NST1501/501/0/2020

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2020

Natural Sciences and Technology for the
Classroom 1

NST1501
Year module

Department of Science and Technology

Education

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
Please register on myUnisa, activate your myLife email address and
make sure that you have regular access to the myUnisa module
website, NST1501-20-Y, as well as your group website.

BARCODE

Note: This is a Blended module and you can access study material online on
myUnisa.
1. The scientific method .......................................................................................... 4

2. Atoms, Molecules and Life .................................................................................. 9

3. Cell Structure and Function ............................................................................... 15

4. Energy in cells ................................................................................................... 20

5. Diversity of Life.................................................................................................. 25

6. Plant physiology ................................................................................................ 33

7. Human Body Systems....................................................................................... 37

8. Principles of evolution ....................................................................................... 52

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INTRODUCTION

The overall teaching policy of the University of South Africa makes provision for an
outcomes-based, learning-centred, active flexi-learning environment. This implies
that learners are expected to participate actively in the learning activities.

The significance of this course is that it develops knowledge, skills and attitudes
which can empower the teacher to teach Natural Sciences in Grades 7-9 in line with
the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement for Natural Sciences. For
maximum benefit, this learning guide must be used together with the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement for Natural Sciences. A number of links to freely
available online videos are also provided.

The contents of this learning guide were adapted and compiled from the Open
Source lecture materials provided for the above textbook.

While much content is provided, a constructivist approach to learning is followed in

this course. The learner should participate in all learning activities as indicated in the
tutorial letters that accompany this study guide. To complete the process of learning,
the learner needs to put in a daily individual study effort. This requires reading the
relevant parts in the study guide, making summaries, drawing mind-maps and doing
relevant activities to become familiar with new concepts and relationships between
concepts. Furthermore, it is important that the learner should enter into
conversations with the lecturer and fellow learners in order to learn by
communicating his understanding. It is compulsory for learners to do all learning
activities and assignments reflected in this study guide.

Purpose statement

The module focuses on the development of pedagogical content knowledge and

skills related to the Knowledge Strand "Life and Living" as part of the Senior Phase
in Natural Science Education. It specifically deals with how to teach and assess the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) more effectively by using an
appropriate range of strategies and technologies to enhance learner engagement in
diverse contexts. This focus will add value to both Bachelor’s in Education (B.Ed.)
and Advanced Certificate in Teaching (ACT) graduates whose previous studies will
have focused much more on the development of the teachers' subject content
knowledge in cognate disciplinary fields. The module will require learners to mediate
their subject content knowledge with the focus on "Life and Living". The module is
one of the core modules of the Advanced Diploma in Education in Natural Science
Education.

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1. The scientific method

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Discuss with confidence the process of the Scientific method/Scientific

Process and clarify what is meant by the science process skills,
- Identify each step that is followed in the Scientific method,
- Explain each step that is followed in the Scientific method through which
knowledge is developed, and,
- Apply the Scientific method in different scenarios.

Activity 1.1

Have you ever wondered how traditional healers discover their medicines? And how
about western medical doctors? How do they discover their medicines?

Do a bit of research and write a two-page report on how traditional healers and
western medical doctors discover their medicines. Pay particular attention to the
PROCESS they follow in order to discover new medicines.

Use the following links as a guide:

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVfI1wat2y8
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_yiUf3f92s
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVQU1EmoWoU

In its purpose to understand the universe, science often follows a specific method
called the Scientific Method or Scientific Process. When conducting
research, scientists use the scientific method to collect measurable, empirical
evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of an if/then
statement), the results aiming to support or contradict a theory.

This method follows a number of steps through which knowledge is developed.

The steps of the scientific method include:

1. Making an observation or observations.

2. Asking questions about the observations and gather information.
3. Forming a hypothesis, that is, a tentative description of what’s been observed,
and make predictions based on that hypothesis.

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4. Testing the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be

reproduced.
5. Analysing the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or
modify the hypothesis if necessary.
6. Reproducing the experiment until there are no discrepancies between
observations and theory. Replication of methods and results is an important
step in the scientific method. The reproducibility of published experiments is
the foundation of science. No reproducibility – no science.

Figure 1 is an illustration of these steps in a specific sequence.

Formulate the
Make an observation Set a question hypothesis

Reject the hypothesis Test the hypothesis

Make a conclusion Accept the hypothesis

Figure 1.1. Scientific method sequence

1.1 Observation

In Figure 1.1, the first step of the scientific process is making an observation. This
means, before scientists can do any form of scientific investigation, they must be
stimulated by something they observed. The observations lead to questions: what is
this, how does it work, why does it work the way it does? This may necessitate
further observations to be made.

Let us use a practical example to illustrate what this means. Let us say you have your
own horticulture business growing potatoes. You notice (Observation) that
some potatoes plants produce more and bigger potatoes than others and you
wonder why. Because of this personal experience, financial loss and interest in the
problem, you decide to learn more about what makes tubers like potatoes grow. You
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decide to read up on topics that you believe could provide answers to your
question. You also visit other people's gardens and discuss gardening practices
with fellow horticulturists.

