000
INFLATION
We know that prices for consumer goods and the cost of services are constantly on the rise, and that
prices sometimes double or even triple in 10 years. This is called inflation - the average rate at
which the cost of living keeps increasing. Inflation is always calculated using the compound
interest formula.
The following three examples show how the Rand lost its value over the past years, resulting in
higher or ‘inflated’ prices:
339
EXAMPLE 12
If the average monthly school fees are currently R1200, calculate the expected school fees in
10 years’ time if the average annual inflation rate is predicted to be 4,8% p.a. over the whole period.
Solution
A = P(1 + i )n
A = 1 200(1 + 0,048)10
∴ A = R1 917,76
EXAMPLE 13
A trolley full of basic groceries was recently advertised for R2 000. If the inflation rate averaged
5,2% p.a. over the past 8 years, how much did you pay for the same trolley 8 years ago?
LE
Solution
A = P(1 + i )n
2 000 = P(1 + 0,052)8
2 000
∴P=
(1 + 0,052)8
∴ P = R1 333,23
EXAMPLE 14
P
Your grandmother remembers that the cost of an ordinary white bread 50 years ago was only R1,00.
The same bread now costs R14,14. Determine the average annual inflation rate over the past 50
years, using the price of bread as a reference.
Solution
M
A = P(1 + i )n
14,14 = 1,00(1 + i )50
∴ 1 + i = 50 14,14
∴ i = 0,0544
∴ The average annual inflation rate was 5,44% p.a. over the past 50 years.
A
EXERCISE 3
(a) The currency in Botswana is Pula (BWP) and BWP1 = R1,33. In Zambia the Kwacha
(ZK) is used and ZK1 = R0,90.
S
(1) How much would you pay in ZAR for BWP300?

(2) What amount in Zambian Kwacha would you get for R500?
(3) Complete: ZK1 = BWP . . .
(b) The Big Mac Index measures purchasing power between two currencies by comparing how
expensive a Big Mac is in different countries. A Big Mac Burger costs R33,50 in
South Africa and $6,80 in the United States. Use the exchange rates in the table below to
determine in which country a Big Mac is cheaper:
US Dollar $1 $6,68
ZA Rand R 14,97 R 100
340
(c) While in the Netherlands, Lezanie needs to buy Euros at a Money Exchange. She receives
€289,35 for her R5 000. Complete the following table:
Euro €1
ZA Rand R 100
(d) Denmark, Switzerland and Poland are three of the few European countries who do not use
the Euro as currency. Use the exchange rates in the table below to answer the following
questions:
COUNTRY CURRENCY COST IN ZAR

for 1 unit currency
Denmark Danish Krone (DKK) R 2,33
LE
Germany Euro (EUR) R 17,31
Poland Polish Zloty (PLN) R 3,77
Switzerland Swiss Franc (CHF) R 16,12
(1) What is the cost in Rands for a 280 Krone train ticket in Copenhagen, Denmark?
(2) If your credit card was debited with R1 211,70, how much did you pay (in Euros) to
stay one night in a hotel in Berlin, Germany?
(3)
(4)
P
If you have 52 Euros left, what amount in Zloty can you buy in Warsaw, Poland?
What amount in CHF would you receive for R1 000 in Bern, Switzerland?
(e) At the time of planning your holiday in the UK, the exchange rate was R1 = £0,047. When
you actually have to buy pounds (£) for your holiday 2 months later, it is R1 = £0,041. Your
M
budget for daily expenses is £60.
(1) Convert £60 into ZAR for both exchange rates.
(2) Determine the amount in Rands you will have to add to your budget for a 10-day
holiday in the UK, due to this change in the exchange rate.
(3) What amount, in British pounds, will you get for R3 000 at the new exchange rate?
A
(f) A laptop you like is advertised for R20 800. What will the laptop cost in 6 years’ time if
prices on electronics will be inflated annually by an average rate of 4,68% p.a?
(g) A retired couple, with a combined monthly income of R40 000, asks you for retirement
advice. The retirement package they are considering guarantees them a monthly income of
R98 000 per month in 20 years’ time. If the inflation rate averages 5,1% p.a, will the
S
retirement package be enough to enable the couple to maintain their lifestyle?

(h) The average monthly electricity bill in 2023 is around R2 000. Projections show that
people will pay around R30 000 per month for electricity in the year 2033. Determine the
average electricity inflation rate over the next 10 years.
(i)* Your grandmother has kept a cash amount of R20 000 hidden in a tin under her mattress for
twenty years already. She claims that she has been saving it there for “a rainy day”.
(1) If the inflation rate averaged 5% p.a. over the past twenty years, how much money
would she need today to have equal buying power to the original R20 000?
(2) Assuming that she could have invested the money at a compound interest rate of
7% p.a, how much money has your grandmother actually lost by doing this?
(3) Which financial option would you have advised her to take?
341
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF COMPOUND GROWTH
Apart from financial applications, there are many more areas where a percentage increase or a rate
of growth apply. The same formulae you are already familiar with can be used for a variety of
calculations, e.g. for increases in population numbers or the rate at which a virus spreads during an
epidemic etc.
EXAMPLE 15
The daily infection rate of the coronavirus in the USA in 2020 was 18,7%. Accepting that only one
person brought the virus into the country, how many Americans were infected after 90 days?
Solution
A = P(1 + i )n
LE
A = 1(1 + 0,187)90
A = 5 018 393,4
∴ More than 5 million Americans were infected after 90 days.
EXAMPLE 16
The Kruger National Park had an elephant population of 20 000 in January 2021. Management
calculated then that if normal trends continued, their numbers would reach 23 000 by January 2024.
High density elephant numbers impact greatly on the ecosystem in the park, and in order to preserve
P
vegetation, they decide to try to reduce this escalation rate by at least 1%. In January 2021, a few
artificial water holes were closed with immediate effect, thereby forcing elephants to travel further.
(a) What was the normal annual growth rate of the elephant population before 2021?
(b) Determine the maximum number of elephants in the Kruger Park by January 2024, if the
M
reduction in escalation rate is realised?
Solution
(a) A = P(1 + i )n (b) A = P(1 + i )n

23 000 = 20 000(1 + i )3 A = 20 000(1 + 0,0377)3
A
23
= (1 + i )3 ∴ A = 22 348 elephants
20
3
∴1+i = 1,15
∴ i = 0,0477
S
The normal growth rate was

0,0477 × 100 = 4,77 % p.a.
EXERCISE 4
(a) According to various epidemiological studies, the daily infection rate of an extremely
contagious disease is 25,99%. One tourist brings the disease to South Africa.
How many South Africans will be infected
(1) in 30 days’ time? (2) in 3 months’ time?
342
(b) The global atmospheric carbon dioxide level has increased by 0,57% p.a. for the past 20
years, amplifying Earth’s natural greenhouse effect. The concentration of CO2 is currently
412,5 parts per million and keeps increasing at this same rate.
What will the CO2 concentration be

(1) in 20 years’ time? (2) in 100 years’ time?
(c) South Africa’s population grew from 30 million in 1980 to 45 million in the year 2000.
In 2020, the population was found to be 59,31 million.
(1) What was the average annual population growth rate in South Africa
(i) from 1980 to 2000? (ii) from 2000 to 2020?
(2) If the growth rate observed from 2000 to 2020 were to continue, calculate the
expected South African population in 2040.
LE
(d) The infection rate of a contagious disease can only be determined in retrospect, i.e. using
numbers from the past. South Africa had 2 592 cases of the disease on Friday, 2 160 cases
on Thursday (the day before) and 1 800 cases on Wednesday (two days before).
(1) Calculate the daily infection rate as a percentage.
(2) Estimate what the number of cases were (to the nearest integer) on the Monday of
the same week.
(3) Make a projection, by means of calculation, for the number of cases
30 days from the Friday, if this trend continues.
P
MORE COMPLEX INTEREST CALCULATIONS*
We are now ready to perform calculations involving a change in interest rate, as well as more
complex scenarios where multiple payments and/or withdrawals are made:
M
EXAMPLE 17*
Marianne inherited R200 000 from her mother 5 years ago and chose to invest the money in the
Notice Select option at a certain bank, which paid 6,9% p.a. compound interest for the first 2 years,
and 6,1% p.a. for the next 3 years.
Solution:
A
For the first 2 years:

6,9% 6,1%
The value of P = R 200 000:
A = 200 000(1 + 0,069)2 R200 000 R228 552,20
S
∴ A = R 228 552,20
For the last 3 years: T0 T2 T5
The previous accumulated amount A becomes the new P-value :

A = 228 552,20(1 + 0,061)3
∴ A = R 272 980,46
Alternative method:
A = 200 000(1 + 0,069)2(1 + 0,061)3

∴ A = R 272 980,46
343
EXAMPLE 18*
Mark got a bonus of R14 500 at the end of 2018 and decided to save it at an annual compound
interest rate of 5,25%. He is planning an overseas holiday and makes a second deposit of R5 000
into the same account at the end of 2021. How much money does Mark have available to spend on
his overseas trip by the end of 2025?
Solution:
The first value of P = R14 500: R14 500 R16 905,75

∴ A = 14 500(1 + 0,0525)3
∴ A = R16 905,75 T0 T3 T7
R16 905,75 + R5 000
New P = R16 905,75 + R 5 000
= R21 905,75
LE
= R 21 905,75
∴ A = 21 905,75(1 + 0,0525)4
T0 T3 T7
∴ A = R 26 881,07 R21 905,75
Alternative method:
P
R14 500 + R 5 000
M
T0 T3 T7
Consider this same scenario to be two separate investments, the first R14 500 earns interest
for the whole 7 years - and the second deposit of R5 000 only for the last 4 years:
A = 14 500(1 + 0,0525)7 + 5 000(1 + 0,0525)3
A
∴ A = R26 881,06
Note: The slight difference between the answers in the two different methods above, is due to
rounding before the final answer in the first method.
S
EXERCISE 5*
(a)* Mr Naidoo invests R82 000 in a Flexirate bank account for 7 years. He gets 6,1% p.a.
compound interest for the first 2 years, after which the interest rate drops to 5,7% for the
remainder of the investment period. Calculate the final accumulated amount.
(b)* Suzette’s inheritance from her grandmother was paid out in two lump sums: R200 000 on
her 18th birthday and R350 000 on her 21st birthday. If she got 4,5% p.a. compound interest
on her investment, what was the inheritance worth by the time she turned 30?
(c)* Tony invested R57 000 in the Stable Fund. After 5 years, he withdrew R18 000. After
3 more years, he invested another R20 000. If this fund paid 4,8% p.a. compound interest,
calculate the amount of money in his account 12 years after the initial investment.
344
(d)* Melisizwe deposits R95 000 into an investment product that guarantees interest rates to
increase by 1,25% for every three years the money is left in the account. If the annual
compound interest rate starts at 3,75% p.a., determine the amount in her account after nine
years.
(e)* Ahmed made an investment 20 years ago that received 13,2% p.a. compound interest for the
first four years, 9,75% p.a. for the next seven years and 8,8% p.a. for the remaining part of
the investment period. The current value of the investment is R672 786,81. What was the
amount that Ahmed invested originally?
(a) Zayana invests R8 000 for 5 years. Calculate the amount of money in her account at the
end of this period if interest is calculated at
(1) 7% p.a. simple interest. (2) 6,2% p.a. compound interest.
LE
(b) How much money should Kieran deposit now to have R60 000 in 20 years’ time if
(1) compound interest is added at 8,75% p.a.?
(2) a 12% p.a. simple interest rate is used?
(c) Zoë inherits R180 000 at the age of 31. She intends to invest enough of the money so that
the investment is worth one million rand when she is 60 years old. If compound interest is
added at 6,8% p.a., determine what part of her inheritance she can spend now?
(d) Megan would like to grow her investment of R2 000 to R3 000 in exactly 3 years’ time.
P
What interest rate is required to achieve this if
(1) simple interest is used? (2) compounded interest is used?
(e) At what compound interest rate per annum should an amount of money be invested in
order to
M
(1) triple in value over a period of 9 years?
(2) grow by 50% over a period of 4 years?
(f) If you invest R15 000 at a simple interest rate of 8% p.a, how long would it take to earn
R5000 interest? Give your answer in years and months.
(g) Your neighbour won R16 514 by getting 4 matching Lotto numbers. A quote to install a
A
swimming pool at his house amounts to R18 000. For how many months would he have to
invest his winnings at 12% p.a. simple interest to generate the needed money?
(h) By what percentage will an amount of money grow in 10 years if it is invested at 5% p.a.
(1) using simple interest? (2) using compound interest?
S
(i) Bernard has his eye on a new bluetooth speaker complete with radio. He cannot afford the
cash price of R3 900, but agrees to a Hire Purchase deal. The interest rate is set at
9,8% per year and he is required to make equal monthly payments over a period of 2 years.
Determine
(1) Bernard’s monthly instalment. (2) what the speaker cost him in total.
(j) Kesia buys a 100% wool carpet priced at R15 000 on HP, with a 7,6% annual interest rate.
She has to pay a deposit of 15% and pay 30 monthly instalments.
(1) What does the deposit amount to?
(2) How much does Kesia have to pay monthly?
(3) What amount of interest will Kesia have to pay?
345
(k) Mr Hassan, the manager of Fabric & Decor, buys an industrial sewing machine on a
Hire Purchase agreement. The interest rate is 10,5% p.a, and he agrees to pay a R3 000
deposit plus R1 220 per month for 5 years.
(1) Calculate the cash price of the sewing machine.
(2) How much interest will Mr Hassan pay?
(3) Mr Hassan decides to add an additional insurance premium to his monthly
instalment which would cover possible defects. This premium equals 0,5% of the
total cash price and has to be paid every month. Calculate the new monthly
instalment amount, including the insurance payment.
(l) Makoma bought a laser printer to the value of R2 800 on Hire Purchase. Calculate the
interest rate she was charged if she paid an instalment of R150 per month for 2 years.
(m) The CEO of Agrigrow Vegetable Seed, Ms Tina Bolton, goes on an extended procurement
trip to the following countries:
LE
COUNTRY CURRENCY VALUE OF R1
in currency
Brazil Brazilian Real 0,3509
Mexico Mexican Peso 1,3158
Canada Canadian Dollar 0,0796
European Union Euro 0,0551
China
P Chinese Yuan 0,3953
(1) Name the strongest currency in the table.

(2) What amount of Brazilian Real will Ms Bolton receive for R1 200?
M
(3) What amount in Mexican Pesos can she get for 24 Reals?
(4) What amount will she receive in Euros for 250 Canadian Dollars?
(5) What amount of ZAR has to be transferred to the Chinese People’s Bank to pay her
debt of 6 000 Yuan, if the bank charges additional transfer fees of 10% of the
transaction value?
A
(n) 1 Japanese Yen buys 0,14 South African Rand, and R11,31 buys 1 Australian Dollar. What
amount in Australian Dollar can be exchanged for 3 000 Japanese Yen?
(o) In December 2021, the Gold price was $57,26 per gram (US Dollar), and the exchange rate
per dollar was R16,29.
(1) What did Afro Gold earn in SA Rand for 100 kilogram of gold they exported in
S
December 2021 (to the nearest million Rand)?

(2) What weight in Gold could the USA import from South Africa for 1 million dollars?
(p) In the year 2000, a dozen eggs cost R4,90, whereas the price in 2020 was R31,99 per dozen.
(1) Calculate the annual inflation rate for eggs over the past 20 years.
(2) What will the price of a dozen eggs be in 2040 if we assume that this inflation rate
remains constant?
(q) The new Graveller mountain bike currently costs R18 000. What was the price of this
bicycle 4 years ago if inflation remained constant at 6,5% p.a. throughout this period?
(r) At what annual rate did the population in South Africa increase if there were 45,57 million
people in 2001 and 60,14 million people in 2021?
346
(s) The WHO Global Tuberculosis Report indicates that around 360 000 people fell ill with
TB in South Africa in 2019. This is a 20% increase from the number of people who
contracted TB in 2018.
(1) How many TB cases were there in South Africa in 2018?
(2) If TB cases keep increasing at the same rate and treatment per person per year costs
R5900, how much would the country’s TB budget have to be for the year 2025?
(3) Assuming the annual rate of increase in TB cases has been the same in the past, how
many TB cases were there in 2010?
(t)* The following graph shows the growth of an amount of money invested for n years.
The interest rate remains 7,2% p.a. throughout the whole period:
Rands
in
thousands
LE
13,01528
b
a
4 7 n
(1)
(2)
(3)
P
Which type of interest applies in this scenario (simple or compound)? Motivate.
What does the number a represent?
Calculate, to five decimal places, the value of
(i) a (ii) b
M
(u)* Anika invests R2 300 at an annual compound interest rate of 4,9%. After a year, the interest
rate decreases by 0,5% and another two years later the interest rate plunges down to 3,2%
p.a. Determine the amount in her account 5 years after her initial investment.
(v)* Lebo saves R5 000 at the beginning of every year for 3 years at 4,9% p.a. compound
interest and then leaves the money in her bank account. How much will be available in
Lebo’s account 6 years after the first deposit?
A
(w)* Ndzalama made a deposit of R3 000 into a bank account 10 years ago. Five years ago he
withdrew R1 500, but a year later he put the R1 500 back again. Compound interest is
calculated at 5,8% p.a. How much does Ndzalama have in the bank today?
(x)* Taylor’s bank offers 6% p.a. compound interest on bank balances below R10 000. The
S
interest rate increases to 6,8% p.a. once the balance is over R10 000. Taylor deposits R8 000
and another R5 000 two years later. How much money will be in Taylor’s account 5 years
after the first deposit?
347
CHAPTER TWELVE
——————————————————————————————
Statistics
————————————————————————————————————————
Statistics is about the representation and analysis of data (or information). Data can be discrete or
continuous:
• Discrete data is a type of data where definite, specific values are allowed and there is a clear
separation between the values. Examples include whole numbers, shoe sizes, colours you can
choose for your new car etc.
• Continuous data is a type of data where an infinite, unbroken range of values are allowed.
LE
Examples include real numbers, lengths, temperatures, colours in the spectrum etc.
Individual data values are called observations. The observations can be listed individually or
grouped into classes or intervals.
UNGROUPED DATA
If each individual observation is listed, we say that the data is ungrouped.
REPRESENTING UNGROUPED DATA

P
Stem-and-leaf plots, frequency tables and frequency bar graphs are the most basic representations
of ungrouped data. The following example shows how each one of these representations is used:
EXAMPLE 1
M
When workers at an international marketing call centre in Cape Town manage to convince clients to
buy their product, it is registered as a ‘hit’. The number of hits that 45 staff members achieved on a
specific day was recorded as follows:
21 10 28 33 47 32 36 15 28 10 10 28 47 15 28
28 15 36 2 47 10 47 28 2 33 28 7 15 41 15
A
7 21 32 15 36 33 7 15 28 33 10 28 28 28 47
(a) Draw a stem-and-leaf plot to get a better idea of how the data is distributed.
(b) Summarise the ordered data by means of a frequency table.
(c) Represent the summarised data on a frequency bar graph, showing the frequencies of
S
(1) the specific numbers of hits.

(2) the groups 0 to 9, 10 to 19, 20 to 29, 30 to 39 and 40 to 49.
Solution
(a) 0 2 2 7 7 7 The leaves must be

1 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 displayed in numerical
order. When digits are
2 1 1 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 equally spaced, a stem-
3 2 2 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 and-leaf plot resembles
a horisontal bar graph.
4 1 7 7 7 7 7
348
(b)
Number of hits Tally Frequency
The frequency of a
2 || 2 data value is the
number of times
7 ||| 3
the value occurs as
10 |||| 5 an observation in
15 |||| || 7 the data set.
21 || 2
28 |||| |||| | 11
32 || 2
33 |||| 4
36 ||| 3
LE
41 | 1
47 |||| 5
n = 45
(c) (1) 12
10
8
P
Frequency
6
4
M
2
0
2 7 10 15 21 28 32 33 36 41 47
Number of hits
A
(2)
12
10
Frequency
8
S
6
4
2
0
0 to 9 10 to 19 20 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49
Number of hits
Note: When data is grouped before it is displayed on a bar graph, we often get a
better overall picture of the distribution of the data.
349
EXERCISE 1
In this exercise, round to two decimal places where necessary.
(a) The ages of the first 30 athletes to finish a marathon are shown here:
16 20 23 23 30 18 24 40 46 23 46 24 23 24 23
23 30 40 18 24 38 30 20 30 16 30 23 56 46 18
(1) Capture the data in a stem-and-leaf display.
(2) Summarise the data in a frequency table.
(3) Represent the data by means of a frequency bar graph, showing the frequencies of
(i) specific ages.
(ii) the age groups 10 to 19, 20 to 29, 30 to 39, 40 to 49 and 50 to 59.
(4) How many of these athletes were younger than 30?
(5) Calculate the percentage of these athletes who were at least 40 years old.
LE
(b) All 28 learners in Grade 10E at a school take both Mathematics and History. The principal
compares the marks that these learners achieved in each of these subjects, shown back-to-
back in the following stem-and-leaf plot:
Mathematics History
9 6 2 2 3 1 5
9 7 7 6 5 2 2 1 1 4 0 3 3 4 7 8
P
8 6 5 4 4 3 1 5 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 9
6 4 4 3 0 6 1 1 2 3 5 6 8
7 5 7 4 6
M
8 8 5
(1) At a glance, in which one of these subjects did the Grade 10E class perform better?
(2) A performance level 3 refers to any mark from 40 to 49. How many learners in
Grade 10E achieved a performance level 3 in History?
(3) How many learners in Grade 10 E achieved less than 50 for Mathematics?
A
(4) For each subject, calculate the percentage of learners that got above 60.
(5) The principal decides to arrange an intervention programme for learners who
performed in the bottom 25% of each subject. For each subject, what is the highest
mark a learner can achieve and still be part of the intervention programme?
(c) Scientists researching the global warming phenomenon compared November 1948
S
temperatures in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal to temperatures there during November 2020.
Nov 29 31 32 36 19 21 30 32 31 33 35 17 19 29 34
1948 35 29 28 31 16 24 29 31 34 32 18 27 30 32 31
Nov 28 27 31 29 30 30 28 31 32 32 31 33 38 15 21
2020 30 29 31 31 34 18 21 27 32 33 32 33 31 29 32
(1) Draw a back-to-back stem-and-leaf diagram to compare the data.

(2) What can you conclude from the stem-and-leaf diagram regarding global warming?
350
(d) In an experiment, a number of seeds were sown and all the seeds germinated. The number of
days it took for each seed to germinate was recorded. The results are shown in the following
bar graph:
16
12
Frequency
8
LE
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of days to germinate
(1) How many seeds were sown?
(2) What percentage of seeds germinated within the first week of being sowed?
(3) After how many days had at least half of the seeds germinated?
(e) The marketing company for the Allstars Movies theatre in Johannesburg wants to boost
theatre attendance, and they need data to determine how and where to direct their efforts.
P
They ask the sales office to provide them with a monthly breakdown for numbers of tickets
sold. The following bar graph shows the monthly figures, rounded to the nearest 50 tickets:
1600
M
1400
Number of tickets sold
1200
1000
800
A
600
400
S
200
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
(1) How many tickets were sold during the first three months of the year?
(2) What percentage of the total number of tickets were sold in December?
(3) What do the peaks (highest bars) represent?
(4) Give a possible reason for the peaks.
(5) Can you think of a strategy to boost the total ticket sales for the year?
351
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
A measure of central tendency is a single value used to summarise an entire data set. It is usually
near the middle (or centre) of the data set and represents a typical observation in the data set.
The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.
THE MEAN
The mean (x̄) is simply the average of the data set. It is calculated by adding the observations (x 's)
in the data set and dividing the sum by the number of observations (n):
sum of all observations Σx

x̄ = =
total number of observations n
LE
The mean can also be calculated by using the statistics function on a scientific calculator.
EXAMPLE 2
The masses of ten sixteen year old boys are as follows:
50 kg 65 kg 42 kg 58 kg 60 kg 61 kg 60 kg 59 kg 78 kg 62 kg
Calculate the mean mass of these ten boys.
Solution
Σx
P
x̄ =
n
The mean can also be
50 + 65 + 42 + 58 + 60 + 61 + 60 + 59 + 78 + 62
M
= calculated using
10 a scientific calculator.
= 59,5 kg
EXAMPLE 3
A
Consider the following data set:
2 5 7 8 6 1 x 9
Calculate the value of x if the mean of the data set is 6.

S
Solution
Σx
x̄ =
n
2+5+7+8+6+1+x +9
∴6=
8
x + 38
∴6=
8
∴ x + 38 = 48
∴ x = 10
352
THE MEDIAN
The median is the value in the middle of an ordered data set. The number of observations below
the median and above the median are the same. It is very important that the data set is ordered
(arranged in ascending order) before attempting to find the median. To find the position of the
median, especially in large data sets, the following formula is useful:
1
Position of median = (n + 1) n = number of observations
2
• When there is an odd number of observations

- the position of the median is a whole number.
- the median is the actual observation in the middle of the data set.
• When there is an even number of observations
LE
- the position of the median is a not a whole number.
- the data set will have no single middle observation and the median is the average of the two
middle observations. (We add the two middle values and divide the sum by 2.)
- the median is not an actual observation of the set but the average of the two middle values.
EXAMPLE 4
(a) Seven girls have to line up for a photo according to their heights. Their heights are:
1,57 m 1,65 m 1,53 m 1,62 m 1,52 m 1,64 m 1,58 m
Determine the median height.
P
(b) The minimum temperatures in your town were measured as follows for ten consecutive
days:
M
8°C 11°C 14°C 9°C 11°C 7°C 8°C 11°C 12°C 6°C
Determine the median temperature.
Solution
1 1
(a) n = 7 (odd) Position of median = (n + 1) = (7 + 1) = 4
2 2
A
∴ The median is the 4th observation:
1,52 1,53 1,57 1,58 1,62 1,64 1,65 Remember to

arrange the values
in ascending order
Median
S
first.
∴ The median height is 1,58 m.
1 1
(b) n = 10 (even) Position of median = (n + 1) = (10 + 1) = 5,5
2 2
∴ The median is the average of the 5th and 6th observation:
6 7 8 8 9 11 11 11 12 14
Median
9 + 11
∴ The median temperature is = 10°C.
2
353
THE MODE
The mode is the data value with the highest frequency (the value occuring the most times). A data
set can have more than one mode. If there are two values with the same frequency, higher than the
frequencies of all other observed values, then the data set has two modes and is said to be bimodal.
If there are three modes, the data set is said to be trimodal.
EXAMPLE 5
(a) The ages of the 30 learners in a Grade 10 class are as follows:

16 15 16 16 16 15 15 15 16 17 16 18 16 15 18
15 19 16 15 15 16 16 17 17 16 16 16 16 17 15
Determine the modal age in this class.
(b) At a shoe store, the sizes of boys’ school shoes sold in one week, were recorded as follows:
LE
7 8 7 6 9 8 6 10 7 5 11 8 6 7 6 9 6 7
Determine the mode(s) of this data set.
Solution
(a) Age Frequency

It is not necessary to
15 9 draw a frequency table
16
17
P
14
4
to find the mode.
Simply look for the
number(s) occuring the
18 2 most.
19 1
M
n = 30
The observation with the highest frequency is 16.
∴ The modal age is 16.

A
(b) Shoe size Frequency

5 1
6 5
S
7 5
8 3
9 2
10 1
11 1
n = 18
6 and 7 both have a frequency of 5, which is the highest frequency.
∴ The modes are 6 and 7. (The data set is bimodal.)
354
OUTLIERS*
An outlier is an observation that is exceptionally far from the majority of observations.
The presence of outliers in a data set can have a significant effect on the mean. When outliers are
present, the mean is unreliable as a measure of central tendency:
• An observation that is much higher than the majority of observations can cause the mean to be
too high to be representative of typical data in the set.
• An observation that is much lower than the majority of observations can cause the mean to be
too low to be representative of typical data in the set.
Outliers don’t have a significant effect on the median and the mode.
LE
EXAMPLE 6*
The test marks of a group of 11 learners are as follows:
85 81 87 80 83 84 8 80 81 82 85
(a) Identify the outlier in this data set.
(b) Determine the

(1) mean. (2) median.
(c)
P
Which of these two measures (mean or median) is the most reliable measure of central
tendency in this case? Motivate.
(d) If the outlier is excluded from the data set, what is the new mean? Comment on this result.
M
Solution
(a) 8
85 + 81 + 87 + 80 + 83 + 84 + 8 + 80 + 81 + 82 + 85
(b) (1) x̄ = = 76
11
A
(2) 8 80 80 81 81 82 83 84 85 85 87
The median is 82.
(c) The median.

