TEFL Full Lectures Msila

University of M’sila Department of English
Master One Classes TEFL Courses / lecturer: Berkani
LESSON ONE : TEFL : SCOPE AND KEY TERMS
1. English as a Global Language
For the past several decades, English has grown into the primary language for
international communication. As a result of complex economic, cultural, and
technological forces, such as the growth of international trade and the Internet, the
English language is now used worldwide, with a geographic spread unique among all
world languages.
English has become a “lingua franca,” or common language, in many regions throughout the world.
In the European Union, for example, English is recognized as common working language and a
language of contact, and is similarly used as such in many areas in Southeast Asia. As a result, the
vast majority of those using English worldwide are themselves nonnative speakers. This has had a
profound effect on both the ways English language teaching (ELT) is practiced and the language
itself.
The English language has developed into multiple varieties throughout the world, known
as “world Englishes.” These include the standard Englishes spoken in Anglophone countries such as
the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, as well
local varieties in regions of the world such as India, Africa, and the Caribbean. The concept of
world Englishes itself is rooted in the social and functional realities of language users in a particular
context. Such versatility of the language also allows nonnative speakers to use their own local
words and expressions in their discourse, thus combining communication and culture within these
world Englishes.
Given the broad geographic spread of English, and the variety of world Englishes being
spoken globally, English is seen less and less as a “foreign” language, and more as an
additional language. In other words, learning English is no longer viewed as something
optional, but essential. English has become the most widely taught language in the world,
and numerous countries have instituted English as a required subject for all students,
often starting at very young ages. With English being taught globally for very diverse
purposes, a singular or monolithic approach to the modeling of English is no longer
tenable.
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2. Teaching English as a Foreign Language
Teaching English to non-native speakers is a challenging experience for teachers. TEFL refers
to teaching English in formal contexts and English in that case represents a foreign language for
learners. Stern defines language teaching as the activities which are intended to bring about
language learning (1983: 21). In other words, language teaching is more than instructing a class, it
is a process which involves different activities, and it is the responsibility of the teacher to discover
when and how to engage learners in the classroom environment. EFL teachers are interested in
providing their learners with the knowledge needed to be competent to a certain extent in the target
language. According to Canale and Swain (1980, 1981); to be competent is in terms of three
dimensions. In other words, they have defined communicative competence as having knowledge of
grammatical rules and vocabulary and they named that component the linguistic or grammatical
competence. The second competence which is the sociolinguistic one, is concerned with knowledge
of socio-cultural rules of the language in order to know how to use the language being taught in an
appropriate way. Whereas the third is the strategic competence which is the ability to use certain
strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication. Developing communicatively
competent learners is the goal that most EFL teachers wish to accomplish, but of course
communicative competence is not sufficient. Learners need other dimensions to succeed, to be
accurate and fluent and to achieve that, teachers are supposed to set a number of plans which should
be designed with taking into consideration different goals and of course their learners levels and
needs. Richards et al (2002), demonstrate that the last three decades witnessed the development of
the field of TEFL, which aims at improving the quality of teaching, as well as of learning by
focusing on learners' needs, their motivation, the strategies they use to learn and the processes they
go through in learning, without neglecting the roles of teachers as course developers, the methods
they use to transfer knowledge, and the materials they use to promote understanding. When teachers
become aware of those dimensions, they can easily cope with the problems they face in their
teaching career, and can find ways to help their learners cope with their learning problems in order
to achieve their educational goals and tasks. Teachers of English as a foreign language are the
knowledge providers for learners, they are the ones who are able to make diagnosis for the
psychological elements which intervene in the process of learning; when they understand the factors
affecting learners' performance they can easily make a change. Teachers are the feedback givers for
their learners; when giving them feedback of satisfaction vis-à-vis their performance, learners feel
that they are praised. This may encourage them to work and participate in a variety of educational
activities. Good English teachers are those who engage their learners in different classroom contexts
and different authentic experiences which are related to real life situations. They are those who
make their learners feel that they are decision makers instead of being just knowledge receivers.
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Listing the roles of teachers will never finish, that is why there are many researchers of the field
who every day present case studies and provide new techniques and ways to improve teaching,
because teaching is a profession which is flexible and teachers are supposed to vary in the methods
used ,the tool,etc.
3.Difficulties in Learning English as a Foreign Language

Learning is a journey which cannot be completed in a short period of time; it is a lifelong
process i.e. the more people learn the better they achieve personal, intellectual and professional
growth, and gain social respect. When learning a language, most people wonder to guess the period
that they need to become proficient, but the answer is unknown because it depends on different
factors which should be investigated in order to improve the quality of learning. As any other
branch of study, learning languages requires efforts and concentration, especially foreign languages,
because in that case the learner is exposed to other elements in addition to grammar and vocabulary,
the exposure is also in terms of culture. For that reason, learners face problems and difficulties, and
it is the responsibility of instructors to help their learners find ways to solve learning problems or at
least minimize them. Research findings indicate that learning a foreign language is not an easy task
for learners who find themselves exposed to other components not only linguistic ones. Being
exposed to a foreign language with its cultural aspects will certainly lead to learning difficulties
which are considered as normal because they are part of the learning process. Learners differ in
their potential and abilities that is why they differ when it comes to difficulties; some of them reach
fluency as well as literacy and seem to learn with a certain ease within a few years, while others
encounter problems; so the degree of difficulty differs from one learner to another depending on
different variations. Research also shows that learning a foreign language entails a number of
difficulties, all of which can be reduced through teachers' attempts. For example grammar can be
difficult for learners in the sense that it is different from that of the native language. In addition to
difficulties in the spelling system, some may find difficulty in memorizing vocabulary words
whereas others who may be influenced by their native accents experience problems in
pronunciation; an example of that is the distinction between the English R and L for the Japanese
learners. In the process of learning, errors are seen as a process of normal behaviour and they lead
to progress. However, some learners feel embarrassed or negatively judged and their affective state
can inhibit their ability to grasp knowledge and participate i.e. this represent an obstacle for them.
Those are some examples; mentioning the difficulties that learners of English as a foreign language
face will never come to an end, because learners are individuals with different personalities and
they differ also in their level; so what can be difficult for one may not be for another. Therefore, it is
the responsibility of teachers to discover those features which affect the learning process.
Regardless of the degree of difficulty, any learner can benefit from solutions which are created by
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teachers through developing their classroom practices. Being aware of those difficulties is the first
step which drives the teacher to find solutions and ways to reduce them so that their learners
achieve their educational tasks, reach their goals and improve their future learning performances. It
can be very difficult for some learners to master the language they are learning. However, knowing
how to cope with those difficulties provides many benefits, not only to fulfill their educational tasks
but they also need the language to build a better professional career and have an opportunity to deal
with people from other cultures with ease.
4.TEFL Educators' Work
TEFL educators are in high demand in many overseas settings as: Private language schools,
Universities, Private businesses, Government-sponsored programs, Charity organizations (e.g.,
Peace Corps) , Religious organizations ,Private tutoring…
The work of TEFL educators varies significantly based on the needs of the people they serve.
For example, college students may seek the assistance of TEFL educators to help them prepare for
university examinations, while international businesses may call in TEFL teachers to help their
employees improve their conversational English.
5. TEFL Requirements
TEFL requirements vary from one country and one employer to the next; therefore, TEFL
instructors should always check with the department of ministry in the country where they desire to
teach.
Bilingual educators and/or those who possess master’s degrees in another language or in teaching
English as a second/foreign language are always in demand. Individuals without these post-
secondary credentials may choose to complete a TEFL or TESOL certification program through an
accredited organization. However, not all certification programs are recognized internationally, and
there is no single accrediting agency or recognized body for TEFL certification.
TEFL certification courses may be completed online, over the course of a weekend, or on a part-
time basis, and many programs are offered through regionally accredited colleges and universities.
Many overseas jobs in TEFL require candidates to possess a degree in education, although it is also
common for professionals in areas such as business, math, or science to teach TEFL in
business/industry settings. In addition to demonstrating native fluency in English, candidates may
be required to show proof of a post-secondary education or specific training and/or experience in
TEFL.
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6.Related Terms and Definitions : The term TEFL is associated with teaching theory,qualification
, and careers.
6.1.Definitions
 Applied Linguistics: It is the most general of all the terms to be discussed. It is a general
concept that covers many aspects of language acquisition and use. It is an amorphous and
heterogeneous field drawing on and interfacing with a range of other academic disciplines
including: Linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, cognitive science and
information technology.
 Didactics : It can be said that didactics may be defined in two ways, as the art of teaching
or as the discipline about teaching. In the first sense, the art, it is being expected that
didactics explains the process as the “practical cognitive quality, the inner skill to produce
specific tasks” (Gutiérrez, 2001:14). This is, the ability teachers show to communicate
knowledge to others, to make easier for students to understand the content they are learning.
In the second sense, didactics as the science refers to “clear, ordered and supported concept
in theory” (Gutiérrez, 2001:15). Therefore, according to Gutiérrez (2001:15), didactics is
the “science which studies the teaching – learning phenomena as prescriptive aspects of an
efficient methodology.” That is to say, this discipline deals with the formal aspects of
teaching, methodology and all elements that interact within the classroom.
 Education. It is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge , skills ,

values, beliefs, and habits. It is defined as a process of inviting truth and possibility, of
encouraging and giving time to discovery. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social process – ‘a
process of living and not a preparation for future living’. In this view educators look to act with
people rather on them. Their task is to educe (related to the Greek notion of educere), to bring
out or develop potential.
 Learning :" Learning is the comprehensive activity in which we come to know ourselves
and the world around us. It is a paradoxical activity: it is doing and submitting at the same
time. Its achievements range from merely being aware to what may be called understanding
and being able to explain." (Oakeshott,M.p.108)
 Teaching : In education, teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience,

which is usually organized within a discipline and, more generally, the provision of stimulus
to the psychological and intellectual growth of a person by another person or artifact.
Teaching is an activity aimed at bringing about meaningful learning through a method that is
morally and pedagogically acceptable. It involves a teacher, a learner, content in form of
knowledge facts information and skill to be imparted a deliberate intention on the part of the
learners to learn, and finally a method that respects the learners’ cognitive integrity and
freedom of choice.
 Pedagogy: Pedagogy is an encompassing term concerned with what a teacher does to

influence learning in others.
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... the instructional techniques and strategies that allow learning to take place. It refers to
the interactive process between teacher/practitioner and learner and it is also applied to
include the provision of some aspects of the learning environment (including the concrete
learning environment, and the actions of the family and community)
(Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden & Bell, 2002, p.10).
6.2. Acronyms
 EAL: English as an Additional Language

