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Action Plan For The Conservation of The European Ground Squirrel Spermophilus Citellus in The European Union
Action Plan For The Conservation of The European Ground Squirrel Spermophilus Citellus in The European Union
Action Plan For The Conservation of The European Ground Squirrel Spermophilus Citellus in The European Union
Milan Janák (Daphne/N2K Group, Slovakia), Pavel Marhoul (Daphne/N2K Group, Czech Republic) &
Jan Matějů (Czech Republic).
2. List of contributors
3. Lifespan of plan/Reviews
2013 - 2023
Janák M., Marhoul P., Matějů J. 2013. Action Plan for the Conservation of the European Ground
Squirrel Spermophilus citellus in the European Union. European Commission.
Polish Society for Nature Conservation “Salamandra” – for organizing a workshop on the Action Plan
during the IV. European Ground Squirrel Meeting in Poland 2012.
Preface/Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 4
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 4
Species’ functions and values ................................................................................................................ 5
Action plan geographical scope and target audience ............................................................................ 5
1. Biological information and status review ................................................................................... 6
1.1 Description of the species ............................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Species life history, ecology and habitat requirements ................................................................ 7
1.3 Distribution, populations size and trends ................................................................................... 12
1. 4 Threats ...................................................................................................................................... 19
2. Species conservation and legal status across its geographic range ...................................... 23
2.1 International status ..................................................................................................................... 24
2.2 National status ........................................................................................................................... 26
2.3 Existing conservation actions and identified priorities ............................................................... 27
2.4 Gaps in knowledge ..................................................................................................................... 30
3. Framework for action ............................................................................................................... 31
3.1 Goal ............................................................................................................................................ 31
3.2 Objectives................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3 Actions........................................................................................................................................ 33
3.4 Monitoring and review ................................................................................................................ 38
3.5 Other species that may benefit from the SAP ............................................................................ 38
References: .......................................................................................................................................... 39
ANNEXES............................................................................................................................................. 46
The European Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus citellus is endemic to Europe. Its populations became
increasingly fragmented and are facing serious declines across most of its range throughout last
decades. Only a coordinated conservation effort at the European level may sustain the species
viability. With this respect this European Species Action Plan has been prepared with the support of
the European Commission.
The aim of this action plan is to support the development of national or local action plans and
1
conservation measures as appropriate . The purposes of this action plan are as follows:
To provide up-to date baseline information about species ecology, status and threats
To provide scientifically-based recommendations to those who can promote and support
species conservation
To establish priorities in species conservation
To provide a common framework and focus for a wide range of stakeholders
The information and solutions presented within this action plan have been prepared in consultation
with a group of species experts from majority of the countries in the European Ground Squirrel’s
distribution range, as well as through a review of available literature. The proposed action plan
therefore represents the best available up-to-date collective knowledge on the species.
Within the frame of this action plan, an expert workshop has taken place during the IV. European
Ground Squirrel Meeting in Poland 2012, where the analysis of information on the species, including
threats and possible conservation priorities were discussed with the experts in order to define a
conservation strategy and identify the most important actions.
Summary
The European Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus citellus is a ground dwelling rodent associated with
open non-forest steppe grassland habitats including the ‘cultural’ steppe of nowadays - the short-
stalked grasslands on field airports, golf courses, playgrounds etc.
The distribution range of S. citellus consists of two distinct parts divided by Carpathian Mountains.
The western part extends from southern Poland, through Czech Republic, east of Austria, through
Slovakia and Hungary into Pannonian part of Serbia and Croatia. The eastern part of the range
includes Transcarpathian region of Ukraine, Romania, part of Moldova, Bulgaria, south-east of the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), north-east of Greece and European part of
Turkey.
According to the 2008 IUCN Red List vers. 3.1, the species is considered Vulnerable, with a
decreasing population trend. In 2007 reporting to the Habitats Directive 92/43/EC the species has
been evaluated in unfavourable-bad status for Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions and in
unfavourable-inadequate status for Mediterranean and Pannonic regions. International group of
experts on research and conservation of S. citellus declared in 2006 that the species is threatened
over most of its range, so coordinated conservation effort is needed for its survival. Dominant part of
distribution area of S. citellus belongs to the European Union, so concerned member states have high
responsibility for the survival of the world’s population of S. citellus.
The most serious threats to the species reported include habitat loss and fragmentation especially in
connection with land use changes which in synergy with adverse natural factors such as long winters,
floods etc. increase mortality in the populations of this obligatory hibernant and in small isolated
populations quickly leed to extinction.
The overall goal of this action plan is to improve conservation status of Spermophilus citellus to a
favourable level within the European Union. The objectives include stopping the decline in S. citellus
populations by ensuring necessary management of habitats at existing localities, restoring
metapopulations by adding new/restored habitats, creating corridors and stepping stones, supporting
1 The EU Species Action Plans are not of a binding nature; species action plans are drafted and implemented at the discretion
of Member States.
In order to achieve these objectives, a list of recommended actions has been prepared taking into
account the specific situation and threats in each country. The actions are divided into six categories:
habitat management and land use, species recovery, mapping and monitoring, scientific research,
coordination and funding of the Action Plan implementation, and public awareness, education and
information.
Within the EU this plan is intended for implementation in: Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Greece,
Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia.
Outside of the EU this plan is recommended for implementation in: Croatia, F.Y.R. of Macedonia,
Moldova, Serbia, Turkey, Ukraine.
Taxonomy
The European Ground Squirrel Spermophilus citellus has been first described as a species by Linné
as Mus citellus in 1766 (LINNAEUS, 1766). The valid genus name Spermophilus was introduced by
CUVIER, F. in 1825.
The name Citellus Oken, 1816 was in routine use for the genus throughout the world until
HERSHKOVITZ (1949) argued that Oken’s work was invalid, and that Spermophilus Cuvier, 1825 was
the oldest available name for the genus. The opinion was supported by the International Commission
on Zoological Nomenclature (1956; Opinion 417), and has been generally adopted by American
authors. However, some European, and especially Russian authors, continued to use Citellus until as
recently as 1995, although others adopted Spermophilus (HARRISON et al. 2003).
Altogether nine subspecies of European Ground Squirrel were recognized within its distribution area
(overview according to MATĚJŮ et al. 2010):
The nominotypical subspecies Spermophilus citellus citellus (LINNAEUS, 1766) is distributed in the
Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia and Hungary (RUŽIĆ 1978).
The occurrence of S. c. gradojevici (MARTINO & MARTINO, 1929) is limited to lowlands in the
surroundings of Vardar River and Dojran Lake in Macedonia (KRYŠTUFEK 1993).
The subspecies S. c. karamani (MARTINO & MARTINO, 1940) is also found only in Macedonia, namely
in the area of Karadžica Mountains, at altitudes of approximately 2,000 m, on meadows and pastures
in the Patiška River basin (KRYŠTUFEK 1993, 1996).
The subspecies S. c. istricus (CALINESCU, 1934) from Romania has been described, distributed in the
Muntenia area on the left bank of Danube River (RUŽIĆ 1978).
Another subspecies, S. c. laskarevi (MARTINO & MARTINO, 1940) has been described in Serbia,
specifically in the southeast part of the Pannonian Lowlands, in the Banat and Syrmien areas (RUŽIĆ
1978). PEŠEV (1955) also classifies some Bulgarian populations as belonging to this subspecies.
Compared to S. c. citellus, S. c. laskarevi differs in its smaller size and shorter tail.
The validity of the following two subspecies, S. c. martinoi (PEŠEV, 1955) and S. c. balcanicus
(MARKOV, 1957) described in the Bulgarian Mountains has been called into question. ONDRIAS (1966)
synonymizes both these subspecies with the subspecies S. c. karamani. RUŽIĆ (1978) considers S. c.
balcanicus and S. c. martinoi as a single subspecies.