S
The mean is affected by the outlier and is much lower than typical values in the data set,
while the median is not affected by the outlier and represents typical observations.
85 + 81 + 87 + 80 + 83 + 84 + 80 + 81 + 82 + 85
(d) New mean = = 82,8
10
This new mean represents typical observations in the data set much better than the original
mean. It is also much closer to the median than the original mean.
Note: Comparing the result in (d) to the result in (b)(1) shows how the outlier affected
the mean, causing it to be unreliable as a measure of central tendency in this case.
355
EXERCISE 2
(a) For each of the following data sets, determine the
(i) mean. (ii) median . (iii) mode(s).
(1) 4 3 7 9 3 1 6 3 9
(2) 13 10 16 10 11 11 15 23 23 15 10 23
(3) 2,4 3,2 1,2 1,7 1,7 1,5 1,8 1,5 2,4 2,4 1,5 1,7 3,0
(b) The following bar graph shows how many days in the month of December different noon
temperatures were observed in Johannesburg in 2021:
LE
4
3
Frequency
2
P
M
1
0
14 16 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
A
Noon temperature
(1) What was the highest noon temperature in Johannesburg in December 2021?
(2) What was the modal noon temperature in Johannesburg in December 2021?
S
(3) Determine the median noon temperature in Johannesburg in December 2021.

(4) Calculate the mean noon temperature in Johannesburg in December 2021.
(c) In a cricket match, the Proteas win the toss and decide to bat first. The 11 batsmen got the
following runs:
21 15 3 28 5 20 9 3 150 18 10
(1) Determine the mean, median and mode of the runs scored per batsman.
(2)* Identify the outlier in this data set.
(3)* Which measure of central tendency best summarises the data? Motivate.
356
(d) Mandisa got the following report card at the end of her first term in Grade 10:
Subject Mark
English HL 68
isiXhosa FAL 17
Mathematics 73
Physical Sciences 70
Life Orientation 81
Geography 72
CAT 86
LE
(1) Determine the mean and median marks.
(2)* Which of these two measures (mean or median) is the most reliable measure of
central tendency for Mandisa’s marks? Motivate.
(3)* Mandisa’s teacher found a mistake with her isiXhosa mark and changed it to 71.
How does this change affect the
(i) mean? (ii) median?
(e) The following stem-and-leaf plot shows the ages of 30 people consisting of parents and
their children:
0
2
2
2
3
6
P3
6
4
8
4
8
4
8
4
8
4
8
4
8
5
9
5 5 6 7 8
3 0 1 2 5
M
4 0
(1) Determine the values of all three the measures of central tendency.
(2)* Which measure(s) of central tendency would you use to summarise this data?
Explain.
(f) Wreford got 62%, 76% and 48% for his first three Mathematics tests.
A
(1) Calculate Wreford’s mean mark for these three tests.

(2) The Mathematics mark on his report will be the mean of his marks for four tests.
What does he need to get for the fourth test if he wants his report mark to be 65%?
(g)* At a certain school, there are three Grade 10 Maths classes: 10A, 10B and 10C. The
S
number of learners and mean Maths mark for each class is shown in the following table:
Class Number Mean

of mark
A 28 59
B 32 64
C 40 58
What is the overall mean Maths mark of all the Grade 10 learners in this school?
(h)* The mean of four numbers is 7. A fifth number is added, lowering the mean to 6.
What is the fifth number?
357
QUARTILES
Quartiles divide a data set (arranged in ascending order) into four parts, with an (approximately)
equal number of observations in each part. In smaller data sets, it is not always possible to split
the data into quarters precisely. Statisticians have come up with different methods to locate
quartiles. We will use a very simple method based on medians:
FINDING QUARTILES
Step 1
Arrange the data set in ascending order:
A B C D E F G H I J K
LE
A<B<C<D<E<F<G<H<I<J<K
Step 2
Locate the median. This median divides the data set into a lower half and an upper half :
Median Upper half
Lower half
P
Note that the median is not included in either half.
Step 3
M
Locate the median of each half (excluding the original median):
Median of Median of
A
lower half upper half
• The median of the lower half is called the lower quartile (or first quartile) and denoted by Q1.
• The median of the upper half is called the upper quartile (or third quartile) and denoted by Q3.
• The median of the entire data set is also called the second quartile and denoted by Q2.
S
Q1 Q2 Q3
Lower quartile Median Upper quartile
The following example shows how the quartiles are found in four different cases. The quartiles of
all possible data sets can be found according to one of these four patterns, so make sure that you
understand how each of these four cases works:
358
EXAMPLE 7
Determine the quartiles of each of the following data sets:
(a) 8 2 9 12 13 6 3 10 5 6 7
(b) 5 8 11 12 14 15 17 19 19 21 23 25
(c) 13 20 31 43 50 60 63 65 69 75 75 88 100
(d) 1 1 2 5 8 10 12 12 14 17 20 25 30 38
Solution
(a) Remember to arrange the data in ascending order first!
LE
Q2
Median
2 3 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 13
Lower half Upper half
Q1 Q3
Median of lower half Median of upper half
2 3
P 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 13
Lower quartile: Q1 = 5
M
Median: Q2 = 7
Upper quartile: Q3 = 10
(b) Q2
Median
A
16
5 8 11 12 14 15 17 19 19 21 23 25

S
Q1 Q3
11, 5 16 20
5 8 11 12 14 15 17 19 19 21 23 25
Lower quartile: Q1 = 11,5

Median: Q2 = 16
359
(c) Q2
Median
13 20 31 43 50 60 63 65 69 75 75 88 100
Q1 Q3
37 75
13 20 31 43 50 60 63 65 69 75 75 88 100
LE
Median: Q2 = 63
(d) Q2
Median
12
1 1 2 5
Lower half
P 8 10 12 12 14 17 20
Upper half
25 30 38
Q1 Q3
M
Median of lower half 12 Median of upper half
1 1 2 5 8 10 12 12 14 17 20 25 30 38
A
Median: Q2 = 12
THE FIVE NUMBER SUMMARY

S
Earlier in this chapter, we learnt that measures of central tendency summarise an entire data set in a
single value. Measures of central tendency give us a very good idea of the typical values found in a
data set, but don’t give any information about how the data is distributed. To get a better picture of
the distribution of the data, we use what is called the five number summary.
The five number summary consists of the following five values:

• Minimum (lowest) observation
• Lower quartile (Q1)
• Median (Q2)
• Upper quartile (Q3)
• Maximum (highest) observation
360
The five number summary describes the centre (median) and the extremes (minimum and
maximum) of a data set. It also gives information about the spread of the middle 50% of data
around the centre (lower and upper quartiles).
THE BOX-AND-WHISKER DIAGRAM
The five number summary is visually represented by what is called a box-and-whisker diagram:
Q1 Q2 Q3
Minimum Maximum
Lower quartile Median Upper quartile
LE
In order to be an effective visual aid, a box-and-whisker diagram must always be drawn to scale.
Note: Each section contains 25% (a quarter) of the number of observations, regardless of its
length.
EXAMPLE 8
The 15 learners in your Grade 10 IT class got the following scores for their most recent test, from
the lowest to the highest:
32 52 58 63
P 67 68 74 76 77 78 83 88 91 96 96
(1) Summarise this data set by means of a five number summary.
(2) Represent the data on a box-and-whisker diagram.
M
Solution
Min Q1 Med Q3 Max
(1) 32 52 58 63 67 68 74 76 77 78 83 88 91 96 96
Min = 32 ; Q1 = 63 ; Med = 76 ; Q3 = 88 ; Max = 96

A
(2)
63 76 88
32 96
S
32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
A measure of dispersion is a single value used to indicate the variability of data in a data set i.e.
how widely the data is spread. You have to know the following three measures of dispersion:
Range: Range = Maximum value − Minimum value
Interquartile range: IQR = Q3 − Q1

1 1
Semi-interquartile range: SIQR = × IQR = (Q3 − Q1)
2 2
361
EXAMPLE 9
A certain data set is summarised by the following box-and-whisker plot:
4 9 20
2 34
For this data set, calculate

(a) the range. (b) the interquartile range.
(c) the semi-interquartile range.
Solution
LE
(a) Range = Max − Min (b) IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 34 − 2 = 20 − 4
= 32 = 16
1 1
(c) SIQR = × IQR = × 16 = 8
2 2
INTERPRETING BOX-AND-WHISKER DIAGRAMS
EXAMPLE 10
P
The daily electricity usage (in kilowatt-hours or kWh) of two households (A and B) was recorded
over a period of 360 days. The results are summarised by the following box-and-whisker diagrams:
30 40 47
M
18 50
Household A:
28 32 37
22 40
Household B:
A
Answer the following questions for this period of 360 days:

(a) Which household tends to use more electricity in a day?
(b) What was the highest amount of electricity that household B has used in a single day?
S
(c) Calculate the range of the daily electricity usage of

(1) household A. (2) household B.
(d) Calculate the interquartile range of the daily electricity usage of
(1) household A. (2) household B.
(e) Which household’s daily electricity usage was more consistent? Motivate.
(f) On approximately what percentage of days did household A use less than 30 kWh?
(g) Calculate the approximate number of days on which household B used less than 37 kWh.
(h) On what percentage of days did household A use more electricity than household B ever
used in a day?
362
Solution
(a) Household A (b) 40 kWh
(c) (1) Range = Max − Min (2) Range = Max − Min
= 50 − 18 = 40 − 22
= 32 = 18
(d) (1) IQR = Q3 − Q1 (2) IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 47 − 30 = 37 − 28
= 17 =9
(e) Household B is more consistent in its daily use of electricity.
Both the range and interquartile range of household B is lower than that of household A.
This means that there is clearly less variability in household B’s electricity usage.
LE
(f) 25% (30 is the lower quartile)
(g) 75% of days (37 is the upper quartile)
75
∴ Number of days = × 360 = 270 days
100
(h) 50% (40 is the maximum value of B and the median of A)
EXERCISE 3
(a)
(i)
(ii)
P
For each of the following data sets,
write down the five number summary.
draw a box-and-whisker diagram to represent the data.
(1) 2 2 3 4 4 4 6 6 8 9 11 15 18 19 20
M
(2) 1 7 8 9 15 15 18 21 23 24 25 27 28 28 29 30
(3) 1 4 5 6 8 9 11 14 17 19 23 25 26 28 29 32 33
(4) 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 8 9 13 15 15 15 18 21 27 37
(b) The shoe sizes of 12 people are as follows:
5 9 6 8 7 11 11 9 8 8 4 10
A
(1) Represent data on a box-and-whisker diagram.

(2) Calculate
(i) the range (ii) the interquartile range
(c) The following box-and-whisker diagram shows the distribution of a data set consisting of
S
300 observations:
70 102 116
10 126
(1) What is the value of the lowest observation in the data set?
(2) What is the value of the
(i) range? (ii) median?
(iii) upper quartile? (iv) semi-interquartile range?
(3) Approximately what percentage of the data in the set is
(i) greater than 116? (ii) between 70 and 116?
(4) Approximately how many observations in the data set are
(i) less than 102? (ii) greater than 70?
363
(d) Two female golf players, Nontando and Cindy, each hit 20 drives with a 3 Wood golf club.
The distances they achieved (in metres) are shown in the following box-and-whisker
diagram:
135 140 145
Nontando: 130 170
145 150 160

Cindy: 115 165
(1) Which of these two golf players hit the longest drive?
(2) Which of these two golf players hit the longest drives in general?
(3) For each of these two golf players, calculate
(i) the range. (ii) the inter-quartile range.
LE
(4) Which of these two golf players are the most consistent in the distance they hit?
Motivate.
(5) If a drive longer than 145 m is considered a long drive, approximately how many
long drives did
(i) Nontando hit? (ii) Cindy hit?
(e) Mr Nomvela teaches Mathematics to two Grade 10 classes (10A and 10B) with 40 learners
in each class. Their Mathematics marks are illustrated in the box-and-whisker diagrams
below:
41 48 64
10A: 36
P 94
56 72 84
10B: 36 94
M
(1) Which class would you say performed better? Motivate.
(2) Compare the dispersion of the marks of the two classes by using an appropriate
measure of dispersion.
(3) About 75% of the learners in 10A scored above a certain mark. What is this mark?
(4) About 10 learners in 10B scored below a certain mark. What is this mark?
A
(5) State whether each of the following statements are true or false and motivate your
answer in each case:
(i) Most of the learners in 10A scored between 64 and 94.
(ii) About 50% of learners in 10B scored above 72.
(iii) In 10A, there were more learners that scored above 48 than below 48.
S
(Assume no learner actually scored 48.)

(iv) About half of the learners in 10A scored between 41 and 64.
(v) 25 learners in 10A scored below 41.
(vi) More than 12 learners in 10B scored between 56 and 72.
(f)* The data set {a ; 7 ; b ; 9 ; 12 ; c ; 19 ; d ; e ; f } has a mean of 14 and is

represented by the following box-and-whisker diagram:
8 15 20
1 25
Determine the values of a to f.
364
THE DISTRIBUTION OF DATA (SYMMETRY AND SKEWNESS)*
Data can be distributed in many different ways. Three important distribution patterns of data are
symmetrical data, positively skewed data and negatively skewed data:
Symmetrical data: Data is spread symmetrically around the middle and there is a high
concentration of data around the middle. When data is symmetrical, the
mean and median are equal.
Positively skewed data: There is a high concentration of data towards the lower end and data
is more spread out towards the upper end. This causes a “tail” to form
at the upper end. We also refer to such data as skewed to the right.
When data is positively skewed, the mean is greater than the median.
Negatively skewed data: There is a high concentration of data towards the higher end and data is
LE
more spread out towards the lower end. This causes a “tail” to form at
the lower end. We also refer to such data as skewed to the left. When
data is negatively skewed, the mean is less than the median.
The following table shows the characteristics of these three patterns:
POSITIVELY NEGATIVELY
SYMMETRICAL SKEWED SKEWED
(Skewed to the right) (Skewed to the left)
Mean and Median

PMean = Median Mean > Median Mean < Median
Mean Mean Mean

M
Box-and-Whisker
Diagram
Median Median Median
A
Histogram
S
THE EFFECT OF SKEWNESS ON THE MEAN*
Skewness has an effect on the mean. The more skewed the data, the less reliable the mean will be as
a measure of central tendency:
• If the data is symmetrical, the mean is reliable as a measure of central tendency.
• If the data is positively skewed, the mean is too high to be a reliable measure of central
tendency.
• If the data is negatively skewed, the mean is too low to be a reliable measure of central
tendency.
The median remains reliable as a measure of central tendency, regardless of skewness.
365
EXAMPLE 11*
The monthly salaries (in thousands of rands) of 15 workers, all doing the same type of job, are as
follows:
13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 23
(a) Determine
(1) the median. (2) the mean (to two decimals).
(b) Represent the data on a box-and-whisker diagram.
(c) Comment on the distribution of the data.
(d) Would you rather use the mean or the median as an indicator of the typical salary for this
job? Motivate.
LE
Solution
(a) (1) Median = 15
(2) x̄ = 16,07 (Using calculator or formula)
(b) Min Q1 Med Q3 Max
13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 23
14 15 18
13
P 23
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
M
(c) The data is positively skewed.
(d) The median.
The mean is too high, because the data is positively skewed.
EXAMPLE 12*
A
The following box-and-whisker diagrams show how the Geography marks of two Grade 10 classes
(10A and 10B) are distributed:
50 60 70
10A: 40 80
S
45 60 65
10B: 25 70
(a) Describe the distribution of the marks of

(1) 10A (2) 10B
(b) Estimate the mean Geography mark of 10A.
(c) Which class probably has the highest class average (mean)? Motivate.
(d) Is the mean a reliable measure of central tendency for the marks of
(1) 10A? (2) 10B?
366
Solution
(a) (1) Symmetrical (2) Negatively skewed
(b) Mean = Median = 60 (Symmetrical)
(c) 10A
For 10A: Mean = 60
For 10B: Mean < Median (Negatively skewed)
∴ Mean < 60
(d) (1) Yes (The data is symmetrical.)
(2) No (The mean is too low, because the data is negatively skewed.)
EXERCISE 4*
LE
(a)* Consider the following data set:
14 16 18 20 20 22 22 22 24 24 26 28 30
(1) Write down the five number summary of the data set.
(2) Draw a box-and-whisker diagram to represent the data.
(3) Describe the distribution of the data.
(4) Calculate the mean.
(5) Is the mean a reliable measure of central tendency for this data? Motivate.
(b)* Consider the following data set:
5
(1)
5
Calculate
6 7
P 8 11 11 13 14 17 23 29 38 50
(i) the median. (ii) the mean. (iii) the interquartile range.
M
(3) Describe the distribution of the data.
(4) Would you rather use the mean or the median as a measure of central tendency for
this data? Motivate.
(c)* Consider the following data set:
10 17 27 32 36 37 40 40 41 41 42 42 42 42 42
A

(2) How would you expect the mean to compare to the median? Motivate.
(3) Calculate the mean.
(4) Write down the mode.
(5) Which measure of central tendency would you use to summarise this data? Motivate.
S
(d)* The ages of the first 30 male athletes to finish the 2022 Ironman competition, which is held
in Gqeberha in the Eastern Cape every year, were as follows:
28 35 26 42 31 46 26 29 36 45 31 37 33 27 44
48 29 30 56 27 24 37 44 43 33 36 27 32 40 38
(1) Represent this data by means of a box-and-whisker diagram.
(2) Comment on the distribution of the data.
(3) Considering the context, why do you think the data is distributed this way?
(4) What effect does the distribution of the data have on the value of the mean?
(5) Calculate the value of the mean and discuss whether this value confirms what we
would expect for this type of data distribution.
367
(e)* A normal resting heart rate for adults ranges from 60 to 100 bpm (beats per minute).
Generally, a lower heart rate implies better cardiovascular fitness. Over a number of days, an
athletics coach records the heart rates of 2 athletes (before training) and summarises the
results in the following box-and-whisker plots:
61 75 93
56 114
Athlete A
60 65 70
57 73
Athlete B
(1) According to the data, which of these two athletes seems fittest?
(2) Calculate
(i) the range of athlete A’s resting heart rate.
(ii) the semi-interquartile range of athlete B’s resting heart rate.
LE
(3) Estimate the mean resting heart rate of athlete B. Explain your reasoning.
(4) From the following list, choose the most likely value for the mean resting heart
rate of athlete A and explain your choice:
A 71 B 75 C 79
(5) Would you rather use the mean or the median to describe athlete A’s typical resting
heart rate? Explain.
(f)* Amanda and her husband, John, record the number of hours they sleep each night, during
the month of July, to the nearest hour. The following bar graphs show the results:
P
AMANDA JOHN
18 8
16
Number of nights
Number of nights
14
M
6
12
10
4
8
6
4 2
2
A
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Less 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Hours of sleep Hours of sleep
(1) Between Amanda and John, who would you say has the best sleeping routine?
S
(2) Describe the distribution of the data for

(i) Amanda (ii) John
(3) Write down the median hours of sleep for
(i) Amanda. (ii) John.
(4) Write down Amanda’s mean hours of sleep without doing any calculations.
Explain your reasoning.
(5) Explain why it is impossible to calculate John’s mean hours of sleep from the given
data.
(6) Is John’s mean hours of sleep
A less than 6? B equal to 6? C more than 6?
Choose the correct option and explain your choice.
(7)** Calculate the highest and lowest possible value for John’s mean hours of sleep.
368
(g)* The following are the box-and-whisker diagrams of data sets A to C, drawn according to the
same number line:
Data set A :
Data set B :
Data set C :
(1) Describe the distribution of each data set.

(2) Of these three data sets, which one has
(i) the greatest range? (ii) the greatest interquartile range?
(iii) the highest mean? (iv) the lowest mean?
LE
PERCENTILES
Percentiles are values below which a given percentage of observations in a data set fall.
For example, the 10th percentile would be a value with 10% of the observations below it and 90%
of the observations above it. It is not always possible to divide a data set into exact percentages this
way. The larger a data set is, the more accurately percentiles can be found, and the more sensible it
is to use.
P
Universities often use percentiles to determine the relative performance of a student. For example,
saying Leah’s mark is the 70th percentile means that she performed better than 70% of all the other
students.
There is no universal system for defining percentiles. Different methods are currently in use by
M
statisticians and no convention exists that is accepted by all. The following method is
internationally recognised:
To determine the kth percentile ( Pk ):

1. Arrange the data in ascending order.
2. Calculate a positional indicator (i), using the formula
A
k
i= ×n
100
3. What we do next depends on whether i is a whole number or not:

S
• If i is a whole number, then the kth percentile is the average of the observations in
positions i and i + 1.
• If i is not a whole number, we round i up to the nearest whole number for the position of
the kth percentile.
Note that the actual position of the percentile is always above the positional indicator i. This fits the
definition we use for percentiles well. It also guarantees that the 50th percentile is the median,
which makes a lot of sense. The 25th and 75th percentiles correspond to the lower and upper
quartiles, although the calculated values may differ slightly in some cases. Unfortunately, we can’t
divide all data sets into quarters or hundredths exactly, and thus there may sometimes be small
discrepancies as the different methods all deviate slightly from the ideal.
369
EXAMPLE 13
The following table shows the birth masses of 60 babies in kg, ranked from lowest to highest:
Rank Mass Rank Mass Rank Mass Rank Mass Rank Mass
1 1,92 13 2,97 25 3,38 37 3,67 49 3,96

2 1,98 14 3,08 26 3,39 38 3,68 50 3,98
3 2,01 15 3,11 27 3,42 39 3,72 51 3,99
4 2,14 16 3,15 28 3,44 40 3,73 52 4,06
5 2,27 17 3,24 29 3,47 41 3,79 53 4,09
6 2,79 18 3,27 30 3,49 42 3,84 54 4,11
LE
7 2,83 19 3,28 31 3,51 43 3,85 55 4,17
8 2,87 20 3,30 32 3,52 44 3,88 56 4,22
9 2,91 21 3,30 33 3,54 45 3,91 57 4,37
10 2,93 22 3,33 34 3,58 46 3,93 58 4,45
11 2,94 23 3,35 35 3,61 47 3,93 59 5,12
12 2,96 24
P 3,36 36 3,63 48 3,95 60 5,32
Determine
(a) the 24th percentile. (b) the 90th percentile.
(c) the 50th percentile.
M
Solution
k 24
(a) i= ×n = × 60 = 14,4
100 100
∴ P24 is the 15th observation. i is not a whole number, so round up.
A
∴ P24 = 3,11 kg
k 90
(b) i= ×n = × 60 = 54
100 100
i is a whole number, so take
∴ P90 is the average of the 54th and 55th observations.
S
the average of the observations

in positions i and i + 1.
4,11 + 4,17
∴ P90 = = 4,14 kg
2
k 50
(c) i= ×n = × 60 = 30
100 100
∴ P50 is the average of the 30th and 31st observations.
3,49 + 3,51
∴ P50 = = 3,50 kg Note that this is the median.
2
370
EXERCISE 5
(a) There are 185 students in a class. Their ranked examination marks are shown here:
Rank Mark Rank Mark Rank Mark Rank Mark Rank Mark Rank Mark
1 3 32 49 63 54 94 57 125 61 156 70
2 8 33 49 64 54 95 57 126 61 157 70
3 11 34 49 65 54 96 57 127 61 158 70
4 15 35 49 66 54 97 57 128 61 159 70
5 18 36 49 67 55 98 57 129 62 160 71
6 21 37 49 68 55 99 57 130 62 161 72
7 27 38 51 69 55 100 57 131 62 162 73
LE
8 29 39 51 70 55 101 57 132 62 163 73
9 30 40 51 71 55 102 58 133 62 164 74
10 30 41 51 72 55 103 58 134 63 165 75
11 30 42 51 73 55 104 58 135 63 166 75
12 35 43 51 74 55 105 58 136 63 167 76
13 37 44 51 75 56 106 58 137 64 168 77
14 38 45 51 76 56 107 58 138 64 169 78
15 40 46 51 77 56 108 58 139 65 170 79
16
17
44
44
47
48
P51
51
78
79
56
56
109
110
58
58
140
141
65
65
171
172
80
80
18 44 49 51 80 56 111 58 142 65 173 80
19 45 50 51 81 56 112 60 143 65 174 81
M
20 45 51 52 82 56 113 60 144 66 175 82
21 46 52 52 83 57 114 60 145 66 176 83
22 46 53 52 84 57 115 60 146 66 177 85
23 47 54 52 85 57 116 60 147 66 178 86
24 47 55 52 86 57 117 60 148 67 179 87
A
25 47 56 53 87 57 118 60 149 67 180 87

26 47 57 53 88 57 119 60 150 67 181 89
27 47 58 53 89 57 120 60 151 68 182 90
28 47 59 53 90 57 121 60 152 68 183 91
S
29 48 60 53 91 57 122 61 153 68 184 91

30 48 61 53 92 57 123 61 154 69 185 97
31 48 62 54 93 57 124 61 155 69
Determine
(1) the 12th percentile. (2) the 20th percentile.
371
(b) The following table shows a toll tariff structure on toll roads in a certain province.
The 230 prices (in rands) are escalated according to ascending vehicles sizes on differently
graded roads:
Rank 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0,50 0,83 1,52 1,65 1,80 1,80 1,85 1,85 1,92
10 2,02 2,02 2,10 2,10 2,10 2,15 2,15 2,15 2,16 2,30
20 2,30 2,30 2,37 2,37 2,42 2,42 2,42 2,47 2,47 2,50
30 2,50 2,62 2,64 2,67 2,67 2,71 2,72 2,73 2,75 2,75
40 2,80 2,80 2,80 2,81 2,83 2,87 2,87 2,91 2,94 2,97
LE
50 3,00 3,01 3,02 3,05 3,08 3,11 3,15 3,15 3,15 3,21
60 3,21 3,20 3,30 3,35 3,36 3,37 3,37 3,37 3,37 3,37
70 3,37 3,40 3,44 3,45 3,48 3,50 3,50 3,50 3,54 3,58
80 3,58 3,65 3,67 3,75 3,78 3,83 3,83 3,90 3,95 3,96
90 3,96 4,00 4,04 4,10 4,12 4,12 4,17 4,17 4,20 4,26
100 4,31 4,37 4,41 4,45 4,45 4,48 4,53 4,56 4,57 4,65
110
120
4,67
5,02
4,67
5,10
P4,77
5,26
4,78
5,32
4,79
5,35
4,79
5,40
4,80
5,48
4,83
5,62
4,86
5,70
4,93
5,89
130 5,95 6,12 6,25 6,36 6,44 6,49 6,52 6,54 6,57 6,66
M
140 6,72 6,76 6,80 6,91 6,99 7,08 7,22 7,34 7,47 7,52
150 7,56 7,65 7,75 7,84 7,93 8,02 8,02 8,10 8,24 8,31
160 8,44 8,44 8,44 8,44 8,80 8,86 8,97 9,01 9,19 9,29
170 9,31 9,37 9,47 9,58 9,58 9,66 9,75 9,80 9,95 10,10
A
180 10,10 10,26 10,30 10,41 10,41 10,49 10,67 10,85 10,90 10,93
190 11,18 11,27 11,34 11,46 11,54 11,70 11,87 11,92 11,98 11,98
200 11,98 11,98 12,11 12,42 12,56 12,96 13,44 13,56 13,78 13,90
210 14,12 14,43 14,56 14,58 14,97 15,00 15,02 15,30 15,45 15,76
S
220 16,04 16,87 17,50 17,91 18,51 19,16 20,60 20,83 23,33 23,95
230 29,16
Determine
(5) the 73rd percentile. (6) the 80th percentile.
372
(c) A group of 40 shoppers spent the following amounts (rounded to the nearest Rand, and
arranged in ascending order) at a local spaza shop:
3 4 6 6 8 8 8 9 11 12
12 17 18 20 23 24 25 27 29 31
35 37 38 40 40 41 42 45 45 45
47 48 48 50 50 52 53 56 56 57
Determine
GROUPED DATA
LE
Grouped data is data that has been grouped into intervals (also called classes). The original,
individual observations are not listed but only the number of observations in each interval.
Consider the following marks of 30 learners:
52 68 41 43 26 18 60 50 24 34 40 36 24 40 83
This is raw ungrouped data.
32 56 48 56 58 44 72 44 49 60 38 54 46 44 52
Let’s arrange and organise the data by means of a stem-and-leaf plot:
1 8
P
2 4 4 6
3 2 6 4 8
M
4 0 0 1 3 4 4 4 6 8 9 This is organised ungrouped data.
5 0 2 2 4 6 6 8
6 0 0 8
7 2
8 3
A
We can now summarise the data by grouping the observations in class intervals of length 10 and
simply writing down the frequency of each class:
Marks Frequency
S
10 ≤ x < 20 1
20 ≤ x < 30 3
30 ≤ x < 40 4
40 ≤ x < 50 10 This is grouped data.
50 ≤ x < 60 7
60 ≤ x < 70 3
70 ≤ x < 80 1
80 ≤ x < 90 1
373
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
When given grouped data, we will not be able to determine the mean, median and mode exactly,
because we don’t know the individual data values.
THE CLASS CONTAINING THE MEDIAN

For grouped data, we cannot find the exact value of the median, but we can determine in which
class the median lies. We do this by adding the frequencies of the classes (ordered) until the sum
equals or exceeds the position of the median. As soon as this happens, we know that we have found
the class containing the median.
THE MODAL CLASS

For grouped data, we cannot determine the mode of the individual observations. Instead, we find the
class with the highest frequency. This is called the modal class.
LE
THE ESTIMATED MEAN
For grouped data, we cannot find the exact mean, but we can calculate an estimate for the mean.
Since we don’t know the exact values of the individual observations in any class, we use the
midpoint of each class interval as a representative value for all observations in the interval.
To calculate the estimated mean for grouped data:

1. Calculate the midpoint of each class interval.
(Add the starting point and the end point of the interval and divide the sum by 2)
2.
P
Multiply the midpoint of each class by the frequency of the class.
3. Add all the products (in 2).
4. Divide the sum (in 3) by the total number of observations in the data set (n).
M
Note that using the class midpoint as a representative for all the values in each interval is strictly
only valid for continuous data. In the case of discrete data, statisticians use the mean of all the
possible discreet values in each interval. This is, however, beyond the scope of the curriculum and
we will treat all grouped data as continuous in this chapter. (See the beginning of this chapter.)
A
EXAMPLE 14
Kagisho’s mother takes him to school, on her way to work, every morning. Over a period of a
month (20 mornings), Kagisho records the time (in minutes) the trip from his house to the school
takes. He summarises the data in the following frequency table:
S
Time (in minutes) Frequency

10 ≤ x < 15 1
15 ≤ x < 20 8
20 ≤ x < 25 6
25 ≤ x < 30 5
(a) In which interval does the median time lie?