The purpose of this stage in a scientific method is to help you state the problem in a
single question as per your observation for instance: Does earthing up of potatoes
using a heap of soil affect the size and quantity of the potatoes growing in the soil?

1.2 Hypothesis

Scientists may have an idea or ‘educated’ but untested response to the question. For
example, in the above example a scientist may predict that adequate earthing with
soil results in bigger and more potatoes per plant. This ‘educated guess’ is called a
hypothesis. The questions are then asked in a form that suggests a possible
explanation (hypothesis) for the observations. Scientists try to come up with all
possible explanations and pit them against each other’s as alternative hypotheses.
Using the available knowledge and understanding of the related phenomena, the
scientist makes a best guess at which of the alternative hypotheses is most likely to
be correct.

With reference to the potato example, the following hypothesis maybe stated:

Earthed potatoes grow bigger and more potatoes per plant than potatoes on a
flat soil surface.

This hypothesis is based on the readings, observations and discussions.

From step 1 where you found that:

 Potato stem need to be earthed by a heap of soil so that more potatoes may
grow along the stem and grow in size since there will be enough depth to
expand in.
 Growing Potatoes have to be covered from the sun otherwise they become
exposed to sunlight they will produce toxins and become inedible.

1.3 Experiment

Thereafter the researcher will do the actual investigation where he/she tests the
hypothesis experimentally. The experiment is the most important step of the
scientific method. It's the logical process that lets scientists learn about the world.

Experiments are designed in such a way that one or more hypotheses are tested.
This means that the experiment is geared specifically towards rejecting one's
favoured hypothesis: it is directly testing if that hypothesis is wrong. If the results are
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positive, the favoured hypothesis is not rejected, but the alternative hypotheses may
be rejected. If the results are negative, the favoured hypothesis is rejected and one
or more of the alternative hypotheses are accepted and further directly tested.

Often, two experiments are conducted at the same time. In one experiment, all the
variables are kept constant except one, while the other experiment is called
the control experiment, and in that experiment, that variable is left unaltered. The
results of the two experiments are compared to each other using statistical methods
to determine if the tested variable (the one not kept constant) indeed has an effect
on the outcome.

It must be noted that in any experiment, there are things or factors which may be
manipulated by the researcher to see what will happen on other factors. These
factors are called variables. For example, the researcher in the above example may
alter the amount of soil around the stem. This means, one variable (e.g. amount of
soil) may affect another variable (i.e. size and amount of potatoes). The variable
which is deliberately manipulated by the researcher is called an independent
variable. The variable that is affected by another variable is called a dependent
variable. A controlled variable is the factor that must be controlled or kept constant
so that it does not interfere with the experiment like the amount of light in this case.

1.4 Conclusion

The final step in the scientific method is to draw a conclusion from the results
of the experiment. The conclusion is a summary of the results of the experiment
and a statement of how those results match up to your hypothesis. You have
two options for your conclusions. Based on your results, you can either reject
the hypothesis, or you can state that your results support the hypothesis. This
is an important point. You cannot prove the hypothesis with a single experiment,
because there is a chance that you have made an error somewhere along the
line or that other factors affected the results.

Remember that sometimes the hypothesis cannot be accepted i.e

when the hypothesis does not provide the answer to the problem. This
does not mean that the experiment was a waste of time. It merely
indicates that you have eliminated a possible cause or link in
connection with the problem you are researching and that you need to
do more research, formulate a new hypothesis and prediction and set
up a different experiment based on the new hypothesis and prediction.

If the original hypothesis didn't match up with the final results of your
experiment, try to explain what might have been wrong with your
original hypothesis. What information did you not have originally that
caused you to be wrong in your prediction? What are the reasons that
the hypothesis and experimental results didn't match up? 7
As more and more studies are done and the hypothesis gets stronger and stronger
(as all possible alternatives get rejected), it grows in its predictive power and it may
also grow in its ability to explain a broader range of phenomena. Once a hypothesis
reaches the stage at which it is supported with large amounts of evidence after
repeated testing, it becomes a theory.

A theory is a body of interconnected concepts most strongly supported by scientific

reasoning and experimental evidence. It is a scientific term that is used to denote
the scientific concepts that have stood the test of time and are best supported by
experimental evidence. The strongest theories are those that are supported by a
wide variety of kinds of evidence. Theory of evolution is one of the best supported
theories of all science not only because it is backed up by mountains of evidence
(and no evidence against it), but also because the evidence comes from many
different areas of science: palaeontology (fossils), biogeography, ecology,
mathematical modelling, population and quantitative genetics, comparative
genomics, medicine, agricultural breeding, study of animal behaviour, comparative
anatomy, comparative physiology and comparative embryology.

A famous example of the scientific method in action was back in 1854:

There was an outbreak of cholera in Soho in London in 1854. It was not known how
cholera spread, or that it was due to dirty water. A doctor named John Snow used a
scientific method to try and stop the cholera. He plotted all the cholera outbreaks on
the map of London. He then made some observations and proposed a hypothesis,
which he then tested.

First observation: He noticed that most of the cholera outbreaks were near a water
pump in Broadwick Street; he also observed that cholera affected the digestive tract
(victims’ diarrhoea and died).