Based on different physical size and length of the lower jawbone, the subspecies S. c. thracius
(MURSALOGLU, 1964) has been described in the easternmost part of its area, the European part of
Turkey.
The subspecies S. c. macedonicus (FRAGUEDAKIS-TSOLIS et ONDRIAS, 1985) has been recognized
based on immunological research into ground squirrel populations found in the Pontokomi area, in
Greek Macedonia (FRAGUEDAKIS-TSOLIS 1977). A subsequent detailed study led to the discovery of
morphological differences and to the description of this subspecies (FRAGUEDAKIS-TSOLIS & ONDRIAS
1985).
Hybridization with other species has not been studied yet in S. citellus.
As its name suggests the European Ground Squirrel Spermophilus citellus is a ground dwelling (living
in burrows) rodent resembling the squirrel but with the tail far shorter and thinner and the body colour
of mottled ochre-yellow. The body length of full grown wild animal is about 18 - 24 cm (GRULICH 1960,
RUŽIĆ 1978) and the weight of adults is highly variable, being lowest after the hibernation and highest
in the late summer prior to onset of hibernation – 145 to 520g (MATĚJŮ 2008), 150 to >400g (MILLESI
et al. 1999). Males are significantly heavier than females (MILLESI et al. 1999, MATĚJŮ 2008).
S. citellus forms colonies of various sizes. It is a mammal with diurnal activity and an obligatory (true)
hibernant.
Habitat requirements
S. citellus is originally associated with open non-forest steppe grassland habitats, though it is less
adapted to typical steppe conditions than the more East-distributed S. suslicus. S. citellus nowadays
inhabits different types of grassland habitats, both semi-natural and artificial, though with strong
preference to grasslands with permanent short-stalk vegetation (10-20 cm) developed on different soil
types, from light, fine-grained soils (such as those developed on sand) to heavy soils and both on
deep as on shallow soils with presence of soil skeleton, but usually with good water retention and
medium aeration (JANDERKOVÁ et al. 2011). Vegetation height around 20 cm provides cover while not
obstructing sight (STRASCHIL 1972, cf. HOFFMANN et al. 2008).
Current localities represent mainly different types of mown grassland and pastures, artificial habitats
include lawns, playgrounds, golf courses, river embankments (dykes), etc. For nowadays, grassy
airports are important refuge areas of the species (VÁCZI & ALTBÄCKER 1999, MATĚJŮ et al. 2008). In
periods of population gradation it pervades also to sub-optimal habitats such as mesophile, humid or
temporarily flooded grasslands, grasslands with scrubs etc. In the past it often occupied grassy
stripes along roads, railway ramparts, field balks and also perennial fodder crops – clovers, lucerne
(GRULICH 1960; RUŽIĆ 1978; HULOVÁ 2001). Apart from grasslands S. citellus usually avoids
intensively cultivated land, although it occurs also in vineyards, orchards and gardens in some parts
of its range (SPITZENBERGER 2001; ENZINGER et al. 2006, HERZIG-STRASCHIL 2007; HOFFMANN et al.
2008, MATĚJŮ et al. 2008, 2010; YOULATOS in litt.).
The analysis of the Natura 2000 database (end 2011 version) does not show a representative result
in terms of habitat classes cover on 427 S. citellus sites (sites where S. citellus is listed among
conservation targets or among non-target species) – in total 21.57% of the overall area is covered by
broad-leaved deciduous woodland. This is obviously because of the character of Sites of Community
Importance listed in the database, which are often multi-purpose, with many conservation targets and
thus covering a variety of different habitat types. In any case some approximation can be derived for
these sites – 19.07% of the total area of all sites is formed by dry grasslands and steppes, other
arable land covers 8.85%, salt marshes, salt pastures and salt steppes cover 6,43%, both humid
grasslands and mesophile grasslands and improved grasslands cover 5,4% of the total area of SCIs
with S. citellus.
The relation of S. citellus to Habitats Directive Annex I habitat types as estimated by local experts is
summarized below (S – significant, IS – insignificant, UN – unknown/uncertain):
Ground squirrels are often described as relying on open grassland habitats. Yet, they appear to be
capable of adapting to variations in the structure of the habitat (RUŽIĆ 1978) and are likely to thrive as
long as minimal habitat requirements are fulfilled. Apart basic requirements concerning climate, water
table, soil depth and plant cover (SPITZENBERGER 2001), particular conditions are required to sustain a
viable population, such as minimal habitat size and adequate resource availability (HOFFMANN et al.
2008). Studies conducted so far suggest that short-stalk vegetation cover is more important for
presence of S. citellus than specific vegetation types of plant species at their localities (KIS et al.
1998; GEDEON et al. 2011). According to MATĚJŮ et al. 2011 the vegetation of S. citellus localities in
Czech Republic can be is classified in three main types characterized by presence of (i) Lolium
perenne, (ii) Festuca rupicola and Poa angustifolia and (iii) Festuca rubra agg. KOÓSZ (unpublished
data) found that Trifolium spp. are also important components of the vegetation of S. citellus habitat.
The localities in mountain environment usually represent pastures with dominant Nardus stricta
(RUŽIĆ 1978). According to her, “lowland” S. citellus localities from the territory of former Yugoslavia
could be characterized by presence of: (i) Poa bulbosa, Euphorbia seguieriana, Botriochloa
ischaemum, Cynodon dactylon, Medicago ninima, M. lupulina or (ii) Festuca rupicola, Chrysopogon
gryllus, Stipa capillata, Paeonia tenuifolia.
Food consumption analysis based on faeces epidermal remains shows that Trifolium campestre, T.
arvense, T. repens, T. media, T. pratense, Medicago minima, Coronilla varia, Ononis spinosa,
Plantago lanceolata, P. media, Pimpinella saxifrage, Festuca spp., Dactylis glomerata and Agropyron
repens represent important nutrition of S. citellus in lowland areas (KOÓSZ 2002; KOÓSZ unpublished
data). Also other studies (GRULICH 1960, DANILA 1984, LEŠŠOVÁ 2010) described a wide variety of
plant species and their parts consumed by the S. citellus, ranging from leaves and seed of grasses
Though the presence of permanent short-stalk grass cover or a vegetation cover at the height, which
allows good on-site view for the animal seem to be a principal factor for S. citellus occurence, it was
also recorded on some localities where grass cover regularly reaches height of 30 cm (MRLÍKOVÁ
1999). On such localities instead of trod up paths the tunnels made in higher grass connecting single
burrows were observed (AMBROS in litt.). In the case of newly introduced populations extremely short
vegetation can affect negatively on the survival of the individuals (GEDEON et al 2011).
Yearly precipitation and temperature has been also reported as factors determining the suitable
habitats for S. citellus. Almost all localities of S. citellus in the Czech Republic and Slovakia fall in the
zone with boundary set by the July isotherm of 17 °C, in Poland (historical range) - of 18 °C. Sites
with high population density do not exceed to areas cooler than 18.5 °C July isotherm (GRULICH
1960). GRULICH (l. c.) furthermore found a relation between the S. citellus distribution and yearly
precipitation of 500 mm. Only on some sites, the occurrence was limited by yearly precipitation of 800
mm. However, according to HULOVÁ (2001), these limits are not completely accurate. According to
KOSHEV et KOCHEVA (2007) the yearly precipitation on S. citellus localities in Bulgaria varies between
500-700 mm. Data from the Czech Republic and Slovakia (GRULICH 1960) confirm this range, locally
culminating to 1000 mm per year (locality Kráľova hoľa in Nízké Tatry Mts., SLÁDEK 1963). In Austria
data collected in 1968 to 1971 showed a distribution of S. citellus bordered by the 18 °C July isotherm
but the greater density of colonies was within the area bordered by the 20°C July isotherm. The yearly
precipitation in the area was 600 to 800 mm (STRASCHIL 1972). In Poland, on the northern edge of the
species range, the yearly precipitation varies between 550 and 650 mm (historical locations).