(b) What is the modal class?
(c) Calculate the estimated mean time.
374
Solution
1 1
(a) Position of median = (n + 1) = (20 + 1) = 10,5
2 2
First interval: 1 < 10,5
The sum of frequencies exceeds
First two intervals: 1 + 8 = 9 < 10,5
the position of the median (10,5)
First three intervals: 1 + 8 + 6 = 15 ≥ 10,5
after adding the frequency of the
∴ The third interval contains the median. third interval.
Answer: 20 ≤ x < 25
(b) 15 ≤ x < 20 This is the class interval with the highest frequency.
(c)
LE
Class interval Frequency Midpoint Frequency × Midpoint
10 + 15
10 ≤ x < 15 1 = 12,5 1 × 12,5 = 12,5
2
15 + 20
15 ≤ x < 20 8 = 17,5 8 × 17,5 = 140
2
20 + 25
20 ≤ x < 25 6 = 22,5 6 × 22,5 = 135
2
25 ≤ x < 30
P 5
25 + 30
2
= 27,5 5 × 27,5 = 137,5
TOTAL: 20 425
M
425
Estimated x̄ = = 21,25 minutes
20
EXERCISE 6
A
(a) The table below shows how the heights (in cm) of 185 tomato plants were distributed, one
month after the seedlings were planted:
Height (in cm) Frequency

0≤x<5 34
S
5 ≤ x < 10 69
10 ≤ x < 15 37
15 ≤ x < 20 26
20 ≤ x < 25 11
25 ≤ x < 30 8
(1) What is the modal class?

(2) In which interval does the median lie?
(3) Calculate the estimated mean height of the tomato plants.
375
(b) The cafeteria at your school recorded the following data about amounts spent by individual
learners on snacks or lunch, on one specific day:
Amount spent (in rands) Frequency

0 < x ≤ 20 50
20 < x ≤ 40 96
40 < x ≤ 60 108
60 < x ≤ 80 34
80 < x ≤ 100 12
(1) How many learners were served in the cafeteria that day?
(2) Estimate the mean amount spent per learner.
LE
(3) Write down
(i) the modal class. (ii) the class in which the median lies.
(c) A group of 40 Grade 10 learners conducted a survey amongst themselves about the amount
of pocket money that teenagers in their age group receive per week. Their observations are
tabled below:
Pocket money (in rands) Frequency

0 ≤ x < 100 3
P
100 ≤ x < 200 18
200 ≤ x < 300 10
300 ≤ x < 400 5
M
400 ≤ x < 500 4
TOTAL: 40
(1) What percentage of these learners get less than R300 pocket money per week?
(2) In which class interval does the median lie?
A
(3) Calculate an estimate for the mean amount of pocket money for these 40 learners.
(4) Write down the modal class.
(5)* Comment on the distribution of the data.
(6)* Give a possible reason for the distribution of the data.
(7)* In which interval does
S
(i) the upper quartile lie? (ii) the 80th percentile lie?
(d) The times (to the closest minute) it took the first 30 athletes to finish a 21 km race were:
67 68 71 72 72 78 81 84 86 92
94 99 102 103 107 107 108 111 115 121
126 133 134 138 146 148 148 155 158 159
(1) Calculate the mean time it took these athletes to finish the race.
(2) The data is now grouped into 5 intervals of equal length, starting with 60 ≤ x < 80.
(i) Draw up a frequency table for the grouped data.
(ii) What is the modal class?
(iii) Calculate the estimated mean and explain why your answer differs slightly
from the mean you calculated in (1).
376
(a) The ages of 30 students in a first year university class are shown in the following stem-and-
leaf diagram:
1 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 3
3 8
6 5
(1) Represent this data

(i) in a frequency table.
(ii) using a bar graph, showing the frequencies of the different ages.
LE
(2) Determine
(i) the modal age. (ii) the median age. (iii) the mean age.
(3) What is the range of this data set?
(4) Calculate the percentage of students who are 20 years or older.
(5)* Identify any outliers and give a possible practical reason for the fact that there are
outliers in this data set.
(6)* Would you rather use the mean or the median as a measure of central tendency of
this data? Motivate your answer.
(b)
P
In a survey, Mr Mapheto asked all the learners in his Mathematics class about the number of
hours they spent studying for a Mathematics test. The results of the survey are shown in the
following bar graph:
5
M
4
Frequency
2
A
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S
Number of hours
(1) How many learners are in Mr Mapheto’s class?

(2) What is the longest time any particular learner studied for this test?
(3) Write down the mode of the number of hours studied.
(4) Calculate the mean number of hours studied.
(5) Write down the five number summary.
(7) Calculate the interquartile range.
(8)* Describe the distribution of the data.
(9)* Is the mean a reliable measure of central tendency for this data? Motivate.
377
(c) The 1RM (1 rep maximum) for the bench press exercise is the maximum mass a person can
lift doing this exercise. The 1RMs of 23 people doing the bench press at the Easy Fit gym
are, in ascending order:
35 kg 40 kg 45 kg 50 kg 55 kg 60 kg 65 kg 65 kg
65 kg 67,5 kg 67,5 kg 70 kg 70 kg 70 kg 72,5 kg 80 kg
85 kg 90 kg 95 kg 100 kg 120 kg 140 kg 150 kg
(1) Determine the value(s) of all three measures of central tendency for this data.
(3) Calculate the semi-interquartile range.
(4) Determine the 90th percentile of this data set.
(6)* Sihle, a member of this gym, can bench press a maximum of 70 kg and claims that
LE
his lift compares well to the typical 1RM of a person from this group. Sihle’s brother
disagrees, based on the fact that 70 kg is below the mean. Do you agree with Sihle,
or with his brother? Motivate your answer.
(d) The retirement ages of 18 people are, in ascending order:

44 50 55 58 60 63 64 65 65
65 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 70
(1) Calculate the mean retirement age of these 18 people.

(2)
(3)
P
Calculate the range of the retirement ages of these 18 people.
Draw a box-and-whisker diagram to represent the data.
(4)* Is the data symmetrical, positively skewed or negatively skewed?
(5)* Give a practical reason for the distribution pattern of this data set.
M
(6)* Explain why the mean is not the preferred measure of central tendency for this
data set.
(e) The following data, from the Grain Farmers Association, represents the annual amount of
grain (in thousands of tons) grown in South Africa, from 2001 to 2020:
4488 4915 4976 5732 5890 5872 5787 6430 6505 6678
A
9091 9592 7012 8074 8339 9188 9537 7369 8396 4874
(1) Calculate the mean annual amount of grain grown in South Africa over this 20 year
period.
(2) Write down the five number summary of this data set.
S
(3) Calculate
(i) the range. (ii) the interquartile range.
(4) How many data values lie above the mean of the data?
(5) What percentage of the data values lie between the lower quartile and the mean?
(6) Determine the 15th percentile of this data set.
(8)* Which measure of central tendency would you use to represent the amount of grain
grown in South Africa in a typical year from 2001 to 2020 (the mean or the median)?
Motivate your answer.
378
(f) The box-and-whisker diagrams representing the Matric Maths Marks of two schools
(A and B) are shown:
42 57 62
17 77
School A:
52 57 67
School B: 42 82
(1) Which school’s Maths marks shows the highest variability between learners?
Motivate your answer by making use of two different measures of dispersion.
(2) Approximately what percentage of learners in School A achieved
(i) a mark lower than 62?
(ii) a mark between 42 and 62?
LE
(iii) a lower mark than all the learners in School B?
(3) If there were 60 Matric Maths learners in School B, approximately how many
learners in School B achieved a Maths mark
(i) higher than 67?
(ii) between 52 and 82?
(4)* Which school probably achieved the highest average (mean) Maths mark?
Motivate.
(5)* Would you rather use the mean or the median as a measure of central tendency for
Maths marks of School A? Motivate.
(g)
P
The box-and-whisker diagrams for five data sets, all drawn according to the same number
line, are shown:
Data set A :
M
Data set B :
Data set C :
A
Data set D :
S
Data set E :
(1) Describe the distribution of each data set.

(2)* For each of the following data sets, state whether or not the mean would be an
accurate measure of central tendency and motivate your answer:
(i) Data set A (ii) Data set C
(3)* Arrange the data sets according to their means - from the set with the lowest mean to
the set with the highest mean. (Assume that each data set follows the typical
distribution pattern suggested by its box-and-whisker diagram.)
379
(h) The table below shows the amount of time it took a group of Grade 10 learners to finish a
Geometry exercise:
Time taken (in minutes) Frequency

0 ≤ x < 10 2
10 ≤ x < 20 5
20 ≤ x < 30 9
30 ≤ x < 40 14
40 ≤ x < 50 8
50 ≤ x < 60 2
LE
(1) How many learners took more than half an hour to finish the exercise?
(2) What is the modal class?
(3) Which class interval contains the median?
(4) What is the 38th percentile of the data set?
(5) Calculate an estimate for the mean time taken by these learners to finish the exercise.
(6)* What is the lowest possible exact mean of the data set?
(i) The following data set represents the amounts (in rands) spent on cellphone calls by
60 learners in a week:
Rank 0 1
P 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 10 12 18 18 21 23 26 27 27
10 28 30 31 32 34 37 37 38 39 42
M
20 42 42 44 48 48 48 48 52 52 52
30 53 54 56 57 58 58 58 59 62 63
40 64 64 66 69 70 70 70 74 76 79
50 79 80 84 85 85 92 92 95 96 98
60 121
A
(1) Calculate
(i) the 85th percentile (ii) the 22nd percentile
(2) Summarise the data in the following table:
S
Amount spent (in rands) Frequency

0 ≤ x < 20
20 ≤ x < 40
40 ≤ x < 60
60 ≤ x < 80
80 ≤ x < 100
(3) What is the modal class of the grouped data in (2)?
380
(j)* The distribution of salaries of all employees doing a certain job in a factory are as follows:
Salary (in rands) Frequency

10 000 ≤ x < 15 000 x
15 000 ≤ x < 20 000 9
20 000 ≤ x < 25 000 5
25 000 ≤ x < 30 000 4
The mean salary for this job is R20 250.

(1) Give two possible justified reasons why some employees earn more than others
doing the same job.
LE
(3) In which interval does the median salary lie?
(4)* Comment on the distribution of the data.
(k)* Consider the following raw data set in random order:

14 10 8 a 17 7 b 14 8 c 16
The range is 12, the mode is 8 and the median is 13.
Determine the values of a, b and c if a < b < c.
(l)*
P
The following data set, which is arranged in ascending order, has a range of 31 and a median
of 21. The semi-interquartile range is 10, and the mean is 19.
a 8 17 b c d 33
Determine the values of a, b, c and d.
M
(m)* A teacher instructs each one of 8 learners to write one single digit natural number on the
board. Six of the numbers, in random order, are 2, 6, 3, 8, 2 and 5. Two learners only
write variables a and b, but give the following clues about the data set of 8 values:
• The median of the data set is 5,5.
• The data set is has exactly two modes (bimodal).
A
• The upper quartile is 7.

Determine the values of a and b if a < b.
(n)* The following box and whisker diagram represents a data set consisting of 15 values:
13 16 23
2 36
S
(1) Choose the correct option to complete the following statement:

This data in this set can be described as …
A symmetrical B skewed to the right
C skewed to the left D uniformly distributed
(2) Choose the correct option to complete the following statement:
The mean of the data set is probably …
A equal to 16 B less than 16
C between 16 and 23 D greater than 23
(3)** Calculate the highest possible value of the mean of the data set.
381
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
——————————————————————————————
Probability
————————————————————————————————————————
In the study of probability, we assign values to our level of certainty about things, based on
mathematical principles.
THE PROBABILITY SCALE
A probability is a number in the interval [0 ; 1]. A probability of 0 indicates that something is

impossible and a probability close to 0 that it is unlikely. A probability of 1 indicates that
something is certain and a probability close to 1 that it is likely.
LE
0 1 1 3 1
6 2 4
The water of A die A coin At least one The temperature

the sea turns lands lands tail when two in Gqeberha will
into orange on 2 on coins are be above −20∘C
juice
P heads tossed
1
tomorrow
A probability can be expressed as a common fraction (for example ), a decimal fraction (for
2
example 0,5) or a percentage (for example 50%).
M
TERMINOLOGY
Experiment: In probability theory, any action, situation or set of circumstances that leads
to different possibilities is called an experiment.
Outcomes: The different ways an experiment can turn out are called the outcomes of
A
the experiment. All outcomes of an experiment are equally likely.
Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample
space. The sample space is normally denoted by the letter S.
Event: A subset of the sample space, consisting of outcomes that satisfy a

S
particular condition, is called an event. An event is normally denoted by a

capital letter (A, B, C etc.) If the actual outcome of an experiment is one of
the outcomes of an event E then we say that event E has taken place.
THE PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT
The probability of an event is calculated as follows:
Number of outcomes in the event n(E)

Probability of an event = P(E) =
Number of outcomes in the sample space n(S)
382
EXAMPLE 1
A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled.

(a) Write down the sample space in set form.
(b) If A is the event in which the die lands on an even number and B is the event in which the
die lands on a number greater than 4,
(1) write down events A and B in set form, listing all their outcomes.
(2) calculate the probabilites of events A and B.
Solution
(a) S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}
(b) (1) A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {5 ; 6}
n(A) 3 1 n( B) 2 1
LE
(2) P (A ) = = = P( B) = = =
n(S) 6 2 n(S) 6 3
EXAMPLE 2
A coin is tossed twice. Each coin lands on either heads (H) or tails (T). The following events are
defined:
X = {The coin lands on heads twice}

Y = {The coin lands on tails exactly once}
P
Z = {The coin lands on heads at least once}
(a) Write down the sample space in set form.
(b) Calculate
M
(1) P( X ) (2) P( Y ) (3) P (Z )
Solution
(a) S = {HH ; HT ; TH ; TT}
X = {HH}
A
(b) (1)
∴ n( X) = 1
n( X) 1
∴ P( X ) = =
n(S) 4
S
(2) Y = {HT ; TH}
∴ n( Y ) = 2
n( Y ) 2 1
∴ P( Y ) = = =
n(S) 4 2
(3) Z = {HH ; HT ; TH}
∴ n(Z) = 3
n(Z) 3
∴ P(Z) = =
n(S) 4
383
CALCULATING PROBABILITIES WHEN ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IS GIVEN
The probability of an event depends on the information we have. Sometimes we obtain

additional information about the outcome of the experiment (without knowing the actual
outcome). This could change the sample space and could lead to new probabilities for certain
outcomes or events. The new sample space is sometimes called the reduced sample space (Sr).
EXAMPLE 3
The names of 7 people are placed in a hat and one name is drawn at random from the hat.
The names and sexes of the 7 people are as follows:
Name Sex
Cindy
LE
Female
Lebo Female
Lucas Male
Yesheni Female
Thabang Male
Leonard Male
P Amy Female
(a) Determine the probability that the name drawn belongs to a male person.
(b) Suppose it is known that the name drawn starts with the letter L.
M
(1) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(2) Taking this new information into account, what is the probability that the name
drawn belongs to a male person.
Solution
n( Male) 3
A
(a) P( Male) = =
n(S) 7
(b) (1) Sr = {Lebo ; Lucas ; Leonard}

S
(2) In the new sample space:
Male = {Lucas ; Leonard}
n( Male) 2
P( Male) = =
n(Sr ) 3
Note: In this example, we see that the additional information given actually changed the
probability of an event.
3 2
The probability of the name being male changed from (≈ 43%) to (≈ 67%) when
7 3
we took the additional information (that the name starts with an L) into account.
384
THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF AN EVENT
When an experiment is repeated many times, the number of times a certain event takes place is
called its frequency. When the frequency is divided by the number of times the experiment was
repeated, the result is called the relative frequency of the event:
Frequency of the event f

Relative frequency of an event = RF =
Number of times the experiment was repeated n
When the experiment is repeated many times, the relative frequency should eventually approach
the theoretical probability (calculated probability) of the event.
LE
EXAMPLE 4
A coin is tossed 100 000 times. The coin lands on heads 49 716 times. Calculate the relative
frequency of the event {coin lands on heads} and establish whether it approximates the
theoretical probability.
Solution
f 49 716
Relative frequency: RF = = = 0,49716
n 100 000
Theoretical probability:
P P( Heads) =
n( Heads) 1
= = 0,5
n(S) 2
We see that the relative frequency is very close to the theoretical probability as expected.
M
EXAMPLE 5
A six-sided die is rolled 12 000 times. Approximately how many times do you expect the die to
land on a factor of 6?
A
Solution
S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}
Factors of 6 = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 6}
S
n( Factors of 6) 4 2
Theoretical probability: P( Factors of 6) = = =
n(S) 6 3
We expect the relative frequency to be approximately equal to the theoretical probability:
f f 2
RF = = ≈
n 12 000 3
2
∴f ≈ × 12 000 = 8000
3
We expect the die to land on a factor of 6 approximately 8000 times.
385
EXERCISE 1
(a) A standard six-sided die is rolled. Let A be the event in which the die lands on an odd
number and B the event in which the die lands on a number less than 5.
(1) Write down the sample space in set form.

(2) Write down the events A and B in set form, listing all the outcomes in each event.
(3) Write down the value of n(A).
(4) Calculate P(A).
(5) Calculate the probability of B.
(b) Eight cards, each marked with one of the letters A to H, are placed in a hat. A card is
drawn from the hat at random.
Let X = {B ; D ; F ; G ; H} and Y = {A vowel letter is drawn}.
LE
(1) Write down the sample space in set form.
(2) Write down the value of n( X).
(3) Calculate P( X).
(4) Calculate P( Y ).
(c) For a certain experiment, the following events are defined:
• M = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
• N = {f ; g ; h}
P 1
It is given that P( M ) = .
3
Calculate
M
(1) n(S)
(2) P( N )
(3) n( X) if X is an event with P( X) = 0,4
(d) 50 tickets were sold in a competition. Each ticket has a number from 1 to 50 on it.
A
A number from 1 to 50 is randomly selected and the owner of the ticket with that number
on wins a tablet. Liam bought 10 tickets. Let E be the event in which Liam wins the
tablet.
(1) Write down the value of

(i) n(S)
S
(ii) n( E)
(2) What is the probability that Liam will win the tablet?
(3) Suppose only 30 of the 50 tickets were sold.
(i) If a number is still selected from 1 to 50, calculate the probability that
no one will win the tablet.
(ii) If a number is instead selected from only the 30 tickets that were sold,
calculate the probability that Liam will win the tablet.
386
(e) An octahedral (eight-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 8, is rolled.
(1) For this experiment,
(i) write down the sample space in set form
(ii) determine the probability that the die lands on a number less than 4.
(2) Suppose it is known that the die landed on an odd number.
(i) Write down the new (reduced) sample space.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, calculate the probability that the
die landed on a number less than 4.
(f)* Three different coins are flipped. Each coin lands on either heads (H) or tails (T).
(1) Write down the sample space.
(2) Calculate the probability that
(i) all three coins land on tails.
LE
(ii) exactly two coins land on heads.
(ii) at least two coins land on tails.
(3) Suppose it is known that the first coin lands on tails.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, calculate the probability that at
least two coins land on tails.
(g)* A couple has 2 children. Assuming that each child is either male or female
(1) what is the probability that both children will be female?
(2)
P
what is the probability that both children will be female if it is known that the first
child is female?
(3) what is the probability that both children will be female if it is known that at least
one child is female?
M
(h) A dodecahedral (twelve-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 12, is rolled 24 000 times and
it landed on 7 exactly 5 344 times.
(1) Calculate the relative frequency of the event {die lands on 7}. (4 decimals)
(2) Does the evidence suggest that the die is fair? Motivate.
(3) The event E is defined by E = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5}.
Assuming that the die is in fact fair, how many times would you expect E to take
A
place?
(i) There are 52 cards in a standard deck of cards of which 13 are hearts. A card is selected
from the deck at random, returned, and then the deck is reshuffled. This process is
repeated 50 000 times.
S
(1) Which of the following do you consider the most reasonable number of times a
card of hearts will be selected? Motivate your answer with a suitable calculation.
A 31 210 B 2003 C 12 685 D 25 443
(2) If this experiment were repeated 72 000 times, how many times would you expect
a card of hearts to be selected?
(j)* An experiment was repeated 120 000 times and the event X took place 80 000 times.
(1) Calculate the relative frequency of X.
(2) If there are 800 outcomes in the sample space of the experiment, estimate n( X).
(3) If this experiment were repeated 33 000 times, how many times would you expect
X to take place?
387
VENN DIAGRAMS
A Venn diagram is a visual representation of events in a sample space. We usually represent the
sample space with a rectangle and events with circles:
S Sample Space
E Event
There are three types of Venn diagrams:

• Venn diagrams showing the actual outcomes.
LE
• Venn diagrams showing the number of outcomes.
• Venn diagrams showing probabilities.
EXAMPLE 6
A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled. E is the event in which the die lands on a
number less than 3.
Represent this information on a Venn diagram showing

(a) the outcomes
Solution
P (b) the number of outcomes (c) probabilities
(a) S (b) S (c) S

E E E
M
3 5 1
1 2 2
2 3
4 3
4 6
DERIVED EVENTS
A
New events can be formed from existing events by using the concepts of complement (‘not’),
intersection (‘and’) and union (‘or’):
THE COMPLEMENT OF AN EVENT

S
The complement of an event A is the event consisting of all outcomes that are in the sample
space, but not in A. We write the complement of A as not A.
S
A
not A
For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number, then:
S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6} A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} not A = {1 ; 3 ; 5}
388
THE INTERSECTION OF TWO EVENTS
The intersection of two events, event A and event B, is the event consisting of all outcomes that are
in both A and B simultaneously. We write this intersection of event A and event B as A and B.
S
A B
A and B
For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number and B is the
event that the die lands on a prime number, then:
LE
A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {2 ; 3 ; 5} A and B = {2}
THE UNION OF TWO EVENTS
The union of two events, event A and event B, is the event consisting of all outcomes that are in at
least one of these events. The union consists of outcomes that are either in A, or in B, or in both.
This basically means that we put all of the outcomes of A and B together by uniting them into one
set. We write the union of event A and event B as A or B.
S
P A B
M
A or B
For example, if you roll a die and A is the event that the die lands on an even number and B is the
event that the die lands on a prime number, then:
A = {2 ; 4 ; 6} B = {2 ; 3 ; 5} A or B = {2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6}
A
EXAMPLE 7
For a certain experiment, with sample space S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h}, the following

events are defined:
S
• X = {b ; c ; d ; e ; f }
• Y = {c ; e ; f ; g}
(a) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(b) Write down the following events in set form, listing all the outcomes in each event:
(1) not X (2) not Y
(3) X and Y (4) X or Y
(c) Determine
(1) n(not X) (2) P(not Y)
(3) P(X and Y) (4) P(X or Y)
389
Solution
(a) S
X Y
b c When completing a Venn diagram,
e g always start with the intersection.
d f
a h
(b) (1) not X = {a ; g ; h} (2) not Y = {a ; b ; d ; h}
(3) X and Y = {c ; e ; f } (4) X or Y = {b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g}

n(not Y ) 4 1
(c) (1) n(not X) = 3 (2) P(not Y ) = = =
LE
n(S) 8 2
n( X and Y ) 3 n( X or Y ) 6 3
(3) P( X and Y ) = = (4) P( X or Y ) = = =
n(S) 8 n(S) 8 4
EXAMPLE 8
In a group of 50 people, 28 can speak Setswana and 40 can speak isiZulu. There are 25 of these
people who can speak both these languages.
(a)
(b)
P
Draw a Venn-diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each region.
A person is chosen from this group at random. The following events are defined:
• T = {The person chosen can speak Setswana}
• Z = {The person chosen can speak isiZulu}
M
Calculate
(1) P(T) (2) P(Z) (3) n(not T)
(4) P(not Z) (5) P(T and Z) (6) P(T or Z)
Solution
(a) S
A
1 Start at the intersection

T Z
2 1 3 2 28 − 25 = 3
3 25 15
3 40 − 25 = 15
4
S
7 4 50 − 3 − 25 − 15 = 7
n(T) 28 14 n(Z) 40 4
(b) (1) P( T ) = = = (2) P (Z ) = = =
n(S) 50 25 n(S) 50 5
n(not Z) 3+7 1
(3) n(not T) = 15 + 7 = 22 (4) P(not Z) = = =
n(S) 50 5
n(T and Z) 25 1
(5) P(T and Z) = = =
n(S) 50 2
n(T or Z) 3 + 25 + 15 43
(6) P(T or Z) = = =
n(S) 50 50
390
EXAMPLE 9
The following Venn diagram shows two events, A and B, and the probability associated with
each region:
S
A B
x 0,2 0,3
0,4
(a) Calculate the value of x.
LE
(b) Determine
(1) P(A) (2) P(B)
(3) P(not A) (4) P(not B)
(5) P(A and B) (6) P(A or B)
(7) P(not(A and B)) (8) P(not(A or B))
(c) If n(A or B) = 24, calculate the value of

(1) n(S) (2) n(not A)
Solution
P
(a) x + 0,2 + 0,3 + 0,4 = 1
In a Venn diagram of probabilities, all the
∴ x = 1 − 0,2 − 0,3 − 0,4
separate probabilities always add up to 1.
M
∴ x = 0,1
(b) (1) P(A) = 0,1 + 0,2 = 0,3 (2) P( B) = 0,2 + 0,3 = 0,5
(3) P(not A) = 0,3 + 0,4 = 0,7 (4) P(not B) = 0,1 + 0,4 = 0,5
A
(5) P(A and B) = 0,2 (6) P(A or B) = 0,1 + 0,2 + 0,3 = 0,6
(7) P(not(A and B)) = 0,1 + 0,3 + 0,4 (8) P(not(A or B)) = 0,4
= 0,8
S
n(A or B) n(not A)
(c) (1) P(A or B) = (2) P(not A) =
n(S) n(S)
24 n(not A)
∴ 0,6 = ∴ 0,7 =
n(S) 40
∴ 0,6 ⋅ n(S) = 24 ∴ n(not A) = 0,7 × 40 = 28

24
∴ n(S) = = 40
0,6
391
EXERCISE 2
(a) For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h ; i ; j},

A = {a ; c ; d ; f ; h ; i} and B = {a ; b ; d ; f ; i}.
(1) Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Write down the following events in set form, listing all the outcomes in each
event:
(i) not A (ii) not B (iii) A and B
(iv) A or B (v) not(A and B) (vi) not(A or B)
(3) Determine
(i) n(A) (ii) P(not B) (iii) P(A and B)
(iv) n(not(A or B))
(b) A dodecahedral (12-sided) die, with faces marked 1 to 12, is rolled.
LE
Let X = {Multiples of 3}, Y = {Factors of 9} and Z = {Multiples of 5}.
(2) Determine
(i) n(X) (ii) P(Y) (iii) P(Z)
(iv) P(not X) (v) P(X and Y) (vi) P(Y and Z)
(vii) P(X or Y) (viii) n(X or Z) (ix) P(not(Y or Z))
(x) P(not(X and Z))
(c) The following Venn diagram shows how many Grade 10 learners in a certain school take
P
(or don’t take) the subjects Geography (G) and Accounting (A):
S
G A
M
10 30 20
90
(1) How many Grade 10 learners are there in the school?

