Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Fluorine

Fluorine

Fluorine is a chemical element; it has symbol F and atomic

number 9. It is the lightest halogen and exists at standard Fluorine, 9F
conditions as a highly toxic, pale yellow diatomic gas. Fluorine is
extremely reactive, as it reacts with all other elements except for
the light inert gases.

Among the elements, fluorine ranks 24th in universal abundance

and 13th in terrestrial abundance. Fluorite, the primary mineral
source of fluorine which gave the element its name, was first
described in 1529; as it was added to metal ores to lower their
melting points for smelting, the Latin verb fluo meaning 'to flow'
gave the mineral its name. Proposed as an element in 1810, Liquid fluorine (F2 at extremely low temperature)
fluorine proved difficult and dangerous to separate from its Fluorine
compounds, and several early experimenters died or sustained
Pronunciation /ˈfl
flʊəriːn/
injuries from their attempts. Only in 1886 did French chemist
Henri Moissan isolate elemental fluorine using low-temperature /ˈfl
flɔːriːn/
electrolysis, a process still employed for modern production. (FLOR-een)
Industrial production of fluorine gas for uranium enrichment, its
Allotropes alpha, beta (see Allotropes of
largest application, began during the Manhattan Project in World
War II. fluorine)
Appearance gas: very pale yellow
Owing to the expense of refining pure fluorine, most commercial liquid: bright yellow
applications use fluorine compounds, with about half of mined
solid: alpha is opaque, beta is
fluorite used in steelmaking. The rest of the fluorite is converted
transparent
into corrosive hydrogen fluoride en route to various organic
fluorides, or into cryolite, which plays a key role in aluminium Standard atomic weight Ar°(F)
refining. Molecules containing a carbon–fluorine bond often have
18.998 403 162 ± 0.000 000 005
very high chemical and thermal stability; their major uses are as
refrigerants, electrical insulation and cookware, and PTFE 18.998 ± 0.001 (abridged)[1]
(Teflon). Pharmaceuticals such as atorvastatin and fluoxetine Fluorine in the periodic table
contain C−F bonds. The fluoride ion from dissolved fluoride salts
inhibits dental cavities, and so finds use in toothpaste and water –
↑
fluoridation. Global fluorochemical sales amount to more than F
US$15 billion a year. ↓
Cl
oxygen ← fluorine → neon
Fluorocarbon gases are generally greenhouse gases with global-
warming potentials 100 to 23,500 times that of carbon dioxide, Atomic number (Z) 9
and SF6 has the highest global warming potential of any known
Group group 17 (halogens)
substance. Organofluorine compounds often persist in the
environment due to the strength of the carbon–fluorine bond. Period period 2
Fluorine has no known metabolic role in mammals; a few plants Block p-block
and sea sponges synthesize organofluorine poisons (most often
Electron [He] 2s2 2p5[2]
monofluoroacetates) that help deter predation.[15]
configuration
Electrons per 2, 7
Characteristics shell
Physical properties
Electron configuration Phase at STP gas
Melting point (F2) 53.48 K (−219.67 °C,
Fluorine atoms have nine electrons, one fewer than neon, and
−363.41 °F)[3]
electron configuration 1s22s22p5: two electrons in a filled inner
shell and seven in an outer shell requiring one more to be filled. Boiling point (F2) 85.03 K (−188.11 °C,
The outer electrons are ineffective at nuclear shielding, and −306.60 °F)[3]
experience a high effective nuclear charge of 9 − 2 = 7; this affects Density (at STP) 1.696 g/L[4]
the atom's physical properties.[2]
when liquid (at b.p.) 1.505 g/cm3[5]
Fluorine's first ionization energy is third-highest among all Triple point 53.48 K, .252 kPa[6]

1 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

elements, behind helium and neon,[16] which complicates the Critical point 144.41 K, 5.1724 MPa[3]
removal of electrons from neutral fluorine atoms. It also has a high
Heat of 6.51 kJ/mol[4]
electron affinity, second only to chlorine,[17] and tends to capture
vaporization
an electron to become isoelectronic with the noble gas neon;[2] it
has the highest electronegativity of any reactive element.[18] Molar heat Cp: 31 J/(mol·K)[5] (at 21.1 °C)
Fluorine atoms have a small covalent radius of around capacity Cv: 23 J/(mol·K)[5] (at 21.1 °C)
60 picometers, similar to those of its period neighbors oxygen and Vapor pressure
neon.[19][20][note 1]
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 38 44 50 58 69 85
Reactivity
Atomic properties
The bond energy of difluorine is much lower than that of either
Oxidation states −1, 0[7] (oxidizes oxygen)
Cl2 or Br2 and similar to the easily cleaved peroxide bond; this,
along with high electronegativity, accounts for fluorine's easy Electronegativity Pauling scale: 3.98[2]
dissociation, high reactivity, and strong bonds to non-fluorine Ionization 1st: 1681 kJ/mol
atoms.[21][22] Conversely, bonds to other atoms are very strong energies 2nd: 3374 kJ/mol
because of fluorine's high electronegativity. Unreactive substances
3rd: 6147 kJ/mol
like powdered steel, glass fragments, and asbestos fibers react
quickly with cold fluorine gas; wood and water spontaneously (more)[8]
combust under a fluorine jet.[4][23] Covalent radius 64 pm[9]

Reactions of elemental fluorine with metals require varying Van der Waals 135 pm[10]
conditions. Alkali metals cause explosions and alkaline earth radius
metals display vigorous activity in bulk; to prevent passivation
from the formation of metal fluoride layers, most other metals
such as aluminium and iron must be powdered,[21] and noble Spectral lines of fluorine
metals require pure fluorine gas at 300–450 °C (575–850 °F).[24]
Other properties
Some solid nonmetals (sulfur, phosphorus) react vigorously in
liquid fluorine.[25] Hydrogen sulfide[25] and sulfur dioxide[26] Natural primordial
combine readily with fluorine, the latter sometimes explosively; occurrence
sulfuric acid exhibits much less activity, requiring elevated Crystal structure cubic
temperatures.[27]

Hydrogen, like some of the alkali metals, reacts explosively with

Thermal 0.02591 W/(m⋅K)[11]
fluorine.[28] Carbon, as lamp black, reacts at room temperature to
conductivity
yield tetrafluoromethane. Graphite combines with fluorine above
400 °C (750 °F) to produce non-stoichiometric carbon Magnetic ordering diamagnetic (−1.2×10−4)
monofluoride; higher temperatures generate gaseous [12][13]

fluorocarbons, sometimes with explosions.[29] Carbon dioxide and CAS Number 7782-41-4[2]
carbon monoxide react at or just above room temperature,[30]
History
whereas paraffins and other organic chemicals generate strong
reactions:[31] even completely substituted haloalkanes such as Naming after the mineral fluorite, itself
carbon tetrachloride, normally incombustible, may explode.[32] named after Latin fluo (to flow,
Although nitrogen trifluoride is stable, nitrogen requires an in smelting)
electric discharge at elevated temperatures for reaction with Discovery André-Marie Ampère (1810)
fluorine to occur, due to the very strong triple bond in elemental
First isolation Henri Moissan[2] (June 26, 1886)
nitrogen;[33] ammonia may react explosively.[34][35] Oxygen does
not combine with fluorine under ambient conditions, but can be Named by Humphry Davy
made to react using electric discharge at low temperatures and André-Marie Ampère
pressures; the products tend to disintegrate into their constituent
elements when heated.[36][37][38] Heavier halogens[39] react readily Isotopes of fluorine
with fluorine as does the noble gas radon;[40] of the other noble
Main isotopes Decay
gases, only xenon and krypton react, and only under special
conditions.[41] Argon does not react with fluorine gas; however, it abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product
does form a compound with fluorine, argon fluorohydride. 18F trace 109.734 min β+ 18O

19F 100% stable

Phases
[14]

At room temperature, fluorine is a gas of diatomic molecules,[4]

External videos
pale yellow when pure (sometimes described as yellow-green).[42] It has a characteristic
halogen-like pungent and biting odor detectable at 20 ppb.[43] Fluorine condenses into a
bright yellow liquid at −188 °C (−306 °F), a transition temperature similar to those of

2 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

oxygen and nitrogen.[44] Bright flames (https://www.y

outube.com/watch?v=vtWp45E
Fluorine has two solid forms, α- and β-fluorine. The latter crystallizes at −220 °C
ewtw) during fluorine reactions
(−364 °F) and is transparent and soft, with the same disordered cubic structure of freshly
crystallized solid oxygen,[44][note 2] unlike the orthorhombic systems of other solid Fluorine reacting with
halogens.[48][49] Further cooling to −228 °C (−378 °F) induces a phase transition into caesium (https://www.youtube.c
opaque and hard α-fluorine, which has a monoclinic structure with dense, angled layers of om/watch?v=TLOFaWdPxB0)
molecules. The transition from β- to α-fluorine is more exothermic than the condensation
of fluorine, and can be violent.[48][49][note 3]

Isotopes

Only one isotope of fluorine occurs naturally in abundance, the stable isotope 19F.[50] It has
a high magnetogyric ratio[note 4] and exceptional sensitivity to magnetic fields; because it is
also the only stable isotope, it is used in magnetic resonance imaging.[52] Eighteen
radioisotopes with mass numbers from 13 to 31 have been synthesized, of which 18F is the
most stable with a half-life of 109.77 minutes. 18F is a natural trace radioisotope produced Fluorine 3D molecule
by cosmic ray spallation of atmospheric argon as well as by reaction of protons with natural
oxygen: 18O + p → 18F + n.[53] Other radioisotopes have half-lives less than 70 seconds;
most decay in less than half a second.[54] The isotopes 17F and 18F undergo β+ decay and
electron capture, lighter isotopes decay by proton emission, and those heavier than 19F
undergo β− decay (the heaviest ones with delayed neutron emission).[54][55] Two metastable
isomers of fluorine are known, 18mF, with a half-life of 162(7) nanoseconds, and 26mF, with
a half-life of 2.2(1) milliseconds.[56]

Occurrence

Universe
Among the lighter elements, fluorine's abundance value of 400 ppb (parts per billion) – Crystal structure of β-fluorine.
24th among elements in the universe – is exceptionally low: other elements from carbon to Spheres indicate F2 molecules
magnesium are twenty or more times as common.[58] This is because stellar that may assume any angle.
Other molecules are
nucleosynthesis processes bypass fluorine, and any fluorine atoms otherwise created have
constrained to planes.
high nuclear cross sections, allowing collisions with hydrogen or helium to generate oxygen
or neon respectively.[58][59]
Solar System abundances[57]
Beyond this transient existence, three
explanations have been proposed for the Atomic
Element
Relative
number amount
presence of fluorine:[58][60]
6 Carbon 4,800
▪ during type II supernovae, 7 Nitrogen 1,500
bombardment of neon atoms by
neutrinos could transmute them 8 Oxygen 8,800
to fluorine; 9 Fluorine 1
▪ the solar wind of Wolf–Rayet 10 Neon 1,400
stars could blow fluorine away
11 Sodium 24
from any hydrogen or helium
atoms; or 12 Magnesium 430 Animation showing the crystal
▪ fluorine is borne out on structure of beta-fluorine.
convection currents arising from fusion in asymptotic giant branch Molecules on the faces of the
stars. unit cell have rotations
constrained to a plane.

Earth
Fluorine is the thirteenth most common element in Earth's crust at 600–700 ppm (parts per million) by mass.[61] Though believed
not to occur naturally, elemental fluorine has been shown to be present as an occlusion in antozonite, a variant of fluorite.[62] Most
fluorine exists as fluoride-containing minerals. Fluorite, fluorapatite and cryolite are the most industrially significant.[61][63]
Fluorite (CaF2), also known as fluorspar, abundant worldwide, is the main source of fluoride, and hence fluorine. China and
Mexico are the major suppliers.[63][64][65][66][67] Fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F), which contains most of the world's fluoride, is an

3 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

inadvertent source of fluoride as a byproduct of fertilizer production.[63] Cryolite (Na3AlF6), used in the production of aluminium,
is the most fluorine-rich mineral. Economically viable natural sources of cryolite have been exhausted, and most is now
synthesised commercially.[63]

Fluorite: Pink Fluorapatite: Long, Cryolite: A

globular mass with prismatic crystal, parallelogram-
crystal facets dull in lustre, shaped outline with
protruding, at an diatomic molecules
angle, from matrix arranged in two
of aggregate-like layers
rock

Other minerals such as topaz contain fluorine. Fluorides, unlike other halides, are insoluble and do not occur in commercially
favorable concentrations in saline waters.[63] Trace quantities of organofluorines of uncertain origin have been detected in volcanic
eruptions and geothermal springs.[68] The existence of gaseous fluorine in crystals, suggested by the smell of crushed antozonite, is
contentious;[69][62] a 2012 study reported the presence of 0.04% F2 by weight in antozonite, attributing these inclusions to
radiation from the presence of tiny amounts of uranium.[62]

History

Early discoveries
In 1529, Georgius Agricola described fluorite as an additive used to lower the melting point of
metals during smelting.[70][71][note 5] He penned the Latin word fluorēs (fluor, flow) for fluorite
rocks. The name later evolved into fluorspar (still commonly used) and then fluorite.[64][75][76] The
composition of fluorite was later determined to be calcium difluoride.[77]

Hydrofluoric acid was used in glass etching from 1720 onward.[note 6] Andreas Sigismund Marggraf
first characterized it in 1764 when he heated fluorite with sulfuric acid, and the resulting solution
corroded its glass container.[79][80] Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele repeated the experiment
in 1771, and named the acidic product fluss-spats-syran (fluorspar acid).[80][81] In 1810, the French
physicist André-Marie Ampère suggested that hydrogen and an element analogous to chlorine
constituted hydrofluoric acid.[82] He also proposed in a letter to Sir Humphry Davy dated August
26, 1812 that this then-unknown substance may be named fluorine from fluoric acid and the -ine
suffix of other halogens.[83][84] This word, often with modifications, is used in most European
languages; however, Greek, Russian, and some others, following Ampère's later suggestion, use the
name ftor or derivatives, from the Greek φθόριος (phthorios, destructive).[85] The New Latin name
Steelmaking illustration
fluorum gave the element its current symbol F; Fl was used in early papers.[86][note 7]
from De re metallica

Isolation
Initial studies on fluorine were so dangerous that several 19th-century experimenters were deemed "fluorine martyrs" after
misfortunes with hydrofluoric acid.[note 8] Isolation of elemental fluorine was hindered by the extreme corrosiveness of both
elemental fluorine itself and hydrogen fluoride, as well as the lack of a simple and suitable electrolyte.[77][87] Edmond Frémy
postulated that electrolysis of pure hydrogen fluoride to generate fluorine was feasible and devised a method to produce anhydrous
samples from acidified potassium bifluoride; instead, he discovered that the resulting (dry) hydrogen fluoride did not conduct
electricity.[77][87][88] Frémy's former student Henri Moissan persevered, and after much trial and error found that a mixture of
potassium bifluoride and dry hydrogen fluoride was a conductor, enabling electrolysis. To prevent rapid corrosion of the platinum
in his electrochemical cells, he cooled the reaction to extremely low temperatures in a special bath and forged cells from a more

4 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

resistant mixture of platinum and iridium, and used fluorite stoppers.[87][89] In 1886, after 74 years
of effort by many chemists, Moissan isolated elemental fluorine.[88][90]

In 1906, two months before his death, Moissan received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry,[91] with the
following citation:[87]

[I]n recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation
of the element fluorine ... The whole world has admired the great experimental skill
with which you have studied that savage beast among the elements.[note 9]

1887 drawing of
Later uses
Moissan's apparatus
The Frigidaire division of General Motors (GM)
experimented with chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants in the late 1920s, and Kinetic
Chemicals was formed as a joint venture between GM and DuPont in 1930 hoping to
market Freon-12 (CCl2F2) as one such refrigerant. It replaced earlier and more toxic
compounds, increased demand for kitchen refrigerators, and became profitable; by
1949 DuPont had bought out Kinetic and marketed several other Freon compounds. An ampoule of uranium hexafluoride
[80][92][93][94] Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) was serendipitously discovered in 1938
by Roy J. Plunkett while working on refrigerants at Kinetic, and its superlative
chemical and thermal resistance lent it to accelerated commercialization and mass production by 1941.[80][92][93]