 EAP: English for Academic Purposes
 EFL : English as a Foreign Language
 ELT: English Language Teaching
 EMT: English as a Mother Tongue
 ESL: English as a Second Language.
 ESOL: English for Speakers of other Languages.
 ESP: English for Specific Purposes
 EST: English for Science and Technology
 EWL: English as a World Language
 CALL: Computer-Assisted Language Learning
 CLT: Communicative Language Teaching
 TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language ( TOEFL)
 TESOL: Teaching English as a Second Language.
6.2.1.Some of TEFL Qualifications
 CELTA: Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults Accredited by Cambridge

University
 CELTYL: Certificate in Teaching English to Young Learners. Accredited by Cambridge
University
 DELTA: Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults Accredited by Cambridge
University
**Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater (Gail Godwin)**
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University of M'sila Department of English Language and Literature
Master One Classes TEFL Credits / Lecturer:Berkani
LESSON TWO : WHA IS TEACHING ?
Varied descriptions of teaching are available ranging from idealistic descriptions of teaching to
very specific task descriptions of what it involves. Teaching is described as an interactive process
between the teacher and the students under certain conditions for facilitating effective construction
of knowledge by students. It is also defined as a process to influence learners so as to 'impinge on
them through their perceptual and cognitive processes'. It is in this sense that teaching can be said to
be 'educating' a person. Education, no doubt, is a broader process of leading to individual
development and social progress. However, teaching is central to education in attaining its purpose;
that is, teaching is the instrument through which individuals are educated. Teaching is always
intended to lead to some learning. Without learning teaching is incomplete.
1.Definitions of the Concept of Teaching
In education, teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience, which is usually
organized within a discipline and, more generally, the provision of stimulus to the psychological
and intellectual growth of a person by another person or artifact. Teaching is an activity aimed at
bringing about meaningful learning through a method that is morally and pedagogically acceptable.
It involves a teacher, a learner, content in form of knowledge facts information and skill to be
imparted a deliberate intention on the part of the learners to learn, and finally a method that respects
the learners’ cognitive integrity and freedom of choice. To teach simply means to educate, impart
knowledge or skill; give instruction, inform, enlighten, discipline, drill, school, indoctrinate; and
coach to help to learn.
 Morse and Wingo (1968) saw that teaching is "understanding and guiding of children as
individual and as groups. It means the providing of learning experiences that will enable
each learner to grow continuously and sequentially towards his dealt role in society".
 Lawrence (1966) also viewed teaching as a complex process to be studied entirely in a
"live" situation. In other words teaching is a series of events where teacher attempts to
change the behavior of the students along the intended direction. In the process of teaching
teacher and student act as two poles interacting with each other through the path of
curriculum to achieve the predetermined objectives i.e. to promote the learning of students.
 Flanders (1976) defined teaching as a "reciprocal contact" between student and teacher
whereas Haugh and Duncan (1970) remarked that teaching is a complex process which
includes four phases - (a) curriculum planning phase, (b) an instructing phase, (c) a
measuring phase, and (d) an evaluative phase.
2.Components of Teaching
Teaching is a process that involves three main elements: the teacher, the learner, and the object of
knowledge:
a- The teacher (also called a school teacher or, in some contexts, an educator) is a person
who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values .He plays a vital and
important role of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the teaching in order to
provide full learning facilities to the students.
b- The learner (student / pupil / apprentice/ trainee) is someone who is learning about a
particular subject or how to do something. He is dependent upon the teacher for the learning
strategies and the content chosen by the teacher
c- The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a
specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses
offered by a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on
how broadly educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the
knowledge and skills students are expected to learn. The curriculum is a medium of
interaction between the students and teachers. So, it is an intervening variable to facilitate
learning. There are methods, teaching strategies or techniques of teaching through which
various interactions between students and teachers take place.
3. Teaching Process ( phases)
Teaching is fundamentally a process, including planning, implementation, evaluation and

revision. Planning and teaching a class are familiar ideas to most instructors. More overlooked are
the steps of evaluation and revision. Without classroom assessments or some other means of
receiving feedback on a regular basis, it is surprisingly easy to misunderstand whether a particular
teaching method or strategy has been effective. A teacher can create an environment of mutual trust
and respect by relying on students for feedback -- students can be a valuable resource for verifying
whether the class pedagogy is (or isn't) working. Self-examination with feedback from your
students and the instructor are keys to improving your teaching.
3.1. PLANNING ( PRE-ACTIVE PHASE)

There are many different levels of setting goals for teaching, from the scale of an entire
semester (syllabus) to a single class (lesson plan). You have the overall task of helping your
students learn how to think critically and to understand the basic concepts and tools of your
discipline. You should also have more specific day-to-day goals, such as examining the social
context of Victorian women writers or demonstrating how to integrate partial differential equations.
As a graduate TA you probably will not be responsible for designing an entire course, but you
should think about how your day-to-day teaching fits into the larger goals of the course.
3.2. IMPLEMENTATION (INTERACTIVE PHASE)

The best plans are meaningless if you don't try them. Although most of the work in teaching
comes in planning and preparation, many great ideas are never implemented because it was easier to
just keep doing the same thing. Don't be afraid if you have an idea you want to try. If something
hasn't been working right, why not change what you are doing and try something new? Unless you
are willing to change and experiment, you will find it difficult to improve your teaching skills
3.3. REVISION
Revising your pedagogy will help your students learn... and keep you interested. If you keep
your focus on student learning, you will find a richer meaning to the typical lecture discussion
/test/grade process. Instead of an adversarial relationship, the teaching process encourages a
relationship of cooperation and mutual discovery. Ernest Boyer helped redefine the notion of
scholarship, in fact, by including the scholarship of teaching as a culminating activity of the
research process of discovery, integration, and application of knowledge (Boyer 1990).
3.4. ASSESSMENT ( POST –ACTIVE PHASE)

Regular assessment of your students and yourself is critical to your success as a teacher. To
really understand whether you are teaching effectively and your students are learning effectively, it
is crucial that you actively and regularly assess what your students have learned. If you are able to
solicit meaningful feedback from your students and the professor on a regular basis (not just at the
end of the semester), you can modify and improve your teaching strategies. Assessments do not
need to be overly complex or involved. In fact, the more focused you are in the assessment, the
more impact your changes will have.
4. Purpose of Teaching
The aforesaid discussion reveals that the purposes of teaching are as follows:
(a) Teaching is a tri-polar process which purports to develop all round personality of the learner
through the curriculum.
(b) Teaching shapes the behavior of individual in a desired direction.
(c) Teaching helps the student to adjust in the new environment and to live harmoniously in the new
situation.
(d) Teaching encourages the student to learn and think for themselves to solve the problems.
(e) Teaching mainly purports to acquaint the students with the content of the subject to be taught.
Master One Classes TEFL Courses / Lecturer: Berkani
LESSON THREE: CHARACTERISTICS AND ROLES OF A GOOD TEACHER
There is really no “secret” recipe of being the perfect teacher. That is to say, there is probably no
teacher out there who is uniformly strong in all areas. Indeed, the most important characteristics of effective
teaching might not appear on any list. This idea is best expressed by de Saint-Exupery (1943) in The Little
Prince: “That which is essential cannot be seen with the eye. Only with the heart can one know it rightly.”
The earliest studies of teacher efficacy defined it as “the extent to which the teacher believes he or she
has the capacity to alter student performance” (McLaughlin & Marsh, 1978, p. 84).Since then, a considerable
amount of research has been done over the years, yet very basic questions still persist. Educators have failed
to reach agreement on answers to questions like:
 What is effective teaching?

 How is it defined?
 How may it be measured?
Many researchers in the field believe that consensus on the above-mentioned questions is not possible.
What the research has found, however, is that the overall expectations of a “good teacher” have not changed
drastically over the years but how they are manifested in the classroom has (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). Much
of the research conducted has sought to identify characteristics, factors, traits and/or classroom behaviors of
“effective teachers.”
1. What is a Teacher?
In his book The Practice of English Language Teaching (3rd.Ed), Harmer.J noted that teachers use
metaphors to describe what they do .Sometimes they say that they are like actors because "we are always on
the stage". Others think they are like orchestral conductors because "I direct conversation and set the pace
and tone". Yet, others feel like gardeners because "we plant the seeds and then watch them grow". The range
of images-these and others- that teachers use about themselves indicate the range of views that they have
about their profession.
Dictionaries also give a variety of messages about teaching. According to the Cambridge International
Dictionary of English, teaching means " to give someone knowledge or to instruct or train someone";
whereas, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English suggests that teaching is "show somebody how
to do something " or " to change somebody's ideas". It is because views are somewhat as to what teachers
are, and because different functions are ascribed to teaching, that one needs to describe and examine the
teacher's characteristics and roles not only in education, but in classroom itself.
2. Characteristics of a Good / Great / Effective/ Qualified Teacher
Many trainers are fond of quoting from a work called " The Prophet" by Gibran.K " if (the teacher) is
indeed wise, he does not bid you enter the house of his wisdom, but rather leads you the threshold of your
own mind"(Gibran 1991,p.76).Such humanistic sentiments expose a dilemma in the minds of many trainers
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and trainees. Is teaching about the "transmission" of knowledge from teacher to student, or is it about
creating conditions in which, somehow, students learn for themselves? (Harmer, p.56).
Teaching is hard work and some teachers never grow to be anything better than mediocre. They
do the bare minimum required and very little more. The great teachers, however, work tirelessly
to create a challenging, nurturing environment for their students. Great teaching seems to have
less to do with our knowledge and skills than with our attitude toward our students, our subject,
and our work. Although lists are certainly not all-inclusive, one may narrow down the many
characteristics of a great teacher:
2.1. A “Calling” to the Profession (Dedication) : Effective teachers are driven and passionate about what
they do and feel a “call” to teach as well as a passion to help students learn and grow. Without this mission,
or calling, teaching is just another job—and a tough one at that. Central to this calling is the idea of a positive
attitude. Effective teachers recognize that teaching is demanding. Despite this, they exhibit a sense of pride
in what they do.
2.2. Respecting Students. In a great teacher’s classroom, each person’s ideas and
opinions are valued. Students feel safe to express their feelings and learn to respect and listen
to others. This teacher creates a welcoming learning environment for all students.
2.3. Professional Knowledge : Shulman (1986) has identified seven types of knowledge that highly effective
teachers must have. According to him, teachers need knowledge about :
• The content they are teaching

• The curriculum, materials, and programs
• The broad principles and strategies that constitute classroom management and organization
• The student population
• The particular educational context they are teaching in

