International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Experimental study on temperature profile in a branched tunnel fire under

natural ventilation considering different fire locations
Peng Lei, Changkun Chen *, Yulun Zhang, Tong Xu, Huakai Sun
Institute of Disaster Prevention Science and Safety Technology, Central South University, Changsha, 410075, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Reduced scale experiments in a branched tunnel were carried out to study the variation of the maximum gas
Tunnel fire excess temperature beneath the ceiling and temperature profile under natural ventilation considering different
Fire location fire locations. Flame behaviors and ceiling temperature profile were recorded and analyzed. The results show
Temperature profile
that due to unbalanced air entrainment, the fire located at the intersection of the tunnel tilts towards the
Branched tunnel
sidewall. The maximum temperature beneath the ceiling when fire locates at the intersection is slightly lower
than that when fire locates at the two other locations because the accumulated high temperature smoke is less.
Based on experimental data, a model predicting the maximum temperature beneath the ceiling was proposed. It
correlates the experimental data well and also agrees reasonably with the temperature measured in full scale
tests from other’s work. Besides, dimensionless expression for longitudinal temperature decay in a branched
tunnel was proposed. The predicted longitudinal ceiling temperature was close to the measured data for the main
tunnel but slightly higher for the branch due to the rough surface of the joint. The influence of branch on the
temperature profile in the main tunnel was also discussed.

location. Consequently, there is clearly a need to study above parame­

1. Introduction
Nowadays, both the number and complexity of tunnels are
increasing due to urbanization, etc. [1,2], implying that more tunnel fire
incidents may occur despite their low risks [3,4]. Fire incidents in tun­
nels could cause heavy casualties and huge economic loss, such as the
fire in Futuyu Tunnel, Hebei, China, 2017, caused 15 deaths and 3 in­
juries. Among the typical structure of complex tunnels, one is the
branched tunnel, such as urban traffic link tunnels. Unfortunately, fire
safety problems in branched tunnels cannot be treated with conven­
tional fire prevention measures because fire dynamics in these tunnels
may be different from those in tunnels without bifurcations [5,6], which
poses new challenges for fire-fighting. It is therefore necessary to study
the fire dynamics in branched tunnels.
The occurred fire incidents in tunnels could be attributed to three
reasons, vehicle self-ignition, vehicle collision and over-turning [7].
Hence the fire location in a tunnel fire accident may be random. For
branched tunnels, the fire source may locate at the intersection, at the
upstream/downstream of the main tunnel, or in the branch tunnel. And
obviously, the flame characteristics and temperature profile that could
cause great damage to tunnel lining are strongly dependent on the fire
ters in branched tunnels considering different fire locations.
Many projects, such as EUREKA [8], FIT project, as well as lots of
scholars have devoted into tunnel fire study in terms of temperature
fields [6,9–17], critical ventilation velocity [18–24], smoke trans­
portation [7,25–31], heat release rate [4,30,32–34], flame tilt [35,36],
sealing [11,37–39], etc. These works have prominently improved our
understanding of the tunnel fire. Among them, regarding the fire loca­
tions, present study mainly focuses on the influence of transverse fire
location on temperature field or critical ventilation velocity in ordinary
single tunnels. For example, Ji et al. [40] studied the maximum smoke
temperature under the tunnel ceiling considering the fire with different
distances to the sidewall. Wang et al. [7] investigated the influence of
transverse fire locations on critical velocity and smoke flow character­
istics. However, the effects of longitudinal fire location, or rather, the
fire location relative to the intersection of the branched tunnel, on flame
characteristics and temperature profile are poorly studied. Although
Huang [6] and Yang et al. [5,41,42] investigated the maximum gas
temperature beneath the ceiling and smoke transport in a branched
tunnel, which mainly focuses on the maximum temperature and flow
regimes of smoke. The effects of longitudinal fire location on tempera­
ture fields and flame characteristics cannot be concluded.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cckchen@csu.edu.cn (C. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2020.106631
Received 2 April 2020; Received in revised form 30 June 2020; Accepted 8 September 2020
Available online 21 September 2020
1290-0729/© 2020 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
P. Lei et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631