According to W ERT (1932) the overall distribution of Spermophilus spp. in Europe is limited by July
isotherm 19°C (species prefer hot and dry continental summer) and January isotherm 0°C (species
prefer cold and dry continental winter).
Altitude of the S. citellus colonies differs across countries. For example in Bulgaria it inhabits localities
from the sea level to an altitude of 2300 – 2600 m a.s.l. (the highest located colony on 2592 m a.sl is
near Belmeken peak in Rila Mts.) (KOSHEV – pers. comm.). In Slovakia the highest known locality of
S. citellus was located on the South-East mountainside of Kráľova skala in 1250 m a.s.l., nowadays
the highest located locality is near Telgárt village in 960 m a.s.l. (AMBROS 1998).
Although S. citellus lives in colonies, it is not truly a social animal. While home ranges are overlapping
(TURRINI et al. 2008), each individual inhabits its own burrow system, apart from maternal care. In
principle there are two types of burrows which S. citellus uses during its life cycle – permanent or
nesting burrows and temporary or shelter burrows. The temporary burrows used for a short-time
shelter in case of danger have usually only one exit, it is 30 – 40 cm long and 5-7 cm in diameter; it is
without branches and only widened at the terminal part to allow the animal to turn around (GRULICH,
1960, RUŽIĆ 1978). A permanent burrow is created by expansion of a shelter burrow and it consists of
a horizontal corridor 30-50 cm below the ground, which may branch to various directions and can
continue also deeper underground (see BRINKMANN 1951, GRULICH, 1960, KRATOCHVÍL 1964, RUŽIĆ
1978, HUT and SCHARFF 1998 for examples). In suitable places S. citellus digs a nesting burrow which
consists of several cavities 17-30 cm in diameter, filled with bedding (e.g. from fescue grass Festuca
sp., GEDEON et al. 2010). When preparing for hibernation S. citellus creates a new vertical corridor
with dead end just below the surface. The material dug out of this new corridor is used to plug the
entrance to the burrow and thus insulating the nesting chamber. When emerging from the hibernation
S. citellus penetrates the new corridor to the ground and thus opens a new entrance to the nesting
burrow (GRULICH 1960).
After the mating period, when females moved to breeding burrows and adapted them for parturition,
individual males were observed digging at the female's burrow. In most of the cases the male was
identified as the female's previous mate, in the others the potential father was unknown. Paternal
behavior was more frequent in males with lower reproductive success (1-2 mates). Parental behavior
had costs for males in terms of lower foraging time and, correspondingly, delayed body-mass
Life history
The active period of S. citellus starts in early March – April (depending on the altitude and longitude)
when temperature in the nesting chamber reaches 6-8 °C (GRULICH, 1960). Males emerge first
followed by females and young from previous year (MILLESI and HOFFMANN et al. 2008, MILLESI et al.
1999a).
Reproduction starts right after emerging from the hibernation. Mating lasts 20-25 days (28 days
according to Millesi et al. 1999b) and gestation lasts 25-30 days, on average 29 days (ASCHAUER et
al. 2006; MILLESI et al. 1999b). The freshly born young S. citellus are around 50 mm long with weight
of 4.7 to 6.6 g (Ružić, 1978). The number of young in utero is 2-9 (Ružić 1978), per litter usually 3-7.
Litter sizes at emergence from the natal burrow vary from 2-5 (ASCHAUER et al. 2006), 4-7 (STRAUSS
et al. 2007), 3-10 (HUBER et al. 2001), 2-6 (MILLESI et al. 1999b), and 2-9 (KRYŠTUFEK and VOHRALÍK
(2005). Duration of lactation varies among females, ranging from 22-52 days (ASCHAUER et al. 2006;
MILLESI et al. 1999b) and 45-61 days (HUBER et al. 2001; ÖZKURT et al. 2005). When young reach an
age of 17-21 days (when the incisors start to cut through) the female leaves the nesting burrow and
returns only to feed the young. When they reach an age of 25-28 days the young leave the burrow for
the first time and start to feed on vegetation. When they reach 140-150 mm of body length, at nine
weeks of age, respectively (HOFFMANN et al. 2004), juveniles start to depart from their birth sites
aiming at digging their own burrow (or occupy an abandoned one) at a distance of 200-500 m from
the maternal burrow.
When preparing for hibernation the animals increase their body fat reserves. Pre-hibernation fattening
starts first in males – right after reproduction – while in females and young it starts after weaning
(MATĚJŮ et al. 2010). The weight of their subcutaneous fat often increases to 1/3 of their body weight
(GRULICH 1960). Hibernation of S. citellus starts between August and October. Immergence dates
seem to vary throughout the species range: In Austria, non-reproducing females terminate surface
activity as early as at the end of July, followed by reproducing females during August. Males immerge
into hibernation during September up to early October, while young animals start to hibernate last
According to GRULICH (l. c.) and RUŽIĆ (1978), the maximum life span of the S. citellus is 3 to 5 years.
Life span in the field was four years for males and six years for females (HOFFMANN et al. 2003), and
may be more than nine years under laboratory conditions (ANDJUS et al. 2000, ŽIVADINOVIĆ and
ANDJUS 1996). While most females are sexually mature after their first hibernation, timing of puberty in
males is facultative (MILLESI et al. 1998), becoming sexually active either as yearlings or as 2-year
olds (MILLESI et al. 1999a).
Plants represent at least 80% of the diet of S. citellus and it includes leafs, shoots, flowers, fruits and
stems of various grasses and herbs (see also above). The animal food includes insects, especially
suborders Caelifera, Ensifera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. In the food of pregnant
females, the animal component may represent 1/3 to 2/3 of the total food volume, while in males it
reaches a maximum of 1/5 (GRULICH 1960). Remains of Saltatoria and Formicidae were also identified
in gut contents and droppings (HERZIG-STRASCHIL 1976). Vertebrates are found occassionally in the
diet of S. citellus. They are represented especially by the rodents Microtus arvalis, Mus spicilegus, the
insectivores Talpa europaea, Sorex araneus, young of the hedgehog Erinaceus concolor, eggs of
ground-nesting birds (DANILA 1989, HERZIG-STRASCHIL 1976, VÁCZI 2005) as well as reptiles Lacerta
sp. (PASPALEV et PESHEV 1957, STRAKA 1961), Anguis fragilis, Coronella austriaca (W OJTASZYN et al.
2012).
Home ranges may exceed 1 ha in adult males throughout the year (HOFFMANN in litt.), but usually
extend between >0.1 and <0.4 ha area, depending on reproductive state, sex, age, population density
and habitat attributes (HUBER 1996, TURRINI et al. 2008). Correspondingly, home-range spans range
from 39 to 338 m (TURRINI et al. 2008).
According to SUTHERLAND et al. (2000), allometric relationships between body mass and dispersal
distance result in <1 km for S.-citellus. However, dispersal is possible when the population is growing
and environments are suitable (HULOVÁ and SEDLÁČEK 2008). Natal dispersal occurs when juveniles
start to explore their surroundings at nine weeks of age, departing up to approximately 350 metres
from the maternal burrow, which may result in establishing a new home range (HOFFMANN et al.
2004). In a nearly natural habitat in Austria, minimum home-range span was 71 m in juveniles and 39
m in nonjuveniles, and maximum home-range span was 338 m in juveniles and 203 m in
nonjuveniles. In a strongly altered alfalfa meadow, home-range span ranged between 40 m and 136
m in juveniles and between 45 m and 93 m in nonjuveniles (TURRINI et al. 2008). Dispersal of young
males up to 1–2 km cannot be excluded either (RUZIĆ 1978; MATĚJŮ unpubl.). Scarce evidence
suggests that also juvenile females and yearling males may cover distances between 350 and 750 m
(HOFFMANN et al. 2004, TURRINI et al. 2008). In Bulgaria probably the habitats around rivers
represented dispersal corridors for the species. The average distance between active S. citellus
colonies is 3.25±1.4 km and 5.95±2.37 km of inactive ones (KOSHEV 2009).
Species is a carrier for number of zoonoses such as plague (Yersinia pestis) (PESHEV 1955). GENOV
(1984) reported 9 species of parasitic helminths, two of which found only in the region of town Pirdop.
STEFANOV et al. (2001) examined 67 individuals in the period 1998-2001 from seven locations in
Bulgaria for endoparasites and found 4 helminth species and a new parasite for S. citellus –
Ctenotaenia marmotae – present in mountain populations of the species (STEFANOV et al. 2001).
GOLEMANSKY, KOSHEV (2007, 2009) examined faecal samples collected from 109 individuals of S.
citellus from 10 different localities in Bulgaria for a presence of Eucoccidians: Eimeria citelli Kartchner
& Becker, 1930, E. callospermophilli Henry, 1932, E. cynomysis Andrews, 1928 and Klossia sp. The
results showed that 96 samples were positive for presence of coccidian oocysts, an infestation
percentage of 88.05%.
Species range
Spermophilus citellus is distributed throughout central and south-eastern Europe, where it occurs
approximately south of 50° northern latitude. The species range reached its historical maximum
probably in the warmer period of last glacial period würm (interstadial würm 1-2) when it extended
from the Baltic Sea and the territories of current Britain in the north to Italy and Bulgaria in the south. It
is assumed that the current central-European distribution is a result of expansion conditioned by
human activities in historical times. The current species range is divided in two by the Carpathian
Mountains. The north-western part extends through Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria,
Hungary, northern Serbia and western Romania, whilst the south-eastern part extends from eastern
Serbia, Macedonia and northern Greece through Bulgaria, southern and western Romania to
European Turkey, Moldova and Ukraine. The distribution of S. citellus in most of its range is however
th
disjunctive (KRYŠTUFEK 1999). In the 20 century the species has become extinct in peripheral parts
of its range in Germany (FEILER 1988, HAUER et al. 2009) and Poland (at the turn of 1970s and 1980s)
although the species has recently been reintroduced here.
Austria
The recent distribution of European ground squirrels in Austria is confined to about 13,000 km² gross
of the continental area (Pannonian zone) in the country’s easternmost states (Burgenland, Lower
Austria, Vienna), which is equivalent to the south-western periphery of the species’ geographic range.
The area of occurrence is limited by the Bohemian Massif in the northwest (crystalline and
metamorphic rocks like granite, gneiss, slate etc.), and the easternmost foothills of the Alps in the
southwest and south (limestone and crystalline, respectively).
The first semiquantitative information on the distribution of S. citellus in Austria derives from the time
between 1968 till 1972 (STRASCHIL 1972). During following years further colonies were discovered
while others disappeared especially around 1970 in Burgenland when areas of large colonies were
turned into intensive agriculture or building areas. The information was stored in a data bank at the
Mammal Collection at the Museum of Natural History in Vienna. In 2001, SPITZENBERGER published a
map containing this information. In 2006 (ENZINGER et al. 2006) reported in detail on distribution,
habitats and status of S. citellus in Lower Austria, HERZIG-STRASCHIL did the same for the Burgenland
in 2007. Since then a volunteer monitoring was established in Lower Austria and a scientific
monitoring is going on in Burgenland. The Viennese colonies of S. citellus were last mapped once in
the South (HOFFMANN 2002) and once in the North (HOFFMANN 2005). Since 2011, a few hectares of
2 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) 2008. Spermophilus citellus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2012.1 (http://maps.iucnredlist.org/map.html?id=20472)
At present times there are altogether more than 280 known sites of S. citellus with about 15.000 –
30.000 individuals.
Most of the Austrian ground-squirrel sites are in agricultural areas, some on artificial surfaces like golf
courses and parks, and an evanescent minority in (semi-)natural areas. Virtually the whole area of
occurrence is fragmented, which is not surprising as Austria has the second highest density of roads
per km² in Europe. Recent findings suggest that complex, patchy cultivation patterns represent a
considerable part of available ground-squirrel habitat in Austria (HOFFMANN in litt.). Conservation
measures should be aimed at promoting and preserving agricultural mosaics, and connecting such
heterogeneous habitat clusters with dispersal corridors.
Bulgaria
There is no comprehensive overview of the overall past and current S. citellus distribution in the
country available. The data are available only from different parts of the country, collected in different
periods and by using different methods, therefore only a comparison of some regional populations'
status is possible. KOSHEV (2008) established that the percentage of extinct colonies was highest in
the Sofia field (58%) and in mountain region (32%). There are also extinct S. citellus colonies around
south-western corner of Bulgaria. The study of STEFANOV et MARKOVA (2009) established that after
1985 the species has been found only on 15 localities in Sofia valley (38.5% of the total number of
territories confirmed for the region). KOSHEV (2009) carried out assessment of distribution of the
species in Trakia valley and he found out that 18% of all known colonies perished.
KOSHEV (2008) established that the distribution of the species in Bulgaria in the period 1990-2008
2
included 275 sites covering 212 UTM squares (10x10km ) or 16.9% of the country's territory, but
these are probably underestimated (KOSHEV unpubl.).
Czech Republic
An integrated image of the distribution of S. citellus within Czech Republic was provided by GRULICH
(1960). Based on a questionnaire project in 1948 and 1949, field investigations and verifying of the
questionnaire data from 1948 to 1953, the overall distribution of the species in former Czechoslovakia
was established. At that time S. citellus was widely distributed almost all over the Bohemian basin
with the exception of the South Bohemian basins, the Brdy Mts. area and part of the Českomoravská
vysočina Highlands. It was not found in border mountain regions except for part of the Krušné hory
Mts. In Moravia, S. citellus was found especially in the south and central parts, while it was missing
completely in the Ostrava Region. During 1947–1952, the population reached its peak in Czech lands
and the ground squirrel was even considered to be a significant field pest (GRULICH 1960).
Approximately since the beginning of the 1960s a gradual decline of this species’ numbers has been
recorded, similarly as it occurred in surrounding countries – Germany, Poland and Slovakia. In 1972,
the presence of S. citellus was confirmed in 330 map squares (ANDĚRA et HANZAL 1995) while in 2007
it has been recorded only in 27 map squares representing in total 34 more or less isolated localities,
distributed irregularly throughout the entire territory of the Czech Republic except East Bohemia and
North Moravia (AOPK ČR, MATĚJŮ et al. 2010).
Current (2011) population size represents 33 localities/colonies with 3700 – 3900 individuals
estimated in total, but only at 11 localities the population is estimated at 100 individuals or more
(MATĚJŮ et SCHNITZEROVÁ 2011).
Greece
Historically, the species was ranging continuously and according to available habitats from western
Macedonia to Thrace, with the southernmost range reaching the prefecture of Pieria in central
Macedonia. Currently, the species occurs in three different and possibly disjoint areas in Greece: (a)
Total population size is difficult to estimate as densities vary depending on habitats and areas, and
therefore extrapolating could be very erroneous. Thus far, no survey to this end has been ever
performed in Greece. A very approximate estimate of covered area by the current population would
be around 4319.1 km² (YOULATOS in litt).
Hungary
No country-wide data on historical range are available, but indirect indications show that there was a
drastic population collapse around the middle of the last century. National monitoring data, which are
available since 2000, show relative stability of the population with high asynchronous local fluctuation
and threatening local extinctions. There is an on-going work on updating of map of the current
distribution. Population size indicated in the Habitats Directive Article 17 reporting in 2007 is 156-434
(min-max number of) localities. Populations are highly isolated from each other (VÁCZI in litt).