A
(2) A learner is chosen at random from this group. Calculate

(i) P(A) (ii) n(not G) (iii) P(G and A)
(iv) n(G or A) (v) P(not(G and A)
(3) How many of these Grade 10 learners take neither Geography nor Accounting?
(4) What is the probability that a randomly chosen Grade 10 learner from this group
S
take at least one of these two subjects?

(d) In a survey, where 300 people were interviewed, it was found that 165 enjoy watching
Cricket, 45 enjoy watching both Cricket and Rugby and 40 don’t enjoy watching either of
these two sports. A person is randomly selected from all the people that participated in the
survey. Let C = {enjoys watching Cricket} and R = {enjoys watching Rugby}.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each
region.
(2) Calculate
(i) n(R) (ii) P(not R) (iii) P(C and R)
(iv) P(C or R) (v) n(not(C and R)) (vi) P(not(C or R))
392
(e) The following Venn diagram shows two events, A and B, and the probability associated
with each region:
S
A B
0,3 0,1 0,4
(1) Calculate the value of q.

(2) Determine
(i) P(A) (ii) P(B) (iii) P(not A)
(iv) P(not B) (v) P(A and B) (vi) P(A or B)
LE
(3) If n(A) = 12, calculate the value of
(i) n(A or B) (ii) n(not(A and B))
(f) If P( B) = 0,56, P(A and B) = 0,11 and P(A or B) = 0,79, calculate the value of
(1) P(A) (2) P(not(A and B)
(3) n(not(A or B)) if n(S) = 400.
(g) The following sketch shows a partially completed Venn diagram for events A and B:
P A B
S
0,15
M
0,04
It is also given that P(A and B) = x and P(A) = 3x.

(1) Fill in the probabilities of the missing regions in terms of x.
A

(3) Determine the value of
(i) P(A) (ii) P(B) (iii) P(not(A and B))
1
(h)* In the following Venn diagram, P( Y ) = and the probability represented by the shaded
2
S
2
region is :
3
S
X Y
(1) Determine P(X or Y).

(2) Determine P(X and Y) if n( X) = 21 and n( Y ) = 14.
393
PROBABILITY RULES
THE GENERAL RULE
The following rule is valid for any two events A and B:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B)
This rule is called the general rule of probability and is the most important formula in probability
theory. It is always valid.
Where does this rule come from?
LE
A B P(A) = a + x P(B) = x + b
a x b P(A and B) = x
P(A or B) = a + x + b
P
If we add P(A) and P(B), the intersection is included twice:
P(A) + P(B) = (a + x) + (x + b)
= a + 2x + b
M
If we subtract the intersection from the sum of P(A) and P(B), we get:
P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) = (a + 2x + b) − x
= a +x +b
= P(A or B)
A
The general rule can also be stated in terms of the number of outcomes instead of probability:
n(A or B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A and B)

S
THE RULE OF COMPLEMENTS
For any event A and its complement not A, the following applies:
P(A) + P(not A) = 1
∴ P(not A) = 1 − P(A) and P(A) = 1 − P(not A)
The two rules above can greatly simplify the process of calculating probabilities as illustrated in
the following examples:
394
EXAMPLE 10
If P(A) = 0,7, P( B) = 0,5 and P(A and B) = 0,4, calculate
(a) P(A or B) (b) P(not A)

(c) P(not(A or B))
Solution
(a) P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B) (b) P(not A) = 1 − P(A)

∴ P(A or B) = 0,7 + 0,5 − 0,4 = 0,8 ∴ P(not A) = 1 − 0,7 = 0,3
(c) P(not(A or B)) = 1 − P(A or B)

∴ P(not(A or B)) = 1 − 0,8 = 0,2
LE
EXAMPLE 11
Given two events, X and Y, such that P(not X) = 0,25, P( Y ) = 0,2 and P( X or Y ) = 0,8.
(a) Calculate
(1) P(X) (2) P(X and Y)
(b) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
probability of each region on the diagram.
Solution
P
(a) (1) P( X) = 1 − P(not X) = 1 − 0,25 = 0,75
M
(2) P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − P( X and Y )
∴ 0,8 = 0,75 + 0,2 − P( X and Y )
∴ P( X and Y ) = 0,75 + 0,2 − 0,8 = 0,15
(b) S
1 Start at the intersection
A
X Y
2 1 3 2 0,75 − 0,15 = 0,6

0,6 0,15 0,05
3 0,2 − 0,15 = 0,05
S
4
0,2 4 1 − 0,8 = 0,2
EXAMPLE 12
1 7 5
For two events M and N: P( M ) = , P( M or N ) = and P(not(M and N)) = .
2 10 6
(a) Calculate P(N).
(b) Draw a Venn diagram showing events M and N in the sample space. Indicate the
395
Solution
5 1
(a) P( M and N ) = 1 − P(not (M and N)) = 1 − =
6 6
P( M or N ) = P( M ) + P( N ) − P( M and N )
7 1 1
∴ = + P( N ) −
10 2 6
7 1 1 11
∴ P( N ) = − + =
10 2 6 30
(b) S
LE
M N
1 1 1
3 6 5
3
10
EXERCISE 3
P
(a) If A and B are two events, such that P(A) = 0,6, P( B) = 0,3 and P(A and B) = 0,2,
calculate
M
(1) P(A or B) (2) P(not A)
(3) P(not B) (4) P(not(A or B))
(b) X and Y are two events with P( X) = 0,5, P( Y ) = 0,6 and P( X or Y ) = 0,9.
(1) Calculate
A
(i) P(not Y) (ii) P(not(X or Y))

(iii) P(X and Y) (iv) P(not(X and Y)
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
S
(c) If P( M ) = 0,35, P( M and N ) = 0,2 and P( M or N ) = 0,85, calculate

(1) P(not M) (2) P(not N)
1 3 1
(d) Given two events, A and B, such that P(A) = , P(not B) = and P(A and B) = .
3 4 6
(1) Calculate
(i) P(B) (ii) P(A or B)
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
396
(e) Q and R are two events such that P(Q) = 0,5, P( R) = 0,3 and P(not(Q or R)) = 0,4.
(1) Calculate P(Q and R).
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events Q and R in the sample space. Indicate the
5 7 3
(f) Given P(not X) = , P( X or Y ) = and P(not(X and Y )) = .
8 8 4
(1) Calculate P(not Y).
(2) Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
(g) Two events, A and B, are such that P(A) = 5x, P( B) = 4x, P(not(A and B)) = 0,9 and
P(A or B) = 0,8.
LE
(1) Solve for x. (2) Calculate P(not B).
(h) Two events, X and Y, are such that P( X and Y ) = 0,3, P(not(X or Y)) = 0,1 and
P( Y ) = 2P( X). Calculate P(X).
(i) A smoke detector system in a large warehouse uses two devices, A and B. If smoke is
present, the probability that it will be detected by device A is 0,92 and the probability that
it will be detected by device B is 0,98. The probability that it will be detected by both
devices is 0,94. If smoke is present, what is the probability that the smoke will not be
detected?
P
(j) In a group of 50 people, 21 own a laptop and 25 own a tablet. 17 of these people don’t
own any one of these devices. How many of these people own
(1) at least one of these devices? (2) both these devices?
M
SPECIAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EVENTS
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

A
Mutually exclusive events are events that have no outcomes in common and therefore cannot
take place simultaneously. On a Venn diagram, mutually exclusive events are represented by
circles that don’t intersect:
S
S
A B
Mutually exclusive events have no intersection and therefore:
P(A and B) = 0
397
Remember that the general rule applies for any two events A and B:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)
Now, for mutually exclusive events:
P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − 0
and therefore: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
EXAMPLE 13
Two mutually exclusive events, A and B, are such that P(A) = 0,25 and P( B) = 0,45.
LE
(a) Write down the value of P(A and B).
(b) Calculate P(A or B).
(c) Draw a Venn diagram showing events A and B in the sample space. Indicate the
Solution
(a) 0
P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)

(b)
P
∴ P(A or B) = 0,25 + 0,45 − 0 = 0,7
(c) S
A B
M
0,25 0,45
0,3
A
EXAMPLE 14
For two events, X and Y: P( X or Y ) = 0,7 and P(not Y ) = 0,4.
Calculate P( X) if
S
(a) P( X and Y ) = 0,1.

(b) X and Y are mutually exclusive.
Solution
(a) P( Y ) = 1 − P(not (Y)) = 1 − 0,4 = 0,6 (b) P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − 0
P( X or Y ) = P( X) + P( Y ) − P( X and Y ) ∴ 0,7 = P( X) + 0,6

∴ 0,7 = P( X) + 0,6 − 0,1 ∴ P( X) = 0,1
∴ P( X) = 0,7 − 0,6 + 0,1 = 0,2
398
EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS
Exhaustive events are events which together cover the entire sample space:
A B
If two events, A and B, are exhaustive, their union is equal to the sample space, and therefore:
P(A or B) = 1
LE
COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS
Complementary events are events that are both mutually exclusive and exhaustive:
A B
P
If A and B are complementary, P(A and B) = 0 and P(A or B) = 1.
M
Combined with the general rule, P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B), this gives:
1 = P(A) + P( B) − 0
and therefore: P(A) + P(B) = 1

A
If A and B are complementary, then B = not A and so this gives us the familiar rule of
complements:
S
P(A) + P(not A) = 1
EXAMPLE 15
2
Two events, A and B, are complementary, with P(A) = .
7
(a) Write down the value of
(1) P(A and B) (2) P(A or B)
(b) Calculate P(B).
399
Solution
(a) (1) 0 (2) 1
(b) P(A) + P( B) = 1
2
∴ + P( B) = 1
7
2 5
∴ P( B) = 1 − =
7 7
EXAMPLE 16
For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g}. The following

events are defined:
LE
X = {a ; b ; c ; d} Y = {c ; d ; e ; f ; g} Z = {e ; f }

(b) Which pair(s) of these events (X, Y and Z) are
(1) mutually exclusive? (2) exhaustive?
Solution
(a) S (b) (1) X and Z

a
P
c e
f
Z (2) X and Y
X d g Y
b
M
EXAMPLE 17
For a certain experiment, the sample space is S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8}. The following

A
events are defined:

A = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5} B = {6 ; 7 ; 8} C = {2 ; 3 ; 4}

(b) Which pair(s) of these events (A, B and C) are
S
(1) mutually exclusive? (2) exhaustive? (3) complementary?
Solution
(a) S (b) (1) A and B

6 B and C
2 3
C (2) A and B
4 7
A B
1 5 8 (3) A and B
400
SUMMARY OF RULES
GENERAL RULE RULE OF COMPLEMENTS
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) P(A) + P(not A) = 1
P(A or B) = 1 P(A and B) = 0 ∴ P(not A) = 1 − P(A)

if exhaustive if mutually exclusive
Complementary events are both mutually exclusive and P(A) = 1 − P(not A)

and exhaustive.
LE
EXERCISE 4
(a) A and B are mutually exclusive events, with P(A) = 0,2 and P( B) = 0,4.
(1) Write down the value of P(A and B).
(2) Calculate P(A or B).
(b) For two mutually exclusive events, X and Y, P(not X) = 0,3 and P( X or Y ) = 0,8.
(1)
(2)
Calculate P(Y).
P
Draw a Venn diagram showing events X and Y in the sample space. Indicate the
1 1
(c) Two events, A and B, are such that P(A) = and P( B) = .
M
2 3
Calculate P(A or B) if
1
(1) P(A and B) = .
6
(2) A and B are mutually exclusive.
A
(d) Given P( M or N ) = 0,6 and P(not N ) = 0,65.

Calculate P(M) if
(1) M and N are mutually exclusive.
4
S
(2) P(not(M and N)) = .

5
(e) A and B are complementary events, with P(A) = 0,32. Calculate P(not B).
(f) Given two events, X and Y, such that P( X) = 0,3 and P( Y ) = 0,7.
Determine P(X and Y) if
(1) X and Y are complementary.
(2) P(not(X or Y)) = 0,2.
(g) If A and B are exhaustive events, such that P(A) = 0,7 and P( B) = 0,6, calculate
P(A and B).
401
(h) Consider the following Venn diagram, showing the outcomes in events M, N and T of an
experiment with sample space S:
S
M = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
f
a d
T
b g N = {d ; e ; f ; g ; h}
M N
e
c h
T = {a ; b}
(1) Which pair(s) of these events (M, N and T) are

(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive?
(2) Write down
(i) P(M and N) (ii) P(N and T)
LE
(iii) P(N or T) (iv) P(M or N)
(i) A six-sided die, with faces marked 1 to 6, is rolled. The number facing up is recorded.
The following events are defined:
A = {Odd numbers} B = {Even numbers} C = {Prime numbers} D = {4}
(2) Which pair(s) of these events (A, B, C and D) are
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive?
(3)
(iii)
P
complementary?
Write down
(i) P(A and C) (ii) P(A and B)
(iii) P(A or B) (iv) P(C or D)
M
(j) A traffic light shows green for 2 minutes, amber for 20 seconds and red for 100 seconds
and then it repeats the cycle. A motorist arrives at the traffic light at a random time.
R = {Light is RED} A = {Light is AMBER} G = {Light is GREEN}
L = {Legal to go} = {AMBER or GREEN}
U = {Unsafe to go} = {RED or AMBER}
A
(1) Calculate
(i) P(R) (ii) P(G)
(iii) P(L) (iv) P(U)
(2) Are the events L and R
S
(i) mutually exclusive? (ii) exhaustive? (iii) complementary?

(3) Are the events L and U
(4) Are the events R and G
(i) P(L or R) (ii) P(L and R)
(iii) P(L or U) (iv) P(R and G)
(6) Calculate
(i) P(R or G) (ii) P(L and U)
402
MORE ADVANCED INTERSECTIONS AND UNIONS
INTERSECTIONS
• A and (not B)
Also called ‘only A’
To find A and (not B):
A B A B
- Mark each region in A with
- Mark each region in (not B) with
- A and not B is the region with
both and
LE
• (not A) and B
Also called ‘only B’
To find (not A) and B:
A B A B
- Mark each region in not A with
- Mark each region in B with
- (not A) and B is the region with
both and
• (not A) and (not B)

P
Also called ‘not(A or B)’ or ‘neither A nor B’
To find (not A) and (not B):

B B
M
A A
- Mark each region in not B with
- (not A) and (not B) is the region
with both and
A
Summary of intersections
All the possible intersections divide the sample space into four separate regions:
S
S
A B
only A A and (not B) A and B (not A) and B only B
(not A) and (not B) neither A nor B
403
UNIONS
• A or (not B)
To find A or (not B):
A B A B
- Mark each region in A with
- Mark each region in (not B) with
- A or not B is the region with
either or or both
• (not A) or B
To find (not A) or B:
A B A B
LE
- Mark each region in B with
- (not A) or B is the region with
either or or both
• (not A) or (not B)
Also called ‘not (A and B)’ or ‘not both’
To find (not A) or (not B):
A
P
B A B
- Mark each region in not B with
- (not A) or (not B) is the region
with either or or both
M
EXAMPLE 18
If P(A) = 0,4, P(not B) = 0,45 and P(A and B) = 0,3, determine
(a) P(B) (b) P(A or B)

A
(c) P((not A) and B) (d) P(A or not B)

(e) P(only A) (f) P(not A or not B)
Solution
(a) P( B) = 1 − P(not B) (b) P(A or B) = P(A) + P( B) − P(A and B)

S
= 1 − 0,45 = 0,55 = 0,4 + 0,55 − 0,3 = 0,65
(c) not A B (d) A not B

S S
A B A B
0,1 0,3 0,25 0,1 0,3 0,25
0,35 0,35
P((not A) and B) = 0,25 P((A or not B) = 0,35 + 0,1 + 0,3 = 0,75

404
(e) The region only A is shaded (f) not A not B
S S
A B A B
0,1 0,3 0,25 0,1 0,3 0,25
0,35 0,35
P(only A) = 0,1 P((not A or not B) = 0,1 + 0,25 + 0,35 = 0,7
EXAMPLE 19
There are 150 learners in Grade 10 in Sunshine High School. 60 of these learners take History,
70 take Life Sciences and 65 take neither of these two subjects.
LE
(a) How many of these learners take
(1) at least one of these two subjects? (2) both these subjects?
(b) Draw a Venn diagram of this scenario, showing the number of outcomes in each
region.
(c) How many of the Grade 10 learners from Sunshine High School take exactly one of these
two subjects?
(d) Calculate the probability that a randomly chosen Grade 10 learner from Sunshine High
School
(1)
P
doesn’t take both these subjects. (2) takes History, but not Life Sciences.
Solution
(a) (1) n(At least one) = n(S) − n( Neither) = 150 − 65 = 85

M
(2) Let H = {Takes History} and L = {Takes Life Sciences}
n( H or L) = n(At least one) = 85
n( H or L) = n( H ) + n( L) − n( H and L)
∴ 85 = 60 + 70 − n( H and L)
A
∴ n( H and L) = 60 + 70 − 85 = 45
(b) S
H L
S
15 45 25
65
(c) n( Exactly one) = n(only H ) + n(only L) = 15 + 25 = 40

15 + 25 + 65 7 45 7
(d) (1) P(not both) = P(not (H and L)) = = (Alt: 1− = )
150 10 150 10
15 1
(2) P( H and not L) = =
150 10
405
EXERCISE 5
(a) A and B are two events with P(A) = 0,7, P( B) = 0,4 and P(A and B) = 0,3. Calculate
(1) P(not A) (2) P(A or B)
(3) P(A and (not B)) (4) P((not A) or B)
(5) P((not A) and (not B)) (6) P(only B)
(b) In a survey of 80 people, 70 indicated that they like ice cream (I), 58 that they like frozen
yoghurt (F) and 56 that they like both ice cream and frozen yoghurt.
(1) How many of these 80 people like
(i) at least one of these two desserts?
(ii) neither of these two desserts?
region.
LE
(3) Calculate the probability that a person chosen at random from this group likes
(i) frozen yoghurt, but not ice cream.
(ii) only ice cream.
(iii) exactly one of these two desserts.
(c) For a certain experiment:
• X = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e}
• not X = {f ; g ; h}
• X and Y = {d ; e}
(1)
P
• X or Y = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f }
Represent this information on a Venn diagram, showing the outcomes.
(2) Write the following events in set form, listing the outcomes in each event:
(i) (not X) and Y (ii) X or not Y
M
(iii) (not X) and (not Y) (iv) (not X) or (not Y)
(3) Determine
(i) n(X and not Y) (ii) P(Y or not X)
(d) M and N are two events with P(not M ) = 0,48, P( M and N ) = 0,4 and
P( M or N ) = 0,78. Calculate
A
(1) P(M) (2) P(N)

(3) P((not M) and N) (4) P(M or not N)
(5) P(only M) (6) P((not M) or (not N))
(e) If P( X) = 0,38, P( Y ) = 0,45 and P(not(X or Y)) = 0,4, calculate
S
(1) P(X and not Y) (2) P((not X) or Y)

(f) In a group of 200 people, 75 can speak Afrikaans (A), 160 can speak isiZulu (Z) and 175
can speak at least one of these two languages.
(1) How many of these people can speak both of these languages?
(2) Calculate the probability that a person chosen from this group at random can
speak
(i) neither Afrikaans nor isiZulu.
(ii) isiZulu, but not Afrikaans.
(iii) exactly one of these two languages.
(iv) at most one of these two languages.
406
(g) X and Y are two events with P( X) = 0,25, P(only Y ) = 0,2 and P( X and Y ) = 0,15.
Calculate
(1) P(only X) (2) P(X or Y)
(3) P(not(X or Y)) (4) P(Y)
(5) P(X or not Y) (6) P((not X) or (not Y))
(h) A and B are two events such that P(A and not B) = 0,3, P(A and B) = 0,21 and
P(A or B) = 0,93. Calculate
(1) P(only B) (2) P((not A) and (not B))
(3) P(B or not A) (4) P((not A) or (not B))
(5) P(A) (6) P(B)
(i) In a group of 60 teenagers,

• 10 can play the guitar (G) and the piano (P).
LE
• 12 can play the guitar, but not the piano.
• 30 can play neither the guitar nor the piano.
region.
(2) How many of these teenagers can play
(i) the piano?
(ii) exactly one of these instruments?
(3) Calculate the probability that a teenager chosen from this group at random can
play
(i)
P
only the piano.
(ii) at least one of these two instruments.
(j)* A and B are two events such that P( B or not A) = 0,8, P( B) = 0,5 and
M
P( B and not A) = 0,4.
(2) Determine
(i) P(not A) (ii) P(A or not B)
A
(a) A tetrahedral die with four faces, marked 1 to 4, is rolled. It lands with three of its
faces facing upwards. The outcome is obtained by adding the numbers on these three
S
faces. Event E is defined as E = {The result is greater than 6}.

(2) Write down event E in set form, listing all its outcomes.
(3) Calculate the probability of event E.
(4) The experiment is repeated 8 000 times and it is found that the result is greater
than 6 exactly 6 031 times.
(i) Calculate the relative frequency of event E for these 8 000 trials.
(ii) Does this outcome seem realistic? Explain.
(5) If the experiment is repeated 12 000 times, how many times would you expect
event E to take place?
407
(b) The sample space of an experiment is S = {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; f ; g ; h ; i ; j}.
X = {a ; f ; h ; j} and Y = {d ; f ; h ; i ; j}.
(1) Draw a Venn diagram of X and Y, in the sample space, showing
(i) outcomes (ii) numbers
(iii) probabilities
(2) Write the following events in set form, listing their outcomes:
(i) not X (ii) X and Y
(iii) X or Y (iv) not(X or Y)
(v) (not X) and Y (vi) (not X) or (not Y)
(i) P(X) (ii) n(not(X and Y))
(iii) n(X or (not Y)) (iv) P((not X) and (not Y))
LE
(4)* Suppose the experiment was done and it is known that event Y took place. What
is the probability that event X also took place?
(c) Two events, A and B, with P( B) = 0,5 are shown in the following Venn diagram of
probabilities:
S
A B
x ? y
P 0,4

(i) P(A or B) (ii) x
M
It is now given that y = 0,3.
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A)
(iii) P(A and not B) (iv) P((not A) and (not B))
(3) Determine
A
(i) P(B or not A) (ii) P((not A) or (not B))

(4) If n(S) = 20, determine the value of n(not(A or B)).
(d) Given two events, A and B, such that P(not A) = 0,4, P( B) = 0,51 and
P(A and B) = 0,21. Calculate
S
(1) P(not B) (2) P(A)

(3) P(A or B) (4) P(not(A or B))
(5) P((not A) and B) (6) P(A or not B)
(7) P((not A) and (not B)) (8) P((not A) or (not B))
(e) K and L are two events with P( K) = 0,4, P(not L) = 0,7 and P( K or L) = 0,47.
(1) Calculate
(i) P(K and L) (ii) P(only L)
(iii) P(K and not L) (iv) P((not K) or L)
(2) If n( K) = 120, determine the value of n(L).
408
(f) If P( X or Y ) = 0,75, P(not(X and Y)) = 0,95 and P( Y ) = 3P( X), calculate P(not X).
(g) Two events, A and B, are such that P(not A) = P(A or B) = 0,7. Calculate P(B) if
(1) P(A and B) = 0,15. (2) A and B are mutually exclusive.
(h) Given that P( M ) = 0,8. Calculate P(N) if

(1) M and N are complementary.
(2) M and N are exhaustive and P( M and N ) = 0,6.
(i) Of the Grade 10 learners in a certain school, 30% take Science, 50% take Accounting
and 40% take Maths Literacy. There are no learners that take both Science and Maths
Literacy. All learners take either Maths Literacy or Mathematics, but no learner takes
both. All learners take at least one of the two subjects — Mathematics and Accounting.
A learner is chosen randomly from the school. The following events are defined:
Sc = {The learner takes Science} A = {The learner takes Accounting}
LE
ML = {The learner takes Maths Literacy} M = {The learner takes Maths}
(1) From the events Sc, A, ML and M, list all the pairs that are
(i) mutually exclusive. (ii) exhaustive.
(iii) complementary.
(2) Determine P(Sc or ML).
(3) What is the probability that the selected learner takes
(i) Mathematics? (ii) both Accounting and Mathematics?
(4)*
P
Is it true that every learner who takes Maths Literacy takes Accounting as well?
Explain.
(5)* If it is known that the selected learner takes Accounting, what is the probability
that the learner takes Maths Literacy as well?
M
(j) Given two events, A and B, such that P( B and not A) = 0,27, P(only A) = 0,2 and
P(not(A or B)) = 0,4.
A
(i) P(A and B) (ii) P(A)

(iii) P((not A) or B) (iv) P(not(A and B))
(k) A group of 36 teenagers are asked about their use of the social media services Twitter and
Instagram. 19 indicated that they use Twitter and 9 that they use Instagram. A third of
S
these teenagers indicated that they use neither Twitter nor Instagram.
(1) How many of these 36 teenagers use

(i) at least one of these two social media services?
(ii) both Twitter and Instagram?
(2) Calculate the probability that a teenager chosen randomly from these 36 uses
(i) Twitter but not Instagram?
(ii) only Instagram?
(iii) exactly one of these two services?
(iv) at most one of these two services?
409
(l) The following diagram shows the sex of each of eight applicants (1 to 8) for a certain job
and their fields of study:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Economics Accounting Economics Accounting Economics Accounting Accounting Accounting
An applicant is chosen at random and the following events are defined:
F = {The applicant is female} M = {The applicant is male}

A = {The applicant studied Accounting} E = {The applicant studied Economics}
LE
(1) Calculate
(i) P(not M) (ii) P(M and A) (iii) P(M or A)
(2) If it is known that the chosen applicant studied Economics, what is the probability
that the applicant was Female?
(3) Draw a Venn diagram of outcomes showing only the events F and A. Indicate
the position of each of the applicants (1 to 8) on the Venn Diagram.
(4) Calculate
(i)
P
P(F and not A)
(iii) P((not F) and (not A))
(ii)
(iv)
P(A or not F)
P((not F) or (not A))
3 7
(m)* Given two events, X and Y, such that P( X or not Y ) = , P( Y ) = and
5 10
M
9
P( X or Y ) = . Calculate
10
(1) P(only Y) (2) P(X and Y)
(3) P(X and not Y) (4) P(X)
(5) P(Y or not X) (6) P((not X) or (not Y))
A
2
(n)* In a certain experiment, M = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4}, N = {5 ; 6} and P( M or N ) = .
3
(1) Calculate the values of P(M) and P(N).
1
(2) A third event Q is mutually exclusive with M as well as N and P( N or Q) = .
3
S
Calculate P(M or Q).