• Educational aims and values
• Pedagogical content knowledge which is a special mix of content and pedagogy unique to teachers.
It is thus said that a great teacher maintains professionalism in all areas—from personal appearance to
organizational skills and preparedness for each day. Their communication skills are exemplary, whether they
are speaking with an administrator, one of their students or a colleague. The respect that the great teacher
receives because of their professional manner is obvious to those around them.
2.4. Creating a sense of community and belonging in the classroom. The mutual respect in this teacher’s
classroom provides a supportive, collaborative environment. In this small community, there are rules to
follow and jobs to be done and each student is aware that he or she is an important, integral part of the group.
A great teacher lets students know that they can depend not only on them, but also on the entire class.
2.5. Warmth, accessibility, enthusiasm, and caring. These features describe a teacher who is approachable,
not only to students, but to everyone who may need them. This is the teacher to whom students know they
can go with any problems or concerns or even to share a funny story. Great teachers possess good listening
skills and take time out of their way-too-busy schedules for anyone who needs them. If this teacher is having
a bad day, no one ever knows-the teacher leaves personal baggage outside the school doors. Like the above
mentioned characteristics can be also named as " Personality traits or personal qualities". To what extent
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personality factors relate to teaching effectiveness has been the topic of numerous empirical studies.
Weinstein (1998) conducted a study which identified 10 characteristics “good teachers” were thought to have
(as cited in Brown & Rodgers, 2002, p. 153). Seven out of the ten characteristics related to personality. The
Weinstein study found personality factors like patience, warmth, creativity, humor, and outgoingness to be
indicative of effective teaching.
2.6. Loving learning: A good teacher inspires students with his passion for education and for the course
material. He constantly renews himself as a professional on his quest to provide students with the highest
quality of education possible. This teacher has no fear of learning new teaching strategies or incorporating
new technologies into lessons, and always seems to be the one who is willing to share what he’s learned with
colleagues.
2.7. Good Leadership: A great teacher is a skilled leader. Different from administrative leaders, effective
teachers focus on shared decision-making and teamwork, as well as on community building. This great
teacher conveys this sense of leadership to students by providing opportunities for each of them
to assume leadership roles.
2.8. Flexibility: A great teacher can “shift-gears” and is flexible when a lesson isn’t working. This teacher
assesses his teaching throughout the lessons and finds new ways to present material to make sure that every
student understands the key concepts.
2.9. Cooperation: A great teacher collaborates with colleagues on an ongoing basis. Rather than thinking of
themselves as weak because they ask for suggestions or help, this teacher views collaboration as a way to
learn from a fellow professional. A great teacher uses constructive criticism and advice as an opportunity to
grow as an educator.
2.10. Management: (With-it-ness): The concept of with-it-ness (McEwan, 2002) is defined as the state of
being on top of things, tuned into the teaching/learning environment, and in control of the different facets of
classroom life and our jobs. A “with-it” teacher is one who can organize and manage their classroom,
engage students in the lesson, and keep up a fast-paced momentum. Teachers with this quality are ones who
can do multi-tasks, use their time most effectively, and adapt to the changing needs and demands of their job
and the profession.
2.11. Instructional Effectiveness: For many, if teachers possess the requisite qualifications and years of
teaching experience, being a good teacher is considered a given. However, we all know and work with
teachers who have good credentials and lots of experience but have the same one year of teaching experience
20 times (as opposed to having 20 years of teaching experience). Knowing your content area and being able
to deliver effective lessons matters. Study after study confirms that students who have high quality teachers
make significant and lasting learning gains. Those with less effective teachers play a constant game of
academic catch up.
3. Roles of a Good Teacher
In the 21st century classroom, teachers are facilitators of student learning and creators of productive
classroom environments, in which students can develop the skills they might need at present or in future.
However, before we begin to understand the evolving role of an EFL/ ESL teacher, let’s outline some of the
most popular teacher roles. Harmer, J. states that ‘it makes more sense to describe different teacher roles and
say what they are useful for, rather than make value judgments about their effectiveness.’ So, here are some
of the most common teacher roles:
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Most teachers take on a variety of roles within the classroom, which role do you think most defines
your role in the EFL /ESL classroom?
1. The Controller: The teacher is in complete charge of the class, what students do, what they say and how
they say it. The teacher assumes this role when new language is being introduced and accurate reproduction
and drilling techniques are needed.
In this classroom, the teacher is mostly the centre of focus, the teacher may have the gift of instruction, and
can inspire through their own knowledge and expertise, but, does this role really allow for enough student
talk time? Is it really enjoyable for the learners? There is also a perception that this role could have a lack of
variety in its activities.
2. The Organizer: Perhaps the most difficult and important role the teacher has to play. The success of many
activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do next.
Giving instructions is vital in this role as well as setting up activities.
The organizer can also serve as a demonstrator, this role also allows a teacher to get involved and engaged
with learners. The teacher also serves to open and neatly close activities and also give content feedback.
3. The Prompter: The teacher encourages students to participate and makes suggestions about how students
may proceed in an activity. The teacher should be helping students only when necessary.
When learners are literally ‘lost for words’, the prompter can encourage by discreetly nudging students.
Students can sometimes lose the thread or become unsure how to proceed; the prompter in this regard can
prompt but always in a supportive way.
4. The Resource: The teacher is a kind of walking resource center ready to offer help if needed, or provide
learners with whatever language they lack when performing communicative activities. The teacher must
make her/himself available so that learners can consult her/him when (and only when) it is absolutely
necessary.
As a resource the teacher can guide learners to use available resources such as the internet, for themselves, it
certainly isn’t necessary to spoon-feed learners, as this might have the down side of making learners reliant
on the teacher.
5. The Assessor: The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or how well they
performed. Feedback and correction is organized and carried out.
There are a variety of ways we can grade learners, the role of an assessor gives teachers an opportunity to
correct learners. However, if it is not communicated with sensitivity and support it could prove counter-
productive to a student’s self-esteem and confidence in learning the target language.
6. The Participant: This role improves the atmosphere in the class when the teacher takes part in an activity.
However, the teacher takes a risk of dominating the activity when performing it.
Here the teacher can enliven a class; if a teacher is able to stand back and not become the center of attention,
it can be a great way to interact with learners without being too overpowering.
7. The Tutor: The teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in project work or self-study. The
teacher provides advice and guidance and helps students clarify ideas and limit tasks.
This role can be a great way to pay individual attention to a student. It can also allow a teacher to tailor make
a course to fit specific student needs. However, it can also lead to a student becoming too dependent or even
too comfortable with one teacher and one method or style of teaching.
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8.The Observer: According to Harmer.J.(1998), we will want to what students do observe what the
especially in oral communicative activities so that to give them useful group and individual feedback.
Hence, in observing students, we should be careful not to be too intrusive! When taking notes on students'’
performance, have columns not only for what they get wrong, but also what they do right. Observing for
success gives us a different feel for how well they are doing. We need to be able to work and observe
simultaneously, listening, watching, and absorbing. Not only in order to give feedback, but also to judge the
success of the different materials and activities we take into the lessons, so we can make necessary changes
in the future. This represents an important area of teacher development
 The Teacher as Teaching Aid
Apart from the different roles and how they are performed, we are a kind of teaching aid ourselves. We
use mime and gesture, we are the most important language models, and we provide meaningful input.
Brown, H. Douglas (2007) mentions that “teachers can play many roles in the course of teaching and this
might facilitate learning. Their ability to carry these out effectively will depend to a large extent on the
rapport they establish with their students, and of course, on their own level of knowledge and skills.
Regardless of the roles they assume, teachers shape the culture of their classrooms, improve student
learning, and influence practice and production.
**A good teacher is more than a lecturer**
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University of M'sila Department of English Language and Literature
Master One Classes TEFL Credits/ Lecturer: Berkani
LESSON FOUR: WHAT IS LEARNING ?
1.Definition of Learning
Before we dive into understanding the relevant science behind the learning process, let’s ground
ourselves in a definition of learning that is drawn from research.
Learning is a process that:
1-is active process of engaging and manipulating objects, experiences, and conversations in order to
build mental models of the world (Dewey, 1938; Piaget, 1964; Vygotsky, 1986). Learners build
knowledge as they explore the world around them, observe and interact with phenomena, converse
and engage with others, and make connections between new ideas and prior understandings.
2-builds on prior knowledge and involves enriching, building on, and changing existing
understanding, where “one’s knowledge base is a scaffold that supports the construction of all future
learning” (Alexander, 1996, p. 89).
3-occurs in a complex social environment - and thus should not be limited to being examined or
perceived as something that happens on an individual level. Instead, it is necessary to think of
learning as a social activity involving people, the things they use, the words they speak, the cultural
context they’re in, and the actions they take (Bransford, et al., 2006; Rogoff, 1998), and that
knowledge is built by members in the activity (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006).
4-is situated in an authentic context - provides learners with the opportunity to engage with specific
ideas and concepts on a need-to-know or want-to-know basis (Greeno, 2006; Kolodner, 2006).
5-requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained when learning complex
ideas, because considerable mental effort and persistence are necessary.
The conditions for inputs to learning are clear, but the process is incomplete without making sense of
what outputs constitute learning has taken place. At the core, learning is a process that results in a
change in knowledge or behavior as a result of experience. Understanding what it takes to get that
knowledge in and out (or promote behavioral change of a specific kind) can help optimize learning.
We use the term 'learning' all the time in everyday life. But within the field of educational psychology,
the term learning is actually a specific term. Different people use different words to define learning
within educational psychology, but in general, we're talking about a step-by-step process in which an
individual experiences permanent, lasting changes in knowledge, behaviors, or ways of processing the
world.
2.Characteristics of Learning
Psychologists generally agree on some characteristics of learning. The instructor should