Large-scale production of elemental fluorine began during World War II. Germany used high-temperature electrolysis to make tons
of the planned incendiary chlorine trifluoride[95] and the Manhattan Project used huge quantities to produce uranium hexafluoride
for uranium enrichment. Since UF6 is as corrosive as fluorine, gaseous diffusion plants required special materials: nickel for
membranes, fluoropolymers for seals, and liquid fluorocarbons as coolants and lubricants. This burgeoning nuclear industry later
drove post-war fluorochemical development.[96]

Compounds
Fluorine has a rich chemistry, encompassing organic and inorganic domains. It combines with metals, nonmetals, metalloids, and
most noble gases,[97] and almost exclusively assumes an oxidation state of −1.[note 10] Fluorine's high electron affinity results in a
preference for ionic bonding; when it forms covalent bonds, these are polar, and almost always single.[100][101][note 11]

Metals
Alkali metals form ionic and highly soluble monofluorides; these have the cubic arrangement of sodium chloride and analogous
chlorides.[102][103] Alkaline earth difluorides possess strong ionic bonds but are insoluble in water,[86] with the exception of
beryllium difluoride, which also exhibits some covalent character and has a quartz-like structure.[104] Rare earth elements and
many other metals form mostly ionic trifluorides.[105][106][107]

Covalent bonding first comes to prominence in the tetrafluorides: those of zirconium, hafnium[108][109] and several actinides[110]
are ionic with high melting points,[111][note 12] while those of titanium,[114] vanadium,[115] and niobium are polymeric,[116] melting
or decomposing at no more than 350 °C (660 °F).[117] Pentafluorides continue this trend with their linear polymers and oligomeric
complexes.[118][119][120] Thirteen metal hexafluorides are known,[note 13] all octahedral, and are mostly volatile solids but for liquid
MoF6 and ReF6, and gaseous WF6.[121][122][123] Rhenium heptafluoride, the only characterized metal heptafluoride, is a low-
melting molecular solid with pentagonal bipyramidal molecular geometry.[124] Metal fluorides with more fluorine atoms are
particularly reactive.[125]

Structural progression of metal fluorides

5 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Rhenium
Sodium fluoride,
Bismuth pentafluoride, polymeric heptafluoride,
ionic
molecular

Hydrogen
Hydrogen and fluorine combine to yield hydrogen fluoride, in which discrete molecules
form clusters by hydrogen bonding, resembling water more than hydrogen chloride.
[126][127][128] It boils at a much higher temperature than heavier hydrogen halides and

unlike them is miscible with water.[129] Hydrogen fluoride readily hydrates on contact with
water to form aqueous hydrogen fluoride, also known as hydrofluoric acid. Unlike the other
hydrohalic acids, which are strong, hydrofluoric acid is a weak acid at low concentrations.
[130][note 14] However, it can attack glass, something the other acids cannot do.[132]

Boiling points of hydrogen

halides and chalcogenides,
Other reactive nonmetals showing the unusually high
values for hydrogen fluoride
Binary fluorides of metalloids and p-block nonmetals are generally covalent and volatile,
and water
with varying reactivities. Period 3 and heavier nonmetals can form hypervalent
fluorides.[134]

Boron trifluoride is planar and possesses an incomplete octet. It functions as a Lewis acid
and combines with Lewis bases like ammonia to form adducts.[135] Carbon tetrafluoride is
tetrahedral and inert;[note 15] its group analogues, silicon and germanium tetrafluoride, are
also tetrahedral[136] but behave as Lewis acids.[137][138] The pnictogens form trifluorides
that increase in reactivity and basicity with higher molecular weight, although nitrogen
trifluoride resists hydrolysis and is not basic.[139] The pentafluorides of phosphorus,
arsenic, and antimony are more reactive than their respective trifluorides, with antimony
pentafluoride the strongest neutral Lewis acid known, only behind gold pentafluoride. Chlorine trifluoride, whose
[118][140][141] corrosive potential ignites
asbestos, concrete, sand and
Chalcogens have diverse fluorides: unstable difluorides have been reported for oxygen (the other fire retardants[133]
only known compound with oxygen in an oxidation state of +2), sulfur, and selenium;
tetrafluorides and hexafluorides exist for sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. The latter are
stabilized by more fluorine atoms and lighter central atoms, so sulfur hexafluoride is especially inert. [142][143] Chlorine, bromine,
and iodine can each form mono-, tri-, and pentafluorides, but only iodine heptafluoride has been characterized among possible
interhalogen heptafluorides.[144] Many of them are powerful sources of fluorine atoms, and industrial applications using chlorine
trifluoride require precautions similar to those using fluorine.[145][146]

Noble gases
These xenon
tetrafluoride crystals
were photographed in
1962. The compound's
synthesis, as with xenon
hexafluoroplatinate,
surprised many
chemists.[147]
Noble gases, having complete electron shells, defied reaction with other elements until 1962 when
Neil Bartlett reported synthesis of xenon hexafluoroplatinate;[148] xenon difluoride, tetrafluoride,
hexafluoride, and multiple oxyfluorides have been isolated since then.[149] Among other noble
gases, krypton forms a difluoride,[150] and radon and fluorine generate a solid suspected to be
radon difluoride.[151][152] Binary fluorides of lighter noble gases are exceptionally unstable: argon
and hydrogen fluoride combine under extreme conditions to give argon fluorohydride.[41] Helium
has no long-lived fluorides,[153] and no neon fluoride has ever been observed;[154] helium
fluorohydride has been detected for milliseconds at high pressures and low temperatures.[153]
Organic compounds
The carbon–fluorine bond is organic chemistry's strongest,[156] and gives stability to
organofluorines.[157] It is almost non-existent in nature, but is used in artificial compounds.
Research in this area is usually driven by commercial applications;[158] the compounds involved are
diverse and reflect the complexity inherent in organic chemistry.[92]

Discrete molecules

The substitution of hydrogen atoms in an alkane by progressively more fluorine atoms gradually alters several properties: melting

6 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

and boiling points are lowered, density increases, solubility in hydrocarbons decreases and
overall stability increases. Perfluorocarbons,[note 16] in which all hydrogen atoms are
substituted, are insoluble in most organic solvents, reacting at ambient conditions only with
sodium in liquid ammonia.[159]

The term perfluorinated compound is used for what would otherwise be a perfluorocarbon
if not for the presence of a functional group,[160][note 17] often a carboxylic acid. These
compounds share many properties with perfluorocarbons such as stability and
hydrophobicity,[162] while the functional group augments their reactivity, enabling them to
adhere to surfaces or act as surfactants.[163] Fluorosurfactants, in particular, can lower the Immiscible layers of colored
surface tension of water more than their hydrocarbon-based analogues. Fluorotelomers, water (top) and much denser
which have some unfluorinated carbon atoms near the functional group, are also regarded perfluoroheptane (bottom) in a
as perfluorinated.[162] beaker; a goldfish and crab
cannot penetrate the boundary;
quarters rest at the bottom.
Polymers

Polymers exhibit the same stability increases afforded by fluorine substitution

(for hydrogen) in discrete molecules; their melting points generally increase
too.[164] Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), the simplest fluoropolymer and
perfluoro analogue of polyethylene with structural unit –CF2–, demonstrates
this change as expected, but its very high melting point makes it difficult to
mold.[165] Various PTFE derivatives are less temperature-tolerant but easier to
mold: fluorinated ethylene propylene replaces some fluorine atoms with
trifluoromethyl groups, perfluoroalkoxy alkanes do the same with Chemical structure of Nafion, a
trifluoromethoxy groups,[165] and Nafion contains perfluoroether side chains fluoropolymer used in fuel cells and many
capped with sulfonic acid groups.[166][167] Other fluoropolymers retain some other applications[155]
hydrogen atoms; polyvinylidene fluoride has half the fluorine atoms of PTFE
and polyvinyl fluoride has a quarter, but both behave much like perfluorinated
polymers.[168]

Production
Elemental fluorine and virtually all fluorine compounds are produced from hydrogen fluoride or its aqueous solutions, hydrofluoric
acid. Hydrogen fluoride is produced in kilns by the endothermic reaction of fluorite (CaF2) with sulfuric acid:[169]

CaF2 + H2SO4 → 2 HF(g) + CaSO4

The gaseous HF can then be absorbed in water or liquefied.[170]

About 20% of manufactured HF is a byproduct of fertilizer production, which produces hexafluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6), which can
be degraded to release HF thermally and by hydrolysis:

H2SiF6 → 2 HF + SiF4
SiF4 + 2 H2O → 4 HF + SiO2

Industrial routes to F2
Moissan's method is used to produce industrial quantities of fluorine, via the electrolysis of
a potassium bifluoride/hydrogen fluoride mixture: hydrogen ions are reduced at a steel
container cathode and fluoride ions are oxidized at a carbon block anode, under 8–12 volts,
to generate hydrogen and fluorine gas respectively.[65][171] Temperatures are elevated,
KF•2HF melting at 70 °C (158 °F) and being electrolyzed at 70–130 °C (158–266 °F). KF,
which acts to provide electrical conductivity, is essential since pure HF cannot be
electrolyzed because it is virtually non-conductive.[80][172][173] Fluorine can be stored in
steel cylinders that have passivated interiors, at temperatures below 200 °C (392 °F);
otherwise nickel can be used.[80][174] Regulator valves and pipework are made of nickel, the
Industrial fluorine cells at
latter possibly using Monel instead.[175] Frequent passivation, along with the strict
Preston
exclusion of water and greases, must be undertaken. In the laboratory, glassware may carry
fluorine gas under low pressure and anhydrous conditions;[175] some sources instead
recommend nickel-Monel-PTFE systems.[176]

7 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Laboratory routes
While preparing for a 1986 conference to celebrate the centennial of Moissan's achievement, Karl O. Christe reasoned that
chemical fluorine generation should be feasible since some metal fluoride anions have no stable neutral counterparts; their
acidification potentially triggers oxidation instead. He devised a method which evolves fluorine at high yield and atmospheric
pressure:[177]

2 KMnO4 + 2 KF + 10 HF + 3 H2O2 → 2 K2MnF6 + 8 H2O + 3 O2↑

2 K2MnF6 + 4 SbF5 → 4 KSbF6 + 2 MnF3 + F2↑

Christe later commented that the reactants "had been known for more than 100 years and even Moissan could have come up with
this scheme."[178] As late as 2008, some references still asserted that fluorine was too reactive for any chemical isolation.[179]

Industrial applications
Fluorite mining, which supplies most global fluorine, peaked in 1989 when 5.6 million metric tons of ore were extracted.
Chlorofluorocarbon restrictions lowered this to 3.6 million tons in 1994; production has since been increasing. Around 4.5 million
tons of ore and revenue of US$550 million were generated in 2003; later reports estimated 2011 global fluorochemical sales at
$15 billion and predicted 2016–18 production figures of 3.5 to 5.9 million tons, and revenue of at least $20 billion.[80][180]
[181][182][183] Froth flotation separates mined fluorite into two main metallurgical grades of equal proportion: 60–85% pure
metspar is almost all used in iron smelting whereas 97%+ pure acidspar is mainly converted to the key industrial intermediate
hydrogen fluoride.[65][80][184]

Clickable diagram of the fluorochemical industry according to mass flows

At least 17,000 metric tons of fluorine are produced each year. It costs only $5–8 per
kilogram as uranium or sulfur hexafluoride, but many times more as an element because of
handling challenges. Most processes using free fluorine in large amounts employ in situ
generation under vertical integration.[185]

The largest application of fluorine gas, consuming up to 7,000 metric tons annually, is in
the preparation of UF6 for the nuclear fuel cycle. Fluorine is used to fluorinate uranium
tetrafluoride, itself formed from uranium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid.[185] Fluorine is
monoisotopic, so any mass differences between UF6 molecules are due to the presence of
235U or 238U, enabling uranium enrichment via gaseous diffusion or gas centrifuge.[4][65] SF6 current transformers at a
Russian railway.
About 6,000 metric tons per year go into producing the inert dielectric SF6 for high-voltage
transformers and circuit breakers, eliminating the need for hazardous polychlorinated
biphenyls associated with oil-filled devices.[186] Several fluorine compounds are used in electronics: rhenium and tungsten
hexafluoride in chemical vapor deposition, tetrafluoromethane in plasma etching[187][188][189] and nitrogen trifluoride in cleaning
equipment.[65] Fluorine is also used in the synthesis of organic fluorides, but its reactivity often necessitates conversion first to the
gentler ClF3, BrF3, or IF5, which together allow calibrated fluorination. Fluorinated pharmaceuticals use sulfur tetrafluoride
instead.[65]

8 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Inorganic fluorides
As with other iron alloys, around 3 kg (6.5 lb) metspar is added to each metric
ton of steel; the fluoride ions lower its melting point and viscosity.[65][190]
Alongside its role as an additive in materials like enamels and welding rod
coats, most acidspar is reacted with sulfuric acid to form hydrofluoric acid,
which is used in steel pickling, glass etching and alkane cracking.[65] One-third
of HF goes into synthesizing cryolite and aluminium trifluoride, both fluxes in
the Hall–Héroult process for aluminium extraction; replenishment is
necessitated by their occasional reactions with the smelting apparatus. Each
metric ton of aluminium requires about 23 kg (51 lb) of flux.[65][191]
Fluorosilicates consume the second largest portion, with sodium fluorosilicate Aluminium extraction depends critically on
used in water fluoridation and laundry effluent treatment, and as an cryolite
intermediate en route to cryolite and silicon tetrafluoride.[192] Other important
inorganic fluorides include those of cobalt, nickel, and ammonium.[65][103][193]

Organic fluorides
Organofluorides consume over 20% of mined fluorite and over 40% of hydrofluoric acid, with refrigerant gases dominating and
fluoropolymers increasing their market share.[65][194] Surfactants are a minor application but generate over $1 billion in annual
revenue.[195] Due to the danger from direct hydrocarbon–fluorine reactions above −150 °C (−240 °F), industrial fluorocarbon
production is indirect, mostly through halogen exchange reactions such as Swarts fluorination, in which chlorocarbon chlorines are
substituted for fluorines by hydrogen fluoride under catalysts. Electrochemical fluorination subjects hydrocarbons to electrolysis in
hydrogen fluoride, and the Fowler process treats them with solid fluorine carriers like cobalt trifluoride.[92][196]

Refrigerant gases

Halogenated refrigerants, termed Freons in informal contexts,[note 18] are identified by R-numbers that denote the amount of
fluorine, chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen present.[65][197] Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) like R-11, R-12, and R-114 once dominated
organofluorines, peaking in production in the 1980s. Used for air conditioning systems, propellants and solvents, their production
was below one-tenth of this peak by the early 2000s, after widespread international prohibition.[65] Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were designed as replacements; their synthesis consumes more than 90% of the fluorine
in the organic industry. Important HCFCs include R-22, chlorodifluoromethane, and R-141b. The main HFC is R-134a[65] with a
new type of molecule HFO-1234yf, a Hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) coming to prominence owing to its global warming potential of
less than 1% that of HFC-134a.[198]

Polymers

About 180,000 metric tons of fluoropolymers were produced in 2006 and 2007, generating
over $3.5 billion revenue per year.[199] The global market was estimated at just under
$6 billion in 2011.[200] Fluoropolymers can only be formed by polymerizing free
radicals.[164]

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), sometimes called by its DuPont name Teflon,[201]

represents 60–80% by mass of the world's fluoropolymer production.[199] The largest
application is in electrical insulation since PTFE is an excellent dielectric. It is also used in
the chemical industry where corrosion resistance is needed, in coating pipes, tubing, and
gaskets. Another major use is in PFTE-coated fiberglass cloth for stadium roofs. The major
Fluorosurfactant-treated fabrics
consumer application is for non-stick cookware.[201] Jerked PTFE film becomes expanded are often hydrophobic
PTFE (ePTFE), a fine-pored membrane sometimes referred to by the brand name Gore-Tex
and used for rainwear, protective apparel, and filters; ePTFE fibers may be made into seals
and dust filters.[201] Other fluoropolymers, including fluorinated ethylene propylene, mimic PTFE's properties and can substitute
for it; they are more moldable, but also more costly and have lower thermal stability. Films from two different fluoropolymers
replace glass in solar cells.[201][202]

The chemically resistant (but expensive) fluorinated ionomers are used as electrochemical cell membranes, of which the first and
most prominent example is Nafion. Developed in the 1960s, it was initially deployed as fuel cell material in spacecraft and then
replaced mercury-based chloralkali process cells. Recently, the fuel cell application has reemerged with efforts to install proton
exchange membrane fuel cells into automobiles.[203][204][205] Fluoroelastomers such as Viton are crosslinked fluoropolymer
mixtures mainly used in O-rings;[201] perfluorobutane (C4F10) is used as a fire-extinguishing agent.[206]

9 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Surfactants

Fluorosurfactants are small organofluorine molecules used for repelling water and stains. Although expensive (comparable to
pharmaceuticals at $200–2000 per kilogram), they yielded over $1 billion in annual revenues by 2006; Scotchgard alone generated
over $300 million in 2000.[195][207][208] Fluorosurfactants are a minority in the overall surfactant market, most of which is taken up
by much cheaper hydrocarbon-based products. Applications in paints are burdened by compounding costs; this use was valued at
only $100 million in 2006.[195]

Agrichemicals

About 30% of agrichemicals contain fluorine,[209] most of them herbicides and fungicides with a few crop regulators. Fluorine
substitution, usually of a single atom or at most a trifluoromethyl group, is a robust modification with effects analogous to
fluorinated pharmaceuticals: increased biological stay time, membrane crossing, and altering of molecular recognition.[210]
Trifluralin is a prominent example, with large-scale use in the U.S. as a weedkiller,[210][211] but it is a suspected carcinogen and has
been banned in many European countries.[212] Sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) is a mammalian poison in which one sodium
acetate hydrogen is replaced with fluorine; it disrupts cell metabolism by replacing acetate in the citric acid cycle. First synthesized
in the late 19th century, it was recognized as an insecticide in the early 20th century, and was later deployed in its current use. New
Zealand, the largest consumer of 1080, uses it to protect kiwis from the invasive Australian common brushtail possum.[213] Europe
and the U.S. have banned 1080.[214][215][note 19]

Medicinal applications

Dental care
Population studies from the mid-20th century onwards show topical fluoride reduces dental
caries. This was first attributed to the conversion of tooth enamel hydroxyapatite into the
more durable fluorapatite, but studies on pre-fluoridated teeth refuted this hypothesis, and
current theories involve fluoride aiding enamel growth in small caries.[216] After studies of
children in areas where fluoride was naturally present in drinking water, controlled public
water supply fluoridation to fight tooth decay[217] began in the 1940s and is now applied to
water supplying 6 percent of the global population, including two-thirds of Americans.
[218][219] Reviews of the scholarly literature in 2000 and 2007 associated water fluoridation

with a significant reduction of tooth decay in children.[220] Despite such endorsements and Topical fluoride treatment in
evidence of no adverse effects other than mostly benign dental fluorosis,[221] opposition Panama
still exists on ethical and safety grounds.[219][222] The benefits of fluoridation have
lessened, possibly due to other fluoride sources, but are still measurable in low-income
groups.[223] Sodium monofluorophosphate and sometimes sodium or tin(II) fluoride are often found in fluoride toothpastes, first
introduced in the U.S. in 1955 and now ubiquitous in developed countries, alongside fluoridated mouthwashes, gels, foams, and
varnishes.[223][224]

Pharmaceuticals
Twenty percent of modern pharmaceuticals contain fluorine.[225] One of these, the
cholesterol-reducer atorvastatin (Lipitor), made more revenue than any other drug until it
became generic in 2011.[226] The combination asthma prescription Seretide, a top-ten
revenue drug in the mid-2000s, contains two active ingredients, one of which – fluticasone
– is fluorinated.[227] Many drugs are fluorinated to delay inactivation and lengthen dosage
periods because the carbon–fluorine bond is very stable.[228] Fluorination also increases
lipophilicity because the bond is more hydrophobic than the carbon–hydrogen bond, and
this often helps in cell membrane penetration and hence bioavailability.[227]
Fluoxetine capsules
Tricyclics and other pre-1980s antidepressants had several side effects due to their non-
selective interference with neurotransmitters other than the serotonin target; the fluorinated
fluoxetine was selective and one of the first to avoid this problem. Many current antidepressants receive this same treatment,
including the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: citalopram, its enantiomer escitalopram, and fluvoxamine and paroxetine.
[229][230] Quinolones are artificial broad-spectrum antibiotics that are often fluorinated to enhance their effects. These include

ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin.[231][232][233][234] Fluorine also finds use in steroids:[235] fludrocortisone is a blood pressure-raising
mineralocorticoid, and triamcinolone and dexamethasone are strong glucocorticoids.[236] The majority of inhaled anesthetics are
heavily fluorinated; the prototype halothane is much more inert and potent than its contemporaries. Later compounds such as the
fluorinated ethers sevoflurane and desflurane are better than halothane and are almost insoluble in blood, allowing faster waking

10 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

times.[237][238]

PET scanning
Fluorine-18 is often found in radioactive tracers for positron emission tomography, as its
half-life of almost two hours is long enough to allow for its transport from production
facilities to imaging centers.[239] The most common tracer is fluorodeoxyglucose[239]
which, after intravenous injection, is taken up by glucose-requiring tissues such as the brain
and most malignant tumors;[240] computer-assisted tomography can then be used for
detailed imaging.[241]

Oxygen carriers
Liquid fluorocarbons can hold large volumes of oxygen or carbon dioxide, more so than
blood, and have attracted attention for their possible uses in artificial blood and in liquid
breathing.[242] Because fluorocarbons do not normally mix with water, they must be mixed
into emulsions (small droplets of perfluorocarbon suspended in water) to be used as blood.
[243][244] One such product, Oxycyte, has been through initial clinical trials.[245] These
substances can aid endurance athletes and are banned from sports; one cyclist's near death
in 1998 prompted an investigation into their abuse.[246][247] Applications of pure
perfluorocarbon liquid breathing (which uses pure perfluorocarbon liquid, not a water A full-body 18F PET scan with
emulsion) include assisting burn victims and premature babies with deficient lungs. Partial glucose tagged with radioactive
and complete lung filling have been considered, though only the former has had any fluorine-18. The normal brain
significant tests in humans.[248] An Alliance Pharmaceuticals effort reached clinical trials and kidneys take up enough
but was abandoned because the results were not better than normal therapies.[249] glucose to be imaged. A
malignant tumor is seen in the
upper abdomen. Radioactive
Biological role fluorine is seen in urine in the
bladder.
Fluorine is not essential for humans and other mammals, but small amounts are known to
be beneficial for the strengthening of dental enamel (where the formation of fluorapatite
makes the enamel more resistant to attack, from acids produced by bacterial fermentation of sugars). Small amounts of fluorine
may be beneficial for bone strength, but the latter has not been definitively established.[250] Both the WHO and the Institute of
Medicine of the US National Academies publish recommended daily allowance (RDA) and upper tolerated intake of fluorine,
which varies with age and gender.[251][252]

Natural organofluorines have been found in microorganisms, plants[68] and, recently, animals[253]. The most common is
fluoroacetate, which is used as a defense against herbivores by at least 40 plants in Africa, Australia and Brazil.[214] Other
examples include terminally fluorinated fatty acids, fluoroacetone, and 2-fluorocitrate.[254] An enzyme that binds fluorine to carbon
– adenosyl-fluoride synthase – was discovered in bacteria in 2002.[255]

Toxicity
Elemental fluorine is highly toxic to living organisms. Its effects in humans start at concentrations lower than hydrogen cyanide's
50 ppm[256] and are similar to those of chlorine:[257] significant irritation of the eyes and respiratory system as well as liver and
kidney damage occur above 25 ppm, which is the immediately dangerous to life and health value for fluorine.[258] The eyes and
nose are seriously damaged at 100 ppm,[258] and inhalation of 1,000 ppm fluorine will cause death in minutes,[259] compared to
270 ppm for hydrogen cyanide.[260]

Hydrofluoric acid
Hydrofluoric acid is the weakest of the hydrohalic acids, having a pKa of 3.2 at 25 °C.[263] Fluorine
Pure hydrogen fluoride is a volatile liquid due to the presence of hydrogen bonding, while Hazards
the other hydrogen halides are gases. It is able to attack glass, concrete, metals, and organic
GHS labelling:
matter.[264]
Pictograms
Hydrofluoric acid is a contact poison with greater hazards than many strong acids like
sulfuric acid even though it is weak: it remains neutral in aqueous solution and thus
penetrates tissue faster, whether through inhalation, ingestion or the skin, and at least nine
U.S. workers died in such accidents from 1984 to 1994. It reacts with calcium and
magnesium in the blood leading to hypocalcemia and possible death through cardiac

11 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

arrhythmia.[265] Insoluble calcium fluoride formation triggers strong pain[266] and burns
larger than 160 cm2 (25 in2) can cause serious systemic toxicity.[267]

Exposure may not be evident for eight hours for 50% HF, rising to 24 hours for lower Signal word Danger
concentrations, and a burn may initially be painless as hydrogen fluoride affects nerve Hazard H270, H314,
function. If skin has been exposed to HF, damage can be reduced by rinsing it under a jet statements H330[261]
of water for 10–15 minutes and removing contaminated clothing.[268] Calcium gluconate is
often applied next, providing calcium ions to bind with fluoride; skin burns can be treated NFPA 704
(fire diamond)
0
with 2.5% calcium gluconate gel or special rinsing solutions.[269][270][271] Hydrofluoric 4 3
acid absorption requires further medical treatment; calcium gluconate may be injected or W
OX
administered intravenously. Using calcium chloride – a common laboratory reagent – in
lieu of calcium gluconate is contraindicated, and may lead to severe complications.
Excision or amputation of affected parts may be required.[267][272]

Fluoride ion
Soluble fluorides are moderately toxic: 5–10 g sodium fluoride, or 32–64 mg fluoride ions
per kilogram of body mass, represents a lethal dose for adults.[273] One-fifth of the lethal
dose can cause adverse health effects,[274] and chronic excess consumption may lead to
skeletal fluorosis, which affects millions in Asia and Africa.[274][275] Ingested fluoride Hydrofluoric acid burns may not
forms hydrofluoric acid in the stomach which is easily absorbed by the intestines, where it be evident for a day, after
crosses cell membranes, binds with calcium and interferes with various enzymes, before which calcium treatments are
urinary excretion. Exposure limits are determined by urine testing of the body's ability to less effective.[262]

clear fluoride ions.[274][276]

Historically, most cases of fluoride poisoning have been caused by accidental ingestion of insecticides containing inorganic
fluorides.[277] Most current calls to poison control centers for possible fluoride poisoning come from the ingestion of fluoride-
containing toothpaste.[274] Malfunctioning water fluoridation equipment is another cause: one incident in Alaska affected almost
300 people and killed one person.[278] Dangers from toothpaste are aggravated for small children, and the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention recommends supervising children below six brushing their teeth so that they do not swallow
toothpaste.[279] One regional study examined a year of pre-teen fluoride poisoning reports totaling 87 cases, including one death
from ingesting insecticide. Most had no symptoms, but about 30% had stomach pains.[277] A larger study across the U.S. had
similar findings: 80% of cases involved children under six, and there were few serious cases.[280]

Environmental concerns

Atmosphere
The Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, set strict regulations on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and bromofluorocarbons due to their ozone damaging potential (ODP). The high stability
which suited them to their original applications also meant that they were not decomposing
until they reached higher altitudes, where liberated chlorine and bromine atoms attacked
ozone molecules.[282] Even with the ban, and early indications of its efficacy, predictions
warned that several generations would pass before full recovery.[283][284] With one-tenth
the ODP of CFCs, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are the current replacements,[285]
and are themselves scheduled for substitution by 2030–2040 by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
with no chlorine and zero ODP.[286] In 2007 this date was brought forward to 2020 for NASA projection of
developed countries;[287] the Environmental Protection Agency had already prohibited one stratospheric ozone over North
HCFC's production and capped those of two others in 2003.[286] Fluorocarbon gases are America without the Montreal
generally greenhouse gases with global-warming potentials (GWPs) of about 100 to Protocol[281]
10,000; sulfur hexafluoride has a value of around 20,000. [288] An outlier is HFO-1234yf
which is a new type of refrigerant called a Hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) and has attracted
global demand due to its GWP of less than 1 compared to 1,430 for the current refrigerant standard HFC-134a.[198]

Biopersistence
Organofluorines exhibit biopersistence due to the strength of the carbon–fluorine bond. Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), which are
sparingly water-soluble owing to their acidic functional groups, are noted persistent organic pollutants;[290]
perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are most often researched.[291][292][293] PFAAs have been
found in trace quantities worldwide from polar bears to humans, with PFOS and PFOA known to reside in breast milk and the

12 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, a
key Scotchgard component until
2000[289]
blood of newborn babies. A 2013 review showed a slight correlation between groundwater
and soil PFAA levels and human activity; there was no clear pattern of one chemical
dominating, and higher amounts of PFOS were correlated to higher amounts of PFOA.[291]
[292][294] In the body, PFAAs bind to proteins such as serum albumin; they tend to
concentrate within humans in the liver and blood before excretion through the kidneys.
Dwell time in the body varies greatly by species, with half-lives of days in rodents, and
years in humans.[291][292][295] High doses of PFOS and PFOA cause cancer and death in
newborn rodents but human studies have not established an effect at current exposure
levels.[291][292][295]

See also
Chemistry portal

▪ Argon fluoride laser ▪ Fluorous chemistry, a process used to separate

▪ Electrophilic fluorination reagents from organic solvents
▪ Fluoride selective electrode, which measures ▪ Krypton fluoride laser
fluoride concentration ▪ Radical fluorination
▪ Fluorine absorption dating

Notes
1. Sources disagree on the radii of oxygen, fluorine, and neon atoms. Precise comparison is thus
impossible.
2. α-Fluorine has a regular pattern of molecules and is a crystalline solid, but its molecules do not have
a specific orientation. β-Fluorine's molecules have fixed locations and minimal rotational uncertainty.
For further detail on α-fluorine, see the 1970 structure by Pauling. [45] For further detail on the
concept of disorder in crystals, see the referenced general reviews. [46][47]
3. A loud click is heard. Samples may shatter and sample windows blow out.
4. The ratio of the angular momentum to magnetic moment is called the gyromagnetic ratio. "Certain
nuclei can for many purposes be thought of as spinning round an axis like the Earth or like a top. In
general the spin endows them with angular momentum and with a magnetic moment; the first
because of their mass, the second because all or part of their electric charge may be rotating with
the mass."[51]
5. Basilius Valentinus supposedly described fluorite in the late 15th century, but because his writings
were uncovered 200 years later, this work's veracity is doubtful. [72][73][74]
6. Or perhaps from as early as 1670 onwards; Partington [78] and Weeks[77] give differing accounts.
7. Fl, since 2012, is used for flerovium.
8. Davy, Gay-Lussac, Thénard, and the Irish chemists Thomas and George Knox were injured. Belgian
chemist Paulin Louyet and French chemist Jérôme Nicklès died. Moissan also experienced serious
hydrogen fluoride poisoning.[77][87]
9. Also honored was his invention of the electric arc furnace.
10. Fluorine in F2 is defined to have oxidation state 0. The unstable species F − −
2 and F3 , which
decompose at around 40 K, have intermediate oxidation states; [98] F+4 and a few related species are
predicted to be stable.[99]
11. The metastable boron and nitrogen monofluoride have higher-order fluorine bonds, and some metal
complexes use it as a bridging ligand. Hydrogen bonding is another possibility.
12. ZrF4 melts at 932 °C (1710 °F),[112] HfF4 sublimes at 968 °C (1774 °F),[109] and UF4 melts at
1036 °C (1897 °F).[113]
13. These thirteen are those of molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, tungsten, rhenium,
osmium, iridium, platinum, polonium, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium.
14. See also the explanation by Clark.[131]
15. Carbon tetrafluoride is formally organic, but is included here rather than in the organofluorine
chemistry section – where more complex carbon-fluorine compounds are discussed – for comparison
with SiF4 and GeF4.
16. Perfluorocarbon and fluorocarbon are IUPAC synonyms for molecules containing carbon and fluorine
only, but in colloquial and commercial contexts the latter term may refer to any carbon- and
fluorine-containing molecule, possibly with other elements.
17. This terminology is imprecise, and perfluorinated substance is also used.[161]