2 3
(o)* Two events, A and B, are such that P( B) = P(A), P(A or B) = and
5 5
P(A and B) = P(A) × P( B). Calculate P(A). Hint: Let P(A) = x.
(p)* Given that P(A) = 0,6. Explain why A and B cannot be

(1) mutually exclusive if P( B) = 0,5.
(2) exhaustive if P( B) = 0,3.
(3) complementary if P( B) = 0,7.
(4) complementary if P( B) = 0,2.
410
(q)* Draw a Venn diagram of two events A and B such that
(1) P(A and B) = P(A) (2) P(A or B) = P(A)
(3) P(A and (not B)) = P(A) (4) P(A or (not B)) = P(A)
(r)* A certain board game can either be won (W), lost (L) or drawn (D). The outcome of the
game is completely random and not based on skill. Lesego plays his opponent twice.
(2) What is the probability that Lesego will win at least one game?
(3) Suppose it is known that at least one game was a draw.
(ii) Taking this new information into account, what is the probability that
Lesego won a game?
(4) Suppose it is known that the first game was a draw. What is the probability that
Lesego won a game?
LE
(s)* Two dice are rolled. The result is recorded in the form (x ; y), where x represents the
number the first die lands on and y the number the second die lands on. The sample space
is as follows:
S = { (1 ; 1); (1 ; 2); (1 ; 3); (1 ; 4); (1 ; 5); (1 ; 6);
(2 ; 1); (2 ; 2); (2 ; 3); (2 ; 4); (2 ; 5); (2 ; 6);
(3 ; 1); (3 ; 2); (3 ; 3); (3 ; 4); (3 ; 5); (3 ; 6);
(4 ; 1); (4 ; 2); (4 ; 3); (4 ; 4); (4 ; 5); (4 ; 6);
(5 ; 1); (5 ; 2); (5 ; 3); (5 ; 4); (5 ; 5); (5 ; 6);
(6 ; 1); (6 ; 2); (6 ; 3); (6 ; 4); (6 ; 5); (6 ; 6) }
(1)
P
What is the probability that the sum of the numbers that the two dice land on will
be
(i) 2? (ii) 3?
(iii) 4? (iv) k if k ≤ 7 and k ∈ ℕ?
M
(v) 8? (vi) 9?
(vii) 10? (viii) k if k > 7 and k ∈ ℕ?
(2) If it is known that the sum of the numbers that the two dice landed on was 7, what
is the probability that the product of the two numbers was a factor of 12?
(t)* A dart is thrown at random onto square ABCD in the following sketch.
A
APRQ, LMCK and LXRY are squares. AP = 8 cm, PB = 2 cm and BM = 4 cm.

A P B
S
L X M
Q Y R
D K C
(1) Calculate the probability that the dart will land in

(i) square APRQ. (ii) square LXRY.
(2) Suppose that it is known that the dart landed in square APRQ. What is the
probability that it landed in square LMCK?
411
——————————————————————————————
Answers to Exercises
————————————————————————————————————————
CHAPTER ONE
EXERCISE 1
1
(b) (1) 16 ; 4 (2) 0 ; 16 ; 4 (3) −2 ; 16 ; 0 ; 4 (4) −2 : ; 16 ; 0 ; 4
4
1
(5) 3 (6) −2 ;
; 3; 16 ; 0 ; 4
4
(c) (1) Rational (2) Rational (3) Rational (4) Irrational
(5) Neither (6) Rational (7) Rational (8) Irrational
(9) Rational (10) Irrational (11) Rational (12) Neither
LE
(13) Irrational (14) Irrational (15) Rational (16) Rational
(e) (1) {x : − 5 ≤ x ≤ − 2 ; x ∈ ℤ} (2) {x : − 12 < x ≤ 12 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(3) {x : x ≤ 8 ; x ∈ ℝ} (4) {x : x > 10 ; x ∈ ℝ}
( 4 )
1
(g) (1) ( − 3 ; 9] (2) [ − π ; π) (3) ( − ∞ ; − 7] (4) 4 ;∞
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) 2 and 3 (2) 4 and 5 (3) 7 and 8 (4) 8 and 9
(5) −5 and −4
(9) −4 and −3
5
P(6) −7 and −6
(10) 3 and 4
27
(7) −13 and −12
(11) 15 and 16
29
(8) 1 and 2
(12) −1 and 0
122
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
9 99 90 9
215 422 3 093 585
(c) (1) (2) (3) − (4) −
M
999 90 990 90
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) 2x 2 − 8x (2) −8m 3 − 20m 4 + 12m (3) x 2 + 6x + 5
(4) 3x 2 + x − 2 (5) −6y 2 + 30x y − 36x 2 (6) = − 12x 2 − 44x y − 40y 2
(7) 5p 5 − 10p 2 q 2 + p 3q 4 − 2q 6 (8) −4b 5 + 8b 2 c 5 − 5b 3c 2 + 10c 7
A
3 11 2 7 1
(9) − y 2 + y 3 (10) a 2 + a+ (11) 2a 2 + a b − b2
2 6 3 12 2
(12) 2q 4 + r 2 q 2 + 8r −3q 2 + 4r −1
(b) (1) x 3 + x 2 − 2x + 12 (2) 2a 3 + 5a 2 b − 5a b 2 + b 3 (3) x 3 + y 3
(4) 27p 3 − 8q 3 (5) 5x 4 + 2x 2 y − 3x y 5 − 5x 3y − 2x y 2 + 3y 6
S
(6) x 6 + x 4 y 3 − 5x 2 y 6 + 3y 9
(c) (1) a 2 + 8a + 16 (2) x 2 − 6x + 9 (3) x 2 + 10x y + 25y 2
(4) 9p 2 − 36p q + 36q 2 (5) 8x 2 − 32x y + 32y 2 (6) −48x 4 y 3 + 144x 3y 4 − 108x 2 y 5
(7) 25a 2 + 200a b + 400b 2 (8) a 3 + 3a 2 + 3a + 1
x2 4
(9) 8x 3 − 12x 2 y + 6x y 2 − y 3 (10) = + x +4
9 3
1 2 2 4
(11) a − a b + b 2 (12) −16x 2 + 8x y − y 2
4 3 9
(d) (1) x 2 − 9 (2) 4x 2 − 49 (3) 16x 2 − 25y 2 (4) y 2 − x 2
1 9 2
(5) 49 − 4a 6 b 2 (6) − a 4 (7) 4y 2 − x (8) a 6 − b 6
4 16
412
(9) 32n − 1 (10) a 4x − 72y
(e) (1) 16 − a 4 (2) x 4 − 16y 4 (3) 16q 4 − 256r 4 (4) 9p 2 − 6p + 1 − q 2
(5) x 4 − 18x 2 y 2 + 81y 4 (6) 16x 4 − 72x 2 y 2 + 81y 4
(f) (1) x 4 − 2x 2 y 2 + y 4 (2) a 4 − 32a 2 b 2 + 256b 4 (3) 16a 4 − 72a 2 b 2 + 81b 4
(4) 6 561x 8 − 2 592x 4 y 4 + 256y 8
EXERCISE 4
(a) (1) x 3 + 8 (2) y 3 − 1 (3) 27x 3 − 1 (4) 8a 3 + 27
a3 1 3 1 3
(5) 27x 9 + 8y 6 (6) − 64 (7) x + y
64 125 27
(b) (1) a6 − b6 (2) p 6 + 128p 3 + 4 096 (3) x 6 − 64y 6
EXERCISE 5
(a) −3x 2 − 4x (b) 2x 2 − 5x + 3 (c) 8a 2 − 3a 3 − 5a (d) −6p 2 + 4p q + 2q 2
(e) −3a 2 + 3a − 13 (f) 2x 3 − 6x 2 + 2x + 6 (g) 5x 3 − 26x 2 + 55x − 1 (h) 3a 4 − 3a 2 b 2 + 3b 4
LE
(i) 2x 3 + 2x −7 (j) 6x 2 y + 12x y 2
EXERCISE 6
(a) (1) 3(3x + y) (2) x (x 2 + 2x − 3) (3) 4x (3x 2 − 1) (4) 3e f (3e − 4f )
(5) 3a (a − 3b + 4a b) (6) −3y (5y + 1) (7) −2n (m − 14m 2 + 3) (8) 8x 2 y 3(2x 2 y 5 − x y 4 − 3)
(9) 5a 2 b 2 c (5a + c 2 + 3b c) (10) π r (r + 2h) (11) 0,3p q (q 2 − 4q + 3)
1
(12) a (a − 2b + 3a b)
4
(b) (1) = (x − 2)(a + b)
(5) (2 − y)(4a + b)
(8) ( p + q)(q)
P
(2) (x + y)(c + 3)
(6) (b 3 − 4)(a − 1)
(9) 3(x − y)(2x − 2y − 1)
(3) (y + 3)(x − 2)
(7) (a − b)3[(a − b)4 + 2]
(4) ( p + q)(m − n)
(10) (x + y)(3x − 2y)

(11) (3d − 8e)(1 − 4q) (12) (m + 5n)( p − 1) (13) (y − 5)(x − 1) (14) (x + y)(2 − a)
(c) (1) (a − 1)(x − y) (2) 2(x − y)( p + q) (3) (3p + q)(x − y) (4) x (2y − z )(x + 1)
M
(5) 2e(d 3 + 2)(2e + 1) (6) 5a (b − c)(1 − 2a 2 + 3a) (7) (x − y)(x − 4y)
(8) 2m n (m − n)
EXERCISE 7
(a) (1) (m − n)(m + n) (2) (x − 2)(x + 2) (3) (2a − 1)(2a + 1) (4) (3y − 4)(3y + 4)
(5) (3x − 5y)(3x + 5y) (6) (1 − 3x y)(1 + 3x y) (7) (x 2 − 7)(x 2 + 7) (8) (a 5 − b 3)(a 5 + b 3)
A
(9) (5a 2 − 7b)(5a 2 + 7b) (10) (x − 3)(x + 3)(x 2 + 9)

(11) (y − 1)(y + 1)(y 2 + 1)(y 4 + 1) (12) ( p 2 − 2q)( p 2 + 2q)( p 4 + 4q 2 )
( 2 )( 2) (4 5 )( 4 5) ( )( y)
1 1 a2 b a2 b 3 3
(13) x− x+ (14) − + (15) x− x+
y
(b) (1) 3(x − 1)(x + 1) (2) 5(2 − y)(2 + y) (3) 4(x − 2y)(x + 2y) (4) a (a − 1)(a + 1)
S
(5) 2x (1 − 3x)(1 + 3x) (6) 2p q ( p − 2q)( p + 2q)

(7) −2x y 3(3x − 4y)(3x + 4y) (8) 3a b (a 3 − 3b)(a 3 + 3b)
1
(9) a b (2a − b)(2a + b)(4a 2 + b 2 ) (10) (x − 3)(x + 3)
2
( 2 )( 2)
q q 1
(11) 2 p − p+ (12) (4 − 3y)(4 + 3y) (13) (x − y)(a − b)(a + b)
3
(14) (a − 3)(x + 1)(x − 1) (15) (a − 3)(a + 3)(x − y)(x + y)
(c) (1) [(x − y) − 3][(x − y) + 3] (2) [2(a + 1) − 5][2(a + 1) + 5]
(3) = (7 − p + q)(7 + p − q) (4) (x + 5y)(11x − 5y) (5) (3b)(2a − b)
(6) (4x + 3)(8x − 9)
(d) (1) (x a − 1)(x a + 1) (2) (a m − b n )(a m + b n ) (3) (2 x − 32y )(2 x + 32y )(22 x + 34y )
413
EXERCISE 8
(a) (1) (x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4) (2) (y − 1)(y 2 + y + 1)
(3) (a − 3)(a 2 + 3a + 9) (4) (2x + 1)(4x 2 − 2x + 1)
(5) (a − 4b)(a 2 + 4a b + 16b 2 ) (6) (3p − 2q)(9p 2 + 6p q + 4q 2 )
(7) (1 + m n)(1 − m n + m 2 n 2 ) (8) −(x + y)(x 2 − x y + y 2 )
(9) ( p − 5)( p 2 + 5p + 25) (10) (a 2 + b)(a 4 − a 2 b + b 2 )
(11) (2x − 3y 3)(4x 2 + 6x y 3 + 9y 6 ) (12) (x − y)(x 2 + x y + y 2 )(x + y)(x 2 − x y + y 2 )
( )( 4) ( y )( y )
3 3x 9 1 12
(13) x+ x2 − + (14) y− y2 + 1 +
2 2
(2 y )( 4 y )
x 4 x 2 2x 16
(15) + − + 2
y
(b) (1) 8( p − q)( p 2 + p q + q 2 ) (2) 2(2 − x)(4 + 2x + x 2 )
(3) a (a + 1)(a 2
− a + 1) (4) 3a 2(a − 2)(a 2 + 2a + 4)
(5) 2m n (m + 2n)(m 2 − 2m n + 4n 2 )
2 (6) −p 3 n 6(2 − 3n)(4 + 6n + 9n 2 )
LE
(7) (b + 1)(a − 1)(a 2 + a + 1) (8) (y − 1)(y + 1)(x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4)
1
(9) (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x − y)(x + y) (10) (x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
2
( )( 9) ( )( 4)
1 1 1 1 3 3y 9
(11) 3 y + y2 − y + (12) y− y2 + +
3 3 3 2 2
(c) (1) (2x)(x 2 + 3y 2 ) (2) (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 4)
( )( 2 )
1 1
(d) (1) (a m + 1)(a 2m − a m + 1) (2) 2 x − 22 x + 1 + 2 x
2 x
EXERCISE 9
(a) (1) (x + 2)(x + 1)
P
(2) ( p − 3)( p − 5) (3) (a + 6)(a − 1) (4) (y + 4)(y − 5)
(5) (a + 3)(a + 3) (6) (n − 24)(n − 1) (7) (k − 8)(k + 2) (8) (b − 5)(b + 8)
(9) (y + 5)(y + 4) (10) (x − 8)(x + 3) (11) (c + 10)(c − 5) (12) (m − 5)(m − 5)
M
(b) (1) 3(x + 3)(x + 1) (2) −(x + 7)(x − 2) (3) −2(x − 11)(x + 1) (4) x (x − 9)(x − 4)
(5) 2x 2(x
− 7)(x + 5) (6) −3x y (x + 12)(x − 1) (7) 4(x + 4)(x + 3) (8) −x (x − 4)(x − 2)
(9) −2x (x + 11)(x − 2) (10) (a − b)(x − 4)(x + 1)
(11) (m + 6)(m − 1)( p − q)( p + q)
(c) (1) (a + b + 8)(a + b − 1) (2) (x − y − 5)(x − y − 2)
(3) (x + 5)(x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 1) (4) (x − 3)(x + 3)(x − 2)(x + 2)
A
2 2
(5) (x + 2)(x − 2x + 4)(x − 1)(x + x + 1) (6) (a − 6)(a + 1)(a − 3)(a − 2)
EXERCISE 10
(a) (1) (x + 1)(2x + 3) (2) (y − 2)(3y − 1) (3) (a + 1)(5a − 3) (4) (n − 2)(7n + 1)
(5) ( p − 7)(2p − 3) (6) (2t + 1)(3t + 4) (7) (m − 2)(10m − 3) (8) (3x − 2)(4x + 9)
(9) (4k + 3)(5k − 6) (10) (3x + 4)(7x + 4) (11) (5x − 2)(5x − 2) (12) (2y + 3)(9y − 8)
S
(13) 2(2a + 3)(4a − 3) (14) −( p − 1)(9p − 4) (15) −2x 2(x − 4)(4x + 1)

(16) −x y (3x − 2)(3x + 7)
(b) (1) (x + 2y)(x + 3y) (2) (a + b)(a − 6b) (3) (x − y)(2x + 3y) (4) (2p − 3q)(3p − 5q)
(5) 2(c − 3d )(3c − 2d ) (6) −(2a + 3b)(10a + 7b) (7) 3x (x + y)(11x − 8y)
(8) −n (m − 3n)(8m + 3n)
(c) (1) (x − 3)(x + 3)(2x − 1)(2x + 1) (2) (x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4)(2x − 1)(4x 2 + 2x + 1)
2 3 2
(3) (a − 2b )(3a + b ) 3 (4) ( p 2 + q 2 )(2p − q)(2p + q)
(5) (a − 2)(3a + 1)(a − 1)(3a − 2) (6) (x + 1)(2x + 3)(x + 4)(2x − 3)
EXERCISE 11
(a) (1) (x + y)(m + n) (2) (x − 1)(x 2 + 3) (3) (a − b)( p − q) (4) (y + 3)(2y 2 − 3)
(5) (x − 2y)(x + 2y)(2x + y) (6) 4(x − 1)(x + 1)(y − 2)
(7) (x + 1)(x 2 − x + 1)( p + 1) (8) = (m − 2)(m + 2)(n − 1)(n 2 + n + 1)
414
(9) (x + 3)(y + a) (10) (m − 2)(n − 1) (11) (a − 1)(a + 1)(x − y)
(12) (q − 2)(q + 2)( p + 1)( p 2 − p + 1)
(b) (1) (x − 2)(a + x + 2) (2) (x + 1)(y + x 2 − x + 1)
(3) (x + y)(x − y − 3) (4) (x − 3)(x 2 + 3x + 9 − x y − 3y)
(5) (x + 1 − y)(x + 1 + y) (6) (a − 3b − 3)(a − 3b + 3)
(7) (3m − 2n + 4)(3m + 2n − 4) (8) ( p − 2q − 3r)( p + 2q + 3r)
(c) (1) (a + 2)(x + y + z ) (2) (3a − 2b)(a − b 2 − c)
(3) (x − y)(x + y)( p − 3)( p + 3) (4) (x + 1)(x − 6 + y)
(5) (2a + 1)(2a b − b − 3a + 4) (6) (x 2 + x y + y 2 )(x − y − 1)
(7) (5x − 3)(x + 2)(x − y)(x 2 + x y + y 2 )
EXERCISE 12
(a) 2x 2 y (3x − 2y + 1) (b) (4x − 5y)(4x + 5y)
(c) (2x − 5)(4x 2 + 10x + 25) (d) (x + 4)(x + 9)
(e) (2x − 1)(7x − 5) (f) (2x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 1)
(g) 2(10x y − 1)(10x y + 1) (h) −2a b 2(2a − 3b)(2a + 3b)
(i) x (x + 6)(x − 7) (j) p (3p + q)(9p 2 − 3p q + q 2 )
LE
(k) 2x y (4x − 3y)(4x + 5y) (l) ( p − 3)(3x − 5)(4x − 3)
(m) (x + 2)(2x + 5) (n) (m − n)(m 2 + m n + n 2 )(m − 3n)(m + 3n)
(o) y (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(y + 1) (p) (2x − 5y − 2)(2x − 5y + 2)
1 1
(q) (x + 2)(x 2 − 2x + 4) (r) (x − 2)(x − 2)
2 2
1 1
(s) (x + 1)(4x − 21) (t) (5x − 4)(5x + 4)
6 5
(u) (y 2 + 1)(y − 4)(y + 4) (v) −(a + 1)(a 2 − a + 1)(3a − 1)(9a 2 + 3a + 1)
(w) −(x + 1)(2x − 3)(2x 2 − x + 3) (x) (x + 1)(5x − 6)(x − 1)(5x + 4)
EXERCISE 13
(a) (1) 2
P(2)
1
2
(3) 2m (4)
2
3p 2
x −3 n −3 x (x + 2)
(5) k + 2 (6) (7) (8)
2 n 3
2(1 − 2y) 1
M
(9) (10) x (11) (12) a 2 − a + 1
y2 q −3
1 m+4 1
(13) (14) (15) (16) −(x + 2y)
y −3 m −1 x −5
2a + 3 2x − 3y
(17) − (18) (19) −x (x + 2) (20) p
2a − 5 2x
(x − 2)(x + 2)
A
(21)
x −7
2x 2 a +1 n −3 x2
(b) (1) (2) (3) − (4) −
3(x + 1) a 2(n − 1) 2
(y + 2)(y + 2) 3m
(5) (6)
y2 2(5 − m)
S
EXERCISE 14
11x 7p − 8 6a − 5 3(m + 2n)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
15 12 10 2
2 y +4 2n 7x + 6
(e) (f) (g) (h)
x 4y m 10y
2a 2 + 1 2x + 3y 2 − p3 −5n 2 + 3m 2
(i) (j) (k) (l)
a2 x2 y p2 15m 2 n
a2 + b2 8 + x2
(m) (n)
3a 2 b 2 8x 3y
415
EXERCISE 15
x +2 1 9x 5
(a) (1) (2) (3) (4)
3(x − 1) x (x + 1) (x + 4)(x − 5) (3x + 2)(2x + 3)
1 −1 2 2x
(5) (6) (7) (8)
2(2x − 1) x (x 2 + 1) x (x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 2)
x x2 1 4x 2 + 7x − 1
(9) (10) (11) (12)
(x + 1)2 (x − 2)2 x2 10x (x + 1)2
1 3 1 1
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
x +1 (x − 3)(x + 3) x +2 x +2
1 3x + 1 −1 x +5
(5) (6) (7) (8)
2(x + 2) 6x (x + 1) x (x − 3)(2x + 1) x +2
2(x − 2) 1 x +3 3x 2 − 7x y − 10y 2
(9) (10) (11) (12)
x +3 2 (x + 1)2 6(x − 2y)2(x + 2y)
LE
EXERCISE 16
2x 2 + 2 −1 x +2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(x − 1)(x + 1) x +2 2x − 1 x −y
x x +2 y (x − 2y) 2x − y
(e) (f) (g) (h)
x −1 2x x 2x + y
3(x + 1) 3(x + 3)
(i) (j)
4(x + 2) x2
(c) (1) {x : x ≥ 4 ; x ∈ ℤ}
P
(3) {x : − 10 ≤ x ≤ − 7 ; x ∈ ℤ}
(2) {x : x ≤ − 5 ; x ∈ ℤ}
(4) {x : x ≥ 4 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(5) {x : x < 7 ; x ∈ ℝ} (6) {x : 3 < x ≤ 8 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(7) {x : − 4 ≤ x < 5 ; x ∈ ℝ} (8) {x : − 8 < x < − 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}
(d) (1) x ∈ [4 ; 16] (2) x ∈ (− 2 ; 12)
M
(3) x ∈ (− 3 ; 7] (4) x ∈ [− 20 ; − 5)
(4 )
1
(5) x ∈ (− ∞ ; − 10] (6) x ∈ ;∞
(e) (1) 4 and 5 (2) −5 and −4 (3) 2 and 3 (4) 18 and 19
8 64 23 573
(f) (1) (2) (3) (4)
9 99 90 90
123 778 883 5074
A
(5) (6) (7) − (8)

999 90 90 990
(g) 3 2
(1) −2p q + 4p q 3 6 3 2
(2) 6x − 19x y + 10y 4
(3) 4a 2 + 12a b + 9b 2 (4) −3x 3 + 15x 2 − 12x

(5) 2x 3 − 20x 2 + 50x (6) 2x 3 − 7x 2 − 22x + 20
(7) x 3 + 27 (8) x 3 − 4x 2 + x + 6
S
(9) x 3 − 6x 2 + 12x − 8 (10) x 4 + 4x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x − 4

(11) x 2 − y 2 + 2y − 1 (12) x 2 − 2x y + y 2 + 2x − 2y + 1
43 1 4 9
(13) 2x 2 − x y + y2 (14) x 2 − 2x y + y 2
36 6 9 4
2 4 3 3 1
(15) x − (16) x + 3x + +
x2 x x3
(17) 6x 2 − 6x + 2 (18) 2x 3 − 8x 2 − x + 1
(19) x 8 − 2x 4 y 4 + y 8 (20) x 6 − 64
(21) 22n − 32n (22) 33n − 1
(23) x 2m − 2x m y 2m − 3y 4m (24) x 2a − 2 + x −2a
(h) (1) 2x 2 y 2(4x − 3y + 1) (2) 3x (x − 3)(x + 3)
(3) (x − 3)(x − 1) (4) −x (x − 3)(x + 1)
416
1
(5) (3a + 4)(2a + 3) (6) (3y + 4)(2y − 1)
6
(7) (6x + 7y)(2x − 3y) (8) −(5x − 8y)(3x − y)
(9) (x + 3)(x 2 − 3x + 9) (10) 3y (2x − 3y)(4x 2 + 6x y + 9y 2 )
1
(11) (3 + 2x)(9 − 6x + 4x 2 ) (12) (2a − 1)(22a + 2a + 1)
2
(13) (x − 2y)(x + 2y)(x 2 + 4y 2 ) (14) (2x − 3y)(2x + 3y)(x − y)(x + y)
(15) (x − 6)(x − 1)(x − 8)(x + 1) (16) (x − 3y)(x 2 + 3x y + 9y 2 )(x − y)(x 2 + x y + y 2 )
(17) ( p − 1)(x + 4)(x − 1) (18) (x − y)(x + y)(a − 3)(a + 3)
(19) (a − 1)(a + 1)(a + 1) (20) (a + b)(a 2 − a b + b 2 + a − b)
(21) (2x − 1)(2x − 1 + 2a x + a) (22) (y − 3 − x)(y − 3 + x)
(23) (1 − p − 2q)(1 + p + 2q) (24) (x − 1)(a x − a + b x + b)
(25) (1 − x)(a + 2b − c) (26) (x + 3)(a − x + 3)(a + x − 3)
x +3 x +3
(i) (1) (2) −(x + 3)(x + 1) (3) (4) x − 1
x 3x 3
2y 2 + 1 16x 16
(5) (6) (7)
LE
6y 2 (x − 2)(x + 2)(x 2 + 4) (x − 2)(x + 2)2
1 −2 2x + 3 x (x − 5y)
(8) (9) (10) (11)
(x − 2) x 1 − 2x y
−(2x + 1)
(12)
(3x + 2)
(j) (1) 23 (2) 110 (3) 21 (4) 5 21
(k) (1) −2 (2) 20 (3) 12 (4) 16 12
(l) (1) b ; a ; c (2) c ; a ; b
(m) 42
(n) 107
P CHAPTER TWO
EXERCISE 1
(a) x =−5 (b) x =−5 (c) x =5 (d) x =−1
M
(e) x =1 (f) x =1 (g) x =−3 (h) x =3
(i) x = − 24 (j) x =7 (k) x =−3 (l) x =5
1
(m) x = (n) x =8
2
EXERCISE 2
2
(a) (1) x = 0 or x = − 2 (2) x = 0 or x = −
A
3
3 3
(3) x = or x = − (4) x = 2 or x = − 2
2 2
1 1
(5) x = 0 or x = 6 or x = − 6 (6) x = 0 or x = or x = −
2 2
(7) x = 2 or x = − 2 (8) x = ± 2,24
(b) (1) x = − 3 or x = 1 (2) x = 3 or x = 4
S
(3) x = 3 or x = − 2 (4) x = 4 or x = − 2
9 1
(5) x = or x = − 1 (6) x = −
2 2
1 5 3 3
(7) x = − or x = − (8) x = − or x =
3 2 2 4
1 5
(9) x = or x = − 2 (10) x = or x = − 2
3 2
7
(11) x = or x = − 1 (12) x = 0 or x = 6 or x = − 3
5
17 1
(c) (1) x = 0 or x = 7 (2) x = 5 (3) x = 0 or x = (4) x = or x = 8
2 3
417
EXERCISE 3
1 1
(a) (1) x = 4 (2) x = (3) x = (4) x = 1
4 4
2
(5) x = 9 (6) x = 1 (7) x = − (8) x = 5
3
(b) (1) x = 4 or x = 1 (2) x = 0 or x = 2 (3) x = 0 or x = 8 (4) x = 2 or x = − 1
(5) x = 4 (6) x = 13 or x = − 1 (7) x = 0 or x = 2 (8) x = 3
1
(9) x = − 3 or x = 2 (10) x = − or x = 5 (11) x = 1 (12) x = − 3
2
EXERCISE 4
(a) x = 4;y =3 (b) x = 1 ; y = 2 (c) x = 5 ; y = − 2 (d) x =3;y =2
(e) x =3;y =1 (f) x =3;y =5 (g) x = 5 ; y = 4 (h) x =−2;y = 4
(i) x =1;y =−2 (j) x = − 2 ; y = 2 (k) x = − 1 ; y = 3 (l) x =3;y =2
(m) x =2;y =−1 (n) x =2;y =2
EXERCISE 5
LE
(a) (1) x =−3;y =5 (2) x = 4 ; y = − 3 (3) x = − 3 ; y = − 2 (4) x = − 1 ; y = 2
(5) x = 4;y =−2 (6) x = − 3 ; y = − 2 (7) x = − 4 ; y = 5 (8) x = − 3 ; y = 1
(9) x =2;y =9 (10) x = − 2 ; y = − 2
(b) (1) x = 25 ; y = 1 (2) x = 4 ; y = 6 (3) x = 2 ; y = − 5 (4) x = 6 ; y = 2
(5) x =−8;y = 4 (6) x = 4 ; y = 2 (7) x = 4 ; y = − 1
EXERCISE 6
2A A 3 3V A − π r2
(a) (1) b = (2) r = ± (3) r = (4) s =
h π 4π πr
2 A − bh a F3 − g
(5) v = ± 2m u − a (6) a = (7) t = (8) m = r ( E − 2)2
(9) u =
a − sa
P
(10) r = ±
h
Gm M
2
s F
−b 2b 9b 2
(b) (1) x = (2) x = (3) x = ± (4) x = ± a b
M
2a − c c + 3a a
4c c a b
(5) x = − 2b or x = − b (6) x = or x = − (7) x = 2b or x = − a (8) x = − or x =
3 2 3 3
b 3
(9) x = or x = − (10) x = 2(a − b)
a a
2
2b − a b 3a a 3 − 2c
(c) (1) x = (2) x = (3) x = (4) x =
a2 ab − 1 6 + 2a b 16c
A
2a b 2b − a −a − 2b −a b − a
(5) x = (6) x = (7) x = (8) x =
3b − a 1 + 2c a −b a −b
(9) x = − (a − 5) (10) x = − 6a
v −u
(d) (1) t = (2) t = 20 s
a
( )
S
P
100 A − 1
(e) (1) r = (2) r = 40 %
n
EXERCISE 7
(a) (1) x ≥ 3 (2) x < 9 (3) x > − 2 (4) x ≤ 6
(5) x > − 1 (6) x ≤ − 3 (7) x < 8 (8) x ≥ − 8
(b) (1) x < 12 (2) x ≥ 12 (3) x ≤ 5 (4) x > 3
2
(5) x > (6) x ≤ − 5
3
(c) (1) −1 ≤ x ≤ 2 (2) 1 < x < 4 (3) −1 ≤ x < 5 (4) 6 < x ≤ 10
(5) −1 < x ≤ 2 (6) −3 ≤ x ≤ 2 (7) −4 < x < 2 (8) −3 ≤ x < 6
7 5
(9) − ≤ x < (10) −4 ≤ x ≤ 11
3 3
418
EXERCISE 8
(a) 13 ; 15 ; 17 (b) 4 years ; 20 years (c) 20 years (d) R1 950,00
(e) 18 (f) 24 km (g) 6 m/s (h) 25 and 75
(i) 300 cm2 (j) 47