understand these and turn them to good use.
1-Learning is Purposeful :
1
Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual
whose past experience affects readiness to learn and understanding of those requirements involved. Most
people have fairly definite ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Goals sometimes are short
term, a matter of days or weeks. On the other hand, some goals may be carefully planned for a career or
a lifetime. Each student has specific purposes and goals. Some of those purposes and goals may be
shared by fellow students. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their purposes. Their
individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is doing to
get them to learn. In the process of learning, the learner’s purpose is of paramount significance. The
effective instructor seeks ways to relate new learning to the student’s goals.
2. Learning Comes Through Experience
Learning is an individual process. The instructor cannot do it for the student; knowledge cannot be
poured into the student’s head. The student can learn only from individual experiences. “Learning” and
“knowledge” cannot exist apart from a person. A person’s knowledge is a result of individual
experience. Even when observing the same event, two people react differently. They learn different
things from it, according to the manner in which the situation affects their individual needs. Previous
experience conditions a person to respond to some things and to ignore others.
All learning is by experience, but it takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of richness and
depth. Therefore, the instructor is faced with the problem of providing experiences that are meaningful
only if they understand them well enough to apply them correctly to real situations. If an experience
challenges the learner, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences and
physical activity, it is more effective than an experience in which all the
learner has to do is commit something to memory. It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical
skill requires actual experience in performing that skill. Mental habits are also learned through practice.
If students are to use sound judgment and solve problems well, they must have had learning experiences
in which they have exercised judgment and applied their knowledge of general principles in the solving
of realistic problems.
3. Learning is Multifaceted
If instructors see their objective as being only to train their student’s memory and muscles ,they
underestimate the potential of the teaching situation. Students may have learned much that the instructor
had not intended. Students do not leave their thinking minds or feeling at home, just because they were
not included in the instructor’s plan. Psychologists sometimes classify learning by types: verbal,
conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem solving and emotional. However useful these divisions may be,
they are artificial. For example, a class learning to apply the scientific method of problem-solving may
learn the method by trying to solve real problems. But in doing so, it also engages in “verbal learning”
and “sensory perception” at the same time. Each student approaches the task with preconceived ideas
and feelings, and for many students these ideas change as a result of experience. The learning process
may include verbal elements and elements of problem-solving all taking place at once. Learning is
multifaceted in still another sense. Students may be developing attitudes about hunting—good or bad—
depending on what they experience. Under a skillful instructor, they may learn self-reliance. The list is
seemingly endless. This learning is sometimes called “incidental,” but it may have great impact on the
total development of the student.
4. Learning is an Active Process
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Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that
students remember something just because they were present in the classroom when the instructor
“taught” it. Neither can the instructor assume that the students can apply what they know because they
can quote the correct answer from the book. For students to learn, they must react and respond,
outwardly, or inwardly, emotionally or intellectually. If learning is a process of
changing behavior, clearly that process must be an active one.
3.Types of Learning
Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new
association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical
conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.
3.1.Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning (learning by association)
Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the
capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. The most important thing
to remember is that classical conditioning involves automatic or reflexive responses, and not voluntary
behavior .i.e. the only responses that can be elicited out of a classical conditioning paradigm are ones
that rely on responses that are naturally made by the animal (or human) that is being trained. Also, it
means that the response you hope to elicit must occur below the level of conscious awareness - for
example, salivation, nausea, increased or decreased heart rate, pupil dilation or constriction, or even a
reflexive motor response (such as recoiling from a painful stimulus). In other words, these sorts of
responses are involuntary
3.1.1. PAVLOV’S DOGS

In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on
digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a
phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see
the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat
powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over
time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether
it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that
distributed the meat powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a
bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell
was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without
the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation).
However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able
to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-
response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated
much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.
In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s
salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to
associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the
conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
3.1.2. JOHN B. WATSON: EARLY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH HUMANS
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John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings..In 1921, Watson
studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become
afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert
showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the
loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear
(UCR).
John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was
able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses was
simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or
consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different
experiences of learning. He famously said:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p. 104).
3.1.2. INSTRUMENTAL ( OPERANT) CONDITIONING
It is a learning process first described by B. F. Skinner. In instrumental conditioning, reinforcement

or punishment are used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in
the future.
 E.g. If a student is rewarded with praise every time she raises her hand in class, she becomes
more likely to raise her hand again in the future. If she is also scolded when she speaks out of
turn, she becomes less likely to interrupt the class. In these examples, the teacher is using
reinforcement to strengthen the hand-raising behavior and punishment to weaken the talking out
of turn behavior.
Instrumental conditioning is often used in animal training as well. For example, training a dog to shake
hands would involve offering a reward every time the desired behavior occurs.
 How It Works?
Skinner identified two key types of behaviors. The first type is respondent behaviors. These are
simply actions that occur reflexively without any learning. If you touch something hot, you will
immediately draw your hand back in response. Classical conditioning focuses on these respondent
behaviors. In Pavlov's classic experiments with dogs, salivating to the presentation of food was the
respondent behavior. By forming an association between the sound of a bell and the presentation of
food, however, Pavlov was able to train dogs to actually salivate simply at the sound of that bell.
Skinner realized that while classical conditioning could explain how respondent behaviors could lead to
learning, it could not account for every type of learning. Instead, he suggested that it was the
consequences of voluntary actions that lead to the greatest amount of learning.
The second type of behaviors is what Skinner referred to as operant behaviors. He defined these as any
and every voluntary behavior that acts upon the environment to create a response. These are the
voluntary behaviors that are under our conscious control. These are also actions that can be learned. The
consequences of our actions play an important role in the learning process.
 Reinforcement and Punishment
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Skinner identified two key aspects of the operant conditioning process. Reinforcement serves to
increase the behavior while punishment serves to decrease the behavior.
There are also two different types of reinforcement and two different types of punishment. Positive
reinforcement involves presenting a favorable outcome, such as giving a child a treat after she cleans her
room. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, like telling a child that if
she eats all her potatoes then she won’t have to eat her broccoli. Since the child considers broccoli an
unpleasant consequence and eating the potatoes leads to the removal of this undesirable consequence,
eating the potatoes is then negatively reinforced.
 Positive punishment means applying an unpleasant event after a behavior. Spanking, for
example, is a common example of positive punishment. This type of punishment is often referred
to as punishment by application. A negative consequence is directly applied to reduce the
unwanted behavior.
 Negative punishment involves taking away something pleasant after a behavior occurs. For
example, if a child fails to clean her room, her parents might tell her that she cannot go to the
mall with her friends. Taking away the desirable activity acts as a negative punisher on the
preceding behavior.
3.2.Observational Learning
It is a form of learning that takes place by observing others. Earlier this form of learning was called
imitation. Bandura and his colleagues in a series of experimental studies investigated observational
learning in detail. In this kind of learning, human beings learn social behaviours, therefore, it is
sometimes called social learning. In many situations individuals do not know how to behave. They
observe others and emulate their behaviour. This form of learning is called modeling.
Examples of observational learning abound in our social life. Fashion designers employ tall, pretty,
and gracious young girls and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for popularising clothes of different
designs and fabrics. People observe them on televised fashion shows and advertisements in magazines
and newspapers. They imitate these models. Observing superiors and likeable persons and then
emulating their behavior in a novel social situation is a common experience.
Children learn most of the social behaviours by observing and emulating adults. The way to put on
clothes, dress one’s hair, and conduct oneself in society are learned through observing others. It has also
been shown that children learn and develop various personality characteristics through observational
learning. Aggressiveness, prosocial behaviour, courtesy, politeness,diligence, and indolence are acquired
by this method of learning
3.3.Cognitive Learning
“Cognitive” refers to “cognition”, which the Oxford dictionary defines as “the mental action or
process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.”
Webster’s Dictionary defines learning as “knowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study”. The
concept of cognitive learning unites these two ideas, and defines the processes that intervene when
processing information, which goes from sensory input, passes through the cognitive system, and
reaches the response.
The idea of learning may be the action that has most set humans apart throughout our history. We are the
living proof of the continuous, meaningful learning at has allowed for the human life as we know it
today.
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Bloom (Check Bloom's taxonomy) established that in cognitive learning the domains involve
knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes recalling or recognizing facts,
patterns, procedures, concepts that help develop intellectual abilities. For him the six major categories of
cognitive processes are:
 Knowledge
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluation
The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be
mastered before the next one can take place.
The brain is what guides and directs our learning, and as human beings have evolved and advanced,
we have learned more and more information, skills, and ideas that have helped us become more
intelligent. However, the brain has not actually become more sophisticated as we advanced over time,
but rather, we have changed how we learn. The more scientists learn about the brain, the easier it is to
take advantage of how it works and its characteristics and make it easier for us to learn.
3.4.Concept Learning
The world, in which we live, consists of innumerable objects, events and living beings. These
objects and events are different in their structures and functions. One of the many things human beings
have to do is to organize the objects, events, animals, etc., into categories so that within the category,
objects are treated as equivalent even though they are different in their features. Such categorizations
involve concept learning.
A concept is a category that is used to refer to a number of objects and events. Animal, fruit, building,
and crowd are examples of concepts or categories.
Learning is “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which] must

come about as a result of the learner’s experience and interaction with the world.”
From Psychology of Learning for Instruction by M. Driscoll
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LESSON FIVE: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LEARNER
A number of recent studies on language learning styles and strategies have attempted to
define the “Good” language learner". During the 1970s, teachers and researchers reached
conclusion that no single method of language teaching and research findings would end to the
universal success in teaching a second language (Brown, 2007). It seems that learners would be
successful in language learning regardless of methods or teaching techniques. In this regard, Brown
(2007) said: “Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to succeed; other slacked those
abilities” (p.132). So, despite of the numerous studies done on ‘The Good Language Learner’, it is
difficult to prove many of the things that we ‘know’ to be true because they are based on
our experiences which are hard to quantify (Lightbown and Spada, 1997).
One study, conducted by David Nunan, examined the practices of 44 non-native English
speaking EFL teachers from a variety of Asian countries. He found that being motivated and
willing to take risks, having opportunities to practice the language they had learned both
inside and outside of the classroom and having some activities that were form-focused and
learner-centered were the strongest factors which influenced the learning of this group of
participants. Not being provided with opportunities to speak or automatize the language was
listed as the main reason the participants felt they struggled when learning a language (Nunan,
2000). Generally, it seems to be that it is the attitudes, skills, and strategies learners possess that
dictate whether or not they will be able to grasp the intricacies of language (Oxford, 1990)( Cited in
Nunan,2000,p.7).
1. Characteristics of Good Learners According to Some TEFL Experts

According to Rubin and Thompson (1983)(Cited in Nunan,2000,p.171) , a good language
learner possesses some of these characteristics:
 Good learners find their own way.

 Good learners organize information about language.
 Good learners are creative and experiment with language.
 Good learners make their own opportunities, and find strategies for getting practice in using
the language inside and outside the classroom.
1
 Good learners learn to live with uncertainty and develop strategies for making sense of the
target language without wanting to understand every word.
 Good learners use mnemonics (rhymes, word associations, etc. to recall what has been
learned).
 Good learners make errors work.
 Good learners use linguistic knowledge including knowledge of their first language in
mastering a second language.
 Good learners let the context (extra-linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world) help
them in comprehension.
 Good learners learn to make intelligent guesses.
 Good learners learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them
perform ‘beyond their competence’
 Good learners learn production techniques (e.g. techniques for keeping a conversation
going).
 Good learners learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language
according to the formality of the situation.
Rubin and Thompson were not the only ones who felt that it was important for students to
take risks (3, 4, 5), use their previous schema (8), be motivated (4, 5), have solid strategies in
place (4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13) and be able to live with uncertainty (5). Oxford and Brown also
agreed. (Oxford, 1990) (Brown, 2000).
According to McDonough and Shaw (2003,p.56 ),

“Success is thought to be based on such factors as checking one’s performance in a
language, being willing to guess and to ‘take risks’ with both comprehension and
production, seeking out opportunities to practice, developing efficient memorizing
strategies, and many others” .
Lightbown and Spada’s list ( Adapted from: Lightbown, Patsy M. and Spada, Nina (1997), How
Languages are Learned (7th Impression), Oxford, Oxford University Press, page 34) resembles
Rubin and Thompson’s, but they thought learners should also have a high intelligence, good
academic skills and enjoy the process of learning. They implied that if a learner had good skills
and was able to learn other subjects, they could then apply those same skills (eg. looking for
patterns etc.) to learning a language.
 Good learners are accurate guessers.