13 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia
18. This DuPont trademark is sometimes further misused for CFCs, HFCs, or HCFCs.
19. American sheep and cattle collars may use 1080 against predators like coyotes.
Sources
Citations
1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Fluorine" (https://w
ww.ciaaw.org/fluorine.htm). CIAAW. 2021.
2. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 381.
3. Haynes 2011, p. 4.121.
4. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 382.
5. Compressed Gas Association 1999, p. 365.
6. "Triple Point | The Elements Handbook at
KnowledgeDoor" (https://www.knowledgedoor.c
om/2/elements_handbook/triple_point.html).
KnowledgeDoor.
7. Himmel, D.; Riedel, S. (2007). "After 20 Years,
Theoretical Evidence That 'AuF7' Is Actually
AuF5·F2". Inorganic Chemistry. 46 (13).
5338–5342. doi:10.1021/ic700431s (https://doi.
org/10.1021%2Fic700431s).
8. Dean 1999, p. 4.6.
9. Dean 1999, p. 4.35.
10. Matsui 2006, p. 257.
11. Yaws & Braker 2001, p. 385.
12. Mackay, Mackay & Henderson 2002, p. 72.
13. Cheng et al. 1999.
14. Chisté & Bé 2011.
15. Lee et al. 2014.
16. Dean 1999, p. 564.
17. Lide 2004, pp. 10.137–10.138.
18. Moore, Stanitski & Jurs 2010, p. 156 (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=ZOm8L9oCwLMC&pg
=PA156).
19. Cordero et al. 2008.
20. Pyykkö & Atsumi 2009.
21. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 804.
22. Macomber 1996, p. 230 (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=HyuogOtzoaYC&pg=PA230)
23. Nelson 1947.
24. Lidin, Molochko & Andreeva 2000, pp. 442–455.
25. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 404.
26. Patnaik 2007, p. 472.
27. Aigueperse et al. 2000, p. 400.
28. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 76, 804.
29. Kuriakose & Margrave 1965.
30. Hasegawa et al. 2007.
31. Lagow 1970, pp. 64–78.
32. Navarrini et al. 2012.
33. Lidin, Molochko & Andreeva 2000, p. 252.
34. Tanner Industries 2011.
35. Morrow, Perry & Cohen 1959.
36. Emeléus & Sharpe 1974, p. 111 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=qi0vujzNSz4C&pg=PA11
1).
37. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 457.
14 of 30
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine
38. Brantley 1949, p. 26 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=Yo7r_1qJG2gC&pg=PA26-IA83).
39. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 383.
40. Pitzer 1975.
41. Khriachtchev et al. 2000.
42. Burdon, Emson & Edwards 1987.
43. Lide 2004, p. 4.12.
44. Dean 1999, p. 523.
45. Pauling, Keaveny & Robinson 1970.
46. Bürgi 2000.
47. Müller 2009.
48. Young 1975, p. 10.
49. Barrett, Meyer & Wasserman 1967.
50. National Nuclear Data Center & NuDat 2.1,
Fluorine-19 (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/re
Center.jsp?z=9&n=10).
51. Vigoureux 1961.
52. Meusinger, Chippendale & Fairhurst 2012,
pp. 752, 754.
53. SCOPE 50 - Radioecology after Chernobyl (htt
p://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/sc
ope50) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0140513065145/http://www.scopenvironment.o
rg/downloadpubs/scope50/) 2014-05-13 at the
Wayback Machine, the Scientific Committee on
Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), 1993.
See table 1.9 in Section 1.4.5.2.
54. National Nuclear Data Center & NuDat 2.1.
55. NUBASE 2016, pp. 030001-23–030001-27.
56. NUBASE 2016, pp. 030001–24.
57. Cameron 1973.
58. Croswell 2003.
59. Clayton 2003, pp. 101–104 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=fXcdHyLUVnEC&pg=PA101).
60. Renda et al. 2004.
61. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 384.
62. Schmedt, Mangstl & Kraus 2012.
63. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 795.
64. Norwood & Fohs 1907, p. 52 (https://archive.or
g/stream/bulletin01kentgoog#page/n94/mode/
2up).
65. Villalba, Ayres & Schroder 2008.
66. Kelly & Miller 2005.
67. Lusty et al. 2008.
68. Gribble 2002.
69. Richter, Hahn & Fuchs 2001, p. 3.
70. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 790.
71. Senning 2007, p. 149 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Fl4sdCYrq3cC&pg=PA149).
72. Stillman 1912.
73. Principe 2012, pp. 140, 145.
24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

74. Agricola, Hoover & Hoover 1912, footnotes and 113. Lide 2004, p. 4.92.
commentary, pp. xxx, 38, 409, 430, 461, 608. 114. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 964.
75. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 109. 115. Becker & Müller 1990.
76. Agricola, Hoover & Hoover 1912, preface, 116. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 990.
pp. 380–381 (https://archive.org/stream/georgi
117. Lide 2004, pp. 4.72, 4.91, 4.93.
usagricola00agririch#page/380/mode/2up).
118. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 561–563.
77. Weeks 1932.
119. Emeléus & Sharpe 1983, pp. 256–277.
78. Partington 1923.
120. Mackay, Mackay & Henderson 2002,
79. Marggraf 1770.
pp. 355–356.
80. Kirsch 2004, pp. 3–10.
121. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, (various pages,
81. Scheele 1771. by metal in respective chapters).
82. Ampère 1816. 122. Lide 2004, pp. 4.71, 4.78, 4.92.
83. Tressaud, Alain (6 October 2018). Fluorine: A 123. Drews et al. 2006.
Paradoxical Element (https://books.google.com/ 124. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, p. 819.
books?id=kslaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3). Academic
Press. ISBN 9780128129913. 125. Bartlett 1962.
84. Davy 1813, p. 278 (https://books.google.com/b 126. Pauling 1960, pp. 454–464 (https://archive.org/
ooks?id=dhdGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA278). details/natureofchemical0000paul_3ed/page/45
4).
85. Banks 1986, p. 11.
127. Atkins & Jones 2007, pp. 184–185.
86. Storer 1864, pp. 278–280 (https://archive.org/d
etails/b21901053/page/278). 128. Emsley 1981.
87. Toon 2011. 129. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 812–816.
88. Asimov 1966, p. 162. 130. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 425.
89. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 789–791. 131. Clark 2002.
90. Moissan 1886. 132. Chambers & Holliday 1975, pp. 328–329.
91. Viel & Goldwhite 1993, p. 35 (https://books.goo 133. Air Products and Chemicals 2004, p. 1.
gle.com/books?id=jEy67gEvIuMC&pg=PA35). 134. Noury, Silvi & Gillespie 2002.
92. Okazoe 2009. 135. Chang & Goldsby 2013, p. 706.
93. Hounshell & Smith 1988, pp. 156–157. 136. Ellis 2001, p. 69.
94. DuPont 2013a. 137. Aigueperse et al. 2000, p. 423.
95. Meyer 1977, p. 111. 138. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 897.
96. Kirsch 2004, pp. 60–66 (https://books.google.co 139. Raghavan 1998, pp. 164–165 (https://books.go
m/books?id=cqnEZSTA6cUC&pg=PA61). ogle.com/books?id=pBiS0jc-kWIC&pg=PA164).
97. Riedel & Kaupp 2009. 140. Godfrey et al. 1998, p. 98 (https://books.googl
98. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 422. e.com/books?id=vVhpurkfeN4C&pg=PA98).
99. Schlöder & Riedel 2012. 141. Aigueperse et al. 2000, p. 432.
100. Harbison 2002. 142. Murthy, Mehdi Ali & Ashok 1995, pp. 180–182
(https://books.google.com/books?id=0xl17YU8
101. Edwards 1994, p. 515 (https://books.google.co WzQC&pg=PA180), 206–208 (https://books.goo
m/books?id=TRMRDXHWX7EC&pg=PA515). gle.com/books?id=0xl17YU8WzQC&pg=PA206).
102. Katakuse et al. 1999, p. 267 (https://books.goo
143. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 638–640,
gle.com/books?id=pjFTI5KgMFkC&pg=PA267).
683–689, 767–778.
103. Aigueperse et al. 2000, pp. 420–422.
144. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, pp. 435–436.
104. Walsh 2009, pp. 99–102 (https://books.google.c
145. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 828–830.
om/books?id=3-GbhmSfyeYC&pg=PA99),
118–119 (https://books.google.com/books?id=3 146. Patnaik 2007, pp. 478–479 (https://books.googl
-GbhmSfyeYC&pg=PA118). e.com/books?id=-CRRJBVv5d0C&pg=PA478).
105. Emeléus & Sharpe 1983, pp. 89–97. 147. Moeller, Bailar & Kleinberg 1980, p. 236.
106. Babel & Tressaud 1985, pp. 91–96 (https://book 148. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, pp. 392–393.
s.google.com/books?id=SaWLysMGF3cC&pg=P 149. Wiberg, Wiberg & Holleman 2001, p. 395–397,
A91). 400.
107. Einstein et al. 1967. 150. Lewars 2008, p. 68.
108. Brown et al. 2005, p. 144 (https://books.google. 151. Pitzer 1993, p. 111 (https://books.google.com/b
com/books?id=DvqwTdVhjMEC&pg=PA144). ooks?id=CdUVspeIJAYC&pg=PA111).
109. Perry 2011, p. 193 (https://books.google.com/b 152. Lewars 2008, p. 67.
ooks?id=SFD30BvPBhoC&pg=PA193). 153. Bihary, Chaban & Gerber 2002.
110. Kern et al. 1994. 154. Lewars 2008, p. 71.
111. Lide 2004, pp. 4.60, 4.76, 4.92, 4.96. 155. Hoogers 2002, pp. 4–12.
112. Lide 2004, p. 4.96. 156. O'Hagan 2008.

15 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

157. Siegemund et al. 2005, p. 444. 201. Martin 2007, pp. 187–194 (https://books.googl
158. Sandford 2000, p. 455. e.com/books?id=xv420pEC2qMC&pg=PA189).
159. Siegemund et al. 2005, pp. 451–452. 202. DeBergalis 2004.
160. Barbee, McCormack & Vartanian 2000, p. 116 203. Grot 2011, pp. 1–10 (https://books.google.com/
(https://books.google.com/books?id=EdzO0aUx books?id=E8H1Hwd5GXUC&pg=PA6).
DJkC&pg=PA116). 204. Ramkumar 2012, p. 567 (https://books.google.c
161. Posner et al. 2013, om/books?id=ep7U5G4O3mQC&pg=PA567).
pp. +hydrocarbons+that+are+fully+fluorinated+except+for+one+functional+group%22&pg=PA187
205. Burney 1999, p. 111 (https://books.google.com/
187–190 (https://books.google.com/books?id=d books?id=rtm_bjQd8SUC&pg=PA111).
thjVAGP-XIC&dq=%22Perfluorinated+compoun 206. Slye 2012, p. 10.
ds,).
207. Kissa 2001, pp. 516–551 (https://books.google.
162. Posner 2011, p. 27. com/books?id=iAmE8v3bFnUC&pg=PA522).
163. Salager 2002, p. 45. 208. Ullmann 2008, pp. 538, 543–547.
164. Carlson & Schmiegel 2000, p. 3. 209. ICIS 2006.
165. Carlson & Schmiegel 2000, pp. 3–4. 210. Theodoridis 2006.
166. Rhoades 2008, p. 2 (https://books.google.com/ 211. EPA 1996.
books?id=k3AoGn0upf0C&pg=PA2).
212. DG Environment 2007.
167. Okada et al. 1998.
213. Beasley 2002.
168. Carlson & Schmiegel 2000, p. 4.
214. Proudfoot, Bradberry & Vale 2006.
169. Aigueperse et al. 2000.
215. Eisler 1995.
170. Norris Shreve; Joseph Brink, Jr. (1977).
216. Pizzo et al. 2007.
Chemical Process Industries (4 ed.). McGraw-
Hill. p. 321. ISBN 0070571457. 217. CDC 2001.
171. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 386. 218. Ripa 1993.
172. Jaccaud et al. 2000, pp. 384–285. 219. Cheng, Chalmers & Sheldon 2007.
173. Greenwood & Earnshaw 1998, pp. 796–797. 220. NHMRC 2007; see Yeung 2008 for a summary.
174. Jaccaud et al. 2000, pp. 384–385. 221. Marya 2011, p. 343 (https://books.google.com/
books?id=NKYy0w1OjJoC&pg=PA343).
175. Jaccaud et al. 2000, pp. 390–391.
222. Armfield 2007.
176. Shriver & Atkins 2010, p. 427.
223. Baelum, Sheiham & Burt 2008, p. 518 (https://b
177. Christe 1986. ooks.google.com/books?id=fZfXWhSmG1UC&p
178. Christe Research Group n.d. g=PA518).
179. Carey 2008, p. 173. 224. Cracher 2012, p. 12.
180. Miller 2003b. 225. Emsley 2011, p. 178.
181. PRWeb 2012. 226. Johnson 2011.
182. Bombourg 2012. 227. Swinson 2005.
183. TMR 2013. 228. Hagmann 2008.
184. Fulton & Miller 2006, p. 471 (https://books.goog 229. Mitchell 2004, pp. 37–39 (https://books.google.
le.com/books?id=zNicdkuulE4C&pg=PA471). com/books?id=Duy5_XAD-vgC&pg=PA37).
185. Jaccaud et al. 2000, p. 392. 230. Preskorn 1996, chap. 2 (http://www.preskorn.co
186. Aigueperse et al. 2000, p. 430. m/books/ssri_s2.html).
187. Jaccaud et al. 2000, pp. 391–392. 231. Werner et al. 2011.
188. El-Kareh 1994, p. 317 (https://books.google.co 232. Brody 2012.
m/books?id=Wg1SnT6Cb0QC&pg=PA317). 233. Nelson et al. 2007.
189. Arana et al. 2007. 234. King, Malone & Lilley 2000.
190. Miller 2003a. 235. Parente 2001, p. 40 (https://books.google.com/
191. Energetics, Inc. 1997, pp. 41, 50. books?id=fsfnKeFflUoC&pg=PA40).
192. Aigueperse et al. 2000, p. 428. 236. Raj & Erdine 2012, p. 58 (https://books.google.c
193. Willey 2007, p. 113 (https://books.google.com/b om/books?id=SQDge93GucMC&pg=PA58).
ooks?id=PrKemPXyXNIC&pg=PA113). 237. Filler & Saha 2009.
194. PRWeb 2010. 238. Bégué & Bonnet-Delpon 2008, pp. 335–336 (htt
195. Renner 2006. ps://books.google.com/books?id=QMVSvZ-R7I0
196. Green et al. 1994, pp. 91–93 (https://books.goo C&pg=PA335).
gle.com/books?id=TRMRDXHWX7EC&pg=PA91) 239. Schmitz et al. 2000.
. 240. Bustamante & Pedersen 1977.
197. DuPont 2013b. 241. Alavi & Huang 2007, p. 41.
198. Walter 2013. 242. Gabriel et al. 1996.
199. Buznik 2009. 243. Sarkar 2008.
200. PRWeb 2013. 244. Schimmeyer 2002.

16 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

245. Davis 2006. 265. Blodgett, Suruda & Crouch 2001.

246. Gains 1998. 266. Hoffman et al. 2007, p. 1333.
247. Taber 1999. 267. HSM 2006.
248. Shaffer, Wolfson & Clark 1992, p. 102. 268. Fischman 2001, pp. 458–459 (https://books.goo
249. Kacmarek et al. 2006. gle.com/books?id=PyUSgdZUGr4C&pg=PA458).
250. Nielsen 2009. 269. El Saadi et al. 1989.
251. Olivares & Uauy 2004. 270. Roblin et al. 2006.
252. Food and Nutrition Board. 271. Hultén et al. 2004.
253. Xiao-Hua, Xu; Guang-Min, Yao; Yan-Ming, Li; 272. Zorich 1991, pp. 182–183 (https://books.googl
Jian-Hua, Lu; Chang-Jiang, Lin; Xin, Wang; Chui- e.com/books?id=sdB3KjhWzFQC&pg=PA183).
Hua, Kong (4 January 2003). "5-Fluorouracil 273. Liteplo et al. 2002, p. 100.
Derivatives from the Sponge Phakellia fusca". J. 274. Shin & Silverberg 2013.
Nat. Prod. 2 (66): 285–288. 275. Reddy 2009.
doi:10.1021/np020034f (https://doi.org/10.102
1%2Fnp020034f). {{cite journal}}: 276. Baez, Baez & Marthaler 2000.
|access-date= requires |url= (help) 277. Augenstein et al. 1991.
254. Murphy, Schaffrath & O'Hagan 2003 278. Gessner et al. 1994.
255. O'Hagan et al. 2002. 279. CDC 2013.
256. The National Institute for Occupational Safety 280. Shulman & Wells 1997.
and Health 1994a. 281. Beck et al. 2011.
257. The National Institute for Occupational Safety 282. Aucamp & Björn 2010, pp. 4–6, 41, 46–47.
and Health 1994b. 283. Mitchell Crow 2011.
258. Keplinger & Suissa 1968. 284. Barry & Phillips 2006.
259. Emsley 2011, p. 179. 285. EPA 2013a.
260. Biller 2007, p. 939. 286. EPA 2013b.
261. "Fluorine. Safety data sheet" (https://web.archi 287. McCoy 2007.
ve.org/web/20150419162827/https://www.airga
288. Forster et al. 2007, pp. 212–213.
s.com/msds/001061.pdf) (PDF). Airgas.
Archived from the original (https://www.airgas.c 289. Schwarcz 2004, p. 37.
om/msds/001061.pdf) (PDF) on 19 April 2015. 290. Giesy & Kannan 2002.
262. Eaton 1997. 291. Steenland, Fletcher & Savitz 2010.
263. "Inorganic Chemistry" by Gary L. Miessler and 292. Betts 2007.
Donald A. Tarr, 4th edition, Pearson 293. EPA 2012.
264. "Inorganic Chemistry" by Shriver, Weller, 294. Zareitalabad et al. 2013.
Overton, Rourke and Armstrong, 6th edition, 295. Lau et al. 2007.
Freeman

Indexed references
Agricola, Georgius; Hoover, Herbert Clark; Hoover, Lou Henry (1912). De Re Metallica (https://archive.or
g/stream/georgiusagricola00agririch#page/n5/mode/2up). London: The Mining Magazine.
Aigueperse, J.; Mollard, P.; Devilliers, D.; Chemla, M.; Faron, R.; Romano, R. E.; Cue, J. P. (2000). "Fluorine
Compounds, Inorganic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
pp. 397–441. doi:10.1002/14356007 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007). ISBN 978-3527306732.
Air Products and Chemicals (2004). "Safetygram #39 Chlorine Trifluoride" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20060318221608/http://www.airproducts.com/nr/rdonlyres/8479ed55-2170-4651-a3d4-223b2957a9f
3/0/safetygram39.pdf) (PDF). Air Products and Chemicals. Archived from the original (http://www.airp
roducts.com/nr/rdonlyres/8479ed55-2170-4651-a3d4-223b2957a9f3/0/safetygram39.pdf) (PDF) on
18 March 2006. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
Alavi, Abbas; Huang, Steve S. (2007). "Positron Emission Tomography in Medicine: An Overview". In
Hayat, M. A. (ed.). Cancer Imaging, Volume 1: Lung and Breast Carcinomas . Burlington: Academic
Press. pp. 39–44. ISBN 978-0-12-370468-9.
Ampère, André-Marie (1816). "Suite d'une classification naturelle pour les corps simples" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=4jEFAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5). Annales de chimie et de physique (in French).
2: 1–5.
Arana, L. R.; Mas, N.; Schmidt, R.; Franz, A. J.; Schmidt, M. A.; Jensen, K. F. (2007). "Isotropic Etching of
Silicon in Fluorine Gas for MEMS Micromachining". Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering .
17 (2): 384–392. Bibcode:2007JMiMi..17..384A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JMiMi..17..38
4A). doi:10.1088/0960-1317/17/2/026 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0960-1317%2F17%2F2%2F026).
S2CID 135708022 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135708022).

17 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Armfield, J. M. (2007). "When Public Action Undermines Public Health: A Critical Examination of
Antifluoridationist Literature" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2222595). Australia
and New Zealand Health Policy. 4: 25. doi:10.1186/1743-8462-4-25 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F174
3-8462-4-25). PMC 2222595 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2222595).
PMID 18067684 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18067684).
Asimov, Isaac (1966). The Noble Gases. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-05129-8.
Atkins, Peter; Jones, Loretta (2007). Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight (https://archive.org/detail
s/chemicalprincipl0004unse) (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-4292-0965-6.
Aucamp, Pieter J.; Björn, Lars Olof (2010). "Questions and Answers about the Environmental Effects of
the Ozone Layer Depletion and Climate Change: 2010 Update" (https://web.archive.org/web/201309
03160920/http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Panels/EEAP/eeap-report2010-FAQ.pdf) (PDF). United
Nations Environmental Programme. Archived from the original (http://ozone.unep.org/Assessment_Pa
nels/EEAP/eeap-report2010-FAQ.pdf) (PDF) on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of
nuclear properties" (https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2016/NUBASE2016.pdf) (PDF). Chinese
Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017C
hPhC..41c0001A). doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F4
1%2F3%2F030001)..
Augenstein, W. L.; et al. (1991). "Fluoride Ingestion in Children: A Review of 87 cases" (http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/88/5/907). Pediatrics. 88 (5): 907–912.
doi:10.1542/peds.88.5.907 (https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.88.5.907). PMID 1945630 (https://pubm
ed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1945630). S2CID 22106466 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2210646
6).
Babel, Dietrich; Tressaud, Alain (1985). "Crystal Chemistry of Fluorides". In Hagenmuller, Paul (ed.).
Inorganic Solid Fluorides: Chemistry And Physics . Orlando: Academic Press. pp. 78–203.
ISBN 978-0-12-412490-5.
Baelum, Vibeke; Sheiham, Aubrey; Burt, Brian (2008). "Caries Control for Populations". In Fejerskov, Ole;
Kidd, Edwina (eds.). Dental Caries: The Disease and Its Clinical Management (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Blackwell Munksgaard. pp. 505–526. ISBN 978-1-4051-3889-5.
Baez, Ramon J.; Baez, Martha X.; Marthaler, Thomas M. (2000). "Urinary Fluoride Excretion by Children
4–6 Years Old in a South Texas Community" (https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1020-4989200000040000
5). Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública. 7 (4): 242–248. doi:10.1590/S1020-49892000000400005
(https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1020-49892000000400005). PMID 10846927 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/10846927).
Banks, R. E. (1986). "Isolation of fluorine by Moissan: Setting the scene". Journal of Fluorine Chemistry.
33 (1–4): 3–26. doi:10.1016/S0022-1139(00)85269-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-1139%280
0%2985269-0).
Barbee, K.; McCormack, K.; Vartanian, V. (2000). "EHS Concerns with Ozonated Water Spray
Processing". In Mendicino, L. (ed.). Environmental Issues in the Electronics and Semiconductor
Industries. Pennington, NJ: The Electrochemical Society. pp. 108–121. ISBN 978-1-56677-230-3.
Barrett, C. S.; Meyer, L.; Wasserman, J. (1967). "Argon—Fluorine Phase Diagram". The Journal of
Chemical Physics. 47 (2): 740–743. Bibcode:1967JChPh..47..740B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs
/1967JChPh..47..740B). doi:10.1063/1.1711946 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1711946).
Barry, Patrick L.; Phillips, Tony (26 May 2006). "Good News and a Puzzle" (https://science.nasa.gov/scien
ce-news/science-at-nasa/2006/26may_ozone/). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Retrieved 6 January 2012.
Bartlett, N. (1962). "Xenon Hexafluoroplatinate (V) Xe+[PtF6]−". Proceedings of the Chemical Society
(6): 218. doi:10.1039/PS9620000197 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FPS9620000197).
Beasley, Michael (August 2002). Guidelines for the safe use of sodium fluoroacetate (1080) (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20131111104912/http://www.business.govt.nz/healthandsafetygroup/information-
guidance/all-guidance-items/sodium-fluoroacetate-1080-guidelines-for-the-safe-use-of/1080guideline
s.pdf) (PDF). Wellington: Occupational Safety & Health Service, Department of Labour (New
Zealand). ISBN 0-477-03664-3. Archived from the original (http://www.business.govt.nz/healthandsaf
etygroup/information-guidance/all-guidance-items/sodium-fluoroacetate-1080-guidelines-for-the-safe
-use-of/1080guidelines.pdf) (PDF) on 11 November 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
Beck, Jefferson; Newman, Paul; Schindler, Trent L.; Perkins, Lori (2011). "What Would have Happened to
the Ozone Layer if Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) had not been Regulated?" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20200804050324/https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a003500/a003586/index.html). National
Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from the original (http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a0000
00/a003500/a003586/index.html) on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Becker, S.; Müller, B. G. (1990). "Vanadium Tetrafluoride". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in
English. 29 (4): 406–407. doi:10.1002/anie.199004061 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.199004061).

18 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Bégué, Jean-Pierre; Bonnet-Delpon, Danièle (2008). Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry of Fluorine.
Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-27830-7.
Betts, K. S. (2007). "Perfluoroalkyl Acids: What is the Evidence Telling Us?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC1867999). Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (5): A250–A256.
doi:10.1289/ehp.115-a250 (https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.115-a250). PMC 1867999 (https://www.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867999). PMID 17520044 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17520
044).
Bihary, Z.; Chaban, G. M.; Gerber, R. B. (2002). "Stability of a Chemically Bound Helium Compound in
High-pressure Solid Helium". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 117 (11): 5105–5108.
Bibcode:2002JChPh.117.5105B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JChPh.117.5105B).
doi:10.1063/1.1506150 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1506150).
Biller, José (2007). Interface of Neurology and Internal Medicine (https://books.google.com/books?id=SR
IvmTVcYBwC) (illustrated ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-7906-7.
Blodgett, D. W.; Suruda, A. J.; Crouch, B. I. (2001). "Fatal Unintentional Occupational Poisonings by
Hydrofluoric Acid in the U.S" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120717015515/http://www.chem.purdu
e.edu/chemsafety/Equip/HFfacts12.pdf) (PDF). American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 40 (2):
215–220. doi:10.1002/ajim.1090 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajim.1090). PMID 11494350 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11494350). Archived from the original (http://www.chem.purdue.edu/chemsa
fety/Equip/HFfacts12.pdf) (PDF) on 17 July 2012.
Bombourg, Nicolas (4 July 2012). "World Fluorochemicals Market, Freedonia" (http://www.prnewswire.co
m/news-releases/world-fluorochemicals-market-freedonia-161338935.html). Reporterlinker.
Retrieved 20 October 2013.
Brantley, L. R. (1949). Squires, Roy; Clarke, Arthur C. (eds.). "Fluorine". Pacific Rockets: Journal of the
Pacific Rocket Society. South Pasadena: Sawyer Publishing/Pacific Rocket Society Historical Library. 3
(1): 11–18. ISBN 978-0-9794418-5-1.
Brody, Jane E. (10 September 2012). "Popular Antibiotics May Carry Serious Side Effects" (http://well.blo
gs.nytimes.com/2012/09/10/popular-antibiotics-may-carry-serious-side-effects/). The New York Times
Well Blog. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
Brown, Paul L.; Mompean, Federico J.; Perrone, Jane; Illemassène, Myriam (2005). Chemical
Thermodynamics of Zirconium. Amsterdam: Elsevier B. V. ISBN 978-0-444-51803-3.
Burdon, J.; Emson, B.; Edwards, A. J. (1987). "Is Fluorine Gas Really Yellow?". Journal of Fluorine
Chemistry. 34 (3–4): 471–474. doi:10.1016/S0022-1139(00)85188-X (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS00
22-1139%2800%2985188-X).
Bürgi, H. B. (2000). "Motion and Disorder in Crystal Structure Analysis: Measuring and Distinguishing
them". Annual Review of Physical Chemistry. 51: 275–296. Bibcode:2000ARPC...51..275B (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ARPC...51..275B). doi:10.1146/annurev.physchem.51.1.275 (https://do
i.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.physchem.51.1.275). PMID 11031283 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11
031283).
Burney, H. (1999). "Past, Present and Future of the Chlor-Alkali Industry". In Burney, H. S.; Furuya, N.;
Hine, F.; Ota, K.-I. (eds.). Chlor-Alkali and Chlorate Technology: R. B. MacMullin Memorial Symposium .
Pennington: The Electrochemical Society. pp. 105–126. ISBN 1-56677-244-3.
Bustamante, E.; Pedersen, P. L. (1977). "High Aerobic Glycolysis of Rat Hepatoma Cells in Culture: Role
of Mitochondrial Hexokinase" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431708). Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (9): 3735–3739. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.3735B (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PNAS...74.3735B). doi:10.1073/pnas.74.9.3735 (https://doi.org/10.107
3%2Fpnas.74.9.3735). PMC 431708 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC431708).
PMID 198801 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/198801).
Buznik, V. M. (2009). "Fluoropolymer Chemistry in Russia: Current Situation and Prospects". Russian
Journal of General Chemistry. 79 (3): 520–526. doi:10.1134/S1070363209030335 (https://doi.org/10.
1134%2FS1070363209030335). S2CID 97518401 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:975184
01).
Cameron, A. G. W. (1973). "Abundance of the Elements in the Solar System" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20111021030549/http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1973/1973_Cameron_1.pdf) (PDF). Space Science
Reviews. 15 (1): 121–146. Bibcode:1973SSRv...15..121C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973SSR
v...15..121C). doi:10.1007/BF00172440 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00172440). S2CID 120201972
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120201972). Archived from the original (http://pubs.giss.n
asa.gov/docs/1973/1973_Cameron_1.pdf) (PDF) on 21 October 2011.
Carey, Charles W. (2008). African Americans in Science. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
ISBN 978-1-85109-998-6.
Carlson, D. P.; Schmiegel, W. (2000). "Fluoropolymers, Organic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 495–533. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_393 (https://doi.org/10.1
002%2F14356007.a11_393). ISBN 978-3527306732.

19 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001). "Recommendations for Using Fluoride to Prevent
and Control Dental Caries in the United States" (https://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5014a1.
htm). MMWR Recommendations and Reports. 50 (RR–14): 1–42. PMID 11521913 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/11521913). Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Centers for Disease for Control and Prevention (10 July 2013). "Community Water Fluoridation" (https://
www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/faqs/). Retrieved 25 October 2013.
Chambers, C.; Holliday, A. K. (1975). Modern Inorganic Chemistry: An Intermediate Text (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20130323002902/http://files.rushim.ru/books/neorganika/Chambers.pdf) (PDF).
London: Butterworth & Co. ISBN 978-0-408-70663-6. Archived from the original (http://files.rushim.ru
/books/neorganika/Chambers.pdf) (PDF) on 23 March 2013.
Chang, Raymond; Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2013). Chemistry (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-131787-0.
Cheng, H.; Fowler, D. E.; Henderson, P. B.; Hobbs, J. P.; Pascolini, M. R. (1999). "On the Magnetic
Susceptibility of Fluorine". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 103 (15): 2861–2866.
Bibcode:1999JPCA..103.2861C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JPCA..103.2861C).
doi:10.1021/jp9844720 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp9844720).
Cheng, K. K.; Chalmers, I.; Sheldon, T. A. (2007). "Adding Fluoride to Water Supplies" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20160303202219/http://www.appgaf.org.uk/data/433-water-fluoridation.pdf) (PDF). BMJ.
335 (7622): 699–702. doi:10.1136/bmj.39318.562951.BE (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39318.56
2951.BE). PMC 2001050 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2001050). PMID 17916854
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17916854). Archived from the original (http://www.appgaf.org.uk/d
ata/433-water-fluoridation.pdf) (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2012.
Chisté, V.; Bé, M. M. (2011). "F-18" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200811110156/http://www.nucleide.
org/DDEP_WG/Nuclides/F-18_tables.pdf) (PDF). In Bé, M. M.; Coursol, N.; Duchemin, B.; Lagoutine, F.;
et al. (eds.). Table de radionucléides (Report). CEA (Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux
énergies alternatives), LIST, LNE-LNHB (Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel/Commissariat à
l'Energie Atomique). Archived from the original (http://www.nucleide.org/DDEP_WG/Nuclides/F-18_ta
bles.pdf) (PDF) on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
Christe, Karl O. (1986). "Chemical Synthesis of Elemental Fluorine". Inorganic Chemistry. 25 (21):
3721–3722. doi:10.1021/ic00241a001 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic00241a001).
Christe Research Group (n.d.). "Chemical Synthesis of Elemental Fluorine" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20160304051646/http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~kchriste/research.html). Archived from the original (htt
p://www-bcf.usc.edu/~kchriste/research.html) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
Clark, Jim (2002). "The Acidity of the Hydrogen Halides" (http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/group7/
acidityhx.html). chemguide.co.uk. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Clayton, Donald (2003). Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos: Hydrogen to Gallium . New York:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82381-4.
Compressed Gas Association (1999). Handbook of Compressed Gases (4th ed.). Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-412-78230-5.
Cordero, B.; Gómez, V.; Platero-Prats, A. E.; Revés, M.; Echeverría, J.; Cremades, E.; Barragán, F.;
Alvarez, S. (2008). "Covalent Radii Revisited". Dalton Transactions (21): 2832–2838.
doi:10.1039/b801115j (https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb801115j). PMID 18478144 (https://pubmed.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/18478144).
Cracher, Connie M. (2012). "Current Concepts in Preventive Dentistry" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
31014172105/http://www.dentalcare.com/media/en-US/education/ce334/ce334.pdf) (PDF).
dentalcare.com. Archived from the original (http://www.dentalcare.com/media/en-US/education/ce33
4/ce334.pdf) (PDF) on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Croswell, Ken (September 2003). "Fluorine: An element–ary Mystery" (http://kencroswell.com/fluorine.ht
ml). Sky and Telescope. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
Mitchell Crow, James (2011). "First signs of ozone-hole recovery spotted". Nature.
doi:10.1038/news.2011.293 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2011.293).
Davis, Nicole (November 2006). "Better than blood" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604181554/htt
p://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2006-11/better-blood). Popular Science. Archived from the
original (http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2006-11/better-blood) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved
20 October 2013.
Davy, Humphry (1813). "Some experiments and observations on the substances produced in different
chemical processes on fluor spar". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . 103: 263–279.
doi:10.1098/rstl.1813.0034 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1813.0034). S2CID 186214745 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186214745).
Dean, John A. (1999). Lange's Handbook of Chemistry (15th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0-07-016190-9.

20 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

DeBergalis, Michael (2004). "Fluoropolymer films in the photovoltaic industry". Journal of Fluorine
Chemistry. 125 (8): 1255–1257. doi:10.1016/j.jfluchem.2004.05.013 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfl
uchem.2004.05.013).
Directorate-General for the Environment (European Commission) (2007). Trifluralin (http://www.unece.or
g/fileadmin/DAM/env/lrtap/TaskForce/popsxg/2008/Trifluralin_RA%20dossier_proposal%20for%20sub
mission%20to%20the%20UNECE%20POP%20Protocol.pdf) (PDF) (Report). European Commission.
Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Drews, T.; Supeł, J.; Hagenbach, A.; Seppelt, K. (2006). "Solid State Molecular Structures of Transition
Metal Hexafluorides". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (9): 3782–3788. doi:10.1021/ic052029f (https://doi.or
g/10.1021%2Fic052029f). PMID 16634614 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16634614).
DuPont (2013a). "Freon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150221134854/http://www2.dupont.com/Phoen
ix_Heritage/en_US/1930_d_detail.html). Archived from the original (http://www2.dupont.com/Phoenix
_Heritage/en_US/1930_d_detail.html) on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
DuPont (2013b). "Understanding the Refrigerant 'R' Nomenclature" (http://www2.dupont.com/Refrigeran
ts/en_CA/products/understanding.html). Retrieved 17 October 2013.
Eaton, Charles (1997). "Figure hfl" (http://www.eatonhand.com/complic/figures/hfl.htm). E-Hand.com:
The Electronic Textbook of Hand Surgery. The Hand Center (former practice of Dr. Eaton). Retrieved
28 September 2013.
Edwards, Philip Neil (1994). "Use of Fluorine in Chemotherapy". In Banks, R. E.; Smart, B. E.; Tatlow, J. C.
(eds.). Organofluorine Chemistry: Principles and Commercial Applications . New York: Plenum Press.
pp. 501–542. ISBN 978-0-306-44610-8.
Einstein, F. W. B.; Rao, P. R.; Trotter, J.; Bartlett, N. (1967). "The Crystal Structure of Gold Trifluoride".
Journal of the Chemical Society A: Inorganic, Physical, Theoretical . 4: 478–482.
doi:10.1039/J19670000478 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJ19670000478).
Eisler, Ronald (1995). Sodium Monofluoroacetate (1080) Hazards to Fish, Wildlife and Invertebrates: A
Synoptic Review (https://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/eisler/CHR_30_Sodium_monofluoroacetate.pdf) (PDF)
(Report). Patuxent Environmental Science Center (U.S. National Biological Service). Retrieved 5 June
2011.
Ellis, Brian (2001). Scientific Essentialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-80094-5.
El-Kareh, Badih (1994). Fundamentals of Semiconductor Processing Technology . Norwell and Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7923-9534-8.
El Saadi, M. S.; Hall, A. H.; Hall, P. K.; Riggs, B. S.; Augenstein, W. L.; Rumack, B. H. (1989). "Hydrofluoric
Acid Dermal Exposure". Veterinary and Human Toxicology. 31 (3): 243–247. PMID 2741315 (https://p
ubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2741315).
Emeléus, H. J.; Sharpe, A. G. (1974). Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry . Vol. 16. New
York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-057865-1.
Emeléus, H. J.; Sharpe, A. G. (1983). Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry . Vol. 27.
Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-023627-3.
Emsley, John (1981). "The Hidden Strength of Hydrogen" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbthaZC
UXy4C&pg=PA292). New Scientist. 91 (1264): 291–292.
Emsley, John (2011). Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.
Energetics, Inc. (1997). Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Aluminum Industry (http://www1.e
ere.energy.gov/manufacturing/resources/aluminum/pdfs/aluminum.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Retrieved
15 October 2013.
Filler, R.; Saha, R. (2009). "Fluorine in Medicinal Chemistry: A Century of Progress and a 60-year
Retrospective of Selected Highlights" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131022021207/http://www.futu
re-science-group.com/_img/pics/fluorine_in_medicinal_chemistry.....pdf) (PDF). Future Medicinal
Chemistry. 1 (5): 777–791. doi:10.4155/fmc.09.65 (https://doi.org/10.4155%2Ffmc.09.65).
PMID 21426080 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21426080). Archived from the original (http://ww
w.future-science-group.com/_img/pics/fluorine_in_medicinal_chemistry.....pdf) (PDF) on 22 October
2013.
Fischman, Michael L. (2001). "Semiconductor Manufacturing Hazards". In Sullivan, John B.; Krieger, Gary
R. (eds.). Clinical Environmental Health and Toxic Exposures (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins. pp. 431–465. ISBN 978-0-683-08027-8.
Food and Nutrition Board. "Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Dietary Allowances and
Adequate Intakes, Elements" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181113060244/http://www.nationalaca
demies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRI-Tables/2_%20RDA%20and%20AI%20Va
lues_Vitamin%20and%20Elements.pdf?la=en) (PDF). Institute of Medicine, National Academies.
Archived from the original (http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/N
utrition/DRI-Tables/2_%20RDA%20and%20AI%20Values_Vitamin%20and%20Elements.pdf?la=en)
(PDF) on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2019.

21 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Forster, P.; Ramaswamy, V.; Artaxo, P.; Berntsen, T.; Betts, R.; Fahey, D. W.; Haywood, J.; Lean, J.; Lowe,
D. C.; Myhr e, G.; Nganga, J.; Prinn, R.; Raga, G.; Schulz, M.; Van Dorland, R. (2007). "Changes in
Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing". In Solomon, S.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis,
M.; Averyt, K. B.; Tignor, M.; Miller, H. L. (eds.). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University. pp. 129–234. ISBN 978-0-521-70596-7.
Fulton, Robert B.; Miller, M. Michael (2006). "Fluorspar". In Kogel, Jessica Elzea; Trivedi, Nikhil C.; Barker,
James M.; Krukowski, Stanley T. (eds.). Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses .
Littleton: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (U.S.). pp. 461–473.
ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8.
Gabriel, J. L.; Miller, T. F. Jr.; Wolfson, M. R.; Shaffer, T. H. (1996). "Quantitative Structure-Activity
Relationships of Perfluorinated Hetero-Hydrocarbons as Potential Respiratory Media". ASAIO Journal.
42 (6): 968–973. doi:10.1097/00002480-199642060-00009 (https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00002480-1
99642060-00009). PMID 8959271 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8959271). S2CID 31161098 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31161098).
Gains, Paul (18 October 1998). "A New Threat in Blood Doping" (https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/s
ports/a-new-threat-in-blood-doping.html). The New York Times. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
Gessner, B. D.; Beller, M.; Middaugh, J. P.; Whitford, G. M. (1994). "Acute Fluoride Poisoning from a
Public Water System" (https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199401133300203). New England Journal of
Medicine. 330 (2): 95–99. doi:10.1056/NEJM199401133300203 (https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199
401133300203). PMID 8259189 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8259189).
Giesy, J. P.; Kannan, K. (2002). "Perfluorochemical Surfactants in the Environment" (https://doi.org/10.10
21%2Fes022253t). Environmental Science & Technology. 36 (7): 146A–152A.
Bibcode:2002EnST...36..146G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002EnST...36..146G).
doi:10.1021/es022253t (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes022253t). PMID 11999053 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/11999053).
Godfrey, S. M.; McAuliffe, C. A.; Mackie, A. G.; Pritchard, R. G. (1998). "Inorganic Derivatives of the
Elements". In Norman, Nicholas C. (ed.). Chemistry of Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth. London:
Blackie Academic & Professional. pp. 67–158. ISBN 978-0-7514-0389-3.
Green, S. W.; Slinn, D. S. L.; Simpson, R. N. F.; Woytek, A. J. (1994). "Perfluorocarbon Fluids". In Banks, R.
E.; Smart, B. E.; Tatlow, J. C. (eds.). Organofluorine Chemistry: Principles and Applications . New York:
Plenum Press. pp. 89–119. ISBN 978-0-306-44610-8.
Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1998). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
Gribble, G. W. (2002). "Naturally Occurring Organofluorines". In Neison, A. H. (ed.). Organofluorines. The
Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 3N. Berlin: Springer. pp. 121–136.
doi:10.1007/10721878_5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F10721878_5). ISBN 3-540-42064-9.
Grot, Walter (2011). Fluorinated Ionomers (2nd ed.). Oxford and Waltham: Elsevier.
ISBN 978-1-4377-4457-6.
Hagmann, W. K. (2008). "The Many Roles for Fluorine in Medicinal Chemistry". Journal of Medicinal
Chemistry. 51 (15): 4359–4369. doi:10.1021/jm800219f (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjm800219f).
PMID 18570365 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18570365).
Harbison, G. S. (2002). "The Electric Dipole Polarity of the Ground and Low-lying Metastable Excited
States of NF". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 124 (3): 366–367. doi:10.1021/ja0159261
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja0159261). PMID 11792193 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1179219
3).
Hasegawa, Y.; Otani, R.; Yonezawa, S.; Takashima, M. (2007). "Reaction Between Carbon Dioxide and
Elementary Fluorine". Journal of Fluorine Chemistry. 128 (1): 17–28.
doi:10.1016/j.jfluchem.2006.09.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfluchem.2006.09.002).
hdl:10098/1665 (https://hdl.handle.net/10098%2F1665). S2CID 95754841 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:95754841).
Haxel, G. B.; Hedrick, J. B.; Orris, G. J. (2005). Stauffer, P. H.; Hendley II, J. W. (eds.). Rare Earth Elements
—Critical Resources for High Technology, Fact Sheet 087-02 (https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs087-02
/) (Report). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Haynes, William M., ed. (2011). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (92nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4398-5511-9.
Hoffman, Robert; Nelson, Lewis; Howland, Mary; Lewin, Neal; Flomenbaum, Neal; Goldfrank, Lewis
(2007). Goldfrank's Manual of Toxicologic Emergencies . New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
ISBN 978-0-07-144310-4.
Honeywell (2006). Recommended medical treatment for hydrofluoric acid exposure (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20131008080825/http://www.colorado.edu/ehs/pdf/HWMedHFExpo.pdf) (PDF). Morristown:
Honeywell International. Archived from the original (http://www.colorado.edu/ehs/pdf/HWMedHFExp
o.pdf) (PDF) on 8 October 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2014.

22 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Hoogers, G. (2002). "Fuel Cell Components and Their Impact on Performance". In Hoogers, G. (ed.). Fuel
Cell Technology Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 4-1–4-27. ISBN 0-8493-0877-1.
Hounshell, David A.; Smith, John Kelly (1988). Science and Corporate Strategy: DuPont R & D,
1902–1980 (https://archive.org/details/sciencecorporate0008houn). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-32767-9.
Hultén, P.; Höjer, J.; Ludwigs, U.; Janson, A. (2004). "Hexafluorine vs. Standard Decontamination to
Reduce Systemic Toxicity After Dermal Exposure to Hydrofluoric Acid". Clinical Toxicology. 42 (4):
355–361. doi:10.1081/CLT-120039541 (https://doi.org/10.1081%2FCLT-120039541). PMID 15461243
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15461243). S2CID 27090208 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:27090208).
ICIS (2 October 2006). "Fluorine's Treasure Trove" (http://www.icis.com/Articles/2006/09/30/2016413/flu
orines-treasure-trove.html). Reed Business Information. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Jaccaud, M.; Faron, R.; Devilliers, D.; Romano, R. (2000). "Fluorine". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 381–395. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_293 (https://doi.org/10.1
002%2F14356007.a11_293). ISBN 978-3527306732.
Johnson, Linda A. (28 December 2011). "Against Odds, Lipitor Became World's Top Seller" (http://www.b
oston.com/business/articles/2011/12/28/against_odds_lipitor_became_worlds_top_seller/). The
Boston Globe. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Kacmarek, Robert M.; Wiedemann, Herbert P.; Lavin, Philip T.; Wedel, Mark K.; Tütüncü, Ahmet S.;
Slutsky, Arthur S. (2006). "Partial Liquid Ventilation in Adult Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress
Syndrome". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine . 173 (8): 882–9.
doi:10.1164/rccm.200508-1196OC (https://doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.200508-1196OC).
PMID 16254269 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16254269).
Katakuse, Itsuo; Ichihara, Toshio; Ito, Hiroyuki; Sakurai, Tohru; Matsuo, Takekiyo (1999). "SIMS
Experiment". In Arai, T.; Mihama, K.; Yamamoto, K.; Sugano, S. (eds.). Mesoscopic Materials and
Clusters: Their Physical and Chemical Properties. Tokyo: Kodansha. pp. 259–273.
ISBN 4-06-208635-2.
Kelly, T. D.; Miller, M. M. (2005). "Historical Fluorspar Statistics" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/
ds140-fluor.xlsx). U.S. Geological Service. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
Keplinger, M. L.; Suissa, L. W. (1968). "Toxicity of Fluorine Short-Term Inhalation". American Industrial
Hygiene Association Journal. 29 (1): 10–18. doi:10.1080/00028896809342975 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F00028896809342975). PMID 5667185 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5667185).
Kern, S.; Hayward, J.; Roberts, S.; Richardson, J. W.; Rotella, F. J.; Soderholm, L.; Cort, B.; Tinkle, M.;
West, M.; Hoisington, D.; Lander, G. A. (1994). "Temperature Variation of the Structural Parameters in
Actinide Tetrafluorides" (https://zenodo.org/record/1232099). The Journal of Chemical Physics. 101
(11): 9333–9337. Bibcode:1994JChPh.101.9333K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JChPh.101.
9333K). doi:10.1063/1.467963 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.467963).<
Khriachtchev, L.; Pettersson, M.; Runeberg, N.; Lundell, J.; Räsänen, M. (2000). "A Stable Argon
Compound" (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6798/abs/406874a0.html). Nature. 406
(6798): 874–876. Bibcode:2000Natur.406..874K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Natur.406..8
74K). doi:10.1038/35022551 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35022551). PMID 10972285 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10972285). S2CID 4382128 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4382128).
King, D. E.; Malone, R.; Lilley, S. H. (2000). "New Classification and Update on the Quinolone Antibiotics"
(http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0501/p2741.html). American Family Physician. 61 (9): 2741–2748.
PMID 10821154 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10821154). Retrieved 8 October 2013.
Kirsch, Peer (2004). Modern Fluoroorganic Chemistry: Synthesis, Reactivity, Applications . Weinheim:
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-30691-6.
Kissa, Erik (2001). Fluorinated Surfactants and Repellents (2nd ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker.
ISBN 978-0-8247-0472-8.
Kuriakose, A. K.; Margrave, J. L. (1965). "Kinetics of the Reactions of Elemental Fluorine. IV. Fluorination
of Graphite". Journal of Physical Chemistry. 69 (8): 2772–2775. doi:10.1021/j100892a049 (https://do
i.org/10.1021%2Fj100892a049).
Lagow, R. J. (1970). The Reactions of Elemental Fluorine; A New Approach to Fluorine Chemistry (http://
scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/16744/9514194.PDF) (PDF) (PhD, Rice University, TX).
Ann Arbor: UMI.
Lau, C.; Anitole, K.; Hodes, C.; Lai, D.; Pfahles-Hutchens, A.; Seed, J. (2007). "Perfluoroalkyl Acids: A
Review of Monitoring and Toxicological Findings" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ftoxsci%2Fkfm128).
Toxicological Sciences. 99 (2): 366–394. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfm128 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ftoxs
ci%2Fkfm128). PMID 17519394 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17519394).
Lee, Stephen; et al. (2014). "Monofluoroacetate-Containing Plants That Are Potentially Toxic to
Livestock". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. ACS Publications. 62 (30): 7345–7354.
doi:10.1021/jf500563h (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf500563h). PMID 24724702 (https://pubmed.ncb
i.nlm.nih.gov/24724702).

23 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Lewars, Errol G. (2008). Modeling Marvels: Computational Anticipation of Novel Molecules (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=IoFzgBSSCwEC&pg=PA70). Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6972-7.
Lide, David R. (2004). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche
81lide) (84th ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0566-7.
Lidin, R.; Molochko, V. A.; Andreeva, L. L. (2000). Химические свойства неорганических веществ
[Chemical Properties of Inorganic Substances] (in Russian). Moscow: Khimiya. ISBN 5-7245-1163-0.
Liteplo, R.; Gomes, R.; Howe, P.; Malcolm, H. (2002). Environmental Health Criteria 227 (Fluoride) (htt
p://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc227.htm). Geneva: United Nations Environment
Programme; International Labour Organization; World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-157227-2.
Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Lusty, P. A. J.; Brown, T. J.; Ward, J.; Bloomfield, S. (2008). "The Need for Indigenous Fluorspar Production
in England" (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1328). British Geological Survey.
Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Mackay, Kenneth Malcolm; Mackay, Rosemary Ann; Henderson, W. (2002). Introduction to Modern
Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-7487-6420-8.
Macomber, Roger (1996). Organic chemistry. Vol. 1. Sausalito: University Science Books.
ISBN 978-0-935702-90-3.
Marggraf, Andreas Sigismun (1770). "Observation concernant une volatilisation remarquable d'une
partie de l'espece de pierre, à laquelle on donne les noms de flosse, flüsse, flus-spaht, et aussi celui
d'hesperos; laquelle volatilisation a été effectuée au moyen des acides" (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=f28pAXS5SGIC&pg=PA3) [Observation of a remarkable volatilization of part of a type of
stone to which one gives the name flosse, flüsse, flus-spaht, as well as that of hesperos; which
volatilization was effected by means of acids]. Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences et
belles-lettres (in French). XXIV: 3–11.
Martin, John W., ed. (2007). Concise Encyclopedia of the Structure of Materials . Oxford and Amsterdam:
Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-045127-5.
Marya, C. M. (2011). A Textbook of Public Health Dentistry. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical
Publishers. ISBN 978-93-5025-216-1.
Matsui, M. (2006). "Fluorine-containing Dyes". In Kim, Sung-Hoon (ed.). Functional dyes. Orlando:
Academic Press. pp. 257–266. ISBN 978-0-12-412490-5.
Meusinger, Reinhard; Chippendale, A. Margaret; Fairhurst, Shirley A. (2012). "Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance and Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 609–660. doi:10.1002/14356007.b05_471 (https://doi.org/10.1
002%2F14356007.b05_471). ISBN 978-3527306732.
Meyer, Eugene (1977). Chemistry of Hazardous Materials (https://archive.org/details/chemistryofhazar0
0meye). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-129239-0.
Miller, M. Michael (2003a). "Fluorspar" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/fluorspar/flu
ormyb03.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook. U.S. Geological Survey.
pp. 27.1–27.12.
Miller, M. Michael (2003b). "Mineral Resource of the Month, Fluorspar" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/miner
alofthemonth/fluorspar.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Mitchell, E. Siobhan (2004). Antidepressants (https://archive.org/details/antidepressants0000mitc). New
York: Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4381-0192-7.
Moeller, T.; Bailar, J. C.; Kleinberg (1980). Chemistry, with Inorganic Qualitative Analysis (3rd ed.). New
York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-503350-8.
Moissan, Henri (1886). "Action d'un courant électrique sur l'acide fluorhydrique anhydre" (http://gallica.
bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3058f/f1541.chemindefer). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de
l'Académie des sciences (in French). 102: 1543–1544. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
McCoy, M. (2007). "SURVEY Market Challenges Dim the Confidence of the World's Chemical CEOs".
Chemical & Engineering News. 85 (23): 11. doi:10.1021/cen-v085n023.p011a (https://doi.org/10.102
1%2Fcen-v085n023.p011a).
Moore, John W.; Stanitski, Conrad L.; Jurs, Peter C. (2010). Principles of Chemistry: The Molecular
Science. Belmont: Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-495-39079-4.
Morrow, S. I.; Perry, D. D.; Cohen, M. S. (1959). "The Formation of Dinitrogen Tetrafluoride in the
Reaction of Fluorine and Ammonia". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 81 (23): 6338–6339.
doi:10.1021/ja01532a066 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01532a066).
Müller, Peter (2009). "5.067 Crystal Structure Refinement" (http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/chemistry/5-067-
crystal-structure-refinement-fall-2009/lecture-notes/MIT5_067F09_lec4.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge: MIT
OpenCourseWare. Retrieved 13 October 2013.

24 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Murphy, C. D.; Schaffrath, C.; O'Hagan, D. (2003). "Fluorinated Natural Products: The Biosynthesis of
Fluoroacetate and 4-Fluorothreonine in Streptomyces cattleya". Chemosphere. 52 (2): 455–461.
Bibcode:2003Chmsp..52..455M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Chmsp..52..455M).
doi:10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00191-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0045-6535%2803%2900191-7).
PMID 12738270 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12738270).
Murthy, C. Parameshwara; Mehdi Ali, S. F.; Ashok, D. (1995). University Chemistry. Vol. I. New Delhi:
New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-0742-6.
National Health and Medical Research Council (2007). A Systematic Review of the Efficacy and Safety of
Fluoridation, Part A: Review of Methodology and Results (https://web.archive.org/web/201201130432
15/http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/eh41_1.pdf) (PDF). Canberra:
Australian Government. ISBN 978-1-86496-421-9. Archived from the original (http://www.nhmrc.gov.
au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/eh41_1.pdf) (PDF) on 13 January 2012. Retrieved
8 October 2013.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1994). "Fluorine" (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/
idlh/7782414.html). Documentation for Immediately Dangerous To Life or Health Concentrations
(IDLHs). Retrieved 15 January 2014.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (1994). "Chlorine" (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/
idlh/7782505.html). Documentation for Immediately Dangerous To Life or Health Concentrations
(IDLHs). Retrieved 13 July 2014.
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 Database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/). Brookhaven
National Laboratory. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "UN/NA 1045 (United Nations/North America Fluorine
Data Sheet)" (http://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/unna/1045). Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Navarrini, Walter; Venturini, Francesco; Tortelli, Vito; Basak, Soubir; Pimparkar, Ketan P.; Adamo, Andrea;
Jensen, Klavs F. (2012). "Direct fluorination of carbon monoxide in microreactors". Journal of Fluorine
Chemistry. 142: 19–23. doi:10.1016/j.jfluchem.2012.06.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfluchem.2
012.06.006).
Nelson, Eugene W. (1947). " 'Bad Man' of The Elements" (https://books.google.com/books?id=1t8DAAAA
MBAJ&pg=PA106). Popular Mechanics. 88 (2): 106–108, 260.
Nelson, J. M.; Chiller, T. M.; Powers, J. H.; Angulo, F. J. (2007). "Food Safety: Fluoroquinolone-
ResistantCampylobacterSpecies and the Withdrawal of Fluoroquinolones from Use in Poultry: A Public
Health Success Story" (https://www.cdc.gov/narms/pdf/JNelson_FluoroquinoloneRCampy_CID.pdf)
(PDF). Clinical Infectious Diseases. 44 (7): 977–980. doi:10.1086/512369 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2
F512369). PMID 17342653 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17342653).
Nielsen, Forrest H. (2009). "Micronutrients in Parenteral Nutrition: Boron, Silicon, and Fluoride" (https://d
oi.org/10.1053%2Fj.gastro.2009.07.072). Gastroenterology. 137 (5): S55–60.
doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2009.07.072 (https://doi.org/10.1053%2Fj.gastro.2009.07.072). PMID 19874950
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19874950).
Norwood, Charles J.; Fohs, F. Julius (1907). Kentucky Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 9: Fluorspar
Deposits of Kentucky (https://archive.org/details/bulletin01kentgoog). Kentucky Geological Survey.
Noury, S.; Silvi, B.; Gillespie, R. J. (2002). "Chemical Bonding in Hypervalent Molecules: Is the Octet Rule
Relevant?" (http://alpha.chem.umb.edu/chemistry/Seminar/06-09%20WQE/InorgI.Carter.pdf) (PDF).
Inorganic Chemistry. 41 (8): 2164–2172. doi:10.1021/ic011003v (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic01100
3v). PMID 11952370 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11952370). Retrieved 23 May 2012.
O'Hagan, D. (2008). "Understanding Organofluorine Chemistry. An Introduction to the C–F Bond".
Chemical Society Reviews. 37 (2): 308–319. doi:10.1039/b711844a (https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb711
844a). PMID 18197347 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18197347).
O'Hagan, D.; Schaffrath, C.; Cobb, S. L.; Hamilton, J. T. G.; Murphy, C. D. (2002). "Biochemistry:
Biosynthesis of an Organofluorine Molecule" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F416279a). Nature. 416
(6878): 279. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..279O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.416..279
O). doi:10.1038/416279a (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F416279a). PMID 11907567 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/11907567). S2CID 4415511 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4415511).
Okada, T.; Xie, G.; Gorseth, O.; Kjelstrup, S.; Nakamura, N.; Arimura, T. (1998). "Ion and Water Transport
Characteristics of Nafion Membranes as Electrolytes". Electrochimica Acta. 43 (24): 3741–3747.
doi:10.1016/S0013-4686(98)00132-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0013-4686%2898%2900132-7).
Okazoe, T. (2009). "Overview on the History of Organofluorine Chemistry from the Viewpoint of Material
Industry" (http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pjab/85/8/85_8_276/_pdf). Proceedings of the Japan
Academy, Series B. 85 (8): 276–289. Bibcode:2009PJAB...85..276O (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/2009PJAB...85..276O). doi:10.2183/pjab.85.276 (https://doi.org/10.2183%2Fpjab.85.276).
PMC 3621566 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3621566). PMID 19838009 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19838009).

25 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Olivares, M.; Uauy, R. (2004). Essential Nutrients in Drinking Water (Draft) (https://web.archive.org/web/
20121019174633/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/nutoverview.pdf) (PDF)
(Report). World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original (https://www.who.int/water_sa
nitation_health/dwq/en/nutoverview.pdf) (PDF) on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Parente, Luca (2001). "The Development of Synthetic Glucocorticoids". In Goulding, Nicolas J.; Flower,
Rod J. (eds.). Glucocorticoids. Basel: Birkhäuser. pp. 35–53. ISBN 978-3-7643-6059-7.
Partington, J. R. (1923). "The early history of hydrofluoric acid". Memoirs and Proceedings of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. 67 (6): 73–87.
Patnaik, Pradyot (2007). A Comprehensive Guide to the Hazardous Properties of Chemical Substances
(3rd ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-71458-3.
Pauling, Linus (1960). The Nature of the Chemical Bond (https://archive.org/details/natureofchemical00
paul) (3rd ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0.
Pauling, L.; Keaveny, I.; Robinson, A. B. (1970). "The Crystal Structure of α-Fluorine". Journal of Solid
State Chemistry. 2 (2): 225–227. Bibcode:1970JSSCh...2..225P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
70JSSCh...2..225P). doi:10.1016/0022-4596(70)90074-5 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-4596%287
0%2990074-5).
Perry, Dale L. (2011). Handbook of Inorganic Compounds (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4398-1461-1.
Pitzer, K. S. (1975). "Fluorides of Radon and Element 118" (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8xz4g1ff).
Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications (18): 760b–761.
doi:10.1039/C3975000760B (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC3975000760B).
Pitzer, Kenneth S., ed. (1993). Molecular Structure and Statistical Thermodynamics: Selected Papers of
Kenneth S. Pitzer. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 978-981-02-1439-5.
Pizzo, G.; Piscopo, M. R.; Pizzo, I.; Giuliana, G. (2007). "Community Water Fluoridation and Caries
Prevention: A Critical Review" (http://www.newmediaexplorer.org/chris/Pizzo-2007.pdf) (PDF). Clinical
Oral Investigations. 11 (3): 189–193. doi:10.1007/s00784-007-0111-6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs0
0784-007-0111-6). PMID 17333303 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17333303). S2CID 13189520
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13189520).
Posner, Stefan (2011). "Perfluorinated Compounds: Occurrence and Uses in Products". In Knepper,
Thomas P.; Large, Frank T. (eds.). Polyfluorinated Chemicals and Transformation Products .
Heidelberg: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-3-642-21871-2.
Posner, Stefan; et al. (2013). Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances in the Nordic Countries: Use
Occurrence and Toxicology (https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/files/56198991/Per%20and%20polyfluori
nated%20substances%20in%20the%20Nordic%20Countries.pdf) (PDF). Copenhagen: Nordic Council
of Ministers. doi:10.6027/TN2013-542 (https://doi.org/10.6027%2FTN2013-542).
ISBN 978-92-893-2562-2.
Preskorn, Sheldon H. (1996). Clinical Pharmacology of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors . Caddo:
Professional Communications. ISBN 978-1-884735-08-0.
Principe, Lawrence M. (2012). The Secrets of Alchemy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 978-0-226-68295-2.
Proudfoot, A. T.; Bradberry, S. M.; Vale, J. A. (2006). "Sodium Fluoroacetate Poisoning". Toxicological
Reviews. 25 (4): 213–219. doi:10.2165/00139709-200625040-00002 (https://doi.org/10.2165%2F00
139709-200625040-00002). PMID 17288493 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17288493).
S2CID 29189551 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29189551).
PRWeb (28 October 2010). "Global Fluorochemicals Market to Exceed 2.6 Million Tons by 2015,
According to a New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc" (http://www.prweb.com/releases/fluoroc
hemicals/organic_inorganic/prweb4708534.htm). prweb.com. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
PRWeb (23 February 2012). "Global Fluorspar Market to Reach 5.94 Million Metric Tons by 2017,
According to New Report by Global Industry Analysts, Inc" (http://www.prweb.com/releases/fluorspar
_fluorite/fluorocarbons/prweb9221596.htm). prweb.com. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
PRWeb (7 April 2013). "Fluoropolymers Market is Poised to Grow at a CAGR of 6.5% & to Reach $9,446.0
Million by 2016 – New report by MarketsandMarkets" (https://web.archive.org/web/20230403124312/
http://www.prweb.com/releases/fluoropolymers/market/prweb10608563.htm). prweb.com. Archived
from the original (http://www.prweb.com/releases/fluoropolymers/market/prweb10608563.htm) on 3
April 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Pyykkö, Pekka; Atsumi, Michiko (2009). "Molecular Double-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements Li–E112".
Chemistry: A European Journal. 15 (46): 12770–9. doi:10.1002/chem.200901472 (https://doi.org/10.1
002%2Fchem.200901472). PMID 19856342 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19856342).
Raghavan, P. S. (1998). Concepts and Problems in Inorganic Chemistry. Delhi: Discovery Publishing
House. ISBN 978-81-7141-418-5.
Raj, P. Prithvi; Erdine, Serdar (2012). Pain-Relieving Procedures: The Illustrated Guide . Chichester: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-67038-5.

26 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Ramkumar, Jayshree (2012). "Nafion Perfluorosulphonate Membrane: Unique Properties and Various
Applications". In Banerjee, S.; Tyagi, A. K. (eds.). Functional Materials: Preparation, Processing and
Applications. London and Waltham: Elsevier. pp. 549–578. ISBN 978-0-12-385142-0.
Reddy, D. (2009). "Neurology of Endemic Skeletal Fluorosis" (http://www.bioline.org.br/abstract?id=ni09
004). Neurology India. 57 (1): 7–12. doi:10.4103/0028-3886.48793 (https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0028
-3886.48793). hdl:1807/56250 (https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F56250). PMID 19305069 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19305069).
Renda, Agostino; Fenner, Yeshe; Gibson, Brad K.; Karakas, Amanda I.; Lattanzio, John C.; Campbell,
Simon; Chieffi, Alessandro; Cunha, Katia; Smith, Verne V. (2004). "On the origin of fluorine in the
Milky Way". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 354 (2): 575–580. arXiv:astro-
ph/0410580 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0410580). Bibcode:2004MNRAS.354..575R (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2004MNRAS.354..575R). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08215.x (https://doi.org
/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2004.08215.x). S2CID 12330666 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:12330666).
Renner, R. (2006). "The Long and the Short of Perfluorinated Replacements" (https://doi.org/10.1021%2
Fes062612a). Environmental Science & Technology. 40 (1): 12–13. Bibcode:2006EnST...40...12R (htt
ps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006EnST...40...12R). doi:10.1021/es062612a (https://doi.org/10.102
1%2Fes062612a). PMID 16433328 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16433328).
Rhoades, David Walter (2008). Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy Studies of Nafion (PhD dissertation).
Ann Arbor: University of Southern Mississippi, MS. ISBN 978-0-549-78540-8.
Richter, M.; Hahn, O.; Fuchs, R. (2001). "Purple Fluorite: A Little Known Artists' Pigment and Its Use in
Late Gothic and Early Renaissance Painting in Northern Europe". Studies in Conservation. 46 (1):
1–13. doi:10.1179/sic.2001.46.1.1 (https://doi.org/10.1179%2Fsic.2001.46.1.1). JSTOR 1506878 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/1506878). S2CID 191611885 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191
611885).
Riedel, Sebastian; Kaupp, Martin (2009). "The highest oxidation states of the transition metal
elements". Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 253 (5–6): 606–624. doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.07.014 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccr.2008.07.014).
Ripa, L. W. (1993). "A Half-century of Community Water Fluoridation in the United States: Review and
Commentary" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090304021822/http://aaphd.org/docs/position%20pap
ers/A%20Half-Century%20of%20Community%20Water1993.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Public Health
Dentistry. 53 (1): 17–44. doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1993.tb02666.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.175
2-7325.1993.tb02666.x). PMID 8474047 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8474047). Archived from
the original (http://aaphd.org/docs/position%20papers/A%20Half-Century%20of%20Community%20
Water1993.pdf) (PDF) on 4 March 2009.
Roblin, I.; Urban, M.; Flicoteau, D.; Martin, C.; Pradeau, D. (2006). "Topical Treatment of Experimental
Hydrofluoric Acid Skin Burns by 2.5% Calcium Gluconate". Journal of Burn Care & Research. 27 (6):
889–894. doi:10.1097/01.BCR.0000245767.54278.09 (https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.BCR.000024576
7.54278.09). PMID 17091088 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17091088). S2CID 3691306 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3691306).
Salager, Jean-Louis (2002). Surfactants: Types and Uses (http://nanoparticles.org/pdf/Salager-E300A.pd
f) (PDF). FIRP Booklet # 300-A. Laboratory of Formulation, Interfaces, Rheology, and Processes,
Universidad de los Andes. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Sandford, Graham (2000). "Organofluorine Chemistry". Philosophical Transactions. 358 (1766):
455–471. Bibcode:2000RSPTA.358..455S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000RSPTA.358..455S).
doi:10.1098/rsta.2000.0541 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2000.0541). S2CID 202574641 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202574641).
Sarkar, S. (2008). "Artificial Blood" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738310). Indian
Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 12 (3): 140–144. doi:10.4103/0972-5229.43685 (https://doi.org/10.
4103%2F0972-5229.43685). PMC 2738310 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738310)
. PMID 19742251 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19742251).
Scheele, Carl Wilhelm (1771). "Undersŏkning om fluss-spat och dess syra" (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=d984AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA120) [Investigation of Fluorite and Its Acid]. Kungliga Svenska
Vetenskapsademiens Handlingar [Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science] (in
Swedish). 32: 129–138.
Schimmeyer, S. (2002). "The Search for a Blood Substitute" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111002044
847/http://illumin.usc.edu/article.php/?articleID=62). Illumin. Columbia: University of Southern
Carolina. 15 (1). Archived from the original (http://illumin.usc.edu/article.php?articleID=62) on 2
October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Schlöder, T.; Riedel, S. (2012). "Investigation of Heterodimeric and Homodimeric Radical Cations of the
Series: [F2O2]+, [F2Cl2]+, [Cl2O2]+, [F4]+, and [Cl4]+". RSC Advances. Royal Society of Chemistry.
2 (3): 876–881. Bibcode:2012RSCAd...2..876S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012RSCAd...2..87
6S). doi:10.1039/C1RA00804H (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC1RA00804H).

27 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Schmedt Auf Der Günne, Jörn; Mangstl, Martin; Kraus, Florian (2012). "Occurrence of Difluorine F2 in
Nature-In Situ Proof and Quantification by NMR Spectroscopy". Angewandte Chemie International
Edition. 51 (31): 7847–7849. doi:10.1002/anie.201203515 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.2012035
15). ISSN 1521-3773 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1521-3773). PMID 22763992 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/22763992).
Schmitz, A.; Kälicke, T.; Willkomm, P.; Grünwald, F.; Kandyba, J.; Schmitt, O. (2000). "Use of Fluorine-18
Fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose Positron Emission Tomography in Assessing the Process of Tuberculous
Spondylitis" (http://www.ecios.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0157CIOS/cios-2-167.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
Spinal Disorders. 13 (6): 541–544. doi:10.1097/00002517-200012000-00016 (https://doi.org/10.109
7%2F00002517-200012000-00016). PMID 11132989 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11132989).
Retrieved 8 October 2013.
Schulze-Makuch, D.; Irwin, L. N. (2008). Life in the Universe: Expectations and Constraints (2nd ed.).
Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-76816-6.
Schwarcz, Joseph A. (2004). The Fly in the Ointment: 70 Fascinating Commentaries on the Science of
Everyday Life (https://archive.org/details/flyinointment70f0000schw). Toronto: ECW Press.
ISBN 1-55022-621-5.
Senning, A. (2007). Elsevier's Dictionary of Chemoetymology: The Whies and Whences of Chemical
Nomenclature and Terminology. Amsterdam and Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-52239-9.
Shaffer, T. H.; Wolfson, M. R.; Clark, L. C. Jr. (1992). "Liquid Ventilation". Pediatric Pulmonology. 14 (2):
102–109. doi:10.1002/ppul.1950140208 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppul.1950140208).
PMID 1437347 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1437347). S2CID 222167378 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:222167378).
Shin, Richard D.; Silverberg, Mark A. (2013). "Fluoride Toxicity" (http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/
814774-overview). Medscape. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Shriver, Duward; Atkins, Peter (2010). Solutions Manual for Inorganic Chemistry. New York: W. H.
Freeman. ISBN 978-1-4292-5255-3.
Shulman, J. D.; Wells, L. M. (1997). "Acute Fluoride Toxicity from Ingesting Home-use Dental Products in
Children, Birth to 6 Years of Age". Journal of Public Health Dentistry. 57 (3): 150–158.
doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1997.tb02966.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1752-7325.1997.tb02966.x).
PMID 9383753 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9383753).
Siegemund, G. N.; Schwertfeger, W.; Feiring, A.; Smart, B.; Behr, F.; Vogel, H.; McKusick, B. (2000).
"Fluorine Compounds, Organic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . Vol. 15. Weinheim:
Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_349 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a11_349).
ISBN 978-3527306732.
Slye, Orville M. (2012). "Fire Extinguishing Agents". In Ullmann, Franz (ed.). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry. Vol. 15. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_113.pub2
(https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a11_113.pub2). ISBN 978-3527306732.
Steenland, K.; Fletcher, T.; Savitz, D. A. (2010). "Epidemiologic Evidence on the Health Effects of
Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920088).
Environmental Health Perspectives. 118 (8): 1100–1108. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901827 (https://doi.org/1
0.1289%2Fehp.0901827). PMC 2920088 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920088).
PMID 20423814 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20423814).
Stillman, John Maxson (December 1912). "Basil Valentine, A Seventeenth Century Hoax" (https://books.
google.com/books?id=7SQDAAAAMBAJ&q=%22Basil+Valentine%22,+hoax&pg=PA591). Popular
Science Monthly. 81. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
Storer, Frank H. (1864). First Outlines of a Dictionary of Solubilities of Chemical Substances (https://arch
ive.org/details/b21901053). Cambridge: Sever and Francis.
Swinson, Joel (June 2005). "Fluorine – A Vital Element in the Medicine Chest" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20120208080640/http://www.halocarbon.com/halocarbon_media/swinson_109.pdf) (PDF).
PharmaChem. Pharmaceutical Chemistry: 26–27. Archived from the original (http://www.halocarbon.c
om/halocarbon_media/swinson_109.pdf) (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
Taber, Andrew (22 April 1999). "Dying to ride" (http://www.salon.com/1999/04/21/cycling/). Salon.
Retrieved 18 October 2013.
Tanner Industries (January 2011). "Anhydrous Ammonia: (MSDS) Material Safety Data Sheet" (http://ww
w.tannerind.com/anhydrous-msds.html). tannerind.com. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Theodoridis, George (2006). "Fluorine-Containing Agrochemicals: An Overview of Recent
Developments". In Tressaud, Alain (ed.). Fluorine and the Environment: Agrochemicals, Archaeology,
Green Chemistry & Water. Amsterdam and Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 121–176. ISBN 978-0-444-52672-4.
Toon, Richard (1 September 2011). "The discovery of fluorine" (https://eic.rsc.org/feature/the-discovery-
of-fluorine/2020249.article). Education in Chemistry. Vol. 48, no. 5. Royal Society of Chemistry.
pp. 148–151. ISSN 0013-1350 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-1350).

28 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Transparency Market Research (17 May 2013). "Fluorochemicals Market is Expected to Reach USD 21.5
Billion Globally by 2018: Transparency Market Research" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140222155
737/http://www.tmrblog.com/2013/05/fluorochemicals-market-is-expected-to.html). Transparency
Market Research Blog. Archived from the original (http://www.tmrblog.com/2013/05/fluorochemicals-
market-is-expected-to.html) on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Ullmann, Fritz (2008). Ullmann's Fibers (2 volumes). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31772-1.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (1996). "R.E.D. Facts: Trifluralin" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20131018001622/http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0179fact.pdf) (PDF).
Archived from the original (http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0179fact.pdf) (PDF) on 18
October 2013. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012). "Emerging Contaminants – Perfluorooctane
Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202537/
http://www.epa.gov/fedfac/pdf/emerging_contaminants_pfos_pfoa.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.epa.gov/fedfac/pdf/emerging_contaminants_pfos_pfoa.pdf) (PDF) on 29 October
2013. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013a). "Class I Ozone-depleting Substances" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20101210101528/http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/ods/classone.html).
Archived from the original (http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/ods/classone.html) on 10 December
2010. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (2013b). "Phaseout of HCFCs (Class II Ozone-Depleting
Substances)" (http://www.epa.gov/ozone/title6/phaseout/classtwo.html). Retrieved 15 October 2013.
Viel, Claude; Goldwhite, Harold (1993). "1906 Nobel Laureate: Henri Moissan, 1852–1907". In Laylin, K.
James (ed.). Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901–1992 (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780841226
906/page/35). Washington: American Chemical Society; Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. 35–41 (ht
tps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780841226906/page/35). ISBN 978-0-8412-2690-6.
Vigoureux, P. (1961). "The Gyromagnetic Ratio of the Proton". Contemporary Physics. 2 (5): 360–366.
Bibcode:1961ConPh...2..360V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961ConPh...2..360V).
doi:10.1080/00107516108205282 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00107516108205282).
S2CID 5092147 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5092147).
Villalba, Gara; Ayres, Robert U.; Schroder, Hans (2008). "Accounting for Fluorine: Production, Use, and
Loss". Journal of Industrial Ecology. 11: 85–101. doi:10.1162/jiec.2007.1075 (https://doi.org/10.116
2%2Fjiec.2007.1075). S2CID 153740615 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153740615).
Walsh, Kenneth A. (2009). Beryllium Chemistry and Processing. Materials Park: ASM International.
ISBN 978-0-87170-721-5.
Walter, P. (2013). "Honeywell Invests $300m in Green Refrigerant" (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2
013/12/honeywell-air-conditioning-green-refrigerant). Chemistry World.
Weeks, M. E. (1932). "The Discovery of the Elements. XVII. The Halogen Family". Journal of Chemical
Education. 9 (11): 1915–1939. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1915W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/193
2JChEd...9.1915W). doi:10.1021/ed009p1915 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p1915).
Werner, N. L.; Hecker, M. T.; Sethi, A. K.; Donskey, C. J. (2011). "Unnecessary use of Fluoroquinolone
Antibiotics in Hospitalized Patients" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145580). BMC
Infectious Diseases. 11: 187–193. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-11-187 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-
2334-11-187). PMC 3145580 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145580).
PMID 21729289 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21729289).
Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils; Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego:
Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9.
Willey, Ronald R. (2007). Practical Equipment, Materials, and Processes for Optical Thin Films .
Charlevoix: Willey Optical. ISBN 978-0-615-14397-2.
Yaws, Carl L.; Braker, William (2001). "Fluorine". Matheson Gas Data Book (7th ed.). Parsippany:
Matheson Tri-Gas. ISBN 978-0-07-135854-5.
Yeung, C. A. (2008). "A Systematic Review of the Efficacy and Safety of Fluoridation" (https://doi.org/10.
1038%2Fsj.ebd.6400578). Evidence-Based Dentistry. 9 (2): 39–43. doi:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400578 (http
s://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.ebd.6400578). PMID 18584000 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1858400
0).
Young, David A. (1975). Phase Diagrams of the Elements (https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/4010
212-0BbwUC/4010212.pdfaccess) (Report). Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
Zareitalabad, P.; Siemens, J.; Hamer, M.; Amelung, W. (2013). "Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and
perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) in surface waters, sediments, soils and wastewater – A review
on concentrations and distribution coefficients". Chemosphere. 91 (6): 725–32.
Bibcode:2013Chmsp..91..725Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Chmsp..91..725Z).
doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.02.024 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemosphere.2013.02.024).
PMID 23498059 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23498059).

29 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15
Fluorine - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine

Zorich, Robert (1991). Handbook of Quality Integrated Circuit Manufacturing . San Diego: Academic
Press. ISBN 978-0-323-14055-3.

External links
▪ Media related to Fluorine at Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorine&oldid=1198698556"

30 of 30 24/01/2024, 22:15