(a) (1) x = − 5 (2) x = 5 (3) x = 2 (4) x = 2
3
(5) x = 4 (6) x = 3 (7) x = (8) x = − 2
2
9
(b) (1) x = 0 or x = (2) x = − 5 or x = 5 (3) x = 7 or x = − 2 (4) x = − 6 or x = 2
4
3 4 5 1
(5) x = or x = 1 (6) x = or x = − (7) x = 4 or x = 2 (8) x = − or x = 1
2 3 2 2
(c) (1) x = 3 (2) x = − 1 (3) x = − 3 (4) x = 5
−9
(5) x = 1 (6) x = − 5 or x = 4 (7) x = − 2 (8) x = or x = 1
5
(9) x = − 4 or x = 2 (10) x = 0 or x = 3 (11) x = 0
LE
(d) (1) x = − 5 ; y = − 10 (2) x = 0 ; y = 1 (3) x = 3 ; y = − 4 (4) x = 0 ; y = − 3
(5) x = 8 ; y = 15 (6) x = 1 ; y = − 1 (7) x = 4 ; y = 3 (8) x = 9 ; y = 1
1 1 1
(9) x = ; y = (10) x = ; y = − 1
4 2 3
2A − bh Eg av
(e) (1) a = (2) r = ± (3) t = m (T − 1)3 − c (4) s =
h m (v − a)
a −b
(f) (1) x = b − 1 (2) x = ± b c (3) x = (4) x = − 5b or x = 2b
4
8a b 3a + b c −2a − b a (b − 2)
(5) x = (6) x = (7) x = (8) x =
a +b c −3 a −b −2a − b
(g) (1) x ≥ 6
(5) x ≤ 5
P
(2) x ≥ −
(6) x ≤ − 3
1
2
(3) x > − 5 (4) x > − 3
(h) (1) −3 < x ≤ 2 (2) 1 ≤ x < 3 (3) −2 ≤ x < 2 (4) −2 ≤ x ≤ 3

(5) −1 ≤ x < 7 (6) −4 ≤ x < 8
M
(i) 16 ; 18 ; 20
(j) 11 years
(k) R18,00
(l) 2,8 km
(m) 4 cm
CHAPTER THREE
A
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) x 10 (2) 2x 5 + 1 (3) 6x 6 (4) 5x 3
(5) −20a 9 (6) −15m 3 n 7 (7) 6x 5 y 6 (8) 3p 4
x4 3q p
(9) − (10) (11) (12) 8x 6
2y 4 4r 3 4q 2
S
(13) 9x 2 y 10 (14) −24x 9 y 6 (15) x 6 (16) 4

9m 3 2b 3 8x 6
(17) (18) (19) −2a 6 b 4 (20)
2n 7 3a y3
27
(21) (22) 5a 3 (23) 4a 2 + 4a b + b 2 (24) 4
a
8
(b) (1) 1 (2) 52m (3) 5 (4)
3
1
(5) (6) 1
4
419
EXERCISE 2
1 8 3
(a) (1) (2) m 2 (3) (4)
x2 m3 a3
x5 1 3
(5) (6) −5p 2 (7) (8)
3 4a 3 −2x 3y
−5a 3b 4 a 5 3a 3b
(9) (10) (11) (12)
3 128 2p 5 4c 3
4b 12 y x
(13) (14) (15) −
9a 10 2x 2
1 9
(b) (1) 4 (2) (3)
5 4
p y −x
(c) (1) −a b (2) (3) (4) p 2 + q 2
q xy
EXERCISE 3
1 1 4
(a) 4 (b) (c) (d)
27 25 9
LE
27 7 1
(e) (f) (g) 24 (h)
25 16 121
5 7 1
(i) (j) 4 (k) (l)
243 3 18
1 1
(m) (n) (o) 5
9 4
EXERCISE 4
2
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 1 (d)
3
(e) 12
(i) 4
P
(f)
1
8
(j) 4
(g) −8
(k) 3
(h)
1
5
(l) 31
3 1
(m) (n) −8 (o) −
5 3
M
EXERCISE 5
(a) 7x (b) 3x − 5 (c) 3x − 3 (d) 2 x + 1
(e) 2 x (f) 3x + 4 (g) 2 x − 1 (h) 2 x − 5
1 2x − 1
(i) (j) −11x (k) −5x − 4 (l)
3x −3 −(2x + 3)
3x − 1
(m) 5n+1 − 3 (n) (o) 3x − 5 (p) 2a − 3b
3x + 3
A
(q) −(22a + 3b ) (r) 22m − 2m ⋅ 3n + 32n
EXERCISE 6
(a) (1) c =3 (2) x = 4 (3) x = − 2 (4) x = − 1
(5) x =1 (6) x = 1 (7) x = 1 (8) x = 2
(9) x =2 (10) x = 5 (11) x = 2 (12) x = − 1
S
(b) (1) x =3 (2) x = 1 (3) x = 2 (4) x = 3

(5) x =−2 (6) x = 2 (7) x = 2 (8) x = 3
3
(9) x = 1 (10) m =
2
EXERCISE 7
(a) x = 1 or x = 0 (b) x = 2 (c) x = 1 (d) x = 0
(e) x = 3 or x = 1 (f) x = 2 (g) x = − 1 or x = 0 (h) x = − 1 or x = 1
(i) x = 2 or x = 1 (j) x = − 1 or x = 2
EXERCISE 8
1 1
(a) (1) 5 (2) 4 (3) (4)
2 125
420
1 27 27 2
(5) (6) (7) (8)
3 64 8 5
1 1 10 8
(9) (10) (11) (12)
5 32 3 27
2 24
(13) (14) 27 (15) 18 (16)
3 7
9 l8 5p 7
(b) (1) 4x 8 y 4 (2) (3) (4)
x6 7k 2 q2
125x 9 3b
(5) (6) (7) m 2 (8) 2a 4
343y 3 2a 2
1
(9) (10) 1 (11) 2 x ⋅ 3 (12) 2
x
1 1
(13) a + 1 (14) a 3 − (15) a +
a a
1 1 1 1
(c) (1) x 4 − 1 (2) x 3 − 1 (3) x 5 − 1 (4) x 2 + 3
1 1 1
(5) −(x 4 − 3) (6) x 3 + 2x 6 + 4
LE
EXERCISE 9
1 8 9
(a) (1) x = 4 (2) x = (3) x = (4) x =
49 27 4
9 1
(5) x = (6) x = 4 (7) x = 8 (8) x =
4 8
1 1
(9) x = (10) x = 16 (11) x = 27 (12) x =
32 32
25
(13) x = (14) x = 16 (15) x = 25
4
(b) (1) x = 27 or x = 1
(5) x =
1
16
or x =
1
9
P
(2) x = 16 or x = 1
(6) x =
1
27
or x = 1
(3) x = 36 or x = 1
(7) x = 4
(4) x = 27 or x = 8
(8) x = 6

3x 4 −27a 3
M
(a) (1) 12a 8 b 6 (2) (3) 4x 2 y 6 (4)
y2 b6
(5) 3x 2 y − 3x y 3 (6) 3x y + 2x y 2 (7) 2x (8) x + 4
2 −2x y 2 3y 2 9
(9) (10) (11) (12)
−3x y 2 3 2x 4x 2 y 4
18m 2a 5 −128 2x
(13) (14) (15) (16)
n3 −3b 5c 3 a6 3y 4
A
b6 −4m
(17) 625 (18) (19) (20) x 3
−8a 15 n2
−a b
(21) (22) −(x − 4)
a +b
2 5
(b) (1) 4 (2) (3) (4) 12
S
3 8
1
(5) (6) 15 (7) −4 (8) 12
15
(9) 9 (10) 8 (11) 4 (12) 3(3a − 1)
(13) 7a − 3 (14) −(3x − 5) (15) 3x+1 (16) 53a
(17) 22p − 0,1 (18) 3x − 2 y
4
(c) (1) x = (2) x = 1 (3) x = 2 (4) x = 2
3
3
(5) x = 0 or x = 4 (6) x = − (7) x = − 1 (8) x = 2
2
(9) x = − 17 (10) x = 1 (11) x = 15 (12) x = 1
(13) x = 3 (14) x = 2 (15) x = 3 (16) x = 1
(17) x = 1 or x = 0 (18) x = 0 or x = 1
421
11 16 1
(d) (1) 33 (2) (3) (4)
4 9 8
27
(5) (6) 4
8
4b 4 y3 8y 6
(e) (1) (2) (3) (4) x
a2 64x 2 x3
(5) −4x 2 (6) 3 (7) 3x 2 − 6 (8) x − 1
1 1 1 2 1
(9) x + 2 + (10) −2(2x 3 + 1) (11) x2 −1 (12) a 3 − a 3 + 1
x
1 1 4
(f) (1) x = 4 (2) x = (3) x = (4) x =
9 16 9
1 2 1
(5) x = (6) x = − (7) x = 125 or x = 8 (8) x = or x = 81
4 5 16
(9) x = 4
(g) (1) l = 2 x + 5 (2) P = 4 ⋅ 2 x + 12
9
(h) (1) 5k (2) k 2 (3) k 3 (4)
k2
LE
k 1
(5) (6) (7) k 3
25 k4
(i) (1) x = 0 and y = − 2
(j) x = 2a b
b2
(k) (1) a =
c −b
1 24
(l) (1) (2) 4 (3)
250 125
(m) (1) 2999 (2) 3299 (3) 2299
(n) 32 000 > 23 000
(o)
(p)
1
32 > 2 3
1+2+5=8
2
P
CHAPTER FOUR
M
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) T5 = 23 and T6 = 28 (2) T5 = 88 and T6 = 85 (3) T5 = − 6 and T6 = − 8
1
(4) T5 = 2,7 and T6 = 2,9 (5) T5 = 6 and T6 = 5 (6) t3 = 7x + 15y and T4 = 9x + 19y
4
(b) (1) Tn = 2n + 3 (2) Tn = 5n + 4 (3) Tn = − 4 + 25
(4) Tn = − 10n + 56 (5) Tn = 180n − 90 (6) Tn = 4n − 6
(7) Tn = − 3n + 2 (8) Tn = 7n − 18 (9) Tn = 0,3n + 4,3
A
1
(10) T10 = − n + 5
2
(c) (1) T5 = 31 and T6 = 37 (2) Tn = 6n + 1 (3) T25 = 151
(4) T43 = 259 (5) T67
(d) (1) T4 = − 7 and T5 = − 12 (2) Tn = − 5n + 13 (3) T30 = − 137
(4) T101 = − 492
S
(e) (1) T2 = 7 (2) Tn = 3n + 1

(f) T2 = 9 and T3 = 13
(g) (1) Tn = − 3n + 113 (2) T1 = 110 ; T2 = 107 ; T3 = 104
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) x = 18 (2) Tn = 14n − 10
3
(b) x =−
2
(c) (1) x = 2 (2) T1 = 5 ; T2 = 8 ; T3 = 11 (3) T4 = 14
(d) (1) x = 3 and Constant difference =4 (2) Tn = 4n − 18
(3) T55
(e) (1) T5 = 6 + 4x (2) T100 = 99x + 6
(3) x = 3
422
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) T4 = 35m (2) Tn = 10n − 5
(b) (1) T5 = R 230 (2) Tn = 20n + 130 (3) T20 = R530
(4) T30 = R730
(c) (1)(i) 720∘ (ii) 900∘ (iii) 1080∘
(2) 3 240∘
(d) (1)(i) T4 = 9 (ii) T5 = 11
(2) Tn = 2n + 1
(3) T10 = 21
(4) 35
(e) (1) 5 ; 9 ; 13 ; … (2) Tn = 4n + 1 (3) T15 = 61
(4) Figure 24
(f) (1) 12 chairs (2) Tn = 2n + 2 (3) 24 tables

(a) (1) T3 = 4 and T4 = 8 ; Tn = 4n − 8
(2) T3 = 15 and T5 = 29 ; Tn = 7n − 6
LE
(3) T1 = 21 and T4 = 9 ; Tn = − 4n + 25
(4) T2 = 44 and T4 = 28 ; Tn = − 8n + 60
(5) T2 = 16 and T3 = 21 ; Tn = 5n + 6
(6) T2 = 22 ; T3 = 19 and T4 = 16 ; Tn = − 3n + 28
(b) (1) Tn = 7n + 3 (2) T12 = 87 (3) T32 = 227
(4) T43
(c) (1) T6 = − 17 (2) Tn = − 4n + 7 (3) T21 = − 77
(4) 26
(d) (1) T4 = 11 (2) Tn = − 3n + 23 (3) 42
(4) T8
(e)
(f)
(1) x = 6
(1) x = 5
P (2) 8 ; 24 ; 40 ; …
(2) 5
(3) T1 = − 41 ; T2 = − 36 ; T3 = − 31
(3) Tn = 16n − 8
(g) (1) T4 = 5x + 7 (2) Tn = (x + 2)n + (x − 1) (3) x = 5

(4) n = 20
(h) (1) Tn = 3n + 2 (2) T20 = 62 cm (3) 35 years
M
(i) (1) T4 = 2 023 and T5 = 2 026 (2) Tn = 3n + 2 011 (3) 2 056
(4) No
(j) (1) (i) 17 (ii) 21 (iii) 25
(2) Tn = 4n + 1 (3) 93 (4) 45
(k) (1) 17 (2) Tn = 3n + 2 (3) 302
(4) Figure 25
(l) (1) Third (2) 47 (3) 20
A
(4) 79
(m) (1) 557 (2) u
(n) (1)(i) 1 3 5 7 9 11 (ii) n 2 (2)(i) 21 23 25 27 29 31
(ii) n 3 (3)(i) 1 5 10 10 5 1 (ii) 2n−1
CHAPTER FIVE
S
EXERCISE 1
5
(a) (1)(i) 1 (ii) 8 (iii) 6 (2)(i) −15 (ii) 13 (iii)
2
(b) (1)(i) 2 (ii) −20 (iii) −7 (2)(i) 5 (ii) −4 (iii) 16
(c) (1) x ∈ ℝ (2) y ∈ ℝ (3) a = 9 (4) b = 3
(d) (1) x ∈ ℝ ; y ≥ 0 (2) a = 2 (3) b = 2
(e) (1) x ≤ 0 ; y ≥ 0 (2) a = 3 (3) x = − 25
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) Graph passes through: (2) Graph passes through:
(0 ; 0) and (1 ; 2) (0 ; 0) and (1 ; − 4)
423
(3) Graph passes through: (4) Graph passes through:
(0 ; 0) and (3 ; 1) (0 ; 0) and (2 ; − 1)
(5) Graph passes through: (6) Graph passes through
(0 ; 0) and (2 ; − 3) (0 ; 0) and (5 ; 2)
(b) (1) Intercepts: y = 4 ; x = − 2 (2) Intercepts: y = − 5 ; x = − 5
(3) Intercepts: y = − 3 ; x = 6 (4) Intercepts: y = 5 ; x = 1
1 1
(7) Intercepts: y = − ; x = (8) Intercepts: y = − 6 ; x = − 4
2 2
(9) Intercepts: y = 8 ; x = − 6
(c) (1) Vertical line at x = 5 (2) Horizontal line at y = − 3
(3) Horizontal line at y = 4 (4) Vertical line at x = − 6
3
(5) Horizontal line at y = (6) Vertical line at x = − 2
2
(d) (1) Intercepts: y = − 2 ; x = 4 (2) Intercepts: y = 6 ; x = 10
(5) Horizontal line at y = 4 (6) Vertical line at x = 2
LE
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) y = − x + 1 (2) y = 2x + 1 (3) y = 2
1
(4) y = − 5x (5) y = − x − 3 (6) x = − 5
2
1
(7) y = x (8) y = 3x − 9 (9) x = 4
3
(10) y = − 1
(b) (1) x ∈ ℝ ; y ∈ ℝ (2)(i) A(0 ; 6) (ii) B(0 ; − 4)
(3 )
4
(iii) C ;0 (iv) D(3 ; 0) (3) (2 ; 2)
1
(c) (1)(i) f (x) = 2x − 6
(3) y ∈ ℝ
P (ii) g (x) = −
2
(4)(i) A(−2 ; 0)
x −1 (2) x ∈ ℝ
(ii) B(0 ; − 1)
(iii) C(2 ; − 2)
EXERCISE 4
M
(a) (1) Positive orientation (2) Positive orientation
Turning point: (0 ; 0) Turning point: (0 ; 0)
( 3)
1
Point on graph: (1 ; 2) Point on graph: 1;
(3) Positive orientation (4) Negative orientation
Point on graph: (1 ; 4) Point on graph: (1 ; − 3)
A
(5) Negative orientation (6) Negative orientation

Point on graph: (2 ; − 1) Point on graph: (1 ; − 6)
(b) (1) Positive orientation (2) Positive orientation
Point on graph: (1 ; 2) Point on graph: (2 ; 6)
S
Turning point: (0 ; 4) Turning point: (0 ; − 1)

Turning point: (0 ; − 5) Turning point: (0 ; − 2)
Point on graph: (1 ; − 7) Point on graph: (2 ; − 4)
(c) (1) Positive orientation (2) Negative orientation
Turning point: (0 ; − 1) Turning point: (0 ; 4)
x − intercepts: − 1 ; 1 x − intercepts: − 2 ; 2
(3) Negative orientation (4) Positive orientation
(5) Positive orientation (6) Positive orientation
Turning point: (0 ; − 12) Turning point: (0 ; − 1)
1 1
x − intercepts: − 2 ; 2 x − intercepts: − ;
2 2
424
1 1
x − intercepts: − ; x − intercepts: − 3 ; 3
3 3
( 4)
9
Turning point: (0 ; 8) Turning point: 0;
(d) (1) Positive orientation (2) Negative orientation
Turning point below x − axis Turning point below x − axis
Two x − intercepts: No x − intercepts
(3) Negative orientation
Turning point below x − axis
Two x − intercepts
LE
EXERCISE 5
(a) (1) y = 2x 2 + 3 (2) y = − x 2 − 1 (3) y = x 2 − 4
9
(4) y = − 2x 2 + 32 (5) y = x 2 (6) y = 2x 2 − 18
2
(7) y = − 4x 2 + 9 (8) y = − x 2 + 16
(b) (1) x ∈ ℝ (2) y ≤ 1 (3) (0 ; 1)
(4) x = 0 (5) A(−1 ; 0) ; B(1 ; 0)
(c) (1) x ∈ ℝ ; y ≥ − 16 (2) x = 0 (3)(i) A(−2 ; 0)
(ii) B(2 ; 0) (iii) (0 ; − 16)
(d) (1)(i) f (x) = 2x 2 − 8 (ii) g (x) = − x 2 − 5 (2) x ∈ ℝ
(3) y ≤ − 5 (4) (0 ; − 8) (5) x = 0
(6) (1 ; − 6) ; (−1 ; − 6)
EXERCISE 6
P
(a) (1) Positive orientation (2) Negative orientation
Horizontal asymptote: y = 0 Horizontal asymptote: y = 0
M
(b) (1) Positive orientation (2) Negative orientation
A
Horizontal asymptote: y = − 4 Horizontal asymptote: y = 1

x − intercept: x = 2 x − intercept: x = 5
Horizontal asymptote: y = 2 Horizontal asymptote: y = − 2
x − intercept: x = − 2 x − intercept: x = − 3
(5) Positive orientation (6) Positive orientation
S

x − intercept: x = 3 x − intercept: x = − 3
1 3
x − intercept: x = − x − intercept: x = −
2 2
1 1
x − intercept: x = x − intercept: x =
2 2
425
6 8
(c) (1) y = +3 (2) y = −1
x x
Positive orientation Positive orientation
x − intercept: x = − 2 x − intercept: x = 8
4
(3) g (x) = − + 1
x
Negative orientation
Horizontal asymptote: y = 1
x − intercept: x = 4
(d) (1) Positive orientation (2) Negative orientation
Horizontal asymptote: below x − axis Horizontal asymptote: below x − axis
x − intercept: x > 0 x − intercept: x < 0
Horizontal asymptote: above x − axis
x − intercept: x > 0
EXERCISE 7
LE
3 8 1
(a) (1) y = +2 (2) y = −1 (3) y = − +4
x x x
2 12 6
(4) y = − − 3 (5) y = (6) y = −
x x x
4 9
(7) y = − 2 (8) y =− +3
x x
(b) (1) x = 0 (2) y =1 (3) x ∈ ℝ ; x ≠ 0
(4) y ∈ ℝ ; y ≠ 1 (5) y = x + 1 and y = − x + 1 (6) A(−4 ; 0)
(7) (2 ; 3) ; (−2 ; − 1)
(c) (1) x ∈ ℝ ; x ≠ 0 (2) x = 0 ; y = − 4 (3) y = x − 4
y ∈ℝ; y ≠−4
(4) A(−2 ; 0)
EXERCISE 8
P (5)(i) y = − x − 4 (ii) x = − 2 2 or x = 2 2
(3)
1
(a) (1) Base < 1 (2) Base > 1 (4)
M
y − intercept: y = 1 y − intercept: y = 1
Point on graph: (−1 ; 3) Point on graph: (1 ; 4)
(2)
1
(b) (1) Base > 1 (2) (2) Base < 1
A

Point on graph: (1 ; 3) Point on graph: (−1 ; 4)
(4)
1
(3) Base > 1 (3) (4) Base < 1
Positive orientation Negative orientation
S

Point on graph: (1 ; 6) Point on graph: (−1 ; 0)
(3)
1
(5) Base < 1 (6) Base > 1 (4)
Negative orientation Negative orientation
Horizontal asymptote: y = − 1 Horizontal asymptote: y = − 2
y − intercept: y = − 2 y − intercept: y = − 3
Point on graph: (−1 ; − 4) Point on graph: (1 ; − 6)
(7) Base > 1 (2) (8) Base > 1 (3)
y − intercept: y = 4 y − intercept: y = − 3
426
(2)
1
(9) Base < 1
Horizontal asymptote: y = − 2
y − intercept: y = − 6
Point on graph: (1 ; − 10)
(3)
1
(c) (1) Base > 1 (2) (2) Base < 1
(4)
1
(3) Base > 1 (3) (4) Base < 1
y − intercept: y = − 26 y − intercept: y = 3
LE
(2)
1
(5) Base < 1 (6) Base > 1 (3)
Horizontal asymptote: y =8 Horizontal asymptote: y = 1
x − intercept: x = − 3 Point on graph: (1 ; − 2)
(7) Base > 1 (3) (8) Base > 1 (2)
(9) Base < 1
(3)
1
P x − intercept: x = 1
(10) Base < 1
(3)
1

Horizontal asymptote: y =−6 Horizontal asymptote: y = 6
M
(2)
1
(11) Base > 1 (5) (12) Base < 1
A
(d) (1) f (x) = 8⋅2 x − 16 (2) Base > 1 (2)

Positive orientation
y − intercept: y = − 8
(3)
1 1
S
(e) (1) a = − 6 ; b = ; q =6 (2) Base < 1

3
y − intercept: y = 0
Point on graph: (−1 ; − 12)
(f) (1) Base < 1 (2) Base > 1
Horizontal asymptote: y > 0 Horizontal asymptote: y < 0
y − intercept: y > 0 y − intercept: y < 0
(3) Base > 1
Horizontal asymptote: y < 0
427
EXERCISE 9
(a) (1) f (x) = 2⋅3x + 4 (2) f (x) = − 2⋅3x + 1
x x
(2) (2)
1 1
(b) (1) g (x) = 2⋅ −3 (2) g (x) = 3⋅ −2
x
(4)
1
(c) (1) h (x) = 2⋅3x − 18 (2) h (x) = 2⋅ −4
(d) (1) y = − 4x − 2 (2) x ∈ ℝ ; < − 2
(3) y = − 2
x
(3)
1
(e) (1) f (x) = − 3⋅2x + 12 (2) f (x) = − 3⋅ +3
x
(4)
1
(f) (1) y = 3⋅2 x + 1 (2) y = 2⋅ −8
x
(2)
1
(3) y = 4⋅2 x + 4 (4) y = 2⋅ +1
(g) (1) x ∈ ℝ (2) y > − 12
(3) y = − 12 (4)(i) A(0 ; − 9)
LE
(ii) B(2 ; 0)
EXERCISE 10
(a) (1) Shifted 2 units up (2) Reflected in x − axis
(3) Stretched vertically by factor 4
(b) (1) Shifted 1 unit down (2) Stretched vertically by factor 3 and shifted 1 unit
down
(3) Stretched vertically by factor 4 and reflected in x − axis
(c) (1) g (x) = 2 x − 1 (2) g (x) = − 2 x − 1
x
(3) g (x) = 2⋅3 + 3
(d) (1) Reflected in x − axis and shifted 2 units up (2) t = − 3
(e)
(f)
(1) T.P.(0 ; 2)
(1) Shifted 2 units down
P (2) y ≤ − 6
(2) Stretched vertically by factor 2 and shifted 8 units up
(3) Stretched vertically by factor 4 and shifted 7 units down
EXERCISE 11
(1) A(−4 ; 0) (2)(i) AB = 10 units (ii) CD = 2 units
M
(a)
(iii) DF = 2 units (3) E(1 ; 5) (4) PQ = 8 units
(5) OU = 5 units (6)(i) Reflected in x − axis and shifted 2 units up
(ii) (−4 ; 0) and (4 : 0) (iii) x ∈ ℝ ; y ∈ ℝ
(b) (1)(i) OD = 8 units (ii) AB = 4 units (2) a = − 2 and b = − 4
(3) C(1 ; − 6) (4) PQ = 4 units (5) x = 0
(6) x ∈ ℝ ; y ≥ − 8 (7)(i) h (x) = 4x 2 − 10 (ii) T.P.(0 ; − 10)
(8)(i) x > − 2 (ii) x < − 2 or x > 2 (iii) x ≤ − 2 or x ≥ 1
A
(iv) x ≥ 2 or x = − 2
2
(c) (1) OA = 4 units and OB = 2 units (2) f (x) = − −2
x
(3) C(−2 ; − 1) (4) DE = 1 unit (5) x ∈ ℝ ; x ≠ 0 ; y ∈ ℝ ; y ≠ − 2
(6) y = x + 1 and y = − x + 1 (7)(i) x < − 1 or x > 0 (ii) x ≤ − 2 or 0 < x ≤ 2
(iii) −4 ≤ x ≤ − 1 or x > 0 (8) x = ± 2 (9)(i) Shifted 5 units up
S
(ii) y = 3
3
(d) (1) OA = 1 unit and OB = 1 unit (2) a = 2 ; b = ;q = −3 (3) OP = 2 units
2
(4)(i) t = − 1 (ii) y < 2 (5) y = − 5
(6)(i) x ≥ 1 (ii) x < 1 (iii) x < 0 or x > 1
(iv) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (v) x > 0
(e) (1)(i) AL = 9 units (ii) BC = 6 units (2) D(0 ; − 9)
(3) y ≤ 18 (4) x = 0 (5) a = − 2 ; q = 18
81
(6) HK = 24 units (7) G (−6 ; 27) (8) EF = units
4
(9) Reflected in x − axis and vertically stretched by factor 2
(10)(i) x < − 3 or x > 3 (ii) −3 < x < 3 (iii) −6 ≤ x ≤ 3
3
(iv) − ≤ x ≤ 3 (v) −3 < x < 3 or x > 3 (vi) x = − 6
2
428
(a) (1) Positive gradient (2) Negative orientation
x − intercept: x = 1 Horizontal asymptote: y = − 3
y − intercept: y = − 5 x − intercept: x = − 3
(2)
1
Base < 1 Turning point: (0 ; − 1)
1 1
Horizontal asymptote: y = 16 x − intercepts: − ;
3 3
x − intercept: x = − 4
(5) Vertical line at x = 2 (6) Positive orientation
x − intercept: x = − 4
(7) Base > 1 (3) (8) Positive orientation
Negative orientation Turning point: (0 ; 4)
Horizontal asymptote: y = 6 Point on graph: (1 ; 6)
LE
(9) Negative gradient (10) Positive orientation
y − intercept: y = 0 Horizontal asymptote: y = − 5
( 3)
1
Point on graph: 1 ; − x − intercept: x = 2
(4)
1
(11) Base < 1 (12) Negative orientation
Positive orientation Turning point: (0 ; 18)