Poland
In Poland, the species became extinct in late 1970s or beginning of 1980s (MECZYNSKI 1985), but the
historical range extended approximately in the Odra River valley in south-western part of the country.
In last few years a successful repatriation was implemented to several localities near Kamień Śląski,
Głębowice and Jakubowo Lubińskie. The national wild population according to the monitoring in 2012
is estimated at 850 –900 individuals (KOŃCZAK et al. 2012). For historical distribution see JACOBI
(1902) and W ERTH (1932).
Romania
Historical range includes all plain and low hill areas, except for the intra-Carpathian basin: eastern
and southern Moldova, entire Dobroudja, eastern and southern Wallachia, the western plain of Banat
and Crişana (along the western border of Romania with Serbia and Hungary). The current distribution
is on a large extent identical with the historical range but it is more fragmented and also some major
gaps occurred as a consequence of local extinction (IFTIME in litt.).
According to distribution surveys completed mainly in 2006-2009, in the Pannonian part of the country
S. citellus was recorded in 79 UTM grids of 10x10 km. The localities and thus the colonies are mostly
isolated, which represents a serious threat for S. citellus populations. Extinction has been proven in
few cases and suspected for many more. The Balkan population of S. citellus (Oltenia, Muntenia,
Moldavia and Dobrudja regions) has been surveyed in 2009-2010 and the species was present in 379
UTM grids, with relatively large populations in Dobrudja and some parts of Moldavia, but with
considerable gaps in the southern part of the country (HEGYELI et al. 2012).
Slovakia
Current knowledge on the distribution of S. citellus in Slovakia is based on mapping of the species
since 1996 (AMBROS 2008). Also literature data as well as unpublished information from other
scientific projects (for example epidemiological) were used to create a distribution map and detect the
present state of the population. Between 1996 and 2008 altogether 120 localities were recorded in the
country. Visits of localities of S. citellus listed in older literature showed that majority (87%) of these
had been altered and the species did not occur there anymore. Some localities where S. citellus was
still registered were in different succession stages as a consequence of changed farming practices or
land use and extinction of these local populations may happen within 3 or 4 years.
On the basis of literature data the distribution of S. citellus in Slovakia till 1970 and from 1971-1995
was reconstructed. When comparing the data from field mapping with the literature data it can be
concluded that the species’ range in Slovakia has lost its continuous pattern since 1950 and has
become fragmented into several more or less separated segments. Continuous mapping with the
application of monitoring elements providing further observation of S. citellus population shows
progressing isolation of the existing colonies with continuing fragmentation of the species’ range in
Slovakia. The situation gradually gets into a state when immediate action is needed to preserve the S.
citellus in the country (AMBROS et ADAMEC in litt).
Germany
According to THALLWITZ (1898) and JACOBI (1902) at the end of 19th century S.citellus occurred all
over Silesia up to the border of Brandenburg in the North (Silesia west of the River Neisse now
belongs to Germany, e.g. the area of Oberlausitz). In Saxony S. citellus occurred in east Erzgebirge
2
Mts. next to border with Bohemia in a limited area ca. 10 km (HAUER et al. 2009). THALLWITZ (1898)
and JACOBI (1902) named localities Olsen, Oelsengrund, Breitenau, Liebenau, Lauenstein and
Hellendorf respectively Markersbach and Lauenstein. Werth (1932) add to this list also localities
Fürstenwalde, Fürstenau, Hartmannsbach and Zuschendorf by Pirna. Distribution of S. citellus in
Silesia in 1920s was described by Wert (1932), who provide detailed description of localities and map
of distribution.
Until 1933, S. citellus had disappeared from Reichenbach, Zittau and Bischofswerda (Saxonian
Oberlausitz), and until 1944 from Görlitz, Rothenburg and Hoyerswerda (Silesian Oberlausitz;
BRINKMANN 1951). Decline of S. citellus population in Saxony was first recorded in 1930s and the last
population by Geising persisted for sure until the 1968, possibly until the 1980s (FEILER 1988, HAUER
et al. 2009).
F.Y.R. of Macedonia
The Jakupica phylogeographic lineage (also referred to as S. citellus karamani) of central Macedonia
is the smallest of the three major evolutionary lines of S. citellus. This lineage is an important reservoir
of within-species diversity and should be regarded as an independent unit for conservation
management purposes. It is endemic to Mt. Jakupica, where it lives in mountain pastures at 1,500–
2,250 m altitude. The total area occupied by S. citellus (884 ha) is fragmented and 94% of individuals
−1
occur in four colonies. Densities (0.8–5.5 adults ha ) are lower than those reported elsewhere for the
species, with the total population probably <2,000 adults. One large colony, reportedly of app. 1,000
animals, was decimated in 2007 by a catastrophic fire and had still not recovered by 2010
(KRYŠTUFEK et al. 2012).
Lowlands of the River Vardar and the Dojran region of south-eastern Macedonia are inhabited by
different subspecies – Spermophilus citellus gradojevici. In 2010 the population was surveyed by
HABERL et al. (2012). Altogether 70 settlements in 15 colonies were mapped, all patchily distributed
and imbedded between fields and vineyards. These could be attributed to four distinct populations,
more or less isolated by topographic barriers (HABERL et al. 2012).
Serbia
In Serbia, the species is distributed in Vojvodina region what represents the southernmost part of its
distribution in the Pannonian lowland. S. citellus populations in Vojvodina are highly fragmented, but
their genetic variation is still higher than in peripheral populations in Central Europe (ĆOSIĆ et al.
2013). In the period 2004–2008 ĆIROVIĆ et al. (2008) had monitored the population of S. citellus in
Serbia at the localities: Neradin, Krušedol and Banatska Palanka. Abundance and density of the local
populations were determined by census method on experimental 50×50 m sample plots. The
determined abundance per plot was then recalculated for the total surface area of each habitat,
resulting in the total abundance of the population. Population density of S. citellus showed
pronounced fluctuations, from only 4 to 88 individuals/ha. The mean value of density at all three
localities was 41.6 individuals/ha. In spite of these fluctuations at the study sites, authors consider
these populations viable, though pointing that future survival of the species in Serbia is exclusively
determined by conservation of its natural habitats.
Croatia
In the past, S. citellus inhabited the easternmost part of Croatia where occurred in high population
densities. It inhabited pastures, steppe grasslands, high sloped river banks, house backyards etc.
Since the beginning of the 1980s, degradation, fragmentation, isolation and succession of steppe
Ukraine
In Ukraine, distribution of S. citellus was restricted to southwestern part of Transcarpathian region,
where it reached the easternmost limit of its distribution. Earlier it occurred also in northwestern part
of the region, but as back as 1950ies the species disappeared from most localities except the area on
the confluence of the Latorica and Tisa rivers. Also in this area it became missing for 50 years while in
2006 a small colony in Uzhorod area was discovered. Having considered the fact that grazing on this
last remaining locality has ceased in recent years extinction of the species in the country is highly
probable (BASHTA & POTISH, 2007).
Moldova
Southern limit of the species distribution passes over Moldova. In the Red book of Moldova from 2002
the species has been considered as critically endangered (COROIU et al. 2008). Population data are
not available.
Table 1.
Větrovcová
Continental 3600-3950
Czech in litt. ex
and individuals 2008-2011 G = 2008-2011 G
Republic Matějů et al.
Pannonic (31-35 localities)
2008, 2010;
The major part of critical threats to Spermophilus citellus is linked to agriculture – the most important
factor shaping the current habitats of S. citellus. The critical threats are connected either to lack of
grassland management – such as low (insufficient) intensity of grazing or mowing, or a total absence
of those – i.e. land abandonment. Also inappropriate practices such as monoculture / absence of crop
rotation, over-fertilisation (e.g. using of muck), use of chemicals, but also change in agriculture
practices including agriculture intensification and conversion of grasslands to arable land or their
afforestation are mentioned among critical or very important threats across member states concerned.