Second observation: He interviewed the people who lived on the street (collected
data) and discovered that all the cholera victims had drunk from the pump. He also
discovered that visitors to Broadwick Street who had drunk from the pump died.
People nearby who drank beer instead of water did not get cholera.

He then blocked off the pump by removing the handle

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2. Atoms, Molecules and Life

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Explain what atoms are,

- Identify the parts of atoms and their characteristics,
- Explain how atoms join together to form molecules using typical examples
of molecules like water molecules,
- Identify the different type of bonds between atoms as they form molecules,
and,
- Discuss with confidence the water molecules structure and its importance in
life.

Activity 2.1

South Africa is one of the world’s leading producers of gold, diamond and platinum.
But what is gold? What is diamond? What is platinum? What makes these different
from one another? On these questions and then answer the following questions:
a) What is matter?
b) What is matter made up of?
c) What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
d) What is a periodic table?
e) What is the difference between Oxygen, Carbon and Hydrogen?
f) Why is gold heavier than Oxygen?
g) What is life?

Having answered the above question, now let us explore the related concepts below.

Life is a complex system, which needs a lot of support on earth in order to prevail.
Current scientific evidence shows that earth is the only planet in our solar system
capable of supporting life as we know it. This implies that there is something unique
about earth, the question is what is that?

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2.1 Matter

Before discussing the complexity of life in detail, let us first consider matter. Matter
refers to any physical substance that occupies space and has a mass. But then,
what is matter made up of?

a) Atoms

Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is the basic building blocks of matter. Atoms
can join together to form molecules, which in turn form most of the objects found in
the universe.

Figure 2.1 A basic structure of an atom

As you can see in figure 2.1 above, atoms are composed of particles called protons,
electrons and neutrons (Fig 2.1). Protons have a positive electrical charge while
electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons on the other hand have no
electrical charge, which means, they are neutral. Protons and neutrons tend to
cluster together in the central part of the atom, called the nucleus, and the electrons
'orbit' the nucleus on electron shells also known as orbitals. A particular atom will
have the same number of protons and electrons and most atoms have at least as
many neutrons as protons.

Electrons have a mass and therefore are regarded as particles of matter.

Furthermore, when subjected to energy, electrons will absorb some of that energy
and become energised or “excited”. Consequently, electrons are also regarded as
units of energy. Since electrons spend 90% of their time on electron shells, when
they are excited they tend to move from one electron shell to another, away from the
nucleus. If they lose energy, electrons will move from one electron shell to another
towards the nucleus.
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An atom of Hydrogen is composed of one proton, one electron and no neutrons.

An atom of Helium is made up of two protons, two neutrons and two electrons.
Carbon is composed of six protons, six neutrons and six electrons. Heavier chemical
elements, such as iron, lead and uranium, contain even larger numbers of protons,
neutrons and electrons. A chemical element is a pure chemical substance made up
of only one type of atom, which has a specific atomic number. Common elements
include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.

b) Molecules

Atoms have an atomic number and an atomic mass. The atomic number is the
number of protons that an atom has. Each element has a unique atomic number,
which means each atom has a unique number of protons. The atomic mass or
atomic weight is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atoms of an
element that have differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant atomic number) are
termed isotopes.

For example, Hydrogen has three isotopes, all three have 1 proton each (see Figure
2.2) below. In Figure 3, protons are shown with a letter ‘p’. However, hydrogen can
have zero neutrons (neutrons are shown with the letter ‘n’), one neutron or two
neutrons.

Figure 2.2 Isotopes of hydrogen

Another example Carbon has two isotopes, namely, carbon-12 and carbon-14. Both
of these have 6 protons. Carbon-12 however has 6 neutrons while Carbon-14 has 8.

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
H He
2,1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
0,9 1,2 1,5 1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0,8 1,0 1,3 1,5 1,6 1,6 1,5 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,9 1,6 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,4 2,8
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 1,9 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,5
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,7 1,9 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,4 1,9 1,8 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,2

The periodic table as shown in Figure 2.3 below displays chemical elements,
organized on the basis of their properties. Elements of the periodic table are
presented in increasing atomic number. Each row on the periodic table is referred to
as a group, while each column is known as a period. Periods and groups consist of
elements with similar properties. These elements are then given a specific name to
describe them, such as the halogens and the noble gases. The periodic table can
therefore be used to describe and predict chemical behaviour of elements.

Figure 2.3. The periodic table of elements

Atoms that are found in biological systems tend to gain or lose their outer electrons
to achieve a Noble Gas outer electron shell configuration of two or eight electrons.
When atoms gain or lose electrons they form chemical bonds. A chemical bond is
an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that
contain two or more atoms. For example, water is formed by the interaction between
two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen (as shown in Figure 2.4). Likewise,
carbon dioxide is a result of an interaction between one carbon atom and two oxygen
atoms. Electrons must either gain or lose energy for a chemical bond to be formed.

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Figure 2.4. A water molecule

There are at least three types of bonds as listed below:

 A hydrogen bond is a partially electrostatic attraction between

a hydrogen (H) which is bound to a more electronegative atom such
as nitrogen (N), oxygen(O), or fluorine (F), and another adjacent atom
bearing a lone pair of electrons.