Horizontal asymptote: y = 4 x − intercepts: − 3 ; 3

P
(13) Horizontal line at y = − 4
(15) Base > 1 (2)
1
x − intercept: x = − Horizontal asymptote: y = − 5
2
M
( 2)
5
Point on graph: −1 ; −
(b) (1)(i) f (x) = − 2x − 6 (ii) g (x) = x + 1 (2) x ∈ ℝ
(3) y ∈ ℝ (4)(i) A(−1 ; 0) (ii) B(0 ; 1)
( 3 3)
7 4
(iii) C − ; −
(c) (1)(i) f (x) = x 2 + 5 (ii) g (x) = 2x 2 + 8 (2) x ∈ ℝ

A
(3) y ≥ 5 (4) (0,5) (5) x = 0

(6) A(−1 ; 6) and B(1 ; 6)
(d) (1) x ∈ ℝ ; x ≠ 0 (2) x = 0 and y = − 2 (3) y = x − 2 and y = − x − 2
y ∈ℝ; y ≠−2
(4) A(2 ; 0) (5) (2 ; 0) and (−2 ; − 4)
x
(2)
1
(1) f (x) = − 4⋅ +4 (2) x ∈ ℝ (3) y = 4
S
(e)
x
(2)
1
(4)(i) g (x) = 4⋅ −8 (ii) (−1 ; 0)
(5)(i) Vertically stretched by factor 2 and shifted 6 units down (ii) y < 2
(f) (1)(i) OQ = 9 units (ii) AB = 6 units (2) y > 2
(3) a = 2 ; b = 3 ; q = 9 (4) t = − 11 (5) y ≥ − 5
4
(g) (1) OA = 4 units and OB = 1 unit (2) y = 1 and x = 0 (3) f (x) = − +1
x
3
(4) KL = units (5) P(−4 ; 2) (6)(i) x < 0 or x ≥ 4
2
(ii) x > 4 (iii) x ≤ − 4 or 0 < x ≤ 4 (iv) x > 0 ; x ≠ 4
(v) x > 0
(h) (1) Reflected in x − axis and shifted 2 units up.
(2) Stretched vertically by factor 2 and shifted 3 units up.
429
(3) Stretched vertically by factor 4 and shifted 6 units down.
(i) (1) A(0 ; 0) (2) 8 seconds (3) 4 seconds
(4) 16 m
CHAPTER SIX
EXERCISE 1
1 3 3
(a) (1) (2) (3)
2 x2 3
8 15 8
(b) (1) 17 (2)(i) (ii) (iii)
17 17 15
3 3 4
(c) (1) (2) (3)
5 4 5
21 20 20 20
(d) (1) (2) (3) (4)
29 29 21 29
21 21
(5) (6)
LE
29 20
2 5 5 2 5
(e) (1) (2) (3) (4)
5 3 3 2
2 5
(5) (6)
3 3
c b c b
(f) (1) (2) (3) (4)
a a b a
c b
(5) (6)
a c
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) 7,25
P
(2) 8,17 (3) 7,85 (4) 11,02
(b) (1) 9 (2) 4,8
(c) (1) 17,150 (2) 3,057
M
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) 49,09° (2) 44,90° (3) 62,73° (4) 63,43°
(b) 33,7°
(c) 40,6°
EXERCISE 4
(a) 41,37°
A
(b) 66,79°
(c) 13,20°
(d) 7,19°
(e) (1) 41,41° (2) 97,18°
(f) (1) Proof (2) 48,47
S
EXERCISE 5
(a) (1) 1,7 (2) 0,8 (3) 4,9 (4) 1,6 (5) 0,8 (6) 0,9
(7) 9,5 (8) 0,9 (9) 3,7 (10) 2,4 (11) −0,5 (12) 2,3
(13) 2,1 (14) 0,1 (15) 4,1 (16) 0,4 (17) 2,0 (18) 0,9
(19) 0,5 (20) 0,3 (21) 2,1 (22) 0,1 (23) −0,4 (24) 0,1
(b) (1) −2,14 (2) 0,97 (3) 0,62 (4) 9,60 (5) 0,28 (6) −0,28
(7) 5,71 (8) 0,95 (9) 1,01
EXERCISE 6
(a) (1) 17,92° (2) 66,42° (3) 48,81° (4) 30,96° (5) 41,81° (6) 51,32°
(7) 80,41° (8) 27,04° (9) 15,95°
(b) (1) 38,0° (2) 22,9° (3) 11,0° (4) 21,5° (5) 35,8° (6) 12,8°
(7) 68,7° (8) 55° (9) 39,6°
430
EXERCISE 7
3 4 3
(a) (1) sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
5 5 4
3 1
(2) sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = 3
2 2
3 4 3
(3) sin θ = cos θ = − tan θ = −
5 5 4
−5 −12 5
(4) sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
13 13 12
−8 15 −8
17 17 15
− 3 1
(6) sin θ = cos θ = − tan θ = 3
5 2
12 5 12
13 13 5
LE
4 3 4
(8) sin θ = cos θ = − tan θ = −
5 5 3
12 144
(b) (1) (2) (3) 17
13 169
15 161
(c) (1) − (2) −23 (3)
17 289
(d) (1) −6 (2) −1
2 6
(e) (1) − (2) (3) −3
5 5
79
(f) (1) − (2) 119
(g) (1) 9
156
P
(2)
353
225
EXERCISE 8
2 1 1
M
(a) (1) 0 (2) (3) (4)
2 3 2
(5) 0 (6) 0 (7) 1 (8) 1
3 1
(9) 1 (10) (11) (12) undefined
2 2
5 1 3 3
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
4 3 4 4
A
1 2 3
(5) (6)
2 3
EXERCISE 9
5 5 4
(a) (1) R T = 10 (2)(i) (ii) (iii)
3 4 3
S
5 13 13 12
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
12 5 12 5
13 13
(5) (6)
12 5
p p m p
(c) (1) (2) (3) (4)
n m n m
p n
(5) (6)
n m
(d) (1) −57,30 (2) −2,83 (3) 0,93 (4) 1,11
(5) 2,61 (6) 2,94 (7) 4,05 (8) 1,05
(e) (1) 35,685° (2) 49,399° (3) 26,565° (4) 22,013°
(5) 16,810° (6) 20,850°
2 3
(f) (1) (2) 4 (3) 8 (4)
3 4
431
EXERCISE 10
(a) 44,89
(b) (1) 17° (2) 264,60
(c) (1) 348,69 and 311,14 (2) 47,28
(d) (1) 39,64 (2) 9,73
(e) (1) 14,62 (2) 28,39 (3) 17,82

20 20 21 29
(a) (1) (2) (3) (4)
29 21 29 21
20 29
(5) (6)
21 20
a b a c
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
c c b b
c a
(5) (6)
a b
LE
(c) (1) 19,4 (2) 3,4
(d) (1) 37,5° (2) 59,70°
(e) 17,21
(f) (1) α = 36,9° and β = 78,9°
(g) (1) −4,33 (2) 0,94 (3) −1,56 (4) 0,61
(5) 0,98 (6) 0,42 (7) 3,77 (8) 2,24
(9) −0,11 (10) 5,14 (11) 3,56 (12) 1,75
(13) 0,62 (14) 0,35 (15) 0,29

(h) (1) 21,32° (2) 56,31° (3) 56,25° (4) 37,76°
(5) 86,57° (6) 23,52° (7) 31,81° (8) 15°
(i)
(9) 24,62°
(13) 105,52°
12
P
(10) 48,59°
(14) 18,44°
(11) 23,96°
(15) -4,05°
(12) 17,02°
(j) 18
2 4
(k) (1) 3 (2) (3) 2 (4)
3 3
M
(l) (1) 36,57 (2) 12,71
b2 − a2
(m)
2b 2 − a 2
t +1
(n)
t −1
(o) (1) p 2 − 2 (2) p 3 − 3p (3) ± p2 − 4
A
(p) (1) Proof (2) 5,90
CHAPTER SEVEN
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) Positive cos graph (2) 360° (3) 2 (4) y ∈ [−2 ; 2]
S
(b) (1) Positive sin graph (2) 360° (3) 3 (4) y ∈ [−3 ; 3]
(c) (1) Positive tan graph (2) 180° (3) N.A. (4) y ∈ ℝ
[ 4 4]
1 1 1
(d) (1) Positive sin graph (2) 360° (3) (4) y ∈ − ;
4
(e) (1) Positive tan graph (2) 180° (3) N.A. (4) y ∈ ℝ
[ 2 2]
1 1 1
(f) (1) Positive cos graph (2) 360° (3) (4) y ∈ − ;
2
(g) (1) Negative cos graph (2) 360° (3) 1 (4) y ∈ [−1 ; 1]
(h) (1) Negative tan graph (2) 180° (3) N.A. (4) y ∈ ℝ
(i) (1) Negative sin graph (2) 360° (3) 2 (4) y ∈ [−2 ; 2]
(h) (1) Negative tan graph (2) 180° (3) N.A. (4) y ∈ ℝ
(i) (1) Negative sin graph (2) 360° (3) 2 (4) y ∈ [−2 ; 2]
(j) (1) Negative tan graph (2) 180° (3) N.A. (4) y ∈ ℝ
432
[ 2 2]
1 1 1
(k) (1) Negative sin graph (2) 360° (3) (4) y ∈ − ;
2
(l) (1) Negative cos graph (2) 360° (3) 4 (4) y ∈ [−4 ; 4]
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) Positive sin graph, shifted 1 unit up. (2) Positive tan graph, shifted 3 units down.
(3) Positive cos graph, shifted 2 units down. (4) Positive tan graph, shifted 1 unit up.
1
(4) Positive cos graph, shifted 3 units up. (6) Positive sin graph, shifted unit down.
2
(b) (1)(i) Positive sin graph, shifted 1 unit up. (ii) 360°
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [−1 ; 3]
(2)(i) Negative cos graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [−3 ; 1]
(3)(i) Negative tan graph, shifted 2 units up. (ii) 180°
(iii) N.A. (iv) y ∈ ℝ
(4)(i) Positive tan graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 180°
LE
(5)(i) Negative cos graph, shifted 2 units up. (ii) 360°
[2 2 ]
1 3 5
(iii) (iv) y ∈ ;
2
(6)(i) Positive sin graph, shifted 2 units down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 3 (iv) y ∈ [−5 ; 1]
(7)(i) Negative tan graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 180°
(8)(i) Positive cos graph, shifted 3 units down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 4 (iv) y ∈ [−7 ; 1]
(9)(i) Negative sin graph, shifted 2 units down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 1 (iv) y ∈ [−3 ; − 1]
3
P
(10)(i) Positive tan graph, shifted unit up.
4
(ii) 180°
[4 )
3
(iii) N.A. (iv) y ∈ ;∞
(11)(i) Positive cos graph, shifted 3 units up. (ii) 360°
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [1 ; 5]
M
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [−2 ; 0]
EXERCISE 3
1
(a) (1) y = − cos x (2) y = tan x (3) y = − 2 sin x (4) y = tan x − 1
3
1
(5) y = − cos x + 1 (6) y = 4 sin x − 2 (7) y = tan x + 1 (8) y = − 3 cos x − 1
A
2
(9) y = − 2 tan x + 1 (10) y = − 4 sin x + 1
(b) (1) 360° (2) 2 (3) −1 (4) A(0° ; 3)
(5) [−1 ; 3] (6) 1 (7) j(x) = − 2 cos x + 1 (8)(i) 0° ; 180° ; 360°
(ii) 120° ≤ x ≤ 240° (iii) 90° < x < 216,87° (iv) 120° ≤ x ≤ 180° or 240° ≤ x ≤ 360° or x = 0°
(c) (1) 180° (2) ℝ (3) 1 (4) 2
S
(5) D(270° ; − 3) (6) AB = 5 3 − 1 (7) C(30° ; 0) (8) 90° ; 270°

(9) −4 ≤ y ≤ 4 (10) Reflect f in the x-axis and shift f one unit up.
(11)(i) 30° ; 150°
(ii) 90° < x ≤ 180° or 270° < x ≤ 360° or x = 0°
(iii) 0° < x ≤ 9,54° or 90° < x ≤ 204,62° or 270° < x ≤ 360°
(iv) 0° < x ≤ 30° or 90° < x ≤ 150° or 180° < x ≤ 270°
(d) (1) a = 2 ; q = 2 (2) 360° (3) 2 (4) y = 0
(5) −5 ≤ y ≤ 7 (6)(i) 0° ; 180° ; 360° (ii) 0° < x < 360° (iii) 90° < x < 360°
(iv) 0° < x < 180° ; g (x) ≠ 0
(e) (1) a = − 4 ; b = 2 ; q = 1 (2) −4 (3) 180°
(4) 360° (5) 4 (6) ℝ (7) −14
(8) Reflect g in the x-axis and shift g two units down.
(9)(i) 0° < x ≤ 90° or 180° < x ≤ 270° or 333,43° < x ≤ 360°
(ii) 0° < x ≤ 90° or 223,53° < x ≤ 270° or 302,45° < x ≤ 360°
433
(iii) 0° < x ≤ 90° or 90° < x ≤ 180° or 302,43° < x ≤ 360°
(iv) 90° < x < 270°
(a) (1)(i) Positive sin graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 4 (iv) y ∈ [−5 ; 3]
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [1 ; 5]
(3)(i) Negative tan graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 180°
(4)(i) Positive tan graph, shifted 1 unit up. (ii) 180°
(5)(i) Negative cos graph, shifted 2 units up. (ii) 360°
[4 4 ]
1 7 9
(iii) (iv) y ∈ ;
4
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [−6 ; 2]
LE
(7)(i) Negative tan graph, shifted 2 units up. (ii) 180°
(iii) 2 (iv) y ∈ [−5 ; − 1]
(9)(i) Negative sin graph, shifted 1 unit down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 1 (iv) y ∈ [0 ; 2]
1
(10)(i) Positive tan graph, shifted unit up. (ii) 180°
2
[2 )
1
(iii) N.A. (iv) y ∈ ;∞
(11)(i) Positive cos graph, shifted 3 units down. (ii) 360°
(iii) 3
P
(12)(i) Positive sin graph, shifted 1 unit down.
(iv) y ∈ [−6 ; 0]
(ii) 360°
[ 2]
1 1
(iii) (iv) y ∈ − 1 ; −
2
(b) (1) a = 4 ; b = − 2 ; q = − 1 (2) 2 (3) 360°
(4) P(270° ; − 4) (5) MN = 3 3 units (6) y ∈ [−5 ; 3] (7) y = − 1
M
(8) Reflect g in the x-axis and shift g two units up.
(9)(i) 0° ≤ x ≤ 120° or 240° ≤ x ≤ 360°
(ii) 0° ≤ x ≤ 166,36° or 320,48° ≤ x ≤ 360°
(iii) 120° < x < 180° or 240° < x < 360°
(iv) 0° < x < 120° or 240° < x < 360°
(c) (1) a = 2 ; b = − 2 ; q = 1 (2) 180° (3) 2
(4) AB = 3 units (5) C(26,57° ; 0) (6) y ∈ [−2 ; 2] (7) x = 90° and y = 270°
A
(8) y ∈ [0 ; 4]
(9)(i) 0° ≤ x ≤ 90° or 270° ≤ x ≤ 360°
(ii) 90° < x ≤ 229,04° or 270° < x ≤ 336,98°
(iii) 26,57° ≤ x < 90° or 90° < x ≤ 206,57°
(iv) 0° ≤ x < 90° ; x ≠ 26,57° or 270° < x ≤ 360°
1
(d) (1) y = 1 000 sin x (2) y = sin x (3) y = 100 sin x
S
100
(e) (1) a = 3 and q = 11 (2) 12,5 hours
CHAPTER EIGHT
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) 5 units (2) 2,24 units (3) 13 units (4) 5,39 units
(b) (1) 17 units (2) 41 units (3) 17 units (4) 10 units
(c) (1) k = 6 or k = − 2 (2) k = − 3 or k = 1 (3) k = − 4 (4) k = 4
(5) k = − 3 or k = 2 (6) k = 2
(d) (1) AP = BP = 17 units (2) AP = BP = 13 units
(e) (1) SR = TR = 40 units (2) AP = BP = 34 units
(f) (1) p = 8 (2) p = − 4 (3) p = 2 (4) p = − 2
(g) (1) k = 2
434
(h) (1) AC = BC = 13p 2 + 2p + 2
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) M(4 ; 8) (2) M(3 ; − 4)
(2 2) ( )
9 5 7
(b) (1) M(−1 ; 1) (2) M ; (3) M − ;−4 (4) M(1 ; 0)
2
(c) (1) A(−5 ; 4) (2) A(−1 ; − 3)
7
(d) (1) p = 8; q = 1 (2) p = − 6; q = (3) p = 3; q = 4
2
(e) (1) x = − 4 (2) B(−1 ; − 1)
(f) 15,62 units
(g) (1) 5 units (2) A(−6 ; 8) (3) B(−6 ; 0)
EXERCISE 3
5 4
(a) (1) − (2) (3) 0 (4) undefined
2 3
(1) k = 11 (2) k = 10
LE
(b)
5 2
(c) (1) (2) −
3 3
6
(d) (1) p = − 6 (2) p = 5 p=
5
1 5 7
(e) (1) 4; − (2) − ; (3) undefined; 0
4 7 5
(f) (1) t = − 5 (2) t = 5 (3) t = 8 or t = − 2
3
(g) (1) m = − 2 (2) m = −
5
(h) (1) n = − 2 (2) n = − 3
(i) m = k +2
(j) p = 2; q = 6
EXERCISE 4
P
5 2
(a) (1) 58 (2) D(1 ; 1) (3) − ; (4) 26,00 units
2 5
M
2
(5) 29 units
1 9
(b) (1) x = 1; y = 3 (2) ;−3 (3)(i) k = (ii) 50 units
3 2
2
(iii) 10 units
1
(c) (1) − (2) 2 5 units (3) M(4 ; 3) (4) 21,03 units
2
(5)(i) k = 1 (ii) 30 units2
7 3
A
(d) (1) S(−5 ; 9); T(9 ; 3) (2) (3) 58; 2 58 (4) m = −

3 7
(5) D(2 ; 6) (6) 58 units2
( 2 )
11
(e) (1) −8 (2) R ;− 4 (3) S(4 ; − 4) (4) 45 units2
(f) r = 6 units; (3; 0)

S
EXERCISE 5
( 2)
5
(a) (1) −2 (2)(i) k = − 1 (ii) M −1; (iii) D(−3 ; 2)
( 2)
1 1 1
(b) (1) M − ;− (2) − (3) B(−3 ; 0) (4) p = − 1
2 5
(c) (1) −3 (2) 2 10 units (3) t = − 2 (4) 2 50 units
1
(d) (1) − (2) 10 units (3) k = − 3 (4) 20 units
3
3
(e) (1) K(−5 ; 8) (2) (3) p = 2
2
(f) (1) G (0 ; 7) (2) H(−8 ; 5) (3) J(4 ; − 3)
(g) (1) E(a + b ; c) (2) c (a + b) units2
435
EXERCISE 6
1
(a) (1) Midpoint = (1; 3) (2) 2;
2
diagonals bisect each other. parm with ⊥ diagonals
1
(3) −3;
3
rhombus with a 90° ∠
1
(b) (1) Midpoint = (0; 1) (2) − ; 3
3
Diagonals bisect each other parm with 90° angle
1
(3) 3; −
3
rectangle with ⊥ diagonals
4
(c) m =
3
one pair of sides are ∥
1
(d) (1) Q(0; −1) (2) m = (3) One diagonal is bisected by the other at 90°.
2
LE
(e) Midpoint = (2a − 1; a)
diagonals bisect each other

(a) (1) 13 units (2) 58 units (3) 8,94 units
(2 2)
3 5
(b) (1) M ; (2) R(10 ; 9)
3 5
(c) (1) m = − (2) m =
4 2
3 1 6
(d) (1) 113 units (2) m = − (3) ;−4 (4) m = −
(e) (1) p = 5 or p = 3
(5) p = − 1
P (2) p = 4
(6) p = 3
2 4
(3) p = 4 (4) p = − 1
7
(f) (1) k = 3 (2) k = 0 (3) k = − 4

1
(g) m =
x −3
M
2 5
(h) (1) PQ = PR = 58 units (2) T(1 ; − 2) (3) ;−
5 2
(4) 26,01 units (5) 29 units2
(i) (1) 3,16 units (2) m = − 3 (3) C(0 ; 5) (4) B(−3 ; 4)
(5) 20 units2
1
(j) (1) x = 0 ; y = 1 (2) m =
2
(k) (1) S(0 ; 4) (2) T(−8 ; 2) (3) V(4 ; − 6)
A
( 2 2)
3 3 1
(l) (1) Midpoint = − ; (2) 5 ; −
5
Diagonals bisect each other Parm with ⊥ diagonals
3 2
(3) − ;
2 3
Rhombus with a 90° angle
S
(m) (1) A(9 ; 0) and B(1 ; 0) (2) 12 units2

(n) k = 3 or k = 2
CHAPTER NINE
EXERCISE 1
(a) a = 60∘ ; b = 70∘ ; c = 50∘
(b) a = 62∘ ; b = 130∘ ; c = 135∘ ; d = 140∘ ; e = 140∘ ; f = 42∘ ; g = 42∘ ; h = 138∘
i = 20∘ ; = j = 160∘ ; k = 150∘ ; l = 50∘ ; m = 20∘
(c) a = 50∘ ; b = 93∘ ; c = 75∘ ; d = 68∘ ; e = 44∘ ; f = 40∘ ; g = 40∘ ; h = 55∘ ; i = 110∘
(d) (1) Ê 2 = 50∘ (2) P̂ 2 = F̂ 2 = 80∘ (3) Ŝ 1 = P̂ 3 = 50∘
(e) ∘ ∘
(1) x = 20 ; y = 30 ; z = 120 ∘ (2) R̂ 2 = Û 1 = 30∘
(f) (1) S∠S (2) SSS (3) ∠∠S (4) RHS
(g) (1) ∠∠S (2) B̂ 2 = Ĉ 2 (3) ∠∠S
436
5 4
(h) (1) ∠∠∠ (2) ∠∠∠ (3) Ratio = (4) Ratio =
3 3
(i) (1) BC = 36 units (2) B̂ = Ê 2
(j) (1) AB = 13 cm (2) ∠∠∠ (3)(i) CD = 10 cm (ii) BC = 11 cm
(k) (1)(i) QR = 34 m (ii) PT = 45 m (2) P̂ = Q̂
1
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) P̂ 1 = 69° (2) PQ = 4 cm
(b) (1) BR = 12 cm (2) PQ = 20 m
(c) (1) PQ = 1,5 m (2) P̂ 1 = 75∘ (3)(i) AD = 3 m (ii) BC = 6 cm
̂
(iii) B = 70 ∘
(d) (1)(i) QR = 12 m (ii) UV = 2 m (2) PQ = QR (3) Ŝ 2 = 35°

(e) (1) AB = 14 units (2) EC = 10 units (3) ED = 5 units
(f) BF = FD and DG = GC
(g) OR = RC
(h) (2) Ŵ 2 = 140°
(i) (1) AB ∥ EC (2) AE = ED
1
(j) (1) AB ∥ DE (2) DE = AB and QR = 2 AB
LE
2
(k) (1) BD ∥ HI (2) ∠∠S
EXERCISE 3
(a) Û = 140°
(b) (1) a = 60° (2) Trapezium
(c) (1) PC = 3 m (2)(i) Ĉ 1 = 50° (ii) Ĉ 2 = 65° (iii) Â = 115°
(d) (1) PS = 6 cm (2)(i) T̂ 1 = 120° (ii) P̂ = 60° (iii) Ŝ 2 = 60°
(e) (1) OP = 25 mm (2) AR = 25 mm (3) MA = 60 mm
(f) (1) OP = 3 m (2)(i) P̂ 1 = 40° (ii) B̂ 1 = 20°
(g) (1) x = 30∘ ; y = 140∘ (2) x = 50∘ ; y = 100∘ (3) x = 10∘ ; y = 80∘ (4) x = 20∘ ; y = 15∘
(h)
(i)
(j)
(1) OL = 8 cm
(1) AO = OC and AP = PD
(1) 62,5 cm2
P
(2) KO = 5 cm
(2) 32 cm2
(3) PM = 14 cm
(2)(i) OP = 3 units
(3) 300 cm2
(ii) CD = 6 units
(4) 144 cm2
(5) 390 cm2 (6) 180 m2
(k) (1)(i) AB = 12 cm (ii) EF = 17 cm (2)(i) 288 cm2 (ii) 384 cm2
M
EXERCISE 4
(a) a = 90∘ ; b = 65∘ ; c = 65∘ ; d = 65∘ ; e = 45∘ ; f = 25∘ ; g = 69∘ ; h = 69∘
i = 21∘ ; j = 21∘ ; k = 45∘ ; l = 67,5∘ ; m = 67,5∘ ; n = 22,5∘
(b) (1) DB = 10 cm (2) AB = 8 cm
(c) TS = 29 cm
(d) (1) P̂ 1 = 95° (2) D̂ 2 = 5°
(e) (1) B̂ 2 = 36° (2) Â 1 = 54°
A
(f) (1) B̂ 1 + B̂ 2 = 90° and Ô 1 = 90° (2)(i) Ĉ 1 = 30° (ii) P̂ 1 = 30°

(iii) Q̂ 2 = 30°
(g) (1)(i) B̂ 3 = 60° (ii) B̂ 1 = 30° (2) AB = 1,73 m
(h) ̂
(1) O1 = 54° (2) Ô 4 = 162° (3) Ê 1 = 9°
(i) (1) BP = 37° (2) BP = PE and BO = OF (3) AE = 48 m
(j) (1) x = 20∘ ; y = 58∘ ; z = 32∘ (2) x = 67∘ ; y = 21∘ ; z = 23∘
S
(3) x = 20∘ ; y = 10∘ ; z = 100∘