Second group of critical threats also has an impact on habitat availability for S. citellus. Urbanisation,
residential and commercial development as well as traffic development (with subsequent problems
such as the barrier effect, mortality due to collision with vehicles, pollution etc.) are causing
fragmentation and degradation of habitat for S. citellus, reduced habitat connectivity, reduced
dispersal, reduced genetic exchange and reduced fecundity / genetic depression. At the very end
coincidence of these factors leads to extinction of local S. citellus populations.
Other critical and very important threats which usually concern only some of the range countries
include flooding/inappropriate water regime, fire, increased predation (also by domestic animals),
diseases and parasites, trapping, poisoning and poaching, but also missing or wrongly directed
conservation measures. Special emphasis should be put on the agri-environment schemes (AES) for
grasslands, which in some countries are not flexible enough. For instance if the payments in AES
require late mowing of grasslands due to focus on some bird species, this can harm some species
which need short grass throughout the vegetation season (end of May and June) – like European
Ground Squirrel.
AT BG CZ EL HU PL RO SK
Cultivation C C
C ? VI
Agricultural intensification C C I VI C
Modification of
cultivation practices
Crop change VI VI
Grassland removal for arable
C C C C C
land
Notes: C – Critical; VI – Very Important; I – Important; ? – Unknown; Empty cell - not applicable
Possible factor affecting the species on a global scale may be the climate change. However its effects
on the species are barely known and only assumptions can be derived from the known effects of
climate change on precipitation, temperature, vegetation etc. (e.g. STRIJKSTRA et al. 2006). A
significant scientifically tested knowledge is missing in this field.
High temperature and dry clime can be well tolerated by S. citellus, and daily extremes avoided by
retreat into the burrow (VÁCZI 2005, VÁCZI et al. 2006). Extreme environmental events as excess
amount of rain in a short time period can kill high number of specimen or even destroy whole
populations. Also high amount of winter precipitation in combination with mild temperature can be
dangerous because of the raising ground water level, which can flood hibernation chambers.
Climate change may also impact the species' biology. Raised temperature may shift hibernation and
activity periods earlier in the year with important impact on diet and resource availability and on overall
recruitment and survival. Shortening of the hibernation period may reduce gamete maturation with
significant impact on reproduction rates and fertility.
STRIJKSTRA et al. (2006) saw a negative effect of global warming on the hibernation energetics of S.
citellus. NÉMETH et al. (2009) found that ambient temperature had an independent influence on torpor-
bout length and euthermic phases in hibernating specimen of S. citellus and that the loss in body
mass was higher in higher ambient temperatures. Thus higher winter temperature might have a
negative affect on hibernating S. citellus.
EU Habitats Directive
The species is listed in Annexes II and IV
Bern Convention
The species is listed in Appendix II (strictly protected fauna species)
CITES
Not included.
The conservation status of S. citellus has been reported in 2007 reporting only by six MS and in four
biogeographical regions – Alpine, Continental, Mediterranean and Pannonic. The reporting does not
contain data from Bulgaria and Romania, neither from Germany.
The species’ conservation status on the biogeographical level is assessed as ‘unfavourable-bad’ for
the Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions and ‘unfavourable-inadequate’ for the
Mediterranean and Pannonic regions.
Assessment of relatively good conservation status of S. citellus in Poland is due to the specifics of the
Art. 17 reporting and not the actual status of the species in the country. At the time of reporting (2007)
the only (the first) reestablished population of this species was included in the Natura 2000 network
and in good condition. The number of animals had grown last years (from zero) in this country.
However the actual status of the population of this species in Poland is still very bad (worse than in
other reporting countries) and the species is still critically endangered.
S. citellus is listed among Habitats Directive Annex II species. The most valuable sites for the species
should be covered by Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) according to article 4 of the Directive.
According to Natura 2000 database 2011 version S. citellus is listed as a target species in altogether
429 SCIs and in addition for 1 SCI it is listed among other important species present (see also table
and the map in Annex 2).
When considering the species conservation status in the EU it is worth mentioning what is the actual
coverage of the national populations in Natura 2000 network (though this data is not available for all
EU range countries):
AT: approximately 45% of the national population is covered by Natura 2000 network (ENZINGER et al.
2006, HERZIG-STRASCHIL 2007, MIKOCKI 2012 in litt.).
CZ: as of 2011 – cca 24 % of localities and 61 % individuals covered by Natura 2000 (8 localities out
of 33 with a sum of estimates of 2 365 out of total estimate of 3 879 indiv. for the entire country)
SK: based on data compiled in 2010 the actual coverage of the species localities by SCIs had been
3
calculated at 17% for Alpine and 18% for Pannonian region . The species remains assessed as
Insufficient Moderate for both regions after Biogeographic seminar organized in 2012.
In contrast, a model approach revealed that existing Natura 2000 areas are mainly located outside
potential S. citellus habitat, since most of the protected areas were located in woodland. A Maxent
species distribution modeling showed that on average, only 0.65% of suitable ground-squirrel habitat
overlap with Natura 2000 areas. E.g. in Austria there is almost no overlap of potential S. citellus
habitat with Natura 2000 (HEITHER & BLOMENKAMP 2012 - see this source also for other countries of
the distribution range), which effectively applies to Vienna, where only a minor part of the northern
population dwells in Natura 2000 area (Bisamberg) (HOFFMANN in litt.).
The species is protected according to national law in every EU country of its current range. It is also
4
enlisted in the national red lists of threatened species of the EU range countries except for Hungary .
Table 3.
Protected areas
Except protection within Natura 2000 network some localities of S. citellus are located within nationally
protected areas and thus are subject to special protection – such as in Bulgaria in National parks Rila
and Central Balkan and Nature parks Vitosha, Strandzha, Sinite kamani, Rusenski lom, etc. Part of
recent localities of S. citellus however are found outside protected areas, similarly as in the Czech
Republic, Greece, Hungary or Slovakia. This is no doubt caused by the fact that these localities often
represent man-made habitats, such as airports, gardens, playgrounds, etc. In Hungary measures for
protection of S. citellus are included among conservation priorities for a number of protected areas and
Natura 2000 sites.
Action Plan for the European Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus citellus) in the Czech Republic (MATĚJŮ
et al. 2010) was developed in 2006 and approved by the Ministry of Environment in 2008.
Conservation goals of this Action Plan include: 1. Ensure the existence of the European ground
squirrel in the highest possible number of existing localities, while focusing on Sites of Community
Importance (SCIs) and more numerous populations with a positive development perspective and with
the possibility of enlarging the area of the colony; 2. Create a total of 5 metapopulation systems of
European ground squirrel occurrence in the Czech Republic, with a total number of at least 2,500
individuals in each of the 5 metapopulations for at least 10 years). The Action Plan also contains
specific conservation measures grouped along major topics such as habitat management, species
management, monitoring, research, education and other measures. A major review of the action plan
is after 10 years therefore the evaluation of the plan’s effectiveness is not available yet.
In Poland the “National management plan for the species – European ground squirrel (Spermophilus
citellus)” (KEPEL & KALA 2007) was developed in 2006-2007 with the participation of all interested
stakeholders and published by the Polish Ministry of Environment. However it is not legally binding in
any way. Main goal of the plan is the implementation of the S. citellus reintroduction program in
Poland. As a minimum, the program assumes reestablishment of 6 metapopulations of this species in
the four regions (voivodeships) of Poland, within the historical range of the species. It also anticipates
educational activities in the local communities and the use of the S. citellus as an umbrella species for
conservation of rare and protected grassland habitats and associated species.
In Austria an action plan for S. citellus exists for the province of Lower Austria (GROSS et al. 2006). It is
funded by Provincial and Austrian Government (Ministry of Agriculture and Environment) and the
European Union. It consists of management of habitats, mediation of conflicts, monitoring by
volunteers and raising of public awareness. A similar project of the Burgenland league for Nature
Conservation (Naturschutzbund Burgenland) also funded by Provincial and Austrian Government
(Ministry of Agriculture and Environment) and the European Union is mainly focused on a scientific
monitoring of all S. citellus colonies within the province, but includes also management of habitats,
mediation of conflicts and raising of public awareness. An action plan for localities in Vienna is in
preparation.
No specific action plan at national level exists yet for Bulgaria, Hungary, Greece and Romania. In
Slovakia, such action plan is in preparation.
MATĚJŮ et al. (2010) summarized and evaluated a number of reintroduction and repatriation (rescue
transfer) projects implemented in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the last 20 years. In the 1990s,
Several reintroduction projects were implemented in the Czech Republic, most of them, however, not
successful. This was due to several reasons, mainly because of low number of released individuals,
but also due to low or not existent support for the newly established populations in the years
subsequent to release (by releasing more individuals), isolation of new populations from the existing
ones, parasites and increased predation of captive-bred animals. However, these projects also
delivered important experience for the future reintroduction programmes, such as the positive
experience with using a release cage for adapting the released animal to new environment on a
locality of release.
Since 2005 a successful project of reintroduction of S. citellus after their extinction in 1970ies is taking
place in Poland. To the locality near Kamień Śląski (near the town Opole) altogether 250 individuals
were released in the course of 2005 to 2007. Animals originated from Hungary and Slovakia from
where they were transported to ZOO in Poznań for captive breeding. At the locality of release the
animals were put into acclimatization cages, from which they dug themselves out (soft release, cf.
TRUETT et al. 2001). Based on an estimate from 2012, about 770 individuals are found at this locality.
In 2008-2012 S. citellus reintroduction in two other localities was started (in Głębowice and Jakubowo
Lubińskie, both in the Lower Silesia region). In both of these localities the estimated number of
animals starting the hibernation in 2012 is still much lower than in Kamień Śląski (probably doesn’t
exceed 100 individuals on any of these sites).
In Hungary, many reintroduction and translocation actions were implemented in last decades as well
(VÁCZI in litt). Around 2002 approximately 700 individuals of S. citellus were transferred to a new
locality due to the abolishment of a field airport. The animals were released individually into pre-drilled
holes, the openings of which were then closed with a bottle. This forced the released individuals to
stay under the ground and dig a new entrance, allowed them to calm down and thus prevented them
to leave quickly the new locality. In the following year more than 300 individuals were observed and
reproduction was successful as well (VÁCZI in verb.; GEDEON et al. 2011).
In Bulgaria reintroduction projects for S. citellus exist in Nature parks Vitosha, Sinite kamani, Bulgarka
and Vrachanski Balkan (KOSHEV in litt.).
In Austria there are no reintroduction projects existing or planned at present and reintroductions are
regarded only as an exceptional measure in Lower Austria.
Considering that the vast majority of reintroduction events have been unsuccessful or their results are
uncertain or unknown, EU legislation (Art. 12 of the Habitats Directive 92/42/EC) should be thoroughly
applied to verify whether future translocations are de facto expedient or necessary. To this, a strict set
of rules is required to be developed and agreed among experts before executing any further
translocation, repatriation or reintroduction. This set of rules should be based on a critical review of the
experience and unconditionally include monitoring of the released animals (at least until the next
reproductive season after release).
Programmes for monitoring of S. citellus exist for example for most of Austria, in Czech Republic,
Hungary and Poland.
In Austria the monitoring of S. citellus is carried out in Lower Austria and Burgenland, but it is not yet
implemented in Vienna. The Lower Austrian League for Nature Conservation (Naturschutzbund NÖ)
created the “Ground Squirrel Network” in 2009. A team of volunteers, like friends of nature, farmers,
winegrowers, huntsmen and biologists, provide surveillance of “their” S. citellus colonies. Animals and
their burrow entrances are counted – following one and the same method – each year in April. The
Lower Austrian League for Nature Conservation (Naturschutzbund NÖ) makes an analysis and
derives conservation measures from the results. In Burgenland all colonies of S. citellus are being
monitored by scientists as part of a project run by the Burgenland League for Nature Conservation
(Naturschutzbund Burgenland).
In the Czech Republic detailed monitoring of S. citellus has been going on since 2000 and since 2006
it is being implemented as part of the national species action plan. Besides surveillance of known
localities it also revealed new localities of the species.
In Hungary, S. citellus is being monitored as part of the Hungarian Biodiversity Monitoring System
5
since 2000 at 63 permanent sample localities representing both natural sites and grassy airports
visited at least once a year in mid April. A method of active burrow holes counting on a 1000 m long
and 1m wide belt transect is being used. Except the number of active burrow holes a set of additional
information is being collected as well.
In Poland the exact monitoring of all existing S. citellus sites is part of the approved national
reintroduction program. Census of the population is done in April and August.
In Bulgaria S. citellus is included in the National System for Monitoring of Biological Diversity
(STEFANOV – in press). In Slovakia, monitoring programme for S. citellus is in preparation (AMBROS
pers. com.).
In some countries, such as Bulgaria, Hungary or Slovakia the local populations of S. citellus and their
habitats were subject to actions of conservation projects targeting other species, such as birds of prey
– Imperial Eagle or Saker Falcon.
Protection of S. citellus habitats in Lower Austrian is being ensured through the Austrian agri-
environment programme (ÖPUL) of the Rural Development Policy 2007 – 2013. Farmers taking part
5 http://www.termeszetvedelem.hu/_user/downloads/biomon_eng/EGS.pdf
Vineyards turned out to be the most important habitat for S. citellus in Lower Austria at present. One
third of the colonies are situated in vineyards. The suitability of vineyards for S. citellus largely
depends on the presence of short grassland stripes between the grapevine rows. This permanent
green space protects the ground from soil erosion. Since this type of soil conservation has been
promoted by the Lower Austrian Chamber of Agriculture several years ago, nowadays it's often to be
found. In years with low precipitation the portion of vineyards with short grassland between the grape
wine rows declines, which may be unfavourable for the S. citellus colonisation. As there is no
possibility for winegrowers to get ÖPUL-funds to protect habitats of S. citellus in their vineyards, the
Lower Austrian League of Nature Conservation (Naturschutzbund NÖ) launched a marketing
campaign for them. Wine growers, who have "ground squirrel vineyards" and who cultivate their
vineyards while keeping short grassland striped between the grapevine rows, will be allowed to use a
badge to mark these souslik-friendly vineyards, which signalizes, that the winegrower protects habitat
for S. citellus in his vineyards. Moreover the winemaker is allowed to label his respective wine bottles
with Naturschutzbund NÖ label, if he accepts additional sponsorship conditions.
Similarly in the province of Burgenland, the appropriate measures on fallow land and vineyards are
financed through “ÖPUL” and directly from funds of the conservation department of the provincial
government.
Moreover, for establishing large scale S. citellus habitats, decisions of EU Common Agricultural Policy
(e.g. 2014 – 2020) as a whole are very important.
The current state of knowledge is considered sufficient to start with actions aimed at conservation of
the species. Despite the increased scientific attention some gaps remain in specific topics connected
to S. citellus biology, ecology etc. The most important gaps in knowledge are listed below. Some are
specifically relevant for only some of the range countries (indicated by country code). If not indicated
otherwise the identified gap is relevant for all range countries:
Biology of S. citellus
- parasitism - EL
- feeding habits - EL
Ecology of S. citellus:
- minimal viable population sizes and minimum size of habitat
- reproductive and mortality rates, demography of the populations – population models
- ecology of (meta)populations – dispersal potential of the species and movements between
habitat patches, habitat connectivity
- adaptation, orientation in the new environment (for emergency transfers)
- effects of climate change on species biology, behaviour, etc.
- intra- and inter-specific effects
3.2 Objectives
Habitat conservation measures can only be implemented by reflecting S. citellus needs in agri-
environmental programmes as by convincing farmers – the most important stakeholders for nature
conservation – to take part in proper management of S. citellus localities (mowing, grazing). Through
these programmes farmers may get funded and so as get rewarded for nature conservation activities.
The priority is to develop and support agricultural systems that maintain habitats with a certain amount
of short grasslands. Actions are needed at EU level to support appropriate systems of High Nature
Value farming. Flexible agri-environment schemes are necessary. Such measures have to go on also
when the present programming period ends (i.e. after 2013). Where agri-environmental measures for
S. citellus already exist, these should be renewed starting from 2014 and farmers should be
encouraged to take part.
Objective 2: Restore metapopulations of S. citellus in parts of the range where its distribution
is fragmented.
Individual populations have to be stabilized by restoring source populations within metapopulations
and providing adequate habitat size and quality at a landscape scale. This includes directly adjacent
areas as well as habitat patches that may be reached by the ground squirrel. Within the next CAP
programming period (2014-2020), the suitable habitat should increase considerably in all defined
localities (e.g. two source populations in each metapopulation unit).
Individuals from different populations should be able to move between populations. Populations
should be able to grow and to spread. Habitats and colonies should be prevented from fragmentation
and isolation. Dispersal routes need to be detected, stepping stone habitats between colonies of S.
Good quality data are needed on certain aspects of the species’ ecology and its environment e.g. to
improve the management on existing localities (e.g. response of the species to different management
options, response to translocations, effects of climate change, etc.). These data are also crucial for the
restoration of the sites from which the species has disappeared. Research must include management
experiments to learn more about real-time reactions of the species. Results have to be implemented in
the management of the localities immediately.
It is also very important to provide information to general public and to improve the public relation
towards the species using different kinds of media, e.g. local and provincial press. Folders, reports and
information desks at certain local events help to raise public awareness on the species, its needs and
on nature conservation in general. Involving volunteers into conservation work (e.g. into monitoring of
S. citellus colonies) helps to build positive relation and local ownership for the species.
To support populations of S. citellus living in vineyards and orchards a special information campaign
for vineyard and orchard operators may be considered. The public relation activities may involve local
branding.
6 Time Responsible
No. Action Indicator MS Priority 7 organisations
scale
2. Species recovery
4. Scientific research
This plan should be reviewed, at the latest, ten years after publication (2023). Nevertheless, a
continuous review of data on the species should allow for adjustments and adaptations in areas where
the Plan would been found ineffective or outdated.
3.5 Other species and habitats that may benefit from the SAP
From keeping the population of Spermophilus citellus in a favourable conservation status, many other
species of conservation interest will benefit. S. citellus represents an important prey for many
predators - birds of prey such as the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca, Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos,
Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina, Saker Falcon Falco cherrug, Long-legged Buzzard Buteo
rufinus and other raptors; small carnivores such as Steppe Polecat Mustela eversmanii, Marbled
Polecat Vormela peregusna and possibly even reptiles such as Four-lined Snake Elaphe
quatuorlineata. Other species sharing the same habitat may also benefit from the conservation of S.
citellus and its habitats such as Romanian Hamster Mesocricetus newtoni, European Hamster
Cricetus cricetus, Grey Hamster Cricetulus migratorius, invertebrate species e.g. Stenobothrus
eurasius, Eresus cinnaberinus, Xysticus marmoratus, Sisyphus schaefferi, Plagiolepis vindobonensis,
Zygaena laeta, many species of gossamer-winged butterflies Lycaenidae, bees Apidae, etc. Some
species are directly dependent on S. cittelus occurrence, such as the rare coprophagous (dung)
beetles Ontophagus vitulus, Aphodius citellorum feeding on excrements of S. citellus. Old burrows of
S. citellus serve as a refuge for Green Toad Bufo viridis and perhaps also Adder Vipera berus, the
Hungarian Meadow Viper Vipera ursinii rakosiensis, smooth snake Coronella austriaca or other
amphibians and reptiles. Also many plant species can benefit from the protection of S. citellus. For
instance Gentiana cruciata, Stachys germanica, Inula conyza and many other.
Keeping the habitat of S. citellus in a good condition may also help to protect several priority natural
habitats of Community importance listed in the Annex I of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EC – such as
6110* Rupicolous calcareous or basophilic grasslands of the Alysso-Sedion albi, 6210 Semi-natural
dry grasslands and scrubland facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) (* important
orchid sites), 6240* Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands, 6250 * Pannonic loess steppic grasslands,
6260* Pannonic sand steppes - the habitats which similarly as S. citellus benefit from regular grazing
of domestic animals (mainly sheep and goats). Moreover, since S. citellus feeds on shoots of Solanum
elaeagnifolium increased populations may regulate the spread of this invasive plant species in natural
habitats (YOULATOS in litt).
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9 Prepared based on Natura 2000 End 2011 database, except for Austria – data provided by Austrian authorities
Site area Global Map
Country Site code Site name (ha) Population Conservation Isolation Importance Resident code
BG0000132 Pobitite kamani 231,35 C A C C C
BG0000133 Kamchiyska i Emenska planina 63678,47 C B C C V
BG0000136 Reka Gorna Luda Kamchia 2276,93 C B C C V
BG0000137 Reka Dolna Luda Kamchia 2460,7 C B C B V
BG0000138 Kamenitsa 1455,71 C B C B C
BG0000139 Luda Kamchia 6111,06 C B C C V
BG0000141 Reka Kamchia 158,84 D V
BG0000151 Aytoska planina 29379,4 C A C A C
BG0000154 Ezero Durankulak 5050,79 C B C A R
BG0000164 Sinite kamani 12288,91 C B C C V
BG0000166 Vrachanski Balkan 35981,25 D P
BG0000168 Ludogorie 59447,46 C A C A C
BG0000169 Ludogorie - Srebarna 5223,8 C A C A C
BG0000171 Ludogorie - Boblata 4836,45 C A C C C
BG0000173 Ostrovche 6749,19 C B C B V
BG0000180 Boblata 3216,87 D P
BG0000181 Reka Vit 5717,17 C B C A C
BG0000182 Orsoya 2949,41 D P
BG0000190 Vitata stena 2630,19 D P
BG0000192 Reka Tundzha 1 9503 C A C A C
BG0000194 Reka Chaya 650,62 C B C B V
BG0000195 Reka Tundzha 2 5953,32 C B C C V
BG0000196 Reka Mochuritsa 8702,83 C B C C V
BG0000198 Sredetska reka 707,78 D P
BG0000199 Tsibar 2971,73 C B C C V
BG0000205 Straldzha 882,02 C B C C V
BG0000206 Sadievo 516,67 D P
BG0000211 Tvardishka planina 38649,53 C B C B R
BG0000212 Sakar 132117,76 C B C A R
BG0000213 Tarnovski visochini 4434,61 C B C B V
BG0000216 Emen 490,37 D P
BG0000217 Zhdreloto na reka Tundzha 7856,99 D P
BG0000218 Derventski vazvishenia 1 38696,5 C B C A C
BG0000219 Derventski vazvishenia 2 55036,13 C B C B R
BG0000230 Fakiyska reka 4104,72 D P
Population: Size and density of the population of the species present on the site in relation to the populations present within national territory.
A: 100 % ≥ p > 15 %,
B: 15 % ≥ p > 2 %,
C: 2 % ≥ p > 0 %.
Conservation: Degree of conservation of the features of the habitat which are important for the species concerned and possibilities for
restoration.
A. conservation excellent:
Isolation: Degree of isolation of the population present on the site in relation to the natural range of the species.
Global Importance: Global assessment of the value of the site for conservation of the species concerned.
A: excellent value,
B: good value,
C: significant value.
Resident :
V: very rare
R: Rare
C: Common
P: Present