Nomenclature T∞ 1/3 2/3

ΔT = 5.0( 2 2 ) Q̇ z− 5/3
(3)
gcp ρ∞
ΔT excess temperature(K)
(4)
2/5
Q̇ total heat release rate(kW) z0 = 0.083Q̇ − 1.02D
D equivalent diameter of fire source(m)
g acceleration of gravity(m/s2)
1/3
ΔT 1
(5)
2/3 5/3
= α( 2 2 2 ) Q̇ (z − z0 )−
w tunnel width(m) T∞ T∞ gcp ρ∞
Heff distance from the burning surface to ceiling (m)
T∞ ambient temperature(K) ΔTmax Q̇
= α( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)2/3 (6)
x longitudinal distance from fire source(m) T∞
T∞ cp ρ∞ g(0.95H − z0 )5
cp specific heat of ambient air(J/(kg K))
S ceiling extraction area (m2) Longitudinal temperature profile also has been widely investigated.
λ heat transfer coefficient in Eq. (10) Temperature attenuation in longitudinal direction are mainly attributed
H tunnel height(m) to three reasons: thermal convection between hot smoke and tunnel
z0 height of virtual point(m) ceiling, heat transfer due to air entrainment, and heat radiation between
z vertical height from tunnel floor(m) hot smoke and surroundings [48]. Based on this a heat balance equation
A1 A2 a1 a2 k1 k2 temperature decay factor was proposed and reorganized into an inhomogeneous linear differential
equation of first order [42,48], whose solution is a sum of two expo­
Greek symbols
nential parts as follows.
α correlation constant
ρ∞ density of ambient air (kg/m3) ΔTx
= A1 e− k1̂x + A2 e− k2̂x (7)
ΔTmax
Superscript/subscript
ˆ,* dimensionless quantity where k1 and k2 are temperature decay factors. ̂ x is the dimensionless
max maximum value longitudinal distance, and it is defined as ̂
x = x/w. This has been veri­
fied by a series of small-scale and full-scale experiments [42,49].
Substituting Eq. (6) into Eq. (7) gives the prediction the formula for
dimensionless longitudinal ceiling temperature profile:
In the light of this, a series of reduced-scale experiments concerning
different longitudinal fire locations were conducted in a branched tun­ ΔTx Q̇
= α( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)2/3 (A1 e− k1̂x + A2 e− k2̂x ) (8)
nel under natural ventilation. The fire characteristics and temperature T∞
T∞ cp ρ∞ g(0.95H − z0 )5
profile were recorded and then analyzed. Based on the measured data,
models predicting the maximum excess temperature under ceiling and Assumptions of Eqs. (6) and (8) for predicting dimensionless tem­
temperature decay were tried to propose. perature profile will be examined by experiments below.

2. Theoretical analysis 3. Experimental setup

Maximum temperature beneath the ceiling is one the most important 3.1. Scaling
features of temperature profile that has been studied widely, including
Alpert [43], Kurioka [12] etc. Li [44] proposed an empirical formula to The Froude scale law was widely used in tunnel fire reduced scale
predict the maximum temperature near the fire source. Under natural experiments. The scaling relationship between the reduced scale and full
ventilation, the expression is expressed as: scale is listed in Table 1, where L is the length scale, M is the model scale,
2/3 and F is full scale.
Q̇
ΔTmax = 17.5 5/3
(1)
Heff
3.2. Experimental apparatus and scenarios
Huang et al. [6] proposed an equation estimating the maximum
temperature for a branched tunnel when the fire locates at the inter­ Experiments were conducted in a 1/10 branched tunnel, as shown in
section of the tunnel. Under natural ventilation, the equation can be Fig. 1. The skeleton of the tunnel is made of 2 mm steel and it is pro­
expressed as: tected by 20 mm-thick asbestos plates. The tunnel consists of a main
tunnel and a branched structure, whose cross sections are all rectangular
ΔTmax
= 2.5(
Q̇
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)2/5 (2) with a width of 0.6 m and a height of 0.45 m. And the angle between the
T∞
T∞ cp ρ∞ g(0.95H − z0 )5 main tunnel and the branch tunnel is 45◦ . The main tunnel and the
branched tunnel were connected with a flexible joint, whose inner sur­
The fire plume in the tunnel is similar with the ideal plume. face was protected by asbestos.
Neglecting radiation loss, the temperature rise of the ideal plume at the Ethanol (calorific value: 26,780 kJ/kg; boiling point: 78.3 ◦ C) with
height of z can be obtained by Eq. (3). Heskested [45,46] improved the purity of 99% was used as the fuel. Four rectangular pans of different
theory by introducing a virtual origin, and the virtual point height is
expressed as Eq. (4). Therefore, combining the effects of the bifurcation Table 1
structure, the maximum excess temperature under the ceiling can be put Scaling relationship.
forward, shown in Eq. (5), where the coefficient, α, represents the in­
Quantity Scaling
fluence of the branch structure on the maximum excess temperature.
Especially, by noting that the maximum temperature locates at the Heat release rate (kW) QM/QF=(LM/LF)5/2
Temperature(K) TM/TF = 1
radical region before plume transition diffusion. And the distance from Velocity(m/s) VM/VF=(LM/LF)1/2
this region to the ceiling is 0.05 times the tunnel height [47], the Mass(kg) MM/MF=(LM/LF)3
maximum temperature can be reorganized as shown in Eq. (6). Time(s) tM/tF=(LM/LF)1/2

2
P. Lei et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the 1/10 reduced scale tunnel.

sizes (cross sections of 0.1 m × 0.1 m, 0.2 m × 0.1 m, 0.2 m × 0.2 m, 0.2
Table 2
m × 0.3 m) were used. And the mass loss rate was recorded by an electric
Summary of test plans.
balance with an accuracy of 1 g. The total heat release rate was calcu­
lated by measured mass loss rate and the combustion efficiency was Case No. Fire source Pool fire Heat release Ambient
location size rate temperature
taken to be 1. Fuel thickness was kept 4 cm before ignition.
Thermocouple trees, consisting of K-type sheathed thermocouples A A-1 east 0.1 m × 3.83 kW 286 K
with diameter of 1 mm, were used to measure the gas temperatures A-2 center 0.1 m
A-3 west
inside the tunnel. The gap between adjacent trees was set to be 0.25 m in B B-1 east 0.2 m × 7.23 kW 290 K
near fields of the fire source, and 0.5 m in relatively far fields of the fire B-2 center 0.1 m
source. Two radiation heat fluxes is mounted 1 m away from the Port E B-3 west
and Port W with 0.25 m vertical height from tunnel floor, and the flame C C-1 east 0.2 m × 17.67 kW 287 K
C-2 center 0.2 m
characteristics were recorded from the side view by the digital camera
C-3 west
located 1 m away from the Port E, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Besides, fire D D-1 east 0.2 m × 33.27 kW 287 K
tests without branch is also conducted by blocking the entrance of the D-2 center 0.3 m
branch tunnel. Each case was repeated for two times to ensure the D-3 west
repeatability of the experiments. The test plans are listed in Table 2. E E− 1 center 0.2 m× 37.49 kW 303 K
0.1 m
E− 2 0.2 m× 18.75 kW 300 K
4. Results and discussion 0.2 m
E− 3 0.2 m× 8.03 kW 300 K
4.1. Flame characteristics 0.3 m
F F-1 center 0.2 m× 37.49 kW 303 K
0.1 m
Typical flame plume in different cases are shown in Fig. 2. It can be F-2 0.2 m× 18.75 kW 300 K
seen that with the increase of the heat release rate, the fire size become 0.2 m
bigger. In addition, the fire located in the west and the east is vertical F-3 0.2 m× 8.03 kW 300 K
while the fire in the center tilt towards the sidewall. This tilt is caused by 0.3 m

the asymmetric fire plume due to the existence of branch tunnel. The
reason is elaborated as follows.
When the fire locates at the west and the east, the plume rise first and
then spread after impinging on the ceiling. After that, confined by the
two sidewalls, the plume moves downwards and an anti-buoyant wall jet
forms. The plume is symmetric, as shown in Fig. 3 (a). When the fire is in
the intersection, where the fire is adjacent to the branch structure, after
impinging on the ceiling, only one side of the plume is restricted and
moves downwards, while the plume on the other side moves on hori­
zontally. And relatively much fresh air is entrained into the fire source
on this side. So it is the unbalanced air entrainment that causes the flame
to tilt. In fact, this fire scenario is an equivalence of fire near a sidewall.
And this tilt is also observed by Fan et al. [50].
Note: case A ~ D were conducted in December while case E ~ F were conducted
in July. Case F was conducted without branch.
4.2. Maximum temperature beneath the ceiling
Previous models proposed by Huang [6] and Li [51] were used to
calculate the maximum temperature and compared with the measured
data, as shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that the fire location
has limited influence on the maximum temperature beneath ceiling in
the branched tunnel under natural ventilation in such experimental
configuration. More specifically, when fire locates at the center of the
main tunnel, the maximum temperature beneath ceiling is a little lower
than that when fire locates at the west or east. And the maximum

3
P. Lei et al.
Fig. 2. Typical flame plume in quasi-steady state in different cases.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of fire plume in different locations.
Fig. 4. Comparison of ΔTmax by experiments and models.
temperature when fire locates at the west and east are close. Tempera­
ture rise is mainly due to hot smoke accumulation. When fire locates at
the center, high-temperature smoke can propagate in three directions
and cannot accumulate due to the branched structure. In contrast, when
fire locates at the west or east, the smoke can only spread in two di­
rections right above the fire source, where the maximum temperature
may locates. Therefore, the maximum temperature beneath the ceiling
when fire locates at the center is a little lower.
Besides, calculated values by previous models present a relatively
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631
large deviation. Regarding Huang’s model, for fire sources with lower
heat release rate, e.g. 3.83 kW, the calculated temperatures are higher,
while lower for fire sources with higher heat release rate, e.g. 33.27 kW.
The reason why Li’s model overestimates the temperature is probably
due to the branched structure, which allows the high temperature smoke
to escape. It is insufficient to access the maximum temperature in a
branched tunnel. Thus, a new method to predict the maximum excess
temperature is necessarily being developed.
The relationship between dimensionless temperature riseΔTT∞max , and
dimensionless expression in Eq. (6) is shown in Fig. 5. For comparison,
the data derived from Huang [6] are also plotted. It can be seen that the
dimensionless temperature rises in Huang’s work are a little higher than
the experimental data in this work. And the slopes are also slightly
different. This is probably due to the difference of the fire sources and
materials used to protect the tunnel ceiling. The tunnel ceiling was
covered by fireproof magnesium plate in Huang’s work, while by
asbestos plates in this work. The different thermal properties of tunnel
ceiling and fire source types would result in some deviations of
maximum excess temperature [17,40]. Despite these differences, it can
be found that the linear correlation performs well between the dimen­
sionless temperature rise and dimensionless expression in Eq. (6) with
R-square of 0.973, as shown in Fig. 5. The coefficient in Eq. (6), α, equals
to 4.74. So Eq. (6) can be rewritten as
ΔTmax Q̇
= 4.74( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)2/3 (9)
T∞
T∞ cp ρ∞ g(0.95H − z0 )5
Comparison of the maximum temperature calculated by Eq. (9) and
the experimental data in this work as well as data derived from Huang’s
P. Lei et al.
Fig. 5. ΔTmax/T∞ and dimensionless expression in Eq. (6).
work [6] are shown in Fig. 6. Besides, full scale experiment data derived
from Liu’s work [42] is also plotted. It can be seen that they are in good
agreement. The reason why the Liu’s measured temperature is a little
higher is probably because the tunnel in Liu’s work has an arched ceil­
ing, which can accumulate high temperature smoke compared to the
rectangular ones.
4.3. Longitudinal temperature distribution in the main tunnel
Dimensionless longitudinal temperature decay in the main tunnel is
shown in Fig. 7. The temperature profiles with different fire locations
show similar decay trend which is in accordance with the form of Eq. (7).
Hu et al. [52] investigated temperature profiles of buoyant-driven gas
flow beneath a channel ceiling considering ceiling extraction and lon­
gitudinal ventilation and found that the temperature decay factor can be
expressed by a function of heat release rate and ventilation velocity as
follows:
vcritical − vinduced 0.19 λD
k=( ) × 1/3
(10)
vcritical ± v − vinduced cp (0.071Q̇ z5/3 − ρvS)
where vcritical is critical velocity, S the ceiling extraction area, λ heat
transfer coefficient. Since there are no longitudinal ventilation and
ceiling extraction in this work, and the fire sources always locate at the
Fig. 6. Comparison of ΔTmax by predicted model and measured data.
5
International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631
centerline of the tunnel [42], Eq. (10) can be reduced to
ki Q* (11)
1/3
= constant, i = 1, 2
Meantime, by noting thatΔT̂x =0 = ΔTmax , the sum of temperature
decay factor, A1 and A2, should equal unity. Based on the analysis above,
the fitting curves were plotted in Fig. 7. And the R2 were all above 0.968.
Hence, by averaging the coefficients, the prediction formula for the
dimensionless longitudinal ceiling temperature profile can be obtained
as
ΔTx ̂
0.7617 x ̂
0.07138 x
= 4.74Q*2/3 (0.5014e (12)
− −
Q*1/3 + 0.4986e Q*1/3 )
T∞
where Q* is the dimensionless heat release rate, ̂ x the dimensionless
distance from fire source.
Comparison of calculated values of dimensionless longitudinal ceil­
ing temperature distribution by Eq. (12) and the experimental values are
plotted in Fig. 8 to check its validity. Moreover, experimental data
measured by Liu [41,42] was also plotted (refer to Fig. 9 in Ref. [41] and
Fig. 7 in Ref. [42]). It is observed the predictions agree reasonably with
the experimental values except for some slight deviations compared
with Liu’s work, which is probably due to the tunnel structure differ­
ence. In Ref. [41], the cross-section of main tunnel is circular, which can
also help high-temperature gas accumulate. In Ref. [42], main tunnel’s
height is higher than that of branched tunnel, allowing more hot smoke
flowing into the main tunnel. Hence, their measured temperature is a
little higher than those in this work, as shown in Fig. 8. But in general,
the accuracy of this model is acceptable.
To investigate the influence of branch on the temperature profile in
the main tunnel, fire tests were conducted in the same rig by removing
the branch. Longitudinal temperature profile in main tunnel with/
without branch was compared in Fig. 9. Part of the data were derived
from Ref. [53].
It can be seen in Fig. 9 that the temperature profile in the main tunnel
without branch is slightly higher (roughly 20 K–40 K) than that with a
branch. As expected, if there is a branch, high-temperature smoke can
propagate in the branch during one-dimensional spread stage, losing
more heat. So the longitudinal temperature in the main tunnel is
conceivably lower than that of ordinary single tunnel in this experi­
mental configuration.
However, it should be noted that whether tunnel are branched or not,
longitudinal temperature profile in the main tunnel still conform to the
sum of two exponential decay. Because this law is derived based on a
control volume of smoke layer, with heat convection, heat radiation and
air entrainment taken into account. And this has been verified by many
previous studies [41,42].
4.4. Longitudinal temperature distribution in branch tunnel
Longitudinal temperature decay in the branched tunnel is shown in
Fig. 10. Decay curve predicted by Eq. (12) is also plotted for comparison.
It can be seen that the temperature profile in branched tunnel also fol­
lows the exponential decay in general. But the experimental values are
usually lower that the predicted ones. This is probably due to the rough
surface of asbestos attached to the flexible joint, which hinders the flow
of high temperature air to some extent.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, reduced scale experiments in a branched tunnel have
been carried out to study the variation of the maximum gas excess
temperature beneath the ceiling and temperature profile under natural
ventilation considering different fire locations. Models predicting the
maximum temperature beneath the ceiling and longitudinal tempera­
ture decay were then proposed. The major conclusions are as follows:
P. Lei et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631

Fig. 7. Dimensionless temperature distribution versus dimensionless distance in main tunnel.

Fig. 8. Comparison of longitudinal temperature measured experimentally and

predicted by Eq. (12). Fig. 9. Comparison of temperature decay in main tunnel with branch (line)/
without branch (scatter).

(1) When the fire does not locate at the intersection of the branched
the two other locations because the accumulated high tempera­
tunnel, the rising plume is axisymmetric due to the restriction of
ture smoke is less. A model predicting the maximum temperature
the both sidewalls. When the fire occurs at the intersection, the
under the ceiling is proposed and it agrees with the experiment
fire scenario is an equivalence of the fire near the sidewall. The
data (both reduced scale and full scale) reasonably.
unbalanced air entrainment causes flame tilts towards the
(3) Longitudinal temperature decay was expressed in the form of the
sidewall.
sum of two exponential functions. The proposed model predicts
(2) The maximum temperature beneath the ceiling when fire locates
longitudinal temperature well within a certain range. Compared
at the intersection is slightly lower than that when fire locates at
with ordinary single tunnel, longitudinal temperature profile in

6
P. Lei et al.
Fig. 10. Dimensionless temperature distribution versus dimensionless distance in branch tunnel.
main tunnel is slightly lower in branched tunnel under this
experimental configuration. For branch tunnel, due to the rough
surface of asbestos attached to the flexible joint, the predicted
longitudinal temperature is slightly higher than the experimental
data.
In this paper, reduced scale experiments in a branched tunnel were
carried out to study the variation of the maximum gas excess tempera­
ture beneath the ceiling and temperature decay under natural ventila­
tion considering different fire locations, with models predicting
maximum excess temperature and longitudinal temperature decay
proposed. However, the temperature profile inside the tunnel is also
dependent on some other factors, such as the inclination of the branched
tunnel, sealing rates, ventilation velocity, which should be investigated
further.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 51576212). The authors appreciate the supports deeply.
7
International Journal of Thermal Sciences 159 (2021) 106631
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