(k) (1) 70 cm2 (2) 12 cm2 (3) 120 m2 (4) 6545 cm2
(5) 600 m2 (6) 255 cm2
(l) (1) x = 2 units (2) OP = 20 units2
EXERCISE 5
(a) (1) Â 2 = 34° (2) D̂ 1 = 120° (3) D̂ 3 = 26° (4) Ê 1 = 64°
̂
(5) F1 = 61° (6) Ĉ 4 = 29°
(b) (1) D̂ 3 = 45° (2) Ô 2 = 20° (3) T̂ 2 = 25° (4) R̂ 1 = 115°
(c) (1) F̂ 2 = 76° (2) F̂ 3 = 76° (3) F̂ 1 = 28° (4) Ê 1 = 132°
(d) (1) Ĉ 2 = D̂ 1 = 45° (2) AD = 13 cm
(e) (1) OE = 8 m (2) TP = 5 m
(f) (1) x = 55∘ ; y = 110∘ ; z = 70∘ (2) x = 49∘ ; y = 25∘ ; z = 65∘
(3) x = 10∘ ; y = 58∘ ; z = 61∘
437
(g) (1) 30 m2 (2) 620 cm2
(h) 24 cm2
(i) 4,5 m2
(j) DC = 37 cm
EXERCISE 6
(a) D̂ = B̂ and B̂ = F̂
(b) PO = OR and OR = AT
(c) AE = AC and AC = BD
(d) P̂ = R̂ 1 = R̂ 3 = R̂ 4
(e) AO = OD and OC = OD
(f) (1) ∠∠S (2) ∠∠S
(g) (1) S∠S (2) Ê 1 = B̂ 1 + B̂ 2 and B̂ 1 = D̂ 1
(h) (1) PA = AQ and AQ = ST (2) S∠S
(i) (1) RHS (2) EO = OB and BC = DC
(j) (1) AC = DB and CF = BE (2) S∠S
(k) (1) Â 2 = Â 3 (2) S∠S (3) BC = DC and PB = DQ
(l) SSS
(1) EC = FC (2) ∠∠S
LE
(m)
(n) (1) RHS (2) AO = OC and EO = OF (3) SSS
(o) (1) S∠S (2) M̂ 1 + M̂ 2 = M̂ 2 + M̂ 3
(3) M̂ 1 = M̂ 4 and but M̂ 1 = M̂ 3 (4) T̂ = Q̂ 1 and but Q̂ 2 = P̂ 2

(a) a = 66° ; b = 48° ; c = 66° ; d = 48° ; e = 132° ; f = 66° ; g = 114°
(b) a = 12 ; b = 15 ; c = 11 ; d = 16
(c) (1) a = 64° ; b = 128° ; c = 52° ; d = 52° ; e = 36° ; f = 36° ; g = 28°
(2) h = 45° ; i = j = 67,5° (3) k = l = 25° ; m = 65°
(1) ∠∠∠ (2) AC = 25 cm (3) 300 cm2
(d)
(e)
(f)
(1) PC = 8 cm
(2) 72 units2
P
(2) x = 5 m (3) Area = 32 m2
(i) (1) DP = 30 cm (2) x = 5 cm

(k) (3) ∠∠S (m)(1) ∠∠S (n)(3) 72 cm2
M
CHAPTER TEN
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1)(i) 1,05 m3 (ii) 6,85 m2 (2)(i) 300 m3 (ii) 360 m2
(3)(i) 1,08 m3 (ii) 8,28 m2 (4)(i) 648 m3 (ii) 720 m2
(5)(i) 6120 m3 (ii) 2 364 m2 (6)(i) 150 m3 (ii) 200 m2
(b) (1) 12 m (2)(i) 6,93 m2 (ii) 55,44 m3 (iii) 55 440 l
A
(iv) 109,86 m2
(c) (1)(i) 5 654,87 cm3 (ii) 5,65 l (iii) 1 759,29 cm2 (2)(i) 320 630,95 cm3
(ii) 320,63 l (iii) 28 330,88 cm2
(d) (1) 324,37 m2 (2) 285,88 m2
(e) (1) 502,65 ml (2) 461,59 cm2
(f) (1) 19 200 m3 (2) 17 m (3) 4 480 m2
S
(g) (1) 452,39 cm3 (2) 552,92 cm2

(h) (1) 133,10 m3 (2) 171,95 m2
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1)(i) 400 m3 (ii) 360 m2 (2)(i) 1568 m3 (ii) 896 m2
(b) (1) 9 3 cm2 (2)(i) 36,37 m2 (ii) 80,48 cm2
(c) (1)(i) 37,70 m3 (ii) 75,40 m2 (2)(i) 5,28 m3 (ii) 18,47 m2
(3)(i) 2,51 m3 (ii) 11,31 m2
(d) (1) 427,26 cm2 (2) 1,01 l
(e) (1) 157,08 m3 (2) 201,37 m2
(f) (1) 2112 m3 (2) 960 m2
(g) (1) 211,11 cm3 (2) 243,79 cm2
(h) (1) 246 153,34 cm3 (2) 28 733,73 cm2
438
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1)(i) 523,60 m3 (ii) 314,16 m2 (2)(i) 0,27 m3 (ii) 2,01 m2
(b) (1) 261,80 cm3 (2) 235,62 cm2
(c) (1) 452,39 mm3 (2) 339,29 mm2
(d) (1) 82 921,29 cm3 (2) 9 588,14 cm2
(e) (1) 20,94 cm3 (2) 87,96 cm2
(f) 113,10 units2
(g) 56,55 units3
EXERCISE 4
(a) (1) 108 m3 (2) 162 m2
1
(b) (1) 4 units2 (2) Decrease by
125
(c) (1) 4 (2) Increase by factor 16 (3) Increase by factor 64
1 1 1
(d) (1) r (2) A (3) V
2 4 8
(e) (1) 10 (2) 2 200 cm2
LE
1
(f) (1) (2) 3,75 m3
2
4
(g) (1) (2) 9 : 16
3
1
(h) (1) (2) 27 : 1
3
(i) 800 cm3
(j) Doubled (2) Doubled (3) Quadrupled

(k) (1)(i) 4V (ii) 4S (2)(i) 9V (ii) 3S
(a)
(b) (1)(i) 753,98 cm3
P
(1)(i) 0,38 m3 (ii) 2,36 m2
(ii) 9 474,82 cm2
(2)(i) 54 m3
(2)(i) 1 693,34 cm3
(ii) 120 m2
(ii) 945,74 cm2
(c) (1) 27 646,02 cm2 (2) 267,04 cm2
(d) (1)(i) 1 280 m3 (ii) 800 m2 (2)(i) 48 m3 (ii) 96 m2
M
(3)(i) 8 482,30 m3 (ii) 2 544,69 m2 (4)(i) 19,63 m3 (ii) 50,34 m2
(5)(i) 1 436,76 m3 (ii) 615,75 m2 (6)(i) 3,62 m3 (ii) 13,57 m2
(e) (1)(i) 2 513,27 ml (ii) 816,81 cm2 (2)(i) 7 068,58 ml (ii) 1 413,72 cm2
(f) 28 000 l
(g) (1) 5 m (2) 96 m2 (3) 4 m (4) 48 m3
(h) (1) 10,39 cm2 (2) 83,12 cm3 (3) 116,78 cm2
(i) (1) 720 m2 (2) 1392 m3
(j) (1) 24 cm (2) 71 175,92 cm3 (3) 9 198,58 cm2
A
(k) (1) 355,75 cm3 (2) 411,68 cm2

(l) (1) 3 808,66 cm3 (2) 1 548,81 cm2
(m) (1) 29,32 m3 (2) 53,41 m2
(n) (1) 12 cm (2)(i) 2299,65 cm3 (ii) 1583,36 cm2
50
(o) (1) m3 (2) 85 %
3
S
(p) (1) 5 cm (2) 640 cm2

(q) (1) 2 units (2) 87,96 units3
3 9
(r) (1) 180 m3 (2) 306 m2 (3)(i) (ii)
2 4
(s) (1) 5 (2) 3000 cm3
2
(t) (1) (2) 9 : 4
3
(u) 2V
(v) (1)(i) 4 : 1 (ii) 4 : 1 (2)(i) 1 : 9 (ii) 1 : 3
(w) (1) 1 : 4 (2) 1 : 4
(x) (1) 4 : 25 (2) 4 : 17
439
CHAPTER ELEVEN
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) R12 000 (2) R4 500
(b) (1) R 34 363,72 (2) R14 363,72
(c) Compound interest
(d) (1) R161 499,48 (2) R 289 855,07
(e) R7 000
(f) 7,5 %
(g) 25 % (2) 18,92 %
(h) 8 years
(i) (1) R 5 250 (2) 11,84 %
(j) Bank Y
(k) R66 650,33
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1) R 236,41 (2) R1 511,78
(b) (1) Option 1
LE
(c) (1) R1 800 (2) R448,20 (3) R 23 313,60
(d) (1) R787,35 (2) R6 803,03 (3) R145,38 (4) R7 590,38
(5) R 2 341,38
(e) (1) R8 786,35 (2) R 3 057,65
(f) R12 987,60
(g) (1) 17,58 % (2) R1 617,00
(h) 9,5 %
(i) (1) R14 160 (2) R1 763,46 (3) R12 396,54 (4) R642,83
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) R 399 (2) ZK 555,56 (3) BWP 0,68
(b)
(c)
(d)
South Africa
(1) R652,40
P
(1) €1 = R17,28 and €5,79 = R100
(2) €70 (3) PLN 238,76 (4) CHF 62,03
(e) (1) R1 276,60 and R1 463,41 (2) R1 868,10 (3) £123
(f) (1) R 27 368,16
(g) Not enough
M
(h) 31,1 %
(i) R53 065,95 (2) R57 393,69 (3) 7 % for 20 years
EXERCISE 4
(a) (1) 1 023 (2) 1 072 128 483
(b) (1) 462,16 (2) 728,23
(c) (1)(i) 2,05 % (ii) 1,39 % (2) 78 168 249
A
(d) (1) 20 % (2) 1 250 (3) 615 280
EXERCISE 5
(a) R121 792,22
(b) R859 309,59
(c) R 99 181,83
S
(d) R188 013,54

(e) R100 000

(a) (1) R10 800 (2) R10 807,18
(b) (1) R11 208,98 (2) R17 647,06
(c) R 31 600,08
(d) (1) 16,67 % (2) 14,47 %
(e) (1) 12,98 % (2) 10,67 %
(f) 4 years and 2 months.
(g) 9 months.
(h) (1) 50 % (2) 62,89 %
(i) (1) R194,35 (2) R4 664,40
(j) (1) R 2 250 (2) R 505,75 (3) R 2 422,50
440
(k) (1) R 51 000 (2) R 25 200 (3) R1 224,25
(l) 14,29 %
(m) (1) Euro (2) 421,08 Brazilian Real. (3) 90 Peso
(4) €173,05 (5) R16 696,19
(n) 37,14 Australian Dollar
(o) (1) R 93 000 000 (2) 17,46 kg
(p) (1) 9,84 % (2) R 209,04
(q) R13 991,82
(r) 1,40 %
(s) (1) 300 000 (2) R6 342 228 600 (3) 69 770
(t) (1) Compound (2) Original amount invested.
(3)(i) 8,0 rand in thousands.
(ii) 10,56499 rands in thousands.
(u) R 2 800,68
(v) R19 067,78
(w) R 5 163,02
(x) R17 040,97
CHAPTER TWELVE
LE
EXERCISE 1
(a) (4) 18 (5) 20%
(b) (1) History (2) 6 (3) 13
(4) Mathematics: 25% (5) Mathematics: 42%
History: 35,71% History: 47%
(c) (2) Global warming is real
(d) (1) 50 seeds (2) 72% (3) 7 days
(e) (1) 1650 tickets (2) 20,78%
(3) Highest number of tickets sold (4) School holidays
(5) Specials for children, students and pensioners
EXERCISE 2
(a) (1)(i) 5
P (ii) 4 (iii) 3
(2)(i) 15 (ii) 14 (iii) 10 and 23
(3)(i) 2 (ii) 1,7 (iii) 1,5 ; 1,7 and 2,4
(b) (1) 28°C (2) 25°C (3) 24°C
M
(4) 23,16°C
(c) (1) Mean = 25,64 Median = 15 Mode = 3 (2) 150
(3) Median
(d) (1) Mean = 66,71% Median = 72% (2) Median (3)(i) Mean is higher
(ii) Median the same
(e) (1) Mean = 16,9 Median = 15 Mode = 4 and 28 (2) Mode
(f) (1) 62% (2) 74%
(g) 60,2%
A
(h) 2
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) Minimum = 2 ; Q1 = 4 ; Median = 6 ; Q3 = 15 ; Maximum = 20
(2) Minimum = 1 ; Q1 = 12 ; Median = 22 ; Q3 = 27,5 ; Maximum = 30
(3) Minimum = 1 ; Q1 = 7 ; Median = 17 ; Q3 = 27 ; Maximum = 33
S
(4) Minimum = 3 ; Q1 = 5 ; Median = 8,5 ; Q3 = 15 ; Maximum = 37

(b) (1) Minimum = 4 ; Q1 = 6,5 ; Median = 8 ; Q3 = 9,5 ; Maximum = 11
(2)(i) 7 (ii) 3
(c) (1) 10 (2)(i) 116 (ii) 102
(iii) 116 (iv) 23 (3)(i) 25%
(ii) 50% (4)(i) 150 (ii) 225
(d) (1) Nontando (2) Cindy
(3)(i) Nontando: 40 ; Cindy: 50 (ii) Nontando: 5 ; Cindy: 7,5 (4) Nontando
(5)(i) 5 (ii) 15
(e) (1) 10 B (2) 10A: IQR = 23 ; 10B: IQR = 28
(3) 41 (4) 56 (5)(i) False
(ii) True (iii) False (iv) True
(v) False (vi) False
(f) a = 1 ; b = 8 ; c = 18 ; d = 20 ; f = 25 ; e = 21
441
EXERCISE 4
(a) (1) Minimum = 14 ; Q1 = 19 ; Median = 22 ; Q3 = 25 ; Maximum = 30
(3) Symmetrical (4) 22 (5) Yes
(b) (1)(i) 12 (ii) 16,93 (iii) 16
(2) Minimum = 5 ; Q1 = 7 ; Median = 12 ; Q3 = 23 ; Maximum = 50 (3) Positively skewed
(4) Median
(c) (1) Minimum = 10 ; Q1 = 32 ; Median = 40 ; Q3 = 42 ; Maximum = 42 (2) Mean < Median
(3) 35,4 (4) 42 (5) Median
(d) (1) Minimum = 24 ; Q1 = 29 ; Median = 34 ; Q3 = 42 ; Maximum = 56 (2) Positively skewed
(3) More younger athletes (4) Mean will be higher (5) 35,33
(e) (1) Athlete B (2)(i) 58 (ii) 5
(3) 65 (4) C (79) (5) Median
(f) (1) Amanda (2)(i) Symmetrical (ii) Negatively skewed
(3)(i) 7 hours (ii) 6 hours (4) 7
(5) No hours for first bar (6) A (less than 6)
(7) Lowest: 5,81 ; Highest: 5,94
(g) (1) A: Symmetrical ; B: Positively skewed ; C: Negatively skewed (2)(i) A
(ii) C (iii) B (iv) C
LE
EXERCISE 5
(a) (1) 47 (2) 50 (3) 51 (4) 55,5 (5) 57 (6) 59
(7) 65 (8) 83
(b) (1) R2,71 (2) R2,89 (3) R4,65 (4) R6,62 (5) R9,19 (6) R10,45
(7) R13,67 (8) R23,33
(c) (1) R5,00 (2) R7,00 (3) R40,00 (4) R45,00 (5) R46,00 (6) R56,00
EXERCISE 6
(a) (1) 5 ≤ x < 10 (2) 5 ≤ x < 10 (3) 10,74 cm
(b) (1) 300 (2) R40,80 (3)(i) 40 < x ≤ 60 (3)(ii) 40 < x ≤ 60
(c) (1) 77,5%
(5) Positively skewed
(7)(i) 200 ≤ x < 300
P
(2) 100 ≤ x < 200 (3) R222,50
(6) Pocket money of learners are low
(ii) 300 ≤ x < 400
(4) 100 ≤ x < 200
(d) (1) 109,43 (2)(ii) 100 ≤ x < 120 (iii) 109,33

M
(a) (2)(i) 18 (ii) 19 (iii) 21,4 (3) 48 (4) 40% (5) 38 and 65
(6) Median
(b) (1) 21 (2) 8 hours (3) 4 hours (4) 4 hours
(5) Min = 0 ; Q1 = 3 ; Median = 4 ; Q3 = 5 ; Max = 8 (7) 2 (8) Symmetrical
(9) Yes
(c) (1) Mean = 76,41 ; Median = 70 ; Mode = 65 and 70
(2) Min = 35 ; Q1 = 60 ; Median = 70 ; Q3 = 90 ; Max = 150 (3) 15 (4) 120
A
(5) Positively skewed (6) Sihle

(d) (1) 62,83 (2) 26 (3) Min = 44 ; Q1 = 60 ; Median = 65 ; Q3 = 68 ; Max = 70
(4) Negatively skewed (5) Most people retire after 60 (6) Mean is too low
(e) (1) 6937,25 (2) Min = 4 488 ; Q1 = 5 759,5 ; Median = 6 591,5 ; Q3 = 8 367,5 ; Max = 9 592
(3)(i) 5104 (ii) 2608 (4) 9 (5) 30% (6) 4945,5
(7) Positively skewed (8) Median
S
(f) (1) School A (2)(i) 75% (ii) 50% (iii) 25% (3)(i) 15 (ii) 45
(4) School B (5) Median
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
EXERCISE 1
(a) (1) S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6} (2) A = {1 ; 3 ; 5}; B = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4}
1 2
(3) n (A) = 3 (4) P(A) = (5) P( B) =
2 3
5
(b) (1) S = {A ; B ; C ; D ; E ; F ; G ; H} (2) n ( X ) = 5 (3) P( X ) =
8
1
(4) P( Y ) =
2
442
1
(c) (1) n(S) = 15 (2) P( N ) = (3) n( X ) = 6
5
1
(d) (1)(i) n(S) = 50 (ii) n( E) = 10 (2)
5
2 1
(3)(i) (ii)
5 3
3
(e) (1)(i) S = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8} (ii) (2)(i) Sr = {1 ; 3 ; 5 ; 7}
8
1
(ii)
2
1
(f) (1) S = {HHH ; HHT ; HTH ; THH ; HTT ; THT ; TTH ; TTT} (2)(i)
8
3 1
(ii) (iii)
8 2
3
(3)(i) Sr = {THH ; THT ; TTH ; TTT} (ii)
4
1 1 1
(g) (1) (2) (3)
4 2 3
LE
(h) (1) 0,2227 (2) Not fair (3) 10 000 times
(i) (1) 12685 (C) (2) 18 000 times
2
(j) (1) (2) 533 times (3) 22 000 times
3
EXERCISE 2
(a) (2)(i) {b ; e ; g ; j} (ii) {c ; e ; g ; h ; j} (iii) {a ; d ; f ; i}
(iv) {a ; b ; c ; d ; f ; h ; i} (v) {b ; c ; e ; g ; h ; j} (vi) {e ; g ; j}
1 1
(b) (2)(i) 4 (ii) (iii)
4 6
2 1
(iv)
(vii)
3
5
P (v)
6
(viii) 6
(vi) 0
(ix)
7
12 12
(x) 1
1
(c) (1) 150 (2)(i) (ii) 110
M
3
1 4
(iii) (iv) 60 (v)
5 5
2
(3) 90 (4)
5
8 3
(d) (2)(i) 140 (ii) (iii)
15 20
13 2
A
(iv) (v) 225 (vi)

15 15
(e) (1) 0,2 (2)(i) 0,4 (ii) 0,5
(iii) 0,6 (iv) 0,5 (v) 0,1
(vi) 0,8 (3)(i) 24 (ii) 27
(f) (1) 0,34 (2) 0,89 (3) 84
(1) P(A and B) = x ; P(A) = 3x (2) 0,27 (3)(i) 0,81
S
(g)
(ii) 0,42 (iii) 0,73
5 5
(h) (1) (2)
6 12
EXERCISE 3
(a) (1) 0,7 (2) 0,4 (3) 0,7
(4) 0,3
(b) (1)(i) 0,4 (ii) 0,1 (iii) 0,2
(iv) 0,8
(c) (1) 0,65 (2) 0,3
1 5
(d) (1)(i) (ii)
4 12
443
(e) (1) 0,6
1
(f) (1)
4
(g) (1) 0,1 (2) 0,6
(h) 0,4
(i) 0,04
(j) (i) 33 (ii) 13
EXERCISE 4
(a) (1) 0 (2) 0,6
(b) (1) 0,1
2 5
(c) (1) (2)
3 6
(d) (1) 0,35 (2) 0,45
(e) 0,32
(f) (1) 0 (2) 0,2
(g) 0,3
1
(h) (1)(i) N and T (ii) M and N (2)(i)
4
LE
7
(ii) 0 (iii) (iv) 1
8
(i) (2)(i) A and B ; A and D ; C and D (ii) A and B (iii) A and B
1
(3)(i) (ii) 0 (iii) 1
3
2
(iv)
3
5 1 7
(j) (1)(i) (ii) (iii)
12 2 12
1
(iv)
2
(2)(i) Yes
(3)(i) No
(4)(i) Yes
P (ii) Yes
(ii) Yes
(ii) No
(iii) Yes
(iii) No
(iii) No
(5)(i) 1 (ii) 0 (iii) 1
(iv) 0
11 1
M
(6)(i) (ii)
12 12
EXERCISE 5
(a) (1) 0,3 (2) 0,8 (3) 0,4 (4) 0,6 (5) 0,2 (6) 0,1
1 7 1
(b) (1)(i) 72 (ii) 8 (3)(i) (ii) (iii)
40 40 5
(c) (2)(i) { f } (ii) {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; g ; h} (iii) { g ; h} (iv) {a ; b ; c ; f ; g ; h}
A
5
(3)(i) 3 (ii)
8
(d) (1) 0,52 (2) 0,66 (3) 0,26 (4) 0,74 (5) 0,12 (6) 0,6
(e) (1) 0,15 (2) 0,85
1 1 23 7
(f) (1)60 (2)(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
8 2 40 10
S
(g) (1) 0,1 (2) 0,45 (3) 0,55 (4) 0,35 (5) 0,8 (6) 0,85
(h) (1) 0,42 (2) 0,07 (3) 0,7 (4) 0,79 (5) 0,51 (6) 0,63
(i) (2)(i) 18 (ii) 20
2 1
(3)(i) (ii)
15 2
(j) (2)(i) 0,7 (ii) 0,6

(a) (1) S = {6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9} (2) E = {7 ; 8 ; 9} (3) 0,75
(4)(i) 0,75388 (ii) Yes (5) 9 000 times
(b) (2)(i) {b ; c ; d ; e ; g ; i} (ii) { f ; h ; j} (iii) {a ; d ; f ; h ; i ; j}
(iv) {b ; c ; e ; g} (v) {d ; i}
(vi) {a ; b ; c ; d ; e ; g ; i}
(3)(i) 0,4 (ii) 7 (iii) 8
444
1
(iv) 0,4 (4)
2
(c) (1)(i) 0,6 (ii) 0,1
(2)(i) 0,2 (ii) 0,3 (iii) 0,1
(iv) 0,4 (3)(i) 0,9 (ii) 0,8
(4) 8
(d) (1) 0,49 (2) 0,6 (3) 0,9
(4) 0,1 (5) 0,3 (6) 0,7
(7) 0,1 (8) 0,79
(e) (1)(i) 0,23 (ii) 0,07 (iii) 0,17
(iv) 0,83 (2) 90
(f) 0,8
(g) (1) 0,55 (2) 0,4
(h) (1) 0,2 (2) 0,8
(i) (1)(i) Sc and ML ; ML and M (ii) ML and M ; A and M (iii) ML and M
(2) 0,7 (3)(i) 0,6 (ii) 0,1
4
(4) Yes (5)
5
(j) (2)(i) 0,13 (ii) 0,33 (iii) 0,8
LE
(iv) 0,87
15
(k) (1)(i) 24 (ii) 4 (2)(i)
36
5 5 8
(ii) (iii) (iv)
36 9 9
5 1 3
(l) (1)(i) (ii) (iii)
8 4 4
2 1 3
(2) (4)(i) (ii)
3 4 4
1 5
(iii) (iv)
8 8
(m) (1)
2
5
1
P (2)
3
10
4
(3)
1
5
7
(4) (5) (6)
2 5 10
4 2 5
M
(n) (1) P(M) = and P(N) = (2)
9 9 9
1
(o) P(A) =
2
(p) (1) P(A or B) = 1,1 more than 1 (2) P(A and B) = − 0,1 negative
(3) P(A) + P(B) = 1,3 ≠ 1 (4) P(A) + P(B) = 0,8 ≠ 1

5
(1) S = {(WW) ; (WD) ; (WL) ; (DW) ; (DD) ; (DL) ; (LW) ; (LD) ; (LL)}
A
(r) (2)
9
2
(3)(i) Sr = {(WD) ; (DW) ; (DD) ; (DL) ; (LD)} (ii)
5
1
(4)
3
1 1 1
S
(s) (1)(i) (ii) (iii)

36 18 12
k −1 5 1
(iv) (v) (vi)
36 36 9
1 13 − k 2
(vii) (viii) (2)
12 36 3
16 4 1
(t) (1)(i) (ii) (2)
25 25 4
445

Sample Maths TB GR 10 Ncaps Mat 242 9781776118441 2023.06.12 Security Restricted

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sample Maths TB GR 10 Ncaps Mat 242 9781776118441 2023.06.12 Security Restricted

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

©COPYRIGHT BY THE AUTHOR

ISBN 13: Print: 9781776118441

Product Code: MAT 242

Principal Authors: Jaco Odendaal

Editors: Jurgen Basson

Tel: (021) 945 4111, Fax: (021) 945 4118

CHAPTER ONE Algebraic Expressions PAGE 1

CHAPTER TWO Equations and Inequalities PAGE 46

CHAPTER FOUR Number Patterns PAGE 86

CHAPTER FIVE Functions PAGE 96

CHAPTER EIGHT Analytical Geometry PAGE 212

CHAPTER NINE Euclidean Geometry PAGE 240

CHAPTER TEN Measurement PAGE 300

CHAPTER ELEVEN Financial Mathematics PAGE 330

CHAPTER TWELVE Statistics PAGE 348

CHAPTER THIRTEEN Probability PAGE 382

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES PAGE 412

THE NUMBER SYSTEM

Summary of the Number System

• All integers e.g. 3 ; 0 ; −2 etc.

• All recurring decimals e.g.

7. Calculations that do NOT produce real numbers:

Real numbers on the number line

This equals 1, which is an integer and therefore rational.

All non-terminating, non-recurring decimals are irrational.

REPRESENTING SETS ON A NUMBER LINE

Interval notation Meaning Set builder notation

All real numbers from −2 to 2,

All real numbers from 0 to 5,

x ∈ (2 ; ∞) All real numbers greater than 2, excluding 2. {x : x > 2 ; x ∈ ℝ}

x ∈ (− ∞ ; 1] All real numbers less than or including 1. {x : x ≤ 1 ; x ∈ ℝ}

x ∈ (− ∞ ; ∞) All real numbers. x∈ℝ

Set Builder Notation Number Line

Represent the following on a number line:

(5) {x : x < 5 ; x ∈ ℝ} (6) {x : 1 < x ≤ 6 ; x ∈ ℝ}

(7) {x : − 5 ≤ x ≤ 4 ; x ∈ ℝ} (8) {x : − 7 < x < − 1 ; x ∈ ℝ}

(b) (1) x ∈ [3 ; 9] (2) x ∈ (− 1 ; 7)

(d) Represent the following sets on a number line:

(1) {x : − 3 < x < 7 ; x ∈ ℤ} (2) {x : x ≥ − 5 ; x ∈ ℝ}

(3) {x : − 2 ≤ x < 4 ; x ∈ ℝ} (4) {x : x < 3 ; x ∈ ℤ}

(e) Write the following sets in set builder notation:

(f) Represent the following on a number line:

(1) x ∈ (− 1 ; 9] (2) x ∈ [− 2 ; 8) (3) x ∈ (5 ; 10)

(7) (8) (9)

(g) Write the following in interval notation:

(a) 9 < 11 < 16 (b) 9 < 11 < 16

(c) π = 3,14159... (d) −3π = − 9,42477...

Write 0,4 as a common fraction.

∴ 10x = 4,444 . . . (2)

(2) − (1) : 10x − x = 4,444 . . . − 0,444 . . .

Show that the following numbers are rational:

(2) − (1) : 100x − x = 0,3636 . . . − 36,3636 . . .

(2) − (1) : 100x − 10x = 12,222 . . . − 1,222 . . .

(2) − (1) : 100x − x = 245,454545 . . . − 2,454545 . . .

(2) − (1) : 1000x − 10x = − 2312,1212 . . . − (−23,1212 . . . )

THE DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

(g) (y + 1)(y 2 − 2y + 3) (h) (x − 2y)(2x 2 − x y + 3y 2 )

(a) 3(2x + y) (b) −2qr (q − 2qr + 3r)

(c) −3x 2 y(x 2 + 2x y − y 2 ) (d) (a + 2)(a − 3)

• and not the squares:

Expand and simplify: