Symbiosis: The Art of Living Together

Symbiosis is a term describing any relationship or interaction between two

dissimilar organisms. The specific kind of symbiosis depends on whether either
or both organisms benefit from the relationship.

Planet Earth is inhabited by millions of species—at least! Because different

species often inhabit the same spaces and share—or compete for—the same
resources, they interact in a variety of ways, known collectively as symbiosis.
There are four main symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism,
parasitism, and competition.

To explore these relationships, let’s consider a natural ecosystem such as the

ocean. Oceanic environments are known for their species diversity. Imagine you
are on a diving expedition to explore the worlds beneath the waves. If we were in
the warm waters of the Pacific or Indian Oceans, we’d likely spot an excellent
example of mutualism: the relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. In
a mutualistic relationship, both species benefit. Sea anemones live attached to
the surface of coral reefs. They trap their prey with stinging cells called
nematocysts, which are located on their tentacles. Nematocysts
release toxins when a small animal contacts an anemone’s tentacle. This
paralyzes the stung animal, allowing the anemone to easily bring the animal into
its mouth for ingestion.

While other fish succumb to these toxic stings, clownfish secrete a substance in
the mucus covering their bodies that suppresses the firing of nematocysts. This
allows the clownfish to swim comfortably between the tentacles of anemones,
creating a protected environment in which potential predators are killed off by
anemone stings. This clearly benefits the clownfish, but how about the sea
anemones? The brightly colored clownfish attract other fish looking for a meal.
These unsuspecting would-be predators are then caught and eaten by the
anemones.

As we continue in our imaginary deep-sea voyage, we may observe the

commensalistic relationship that exists between barnacles and humpback whales
(Megaptera novaeangliae). Commensalism happens when one species lives
with, on, or in another species, known as the host. The host species neither
benefits nor is harmed from the relationship. In our imagined example, various
species of barnacles attach themselves to the skin of whales. Scientists have not
discovered the exact mechanism by which barnacles are able to do this, but it
does not appear to bother the whales. How do the barnacles benefit from this
unlikely relationship? The huge whales transport the tiny barnacles to plankton-
rich waters, where both species feast upon the abundant microorganisms that
live there.

Of course, some symbiotic relationships do cause harm. In parasitism, one

species (the parasite) lives with, on, or in a host species, at the expense of the
host species. Unlike in predation, the host is not immediately killed by the
parasite, though it may sicken and die over time. Examples of common parasites
found in the ocean include nematodes, leeches, and barnacles. That’s right—
though barnacles exist commensally with whales, they are parasites for
swimming crabs. A barnacle may root itself within a crab’s reproductive system.
While the crab does not die from this interaction, its reproductive capabilities are
greatly diminished.

The last example of symbiosis we will explore on our imaginary dive

is competition—the struggle among organisms for the same limited resources in
an ecosystem. Competition can happen between members of the same species
(intraspecific competition) and between different species
(interspecific competition). An example of interspecific competition in the ocean is
the relationship between corals and sponges. Sponges are very abundant
in coral reefs. If they become too successful, however, they take needed food
and other resources from the corals that make up the reef. Sponges may
outcompete corals for resources in the short term, but if too many corals die, the
reef itself becomes damaged. This is bad for the sponges, which may
themselves begin to die off until the reef is balanced again.

Symbiotic relationships can be useful measures of an ecosystem’s health. For

example, large tracts of coral reefs are severely damaged or dead because of
recent increases in ocean temperature due to climate change. The temperature
increase induces coral to expel the algae that live mutualistically within them.
Without their algae, the coral turn white and die. This loss of symbiosis is an
early sign of declining coral health and speaks to the importance not only of
studying symbiosis within marine environments, but also of examining the
negative impacts that humans can have on these interactions. In the words of
National Geographic Explorer Sylvia Earle: “We need to respect the oceans and
take care of them as if our lives depend on it. Because they do.”