 Good learners are willing to make mistakes.
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 Good learners try to communicate even without language.
 Good learners look for patterns.
 Good learners practice whenever possible.
 Good learners analyze their own speech.
 Good learners pay attention to their own standards.
 Good learners enjoy grammar.
 Good learners begin learning in childhood.
 Good learners have above average IQs.
 Good learners have good academic skills.
 Good learners have good self image and self confidence.
Tricia Hedge’s list focuses on ‘Self-Directed Learners’. She believes that learners who have
good strategies in place and who are autonomous will likely be more successful than learners
who depend on the teacher for everything and who blindly follow without trying to process
the information and make it their own (Hedge, 2000.p.76). Being ‘Self-Directed’ means that you
are motivated to learn and are willing to do whatever it takes to accomplish the task .She listed:
 Self-directed learners know their needs and work productively with the teacher towards
achieving their objectives.
 Self-directed learners know how to use resources independently.
 Self-directed learners learn both inside and outside the classroom.
 Self-directed learners adjust their learning strategies as needed.
 Self-directed learners manage and divide the time in learning properly.
 Self-directed learners learn with active thinking.
Holden (2002,p.18) said:

“Autonomous learners are both cognitively and meta-cognitively aware of their role
in the learning process, seek to create their own opportunities to learn, monitor their
learning, and attempt actively to manage their learning in and out of the classroom.”
2. Types of Learners:
Tony,W.(1987) distinguished four types of learners. A classification based on actual

observation of classroom interaction rather than psychological theory.
2.1.The enthusiast: This type tends towards the teacher as a point of reference, but at the same time
it is concerned with the goals of the learning group.
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2.2. The oracular: This type centres on the teacher, but this time is much more oriented towards the
satisfaction of personal goals.
2.3.The participator focuses attention both on group goals and on group solidarity.
2.4.The rebels leans towards the learning group for his/her point of reference but is mainly
concerned with the satisfaction of his /her own goals.
** Great minds think alike **
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LESSON SIX: LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS: PRACTICAL INSIGHTS
Introduction
Think back to your own language learning days. Did you ever have a teacher who forced everyone
to learn the same way? Were all the students equally happy with that class? Probably not. The
chances are that a teacher who showed no flexibility and appreciation of variety in learning style
was not very motivating or successful.
''There is no single acceptable way to go about teaching language today." This quote, from Diane
Larsen-Freeman's writings on language teaching methodology, sums up a major trend away from
unity to diversity.
There has been a growing realization that people learn in different ways, and that approaches which
suit one person may not suit another. For example, some outgoing personalities love to experiment
and can hardly wait for the chance to try speaking the new language. Others, more reserved, prefer
to listen and understand before speaking. Some people find that studying the grammar is an
important step for them in establishing a framework for their language learning. Others never study
the rules, but find that putting themselves in situations where they have to communicate is enough
to trigger their learning.
Against this backdrop, teachers of English have concluded that no single approach or method is
appropriate for all learning styles. A good lesson will therefore be one in which you use a
smorgasbord of activities taken from a variety of sources. By varying your technique, you will give
students of all styles the chance to shine some of the time. With this thought in mind, you can begin
to appraise the language learning approaches used in the country in which you serve. Each approach
has something to offer. Your task is to identify and exploit those elements.
As you become more familiar with your job you will find out that you learn to trust your instincts
and your ability to judge when to switch techniques. At first you may need to read about methods
and approaches, and you should look for opportunities to talk to experienced teachers about what
they think of different methods. Then, gradually as you get to know your students, you will find
that you can sense when a class is tired, or confused, or in need of quiet time, or particularly
interested. And you will find that you know when to dip into your repertoire of approaches, games
and exercises to find the appropriate activity which suits the mood of your students and which
ensures the get the best out of every lesson
The terms "method" and "approach" will be used interchangeably in this lesson. For example, the
chapter refers to the Audio-lingual Method and the Communicative Approach. A number of
different ways of distinguishing between methods and approaches have been proposed by experts in
the field but the distinctions usually blur. Both deal with theory of the nature of language and
language learning; with syllabus, learning and teaching activities, learner and teacher roles, and
instructional materials; and with classroom techniques, practices, and behaviours.
1.Traditional language teaching

1
1.1.Grammar translation method
1.1.1. Background: The Grammar Translation Method looks upon language learning as an
intellectual activity. Until twenty years ago, this method was commonly used in Europe to teach
Latin in schools. Those countries which were closely associated with Britain or France sometimes
still bear the traces of this association in the use of modified forms of Grammar Translation in
language classroom.
1.1.2. Distinguishing features: In a typical Grammar Translation class the main focus is on reading
and writing, with little attention being given to speaking or listening. The central text for each
lesson is literary. Passages are selected from authors as Mark Twain, George Orwell, Charles
Dickens, or modern writers such as Chinua Achebe and V.S. Naipaul. These passages are read and
then comprehension questions are asked and answered, first orally, then in writing. Grammar is
taught deductively, through presentation and study of the rules, followed by practice through
translations and exercises. Vocabulary selection is based on the reading text sed. Words are taught
through bilingual lists and memorization. Students are often asked to write the new word in a
sentence.
1.1.3. Impact on your classroom and your teaching

Many of your students will he used to and may expect Grammar Translation activities.
Memorization particularly may be considered a valued teaching tool, especially in societies where
oral traditions are strong, or where periods of study in Koranic or Buddhist schools are the norm. In
the United States, where the emphasis is placed on understanding concepts rather than memorizing
texts, the role of memorization tends to be downgraded. However memorization does not exclude
understanding, and as a teacher of languages, it behooves you to play to your students ' strengths. If
the syllabus followed in your school includes literary texts and you have presented a poem,
explored its ideas and are satisfied that your students understand them, then asking your students to
learn the poem is a good way to reinforce learning and one that your students will be used to.
Your students may also be used to the style of teacher-student interaction generated by the
Grammar Translation Method. In this method, the teacher initiates interaction and there are seldom
any student-to-student exchanges. The role of the teacher is a traditionally authoritarian one and the
role of the student is to obey. Sudden changes to this dynamic can result in near chaos, so any
alteration you want to make should be carried out cautiously. You may want to ask your supervisor
if you can sit in on a few lessons given by your colleagues. Observing other teachers can give you
an idea of the sort of student-teacher relationship which exists in your school and can give you the
parameters of a model to follow.
1.2.Direct method
1.2.1. Background
The Direct Method developed in the nineteenth century as educationalists attempted to build a
language learning methodology around their observations of child language learning. These
educationalists argued that a foreign language could be taught without translation or use of the
learner's native tongue. The Direct Method therefore insists on thinking and communicating directly
in the target language and does not allow translation. The Berlitz School of Languages is the best
known proponent of this method.
1.2.2.Distinguishing features : The four language skills are taught from the beginning, but a
special emphasis is placed on speaking. Classes often start with the reading aloud of a specially
graded text which introduces the lesson's vocabulary and grammatical structure. Practice follows
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with exercises such as guided conversation, where the teacher asks questions on the text and the
students answer using full sentences. Students will then ask each other similar questions. Other
practice exercises include filling-in-the-blanks, dictation, controlled composition or listening
comprehension exercises. Grammar is taught inductively, that is to say, language patterns are
presented and practiced, but the rules are not explicitly given. The Direct Method teacher uses
mime, demonstration, realia, and visual aids to help students understand grammar and vocabulary.
The "No translation" rule can become an issue. Teachers complain that it is sometimes time
consuming to mime vocabulary, when a simple translation would do. And some words are difficult
to mime. Students become frustrated when some members of the class do not understand the
teacher's explanations and when the whole class is held up until the meaning becomes clear to all.
When monitoring carefully the amount of your students' native language you use in class, you
should use your common sense in this question of translation. If you judge that your students are
not getting the point, or the meaning of a particular word, if you think that your lesson is straying
from its objectives, and if you know the word in your students' language, then give a translation and
get on with your lesson.
Many of the textbooks based on the Direct Method, most of which are by now quite dated, were
written for Western school children. This can be problematic since the method is heavily dependent
on the text, and the texts are not guaranteed to be culturally accessible. A textbook used in
Francophone Africa describes children having comflakes or breakfast, putting on their Wellington
boots because it is raining, and catching a double-decker bus to go to school. It is not difficult to
transfer this lesson into a cultural context that your students will understand, but it is an additional
barrier for your students to overcome. And your role in this process will be to provide the necessary
cultural translation.
1.3.Audiolingual method (ALM)
1.3.1. Background: During the Second World War, army programs were set up to teach American
military personnel languages such as German, French, Japanese and Tagalog. Strong emphasis was
placed on aural-oral training. The Audiolingual Method developed from these programmmes. This
method was also influenced by behavioral psychologists who believed that foreign language
learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.
1.3.2.Distinguishing features: In the Audiolingual Method, skills are taught in the natural order of
acquisition: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Audiolingual classes begin with a dialogue
which introduces the lesson's sentence patterns. The students memorize this dialogue, then practice
grammar patterns in drills such as listen and repeat, substitution, chain, and transformation.
Accuracy in pronunciation is emphasized and fostered through minimal pair drills where students
learn to differentiate between sounds such as the vowels in "ship" and "sheep," "hit" and "heat," and
"bit" and "beat." Lessons are sequenced according to grammatical complexity.
Translation, considered to cause interference from the mother tongue, is not allowed. Learning is
tightly controlled by the teacher, who follows the text closely.
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Many of your students will be familiar with the type of activities described above. For most
Americans variety and change is an essential part of their learning experience. Therefore, you may
sometimes find yourself amazed by your students' stamina and capacity to repeat drills in mantra-
like fashion seemingly for hours at a time.
To ensure that mindless chanting does not take over, you may wish to emphasize some of the speed
and competitiveness promoted by the Audiolingual Method.
2. Communicative language teaching
2.1. Communicative approach
2.1.1.Background
The emphasis is placed on using the target language to accomplish a function such as complaining,
advising, or asking for information. Attention is also paid to the social context in which this
function takes place. For instance, different language will be used when complaining to a teacher
than when complaining to a close friend.
2.1.2.Distinguishing features
All four language skills are taught from the beginning. In speaking skills the aim is to be
understood, not to speak like a native. In the sequencing of lessons, priority is given to learner
interests and needs. This is in contrast to a grammar driven method which may start with verb
tenses, and work through from the present simple to the conditionals. In the Communicative
Approach, if a learner needs to know how to give advice ("If I were you, I would ....") then this
conditional is taught. Interaction between speakers and listeners or readers and writers is at the root
of all activities. Learners usually work in pairs or groups for role play, information sharing, or
problem solving.
The communicative approach will challenge your creativity to set up situations in which your
students can demonstrate their competency in the four language skills. Group work is basic to this
demonstration. But you may face difficulties in the logistics of organizing your groups. Lack of
space, or complaints from other teachers about the noisy moving of desks, might feature in your
first few weeks of asking your class to divide into groups. You will have to consider all of your
options. Can you work outside? Is it possible to use the library for your lessons'? Can you set up a
reward system to encourage your students to move quickly and quietly into their groups?
You may also encounter resistance to group work from your students. Some of the better students
may resent having to "share" their skills and grades. Some of the less motivated students may take
the opportunity to do even less work. Your grading policy for group work will have to be spelled
out and you will need to monitor that everyone is contributing to the group effort. You should also
leave the time and the opportunity to earn grades for individual work.
2.2. Total physical response (TPR) and the natural approach

2.2.1. Background
TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action. It attempts
to teach language through physical activity. The Natural Approach shares with TPR an emphasis on
exposing the learner to hearing and understanding the language before requiring the learner to
speak.
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2.2.2. Distinguishing features
Language skills are taught in the natural order of acquisition: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. Both the Natural Approach and TPR focus on the importance of listening comprehension as
the basis for language acquisition. Both approaches believe that language is acquired, not learned.
In other words, learners acquire a language through an unconscious process which involves using
the language for meaningful communication. Learning, on the other hand, involves a conscious
process which results in knowledge about the rules of a language, but not necessarily in an ability to
use the language. The learner's mother tongue is seldom used. Meaning is made clear by mime,
drawing, etc. Great attention is paid to reducing learner anxiety. The Natural Approach stresses that
self-confident learners with high motivation are successful learners and that teachers should create a
learning environment which promotes self-confidence.
2.2.3. Impacts on your classroom
In both of these approaches, the role of the teacher is to generate comprehensible input. This means
that when presenting new materials you have to be prepared to speak, mime, draw, or use real
objects to get your meaning across. Only when you are satisfied that your students understand and
are ready to speak do you ask them to do so.
These approaches can be useful and funny especially when you are working with beginners or with
students at a technical or a vocational center who only take one hour of English a week, or with
students whose greatest need is for listening comprehension. It is also useful when you lack
adequate textbooks. Very few institutions offer courses which use only TPR or the Natural
Approach, but many teachers have commented that comprehension-based activities reduce learning
stress.
** Teaching is a hard work because it is heart work**
5
LESSON SEVEN: MOTIVATION
Motivation is important because it highly contributes to achievement. Teachers have to be

certain that their students are being motivated in order to develop a positive outcome.
1.Motivation: Backgrounds ,Definitions, and Significance
In psychology, motivation is a force that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal (Eggen,
Kauchak, 1994). Wlodkowski (1986) suggested that motivation describes processes that (a) arouse a
desire to investigate behavior, (b) give direction and purpose to behavior, (c) continue to allow
behavior to persist, or (d) lead to choosing or preferring a particular behavior. In relation to
learning, Crump (1995) stated that the act of motivating could be defined as exciting the mind of the
student to receive instruction (Brewer, Burgess 2005). In a word, motivation is an inner state
that arouses individual’s desire for a goal and maintains their efforts in a certain direction and time
(Kong,2009)
In a learning environment developing motivation is a difficult task for the teacher considering
that every student learns differently and every student is diverse in their own ways. But students
expect the teacher to guide and encourage them in a constructive manner (Shadlyn, 2004).
Teachers’ instructional choices can make a positive impact on student motivation. “In the formal
world of the classroom, teachers hold an extreme position of power” (Vialle, 2000). Teachers play a
vital role in influencing student’s motivation. “Effective schools and effective teachers are those
who develop goals, beliefs, and attitudes in students that will sustain a long-term involvement and
that will contribute to quality involvement in learning" (Ames,1990).
However, some studies have suggested that teachers have primary responsibility for motivating
students to learn. Brophy (1987) suggested that teachers viewed themselves as active socialization
agents who were capable of stimulating students' motivation to learn. Wilkenson (1992) stated that
a dictionary definition for "teach" was "to cause to know a subject." Wilkenson believed that
whereas students were responsible for learning material in a class, the teacher was responsible for
causing the student to know the material. In addition, Wilkenson believed that teachers should
judge their success by the success of their students and that the purpose for teachers was to serve
students. Additional studies have supported Wilkenson's strong views on the responsibility of the
teacher to motivate students to learn. One of the major findings in a study by Small (1996) was that
1
instructors were perceived by students as having the prime responsibility for learners' interest or
boredom. McCutcheon (1986) further reported that a survey indicated students believed that out of
51 possible choices, the main reason they missed a class was their negative perceptions of the
professor and the course (Brewer,Burgess, 2005)
According to Jere Brophy, a leading researcher on student motivation and effective teaching,
“Student motivation to learn is an acquired competence developed through general experience but
stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction
or socialization by others (especially parents or teachers).” As Barbara Davis writes in Tools for
Teaching, “Students respond positively to a well-organized course.” Therefore, it is important to
be mindful of the fact that how you structure the course and the teaching methodologies you use can
greatly affect your students’ motivation to learn. By providing students with a basic framework of
expectations and guidelines, students often remark that they feel empowered and are better able to
shape their semester.
Barbara Davis points out that “Research has shown that a teacher’s expectations have
a powerful effect on a student’s performance” (Callahan 2010). As a teacher, tell your students you
expect them to be successful in learning. Provide a framework of sub-goals for steady progress
towards mastery of the requirements (Nadler, Lawler,1979). The beliefs teachers themselves have
about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a
powerful influence (Raffini, 1993). As Deborah Stipek (1988) noted: “To a very large degree,
students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn” (Linda, 1994). If teachers have a
responsibility to motivate students to attend class and to learn, it is important for teachers to
understand specifically how to motivate students. Brewer and Marmon (2000) and Wilson and
Cameron (1996) identified three general areas teachers in training used to evaluate themselves:
instruction, relationships, and management. Instruction involved teacher skills and competencies.
Relationships concerned the attitudes teachers had toward their students (Brewer, Burgess 2005).
As Barbara McCombs notes, “Motivating learning is largely dependent on helping to bring out and
develop students’ natural motivations and tendencies to learn rather than ‘fixing them’ or giving
them something they lack.”
2. Types of Motivation: The most commonly known types are :
2.1. Intrinsic Motivation: It is the internal motives by which people “participate in an activity for
their amusement, not for the reward they will get “ (Feldman, 1997,p.280).
Richards and Schmidt (2002) described it as “enjoyment of language learning itself”.
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Another definition was given by (Deci & Ryan 1985; Reeve, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 2000, cited in
Woolfolk,2004,p.351) who explained that intrinsic motivation is “ the natural tendency to seek out
and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities”.
From the presented definitions, we could say that intrinsic motivation after all comes from needs,
drives, curiosity within students themselves, i.e., their inherent inner interest.
2.2. Extrinsic Motivation

It is driven by external factors as “parental pressure, societal expectations, or academic
requirements” (Richards & Schmidt,ibid.).In this type , language is not learnt for itself, but for
other outside forces. It relies heavily on “incentives (positive reinforcement) or punishment
(negative reinforcement)” (Erwin,op.cit,p.6).Hence, compared to the first type, this one is
characterized by a tangible reward.
2.3. Instrumental Motivation

It speaks for itself. It is defined as the desire to learn and use language as an instrument (a
means) to reach certain goals, for example, having a job, reading foreign newspapers, or passing
exams. Instrumental motivation mirrors learners' determination and zeal to satisfy some useful
purposes. It is therefore oriented to more practical concerns.
2.4. Integrative Motivation.

This type is characterised by the willingness to be like a valued members of the language
community (Richards & Schmidt, ibid.). Integrative motivation imparts learners' desire to identify
themselves through particular socio-cultural features of the language being learnt, i.e., within this
kind, learners aim at language in order to communicate with people of other communities
(cultures).For instance, those who live in foreign countries hope to be integrated in these societies.
That is, their learning language is moved by integrative reasons.
3.Motivation and Planning Courses
The following are some strategies by Mekiva Callahan (2010) to consider when planning
your course and creating lessons which are important in student motivation.
 Set the tone early in the semester. Your syllabus should clearly state your
learning objectives, course goals, and student expectations for the course. Explicitly
communicate to your students what they need to do to be successful in the class and
achieve their personal goals. You want to capitalize on your students’ initial curiosity
with an enthusiastic introduction of the course. This can easily be done by conducting
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class surveys or administering diagnostic tests to get a sense of what the students
already know or believe about the course. These strategies can be used on first day of
class and also when introducing a new topic (Callahan, 2010). Communicate your
enthusiasm for your subject. Tell your students how you became interested in your
subject and how your research interests developed (Wlodkowski, 1999).
 Vary your teaching methods. Instead of the traditional lecture, you can
incorporate academic activities that get students to actively participate in the class and
allow for more immediate feedback. Incorporating problem-based learning,
collaborative learning, experiments, and the use of technology such as clickers,
allows for greater student interaction and the opportunity for students to practice
newly acquired skills and knowledge. Supplementing your lecture with guest lectures,
a panel discussion, or student presentations can break the monotony and minimize
passive observation used on first day of class and also when introducing a new topic
(Callahan, 2010).
 Bonwell and Sutherland (1997) claimed that evidence of the effectiveness of
active learning approaches as a way to facilitate learning was too compelling to
ignore. Brewer (1997) confirmed this, stating that lectures could be too long, could
fail to encourage reflective thinking, provided limited feedback, and were not
appropriate for hands-on training. Small (1996) reported that color instruction that
incorporated a variety of attention-gaining and maintaining strategies appeared to be
the best way to promote interest and prevent boredom (Brewer, Burgess 2005).
 Give students options in the classroom. Empower students by giving them a
sense of autonomy and helping them develop skills for self-directed learning.
Whether it’s allowing students to select a research topic or getting their input when
designing an evaluative rubric, students’ motivation is increased if they feel that they
have control of their learning outcomes (Callahan, 2010). Because students will have
to be autonomous throughout their adult lives, autonomy is an important thing for students
to experience (Hackney, 2010).
The theoretical concept of the need for autonomy has been repeatedly
misinterpreted and used synonymously with independence. In accordance with the
SDT (Self-determination theory), autonomy has to be considered as a perceived
consistency between inner values, what one wants, and the perceived environment.
The opposite of autonomy, therefore, is not dependence, but heteronymous control,
i.e. an inner conflict between goals and experiences between interests as well as
between personal values. Following the SDT, a person is autonomous “when his or
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her behavior is experienced as willingly enacted and when he or she fully endorses
the actions in which he or she is engaged and/or the values expressed by them”
(Chirkov, Ryan, Kim, & Kaplan, 2003). This means, it is quite possible that a person
is highly dependent (the opposite of independence) on others, yet still perceives
him/herself as autonomous in the sense of the SDT. In this case, the reason is that the
person experiences the norms and values of societies or groups as congruent with
his/her self ( Muller, Palekcic, 2005).
 Create assignments that are appropriately challenging. It’s important to

consider your students interests, background knowledge, and abilities when designing
coursework. You want to provide students with the opportunity for early success and
gradually increase the degree of difficulty with the assignments and exams as the
semester progresses. The key is to strike a balance so that every student feels that
he/she, with reasonable effort, has the capability to succeed while still being
challenged to stretch his/her limits (Callahan, 2010).
The more immediate the response to homework and examinations, the more likely
it is to help students reflect not only on their knowledge of the material, but on their
learning strategies. And while grades can be highly motivational, it is the commentary
on work which assists students most in improving their skills; this means that
instructors who mark what is wrong should also suggest specific ways in which
students can improve their performance in the future (James, 1998).
 Make your lessons relevant. Research suggests that students display greater enthusiasm and
interest for a course if they can relate the content and course activities to their daily lives.
Relate learning goals to the student’s experience. Ask students to state learning objectives in
terms of their own life goals (Wlodkowski, Ginsberg, 1995). By connecting the material to
real-world experiences or their educational goals, either through examples or in-class
activities, you will deepen their understanding of the material and allow the students to see
the value of what they are learning (Callahan, 2010). Relevance promotes motivation ;i.e.,
helping students to see how skills can be applied in the real world (Linda, 1994).
• What they can do in one subject is relevant to other subjects they study
• What they can do in one lesson is related to what they do in the next or a later lesson
• What they do at school is relevant to their lives now- either in their part time job, at home,
or in their hobby
• What they do at school is relevant to their lives further down the track either at university,
in their apprenticeship, or in the job they want when they leave school
5
• What they do at school is relevant to the world as a whole
• What they do at school develops their thinking and analysis skills which help in other parts
of their life such as at work with friends
• What they do at school gives variety so they can select what subjects to focus on in senior
school, at college, or at university
• School develops their people skills and that this is useful beyond their school years
(Martin, 2010).
An instructor can help students become reflective about their interests and knowledge, and ask them
to relate or adapt course information to their concerns in their assignments and in the classroom.
Nelee Langmuir, instructor in French, explains that “without relevant students’ engagement, new
material cannot be learned or mastered. “In her own classes she always invites students to “make
the material their own” and she tries to enable them to adapt new material to personal contexts and
interests: “Many students take my French classes for every different reason, and so I try to be aware
of their diverse interests and gear my presentations accordingly. Their motivation to learn and
ultimate mastery of the language depend largely on their ability (and mine) to try to make the
French language their own while studying it” (James, 1998).
4. Sustaining Motivation in Classroom
Jeremy Harmer has some thoughts on how to sustain motivation in the classroom.
According to him, it’s a mixture of 5 A’s:
 Activity: Students need to have a lot of activities. Moving around, role-plays, hands-on
experiences.
 Agency: Students are more motivated when they are the doers, when they are agents, so give
them some power to decide things when you can.
 Affect: How they feel. They need to know you care about them, you need to know their
names.
 Adaptation: Teachers’ ability to respond to the unexpected. You have to be flexible when
things break down.
 Attitude: The teacher’s attitude. What are you like when you come into the classroom? It
can’t be you, it has to be the professional teacher in you (Harmer, 2008)
“It is effective and functional to apply various and interesting activities with moderate
challenge to attract students to arouse their curiosity … Various and interesting activities
6
encourage students involve as much of the time and effort as possible and as well as enhance
learning motivation” (Kong, 2009).
A teacher’s attitude and personality may influence a student’s motivation. “If you admired or had a
crush on an elementary school teacher, you were probably eager to learn that teachers’ approval by
performing well in class. If you disliked or feared a teacher you may have lost all interest in
learning and simply endured school until the end of the year” (Shadlyn, 2004). Brewer, DeJonge,
and Stout (2001) and Karsenti and Thilbert (1994) suggested that highly structured, well-organized,
and outcomes oriented teachers seemed to maintain student motivation. Though class structure and
organization were important, balancing the classroom environment with flexibility and student
empowerment could be just as important. Friday (1990) believed that an authoritarian teaching style
was less satisfying for students than was a democratic teaching style.
Luechauer and Shulman (1992) argued that college business classes that were bureaucratic and
teacher-focused created feelings of powerlessness among students. Instead, he recommended a class
environment that empowered students to form an open and creative team environment. Hancock
(2001) concurs that students achieve more poorly in highly evaluative situations, in which
instructors exert significant control over classroom procedures and competition among students is
emphasized. Students who are test anxious are particularly more sensitive to situations that they
perceive to be highly evaluative (Brewer, Burgess 2005).
Shiang-Kwei and Seungyeon Han (2001) suggested six strategies to sustain student
motivation:
 Choice :“Choice of tasks or activities is viewed as fostering belief in personal control and
increasing interest and involvement in learning” (Ames, 1990).Encourage students to make choices
and become self-determining. Ask them to identify new interests and challenges as they meet course
goals (Deci, Ryan, 1985). Malone and Lepper (1983) suggest that providing explicit choices among
alternatives can enhance intrinsic motivation. Schiefele (1991) identified two components of
interest: feeling-related and value-related valences. Feeling-related valences are feelings attached to
a topic. Value-related valences relate to the importance of the topic to an individual. Value-related
valences are associated with "constructing meaning". Feeling-related valences are the degree of
enjoyment that an individual has toward a topic or object. If students are allowed to select a task
that they personally enjoy doing, their motivation to learn increases (Kwei and Han, 2001).
Allowing some student choice enhances intrinsic interest in school tasks, and it teaches self
management skills that are essential for success in higher grades and the workplace. It is impossible
7
for children to develop autonomy and a sense of responsibility if they are always told what to do,
and how, and when to do it (Stipek, 1984).
 Challenge : “It is important to recognize that student motivation can be maintained if
learning goals are challenging but not overwhelming; both course goals and personal goals must be
set at an appropriate level. Students’ interest will remain high if the challenge seems realistic and
the path to success is made clear to them” (James, 1998). Providing or operating tasks just beyond
the skill level of the students is a good approach to challenge learners. In the motivation chapter, the
Flow Theory is presented (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985). Teachers should present tasks with challenging
in the principle of neither too easy nor too difficult that beyond the student’s capacity, because tasks
that are too difficult discourage them from trying; tasks that are too easy produce boredom and
decreased feelings of competence and self-efficacy (Chundiao, 1990). Students may experience
flow if the challenge of assignments matches their skills. Work that is too difficult raises anxiety,
whereas tasks that are too easy contribute to boredom; both situations decrease motivation toward
learning. In order to ensure that goals remain challenging, teachers should continue giving students
the opportunity to provide feedback. Helping students search for more information to improve and
revise their tasks plays an integral part in the learning process (Kwei, Han, 2001).
 Control : If students are involved in the process of classroom control, they will be more
responsible, independent, and self-regulated learners. To share the classroom control with students
means involving them in the process of decision-making, organization of content, and choosing
team members. However, too many choices may lead to increased anxiety, so providing assistance
at appropriate times is essential when the teacher shares the classroom control with students (Kwei,
Han, 2001).
 Collaboration : Vygotsky (1978) theorized that communication and collaborative group
work can enhance individuals’ thinking and learning. Students can share learning strategies and
perspectives with each other through social interaction. Collaboration seems to work best when
students depend on each other to reach a desired goal, when there are rewards for group
performance, and when students know how to work together effectively (Driscoll, 1994).
One way to offer variety in the classroom is to use cooperative learning groups. With this approach,
the teacher facilitates groups or teams of students working together to solve practical problems. One
study found that achievement and motivational gains were significantly higher for students in a
cooperative learning classroom in comparison with a traditional lecture classroom (Nichols, Miller,
1993). McGonigal (1994) reported that cooperative groups and a varied teaching approach
8
aimed at maintaining student interest helped increase student motivation and performance in a
Spanish class. Richardson, Kring and Davis (1997) found that students with the highest grade point
averages preferred professor-assisted discussions over lectures. Based on these findings, it appeared
that offering a variety of creative activities, including cooperative groups, instead of teaching solely
by lecture, could motivate students. Brewer (1997) offered the following 12 teaching methods in
addition to the lecture: small-group discussions, role-playing, case studies, demonstrations, panels,
inquiry methods, buzz groups, programmed instruction, directed study, experiments, brainstorming,
and questioning (Brewer, Burgess 2005).
 Constructed Meaning : Value-related valences are associated with the construction of
meaning. If students perceive the value of knowledge, their motivation to learn will be increased
.Setting a meaningful goal for students is an important factor to promote motivation. Students
should be given the opportunity to construct meaning in text as well as to build a rationale for the
meaningfulness of literacy activities (Turner & Paris, 1995).
 Consequences - People enjoy having their work and learning achievement appreciated and
recognized by others (Malone & Lepper, 1983). When students are provided channels to display
their work, motivation will increase. There are various strategies for displaying students’ work, such
as hanging their posters on the wall, presenting their work at a science fair, publishing their work on
web sites, and providing links to other students. There is no “correct” way to complete a project,
and students can compare their creativity, integrating articles and presentation ability with
other teams. This strategy creates a positive feeling about effort, ownership, achievement, and
responsibility (Turner & Paris, 1995). “Praising students’ effort may actually convey to them a
sense of confidence in their ability” (Ames, 1990).
**A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops**. (Henry Brooks Adams)
9
LESSON EIGHT: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom management is the process by which teachers and schools create and maintain
appropriate behavior of students in classroom settings. The purpose of implementing classroom
management strategies is to enhance pro-social behavior and increase student academic engagement
(Emmer & Sabornie, 2015; Everston & Weinstein, 2006). Effective classroom management
principles work across almost all subject areas and grade levels (Brophy, 2006; Lewis, et al., 2006).
Classroom management is the term educators use to describe methods of preventing misbehavior
and dealing with it if it arises. In other words, it is the techniques teachers use to maintain control in
the classroom. It is one of the most feared parts of teaching for new teachers. For the students, lack
of effective classroom management can mean that learning is reduced in the classroom. For the
teacher, it can cause unhappiness and stress and eventually lead to individuals leaving the teaching
profession.
1.Classroom Mangement Importance
A well-organized classroom with routines and rituals helps students feel more secure. Children
need structure. The routines and rituals of a well-managed classroom allow more time for learning.
Teachers spend more time teaching and less time getting class started. Students are more easily
engaged and less distracted in an organized, well-managed classroom, so the learning environment
is greatly enhanced.
When rules and consequences are clear, teachers do not have to nag and discipline students as often.
This helps prevent fatigue and teacher burnout from occurring, and it allows the teacher to have
better, more positive rapport with the students. Both students and teachers enjoy the educational
process more. In a well-managed classroom, discipline issues are more quickly spotted and
addressed. Issues are less likely to get out of hand or become volatile. Students are more likely to
feel they are treated fairly because they understand the policies from the beginning. Classroom
management gives students parameters that help them feel a measure of control over their
environment.
2. Effective Classroom Management : Effective classroom management:
 Establishes and sustains an orderly environment in the classroom.
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 Increases meaningful academic learning and facilitates social and emotional growth.
 Decreases negative behaviors and increases time spent academically engaged.
Classroom management systems are effective because they increase student success by creating an
orderly learning environment that enhances students' academic skills and competencies, as well as
their social and emotional development. Classroom management systems are most effective when
they adhere to three basic principles (Brophy, 2006, pp. 39-40):
1. Emphasize student expectations for behavior and learning.
2. Promote active learning and student involvement.
3. Identify important student behaviors for success. More specifically:
a. What behaviors are required to reach the goals of learning activities?
b. What implications does a particular learning activity have for student roles?
c. How will the teacher prepare students to take on these roles?
School Wide Implementation
Teachers concerned with classroom management typically need help with two issues:
 Preventing discipline problems.
 Dealing with current discipline problems.
To address these concerns, researchers have established several systems such as positive behavior
support (PBS) (Crone & Horner, 2003; Crone, Horner, & Hawken, 2010) and social and emotional
learning (SEL), (Weissberg, Kumpfer, & Seligman, 2003).
2.1.Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is typically set up as a multilevel model of intervention and
involves a school-wide structure of support for teachers that adopt evidence-based programs
(Freiberg & Lapointe, 2006), and small group and individualized programs for students who do not
respond to the school-wide structure and need more support (Robinson & Griesemer, 2006). At the
school wide level, teachers and staff create a positive school culture by clearly defining positive
expectations that are taught to all students and adults (Bradshaw, 2014).
An example of a system of PBS as a tiered model might look like the following:
Tier 1: Universal Level
 The school establishes expectations for behavior.
 Ensure that students, staff and families understand these expectations; schools operationalize
positive behaviors and teach them to students.
 Teachers have pro-social contacts with students and model expected behaviors.
 Teachers receive formal training in behavior management.
 The school establishes a school-wide leadership team to support the PBS activities.
2
 The school implements a methodical system of recording student behavior to facilitate decision-
making regarding potential intervention or other responses.
Tier 2: Secondary Level of Intervention
 An evidence-based program such as First Steps to Success (Walker, Stiller, Bolly, Kavanagh,
Steverson, & Feil, 1997) can be implemented with groups of students in need of this level of
support.
Tier 3: Tertiary Level
 Individualized evidence-based programs are implemented for students not responding to the second
tier based on results of behavior data and analysis of their behavior. Most classroom teachers have
not been trained in functional assessment or analysis of behavior, so it is important that they consult
with their colleagues (e.g., school psychologists, special education teachers) who have expertise in
this area.
2.2.Social and emotional learning (SEL) is affiliated with the Collaborative for Academic, Social,
and Emotional Learning (CASEL) (Weissberg, Kumper, & Seligman, 2003). SEL programs provide
instruction at the universal level and are designed to teach social and emotional competencies to
students to enhance their success in school and in life (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnikci, Taylor, &
Schellinger, 2011). According to CASEL, effective SEL instruction includes opportunities to
practice skills, coordination with school and community environments, systematic and sequential
programming throughout grade levels, and continuous monitoring of programming.
3. Classroom Management in High Schools

Although positive behavior support systems are producing strong results for increased pro-social
behaviors and decreased negative results in elementary schools, these systems are less often
implemented in high schools.
Sometimes, high schools have tried to resolve behavioral issues by:
 Repeating and restating consequences.
 Increasing the averseness of consequences.
 Establishing a bottom line or zero tolerance level policies.
 Excluding students from the "privilege" of attending school through out-of-school suspensions and
expulsions.
 Offering alternative ways of completing the high school experience someplace else (e.g., alternative
school, community college) (Sugai & Horner, 2002).
These frequently enforced consequences:
 May lead to overly controlling environments.
 Could trigger and reinforce antisocial behavior.
3
 Can shift accountability and educational responsibility away from the school.
 Can devalue student-teacher relationships.
 Might weaken the link between academic and social behavior (Sugai & Horner, 2002; American
Psychological Association [APA] Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008).
 When implemented in high schools, prevention-based classroom management systems:
 Create and promote a positive school climate.
 Enhance student commitment to school.
 Teach and reward individual student social skills.
 Disrupt and monitor antisocial behaviors and interactions.
3.1.Effective High School Classroom Management Adjustments
Due to developmental differences between elementary and high school students, adaptations to
classroom management strategies must be made. The following are some examples:
 Allow students to be involved in the development and implementation of goals. Students will be
increasingly engaged in classroom management strategies if you give them collaborative
responsibility in the creation and implementation of expectations.
 Teach behavior expectations as you do in elementary school; do not assume that high school
students understand social expectations.
 Remember: not all high school students are motivated by academic success or social success. Have
students individually assist in identifying what they would find reinforcing.
4. Effective Classroom Management Strategies (Recommendations for Teachers)
Successful Classroom Management covers everything from preparing for the school year to
dealing with bullying to forging relationships with administrators.
 Establish a positive relationship with the class

 Praise is a powerful tool
 Welcome feedback from your students
 Create a safe learning environment
 Variety is the key to engage students
 Anticipate problems and be creative
 Change the tone
 Ramp up your enthusiasm
 Find things to appreciate
 Establish the expectation that everyone must participate in class every day
 Assessments should look forward, not back
4
 Do not use vague rules.
 Don't pander
 Do not ignore student behaviors that violate school or classroom rules (they will not go
away).
 Do not use overly harsh or embarrassing punishments
 Do not try to solve problems alone if you have serious concerns about a student. Refer to
your school psychologist or special education professional.
 To avoid disciplinary problems :

 Prepare the lessons thoroughly
 Show interest
 Make a close study for those who have difficulty in understanding
 Show confidence and act as somebody who expects his pupils/students to do what he/she
requested from them
 Speak convincingly and clearly, never monotonously. Use language that your pupils/
students understand.
 Avoid noticeable personal mannerism. They destruct pupils 'attention and become object of
fun at your expense.
 Do not start the lesson before you having the attention of everybody.
 Never continue to teach when the class is talkative or inattentive; stop work and insist on
order and attention before resuming the lesson
 Keep pupils busy all the time ; idleness invites trouble
 Stop misbehaving and ignore petty matters
 Avoid useless threats
 Give a task to pupils whose attention is wavering
"Inappropriate behavior is a problem to be solved together in a supportive classroom

community”. (Hardin, 2008, p. 145).
“Effective classroom discipline… should be a means of helping students become caring, ethical
individuals” (Hardin, 2008, p. 147)

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University of M’sila Department of English

Master One Classes TEFL Courses / lecturer: Berkani

LESSON ONE : TEFL : SCOPE AND KEY TERMS

1. English as a Global Language

3.Difficulties in Learning English as a Foreign Language

4.TEFL Educators' Work

 Education. It is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge , skills ,

 Teaching : In education, teaching is the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience,

 Pedagogy: Pedagogy is an encompassing term concerned with what a teacher does to

 EAL: English as an Additional Language

6.2.1.Some of TEFL Qualifications

 CELTA: Certificate of English Language Teaching to Adults Accredited by Cambridge

**Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater (Gail Godwin)**

Master One Classes TEFL Credits / Lecturer:Berkani

LESSON TWO : WHA IS TEACHING ?

1.Definitions of the Concept of Teaching

3. Teaching Process ( phases)

Teaching is fundamentally a process, including planning, implementation, evaluation and

3.1. PLANNING ( PRE-ACTIVE PHASE)

3.2. IMPLEMENTATION (INTERACTIVE PHASE)

3.4. ASSESSMENT ( POST –ACTIVE PHASE)

LESSON THREE: CHARACTERISTICS AND ROLES OF A GOOD TEACHER

 What is effective teaching?

2. Characteristics of a Good / Great / Effective/ Qualified Teacher

• The content they are teaching

• The particular educational context they are teaching in

3. Roles of a Good Teacher

 The Teacher as Teaching Aid

**A good teacher is more than a lecturer**

LESSON FOUR: WHAT IS LEARNING ?

Psychologists generally agree on some characteristics of learning. The instructor should

2. Learning Comes Through Experience

3.1.Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning (learning by association)

3.1.1. PAVLOV’S DOGS

3.1.2. JOHN B. WATSON: EARLY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH HUMANS

3.1.2. INSTRUMENTAL ( OPERANT) CONDITIONING

It is a learning process first described by B. F. Skinner. In instrumental conditioning, reinforcement

 Reinforcement and Punishment

Learning is “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which] must

LESSON FIVE: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LEARNER

1. Characteristics of Good Learners According to Some TEFL Experts

 Good learners find their own way.

According to McDonough and Shaw (2003,p.56 ),

 Good learners are accurate guessers.

Holden (2002,p.18) said:

Tony,W.(1987) distinguished four types of learners. A classification based on actual

** Great minds think alike **

Master One Classes TEFL Courses / Lecturer: Berkani

LESSON SIX: LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACHES AND METHODS: PRACTICAL INSIGHTS

1.Traditional language teaching

1.1.3. Impact on your classroom and your teaching

1.2.3. Impact on your classroom and your teaching

1.3.Audiolingual method (ALM)

1.3.3. Impact on your classroom and your teaching

2. Communicative language teaching

2.1. Communicative approach

2.1.3. Impact on your classroom and your teaching

2.2. Total physical response (TPR) and the natural approach

2.2.3. Impacts on your classroom

** Teaching is a hard work because it is heart work**

Master One Classes TEFL Courses / lecturer: Berkani

LESSON SEVEN: MOTIVATION

Motivation is important because it highly contributes to achievement. Teachers have to be

Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theater (Gail Godwin)

A good teacher is more than a lecturer

Great minds think alike

Teaching is a hard work because it is heart work