 Ionic bonds are formed by passing an electron from one atom to

another. This means one partner becomes positive, the other negative,
and they attract one another. For example, Na + (sodium) + Cl–
(chlorine) becomes NaCl (sodium chloride). Positively or negatively
charged atoms are called ions.

 Covalent bonds are bonds between two atoms that share electrons in
their outer electron shell. For instance, a Hydrogen atom can share its
electron with another H atom, forming H2 gas. Covalent bonds produce
either non-polar or polar molecules. In a non-polar molecule, atoms
equally share electrons that spend equal time around each atom,
producing a non-polar covalent bond.

c) Compounds

When two or more elements are joined together through chemical bonds, they
become a compound. For example, a water molecule which is made up of an
oxygen element and two hydrogen elements is a compound.

There are two types of compounds that are found in nature, namely, organic
compounds and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds have a carbon
element and usually occur from materials that were once alive. Inorganic compounds
on the other hand do not have a carbon element and are not derived from living
material. Compared, organic compounds are usually large non-polar molecules that
do not dissolve readily in water.

In some cases variable proportions of molecules and atoms come together to form
mixtures. Mixtures are therefore heterogeneous forms of matter. Compounds on
the other hand are homogeneous forms of matter with their constituent elements
(atoms and/or ions) always present in fixed proportions.

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d) Ph

The amount of each element in a mixture or element can be measured. For example,
the amount (or concentration) of the hydrogen ion (H+) is measured using pH. The
pH therefore is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale ranges
from 0 to 14 where 7 is neutral. If the pH value of a solution (i.e. a mixture) is below
7, that solution is regarded as acidic. If the pH is above 7, the solution is basic or
alkaline.

e) From atoms to the universe

Everything that is regarded as matter and has atoms, such as, a tree, a computer,
the air we breathe, the planet and the distant stars are all made up atoms which are
joined together to form molecules and compounds with different atoms. Therefore
the entire universe can be regarded as a system where things and events occur in
consistent patterns that can be scientifically studied. The word system has a
technical meaning, namely, it is the portion of the physical universe chosen for
analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment, which in
analysis is ignored except for its effects on the system. Therefore, since scientists
have not been able to determine the environment beyond our universe system, there
is no agreement between scientists whether the universe is an open as well as a
closed system.

Activity 2.2

Based on what you have read above, define the following terms:

1. Atom
2. Chemical bond
3. Compound
4. Covalent bond
5. Element
6. Hydrogen bond
7. Inorganic compound
8. Ionic bond
9. Matter
10. Organic compound
11. Periodic table
12. pH

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3. Cell Structure and Function

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Describe the types of cells,

- State and explain the differences between the types of cells,
- State the functions of each of the cell organelles, and,
- Justify why the cell is the basic unit of life.
- Describe the structure of the cell membrane,
- Relate the structure to function of each part of the membrane,
- State the functions of the cell membrane, and
- State and explain the transport mechanisms across the cell membrane.

•
Activity 3.1

In the previous section we read about atoms, molecules and compounds which are
the building blocks of matter. In this section we deal with cells, which are the
building blocks of living things. Cells of plants are different from cells of animals
with respect to some organelles. Before reading the following section, try and
answer the following questions.

1. Draw a table of comparison and elaborate on the differences and similarities

between the plant and the animal cell
2. Relate the structure to the function of each organelle
3. The environment plays an important role on cells (and therefore on
organisms as well). In order to enhance the understanding of this role;
consider the following.
4. One of the most feared warfare around the world is nuclear warfare, which is
fought using the famous weapons of mass destruction. Similarly, in 2011
Japan suffered an earthquake and Tsunami that threatened its citizens
through nuclear radiation. However, what exactly does nuclear radiation do?
5. If a cell’s DNA is mutated by radiation, will such a mutation be passed on to
subsequent generations?

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A cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells
vary in structure, size and shape depending on the organism. There are two types of
cells, namely prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Cells are a site for many functions
(called metabolism) that are necessary to keep the body alive.

3.1 Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells (e.g. Figure 3.1) have no nucleus. A nucleus is the organelle that
contains the cell’s genetic material and is surrounded by a membrane. Prokaryotes
are almost always single-celled microscopic organisms like bacteria. Their DNA is
found in a single circular chromosome. A chromosome is a thread-like structure of
genetic materials found in the nucleus of most living cells. Prokaryotes usually have
an outer cell wall.

Figure 3.1 Prokaryotic cell

3.2 The eukaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cells include plant cells and animal cells (see Figure 3.2). These cells
have a nucleus and may be single celled or multicellular. They contain their DNA
inside the nucleus, have linear chromosomes, contain organelles, are larger cells
than prokaryotes. Metabolic processes are regulated by various proteins called
enzymes which have specific functions in the cell. These functions include for
example, extraction of energy from nutrients and synthesis of proteins. This is made
possible by the structural components of the cell called organelles. Organelles
include:

 Nucleus, which contains DNA.

 Mitochondria, which is responsible for the extraction of energy from
carbohydrates.
 Endoplasmic reticulum, which is the site for the synthesis of proteins and
lipids.
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 Cell membrane, which acts as a gatekeeper, regulating the passage of

molecules into and out of the cell.

Figure 3.2. Eukaryotic cell: Animal and Plant cells

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3.3 The cell membrane

A cell membrane is the outer semipermeable membrane surrounding the

cytoplasm of a cell. Semipermeable means the membrane allows certain substances
to pass through it but not others, the cell membrane is responsible for:

 Defining the cell’s border.

 Controlling what moves into and out of the cell.
 Regulating and facilitating communication between cells.

The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins, and

short carbohydrates. A phospholipid bilayer refers to the two layers of phosphates
and lipids that make up the membrane.

Figure 3.3. Fluid mosaic model

The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of the cell membrane. A mosaic of
proteins and phospholipids, almost all of which can move fluidly around the
membrane.

Transport mechanisms across the membrane:

Cells take in many materials, including water, oxygen, and organic molecules, and
discard wastes such as carbon dioxide. Transport occurs through the following
processes:

 Diffusion – the spread of molecules or particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration.
 Facilitated diffusion – is the diffusion of molecules through specific
transmembrane proteins.

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 Active transport - the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane

into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring
energy.
 Endocytosis - the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its
membrane to form a vacuole.
 Exocytosis - a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to
the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.

Activity 3.2

Return to Activity 3.1 and answer the questions based on your reading of the
above section.

Also, answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

2. What is the difference between endocytosis and exocytosis?

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4. Energy in cells

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Describe the biological processes that require energy,

- Describe the process of photosynthesis,
- Describe the process of cellular respiration, and,
- Explain the interdependence between the two processes.

Activity 4.1
In the previous section we dealt with the structure of the cell. In the current
section we will deal with how cells generate energy.

Before we start. You may be aware that South Africa is currently exploring
various ways of generating alternative fuels. This is because coal-based energy
has proven to be harmful to the environment. Coal is used to produce electricity
in various mines in South Africa. By definition, coal is dark brown rock which is
made up of highly energized carbonized plant matter. But why does coal have
energy? Do a bit of research to determine:
a) Why does coal have energy?
b) How do plants generate energy?
c) How is food converted to energy?

Having done he above, proceed to read the section below to get a better
understanding of how cells generate energy.

At any moment, countless chemical reactions are occurring in cells. These reactions
sustain life by enabling cells to carry out essential functions as building
macromolecules, transporting molecules across membranes and dividing. The
important question in all this is: What determines exactly which chemical reactions
occur? In cells, usable energy is found in molecules called Adenosine Triphosphate
(also called as ATP). ATP is the energy currency of the cell. In the ATP reaction as
shown in Figure 4.1 below, one phosphate group is removed, leaving ADP (also
known as Adenosine Diphosphate). Removing the phosphate group releases
energy. This released energy is then used by the cell to perform various cellular
functions. Cells also use some of this energy to make more ATP.

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Figure 4.1 The process where ATP is converted to ATP to release energy

ADP is eventually turned back into ATP through the addition of a phosphate group
during cellular respiration.

4.1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is defined as the process by which green plants and some other
organisms use energy from the sun to synthesize energy rich glucose from carbon
dioxide and water. Scientifically we say photosynthesis is the process where
organisms use radiant energy from the sun to combine carbon dioxide and water to
produce energy rich glucose and oxygen as shown in Figure 4.2 below.

Figure 4.2 Showing the chemical process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in the organelle called the chloroplast. It occurs in two
stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions.

Light-dependent reaction

 Light-dependent: converts radiant energy into chemical energy; produces

ATP molecules to be used to fuel light-independent reaction Energy lost along
electron transport chain
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 Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP
 NADPH produced from e- transport chain
 Stores energy until transfer to stroma
 Plays important role in light-independent reaction
 Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2

Light-independent reaction

 Light-independent: uses ATP produced to make simple sugars.

 Does not require light
 Calvin Cycle
 Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
 Requires CO2

 Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run

 Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen

4.2 Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is defined as the process by which organisms extract chemical

energy from glucose. Scientifically we say cellular respiration is the process where
organisms break down glucose in the presence of oxygen in order to release energy,
carbon dioxide and water. Cellular respiration is opposite of photosynthesis as
shown in Figure 4.3 below.

Figure 4.3 demonstrating the cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place in the organelle called the mitochondria. It occurs in

three stages: glycolysis, Krebs’s cycle and Electron transport chain.

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Glucose

Glycolisis Electron
Krebs
transport
Cycle

Fermentation Alcohol or

(without oxygen) Lactic acid

Figure 4.4. Cellular respiration

a) Glycolysis

The word glycolysis means the spiting of glucose.

Glycolysis:

- Is a ten-step process that occurs in the cytoplasm

- Converts each molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvic acid (a 3-
carbon molecule)
- an anaerobic process - proceeds whether or not O2 is present ; O2 is
not required
- Produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
- Produces of 2 NADH per glucose (NADH is nicotine adenine dinucleotide, a
co-enzyme that serves as a carrier for H+ ions liberated as glucose is
oxidized.)

b) Krebs Cycle

- occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix

- the acetyl group detaches from the co-enzyme A and enters the reaction cycle
- an aerobic process; will proceed only in the presence of O2
- net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule (per 2 acetyl CoA)
- net yield of 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 (FAD serves the same purpose as NAD)
- in this stage of cellular respiration, the oxidation of glucose to CO 2 is
completed

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c) Electron Transport Chain

 consists of a series of enzymes on the inner mitochondrial membrane

 electrons are released from NADH and from FADH2 and as they are passed
along the series of enzymes, they give up energy which is used to fuel a
process called chemiosmosis by which H+ions are actively transported across
the inner mitochondrial membrane into the outer mitochondrial compartment.
The H+ ions then flow back through special pores in the membrane, a process
that is thought to drive the process of ATP synthesis.
 net yield of 34 ATP per glucose molecule
 6 H2O are formed when the electrons unite with O2* at the end of electron
transport chain. [* Note: This is the function of oxygen in living organisms!]

At this stage you may be wondering why photosynthesis and cellular respiration and
its processes are important. They are important because, both of them ensure that
cells have energy. Without photosynthesis, there would be no energy rich glucose.
Without cellular respiration, the energy in glucose would not be released for use.

Cellular respiration provides energy for living organisms. So, cellular respiration is
important because it provides the energy for living organisms to perform all of the
other necessary functions to maintain life.

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5. Diversity of Life
6.
After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Classify Living Things into the Three Domains of Life: Bacteria Archaea and
Eukarya
- Describe the characteristics of:
 Protists
 Plants - Mosses, Ferns, Seed Plants
 Fungi
 Animals: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, Roundworms, Arthropods
Mollusks, Annelids, Echinoderms, Chordates

Activity 5.1

In the previous section we read about cells, which and energy. We said a cell is the
basic unit of life. In the current section we explore life in detail. Specifically, we look
at how diverse life is.

DID YOU KNOW:

South Africa has more species of wild animals than Europe and Asia put together!
This is because South Africa’s climate produces conducive conditions for diversity
of life to thrive. But how many different species does South Africa actually have;
and why is this important?

Do a bit of research about Biodiversity in South Africa. Use the following links as
your resources:

 http://www.exploresouthafrica.net/geography/biodiversity.htm
 https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/tourism-south-
africa/geography/biodiversity
 http://orcafoundation.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/Can-Biodiversity-
Play-a-Role-in-the-Future-of-South-Africa.pdf

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The word “biodiversity” refers to the variety of plant and animal life in the world or in
a particular habitat. High levels of biodiversity, as is the case in South Africa, are
considered to be important and desirable.

Generally, animals and plants are taken into consideration as living organisms.
However, these are not the only living organisms. There are many others, including
Bacteria, Fungi (e.g. mushrooms and bread mould) and protists (such as amoeba
and algae). Some of these organisms are unicellular (which means they are made
up of only one cell) yet some are multicellular (meaning they are made up of many
cells).

Biologists classify organisms into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups on the basis
of similarities and differences in their structure and behavior. One of the most
general distinctions among organisms is between plants, which get their energy
directly from sunlight, and animals, which consume the energy-rich foods initially
synthesized by plants.

Multicellular organisms, such as animals and plants, have a great variety of body
plans, with different overall structures and arrangements of internal parts to perform
the basic operations of making or finding food, deriving energy and materials from it,
synthesizing new materials, and reproducing. When scientists classify organisms,
they consider details of anatomy to be more relevant than behavior or general
appearance. For example, because of such features as milk-producing glands and
brain structure, whales and bats are classified as being more nearly alike than are
whales and fish or bats and birds. At different degrees of relatedness, dogs are
classified with fish as having backbones, with cows as having hair, and with cats as
being meat eaters.

For sexually reproducing organisms, a species comprises all organisms that can
mate with one another to produce fertile offspring. The definition of species is not
precise, however; at the boundaries it may be difficult to decide on the exact
classification of a particular organism. Indeed, classification systems are not part of
nature. Rather, they are frameworks created by biologists for describing the vast
diversity of organisms, suggesting relationships among living things, and framing
research questions.

The variety of the earth's life forms is apparent not only from the study of anatomical
and behavioral similarities and differences among organisms but also from the study
of similarities and differences among their molecules. The most complex molecules
built up in living organisms are chains of smaller molecules. The various kinds of
small molecules are much the same in all life forms, but the specific sequences of

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components that make up the very complex molecules are characteristic of a given
species.

Living things can be classified into three domains of life, namely, Bacteria, Archaea
and Eukarya. Each of these is discussed below.

a. Domain Prokarya: Monera kingdom (bacteria)

Domain prokayra includes all prokaryotes (see Section 3 above). These organisms
are unicellular and have no true nucleus. They include bacteria.

Some bacteria are autotrophs which means they can photosynthesize. Others are
heterotrophs which means they cannot photosynthesize. Most bacteria are single
celled, but others live in clusters called colonies. Bacteria reproduce asexually by
dividing, but most occasionally exchange some genetic material. Bacteria vary in
shape, and some have flagella for locomotion

Important functions of bacteria from a human’s point of view:

 They break down organic matter, releasing carbon for photosynthesis.

 They help make nitrogen available to living things.
 Some produce vitamins in the bodies of humans.
 Some prevent harmful bacteria from infecting our bodies.
 Some are essential for making cheese, yogurt, and some drugs.

b. Domain Archaea

Archaea are not bacteria. They are a distinct domain of prokaryotic organisms.
Similar to bacteria in size and simplicity but different in molecular organization.
Some archaea are “extremophiles” that thrive in harsh, salty, or very hot
environments. Others are chemoautotrophs that make food using chemical energy
from molecules such as hydrogen sulfide.

Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria, but
this classification is outdated. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them
from the other two domains of life, Bacteria and Eukarya. The Archaea are further
divided into multiple recognized phyla. Classification is difficult because the majority
have not been isolated in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of
their nucleic acids in samples from their environment.

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c. Domain Eukarya

Eukaryia are eukaryotes which have a true nucleus (see Section 3). Eukaryia is
divided into four kingdoms:

 Protista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia

a) Kingdom Protista

Protista are eukaryotic organisms that have cells with nuclei but are not
an animal, plant or fungus. Protista do not form a natural group, or colony They are
composed of organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form
no tissues. They may reproduce through asexual or sexual means, be autotrophs or
heterotrophs.

Protista are diverse. They include organisms such as:

 Seaweeds
 Diatoms
 Amoebas
 Disease-causing organisms such as Plasmodium, which causes malaria

Figure 5.1 An amoeba

b) Kingdom Fungi

Fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. They are heterotrophs.
Fungi may be single celled or multicellular and may reproduce sexually or asexually.

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They include moulds, yeasts, mildew rusts and mushrooms. Fungi are structurally,
are divided into 2 groups

 Unicellular e.g. yeast

 Multicellular e.g. mushrooms

You may wonder, how are fungi important. They are important because:

 Many fungi are decomposers which means they play a crucial role in
terrestrial ecosystems; they decompose dead organic matter and make
nutrients available for plant.
 They convert organic compounds to obtain energy and produce various by-
products e.g. yeast cells convert sugar into CO2 and alcohol during
fermentation.
 Mushrooms are food sources for many animals.
 Some are used in biotechnology in the clean-up of chemicals such oil.
 They form symbiotic relationship with plants.

NB: Some are pathogenic causing diseases such as candidiasis (thrush) and
athletes’ foot.

c) Kingdom Plantae

Plants are autotrophic, multicellular, terrestrial eukaryotes that obtain energy through
photosynthesis. Over time, plants have adapted which allows them to thrive in the
terrestrial world. Plant adaptations include:

 Roots
 Leaves
 Vascular system

Plant reproduction occurs through alternation of generations.

The plant life cycle alternates between a haploid stage (gametophyte) and a diploid
stage (sporophyte). Haploid means the nucleus of the cells has a single set of
unpaired chromosomes. Diploid means the nucleus of the cell has two sets of paired
chromosomes. The details vary by type of plant. The details of this life cycle vary
among the three major groups of plants, i.e.:

- Mosses
- Ferns
- Seed plants
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i) Mosses (Bryophytes)

Mosses are small, seedless plants with no vascular system. Every part of the moss
has to absorb water directly via diffusion.

ii) Ferns (Pteridophytes)

Ferns are seedless plants with feathery leaves. Most live in moist, shady habitats.

Unlike mosses, ferns have a vascular system for transporting water and nutrients.
Ferns are similar to mosses in that their sperm swim through the environment to
fertilize eggs.

iii) Seed Plants

Seed plants have two key features that make them successful in many habitats:

 Pollen—immature male gametophytes that can be transported to female

gametophytes by wind or animals
 Seeds—embryonic plants that are encased in a tough outer coating with a
food supply. Flowering plants surround their seeds with a fruit.

The two major types of seed plants are flowering plants (angiosperms) and conifers
(gymnosperms).

d) Kingdom Animalia

Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain nutrients by eating

other organisms.

Most reproduce sexually and are diploid during most of their life cycle. The gametes
(also called sex cells, i.e. sperm and egg) are the haploid stage of the life cycle. The
kingdom is further divided into smaller evolutionary groups as shown in Figure 5.2
below:

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Figure 5.2 Showing the different divisions of the Kingdom Animalia

i) Phylum: Porifera (sponges)

Sponges have the following characteristics:

 They are strictly aquatic animals.

 They have no organs.
 They are sessile and sedentary animals.
 They feed by filtering food from the water.
 Sponges are bisexual and fertilization is internal.

ii) Phylum: Cnidaria

Cnidaria have the following characteristics:

 They are mostly aquatic, marine animals.

 Their bodies have two openings known as the polyp and the medusa.
 Most of them are carnivorous and others are filter feeders
 They reproduce sexually and asexually.
 Some have stinging cells, e.g. jelly fish.

iii) Phylum: Platyhelminthes

Platyhelminthes are also known as flatworms. They have the following

characteristics:

 They have to anus.

 They have a mouth and protonephridial excretory organs instead of an anus.
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 They reproduce sexually, and they are hermaphroditic.
 They are parasitic to a range of animals such as dogs, pigs including humans.
Cause Schistosomiasis

iv) Phylum: Annelida

Annelids have the following characteristics:

 They have segmented bodies.

 They have hair-like structures called chitae.
 They have a closed circulatory system.
 They feed on a wide range of material found in their environment.
 Their mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.

v) Phylum: Arthropoda

Arthropods have the following characteristics:

 They have an exoskeleton made up of chitin.

 They can feed on anything they can kill or have an appetite for.
 Sexual dimorphism is observed in this phylum. They have different sexes.

vi) Phylum: Chordata

Chordates have the following characteristics:

 They generally reproduce sexually.

 They can be carnivores, herbivores and omnivores
 Early chordates were filter feeders.
 All chordates have, at some point in their life history: A brain and spinal cord,
A notochord that supports the back, Gill slits, A tail

Some of these features are not apparent in adults. Human embryos do go through a
tailed stage.

 The major group consists of vertebrates

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6. Plant physiology

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Define vascular and non-vascular plants

- Describe the function of vascular tissues
- Describe the life cycle of plants

Activity 6.1

In the previous section we explored biodiversity in general. In the current section

we take a closer look at the structure of plants, also known as plant physiology

Did you know that Africa has one of the highest number of different plant
species? However, most people know very little about plants. This is partly
because the school curriculum does not pay much attention to plants.

 Study the natural and Life Sciences CAPS documents and explore the
extent to which plants are discussed.
 Read the article by Dr Amelia L Abrie about plants in the CAPS
curriculum. The article can be found at
https://www.sajs.co.za/article/view/4146

Plant physiology is the science which is connected to the material and energy
exchange, growth and development, as well as movement of plant. Taiz and Zeiger
(2010) consider plant physiology as the study of plant function, encompassing the
dynamic processes of growth, metabolism and reproduction in living plants.

1. Water and Nutrients

Water plays a crucial role in the life of plant. It is the most abundant constituents of
most organisms. Water typically accounts for more than 70 percent by weight of non-
woody plant parts. Processes like Photosynthesis require that plants draw carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through the leaves, and at the same time exposes them
to water loss through transpiration. To prevent leaf desiccation, water is absorbed by
the roots, and transported through the plant body.

Vascular plants are also known as tracheophytes. Tracheophyte means “tube

plants.” These plants have a vascular tissue.
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The vascular tissues are specialized cells which are used to transport fluid. They
consist of long, narrow cells arranged end-to-end, forming tubes. There are two
different types of vascular tissues, called xylem and phloem (see Figure 6.1).

Xylem is vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from roots to
stems and leaves. This type of tissue consists of dead cells that lack end walls
between adjacent cells. The side walls are thick and reinforced with a type of
carbohydrate called lignin, which makes them stiff and waterproof.

Phloem is vascular tissue that transports food (sugar dissolved in water) from
photosynthetic cells to other parts of the plant for growth or storage. This type of
tissue consists of living cells that are separated by end walls with tiny perforations, or
holes.

Figure 6.1 An illustration of the xylem and phloem

Water has great cohesive forces (molecules sticking to each other) and adhesive
forces (attaching to walls of xylem cells). Water molecules pull each other up the
column like a long chain. The column goes from roots leaves. The loss of water
through the leaves’ stoma (transpiration) generates the ‘suction force’ that pulls
adjacent water molecules up the leaf surface.

Sugars made in leaf mesophyll cells (source) diffuse to phloem cells in the vascular
bundles. Water moves into cells with high sugar concentration. The dissolved sugars
moves through the phloem to the rest of the plant (translocation).

a) Non-vascular plants

Nonvascular plants are plants that lack the vascular tissue. They are called
bryophytes.
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Most bryophytes are small. They not only lack vascular tissues; they also lack true
leaves, seeds, and flowers. Instead of roots, they have hair-like rhizoids to anchor
them to the ground and to absorb water and minerals. Bryophytes occupy niches in
moist habitats, but, as they lack vascular tissue, they are not very efficient at
absorbing water.

2. Plant Reproduction

The life cycle of a plant is very different from the life cycle of an animal. Humans are
made entirely of diploid cells (cells with two sets of chromosomes, referred to as
''2n''). Our only cells that are haploid cells (cells with one set of chromosomes, ''n'')
are sperm and egg cells.

Plants, however, can live when they are at the stage of having haploid cells or diploid
cells.

Plants alternate between diploid-cell plants and haploid-cell plants. This is

called alternation of generations, because the plant type alternates from
generation to generation. Figure 6.2 illustrates alternation of generation. In
alternation of generations, the plant alternates between a sporophyte that has
diploid cells and a gametophyte that has haploid cells.

Alternation of generations can be summarized in the following four steps: follow

along in the Figure 6.2 below as you read through the steps.

1. The haploid gametophyte produces the gametes, or sperm and egg,

by mitosis. Remember, gametes are haploid, having one set of chromosomes.
2. Then, the sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a diploid zygote that develops
into the sporophyte, which of course, is diploid.
3. The diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis.
4. The haploid spores go through mitosis, developing into the haploid
gametophyte.

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Figure 6.2 An illustration of alternation of generation in plants.

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7. Human Body Systems

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Describe the relationship between cells, tissues, organs and organ systems
- Define the different types of tissues
- Describe the different organ systems

Activity 7.1

In section 5 we referred to animal diversity briefly. In the current section we

explore in detail characteristics of humans which are part of chordates.

There are many careers related to the human body and health. Do a little bit of
research to determine the different careers related to human body health and the
specific areas of function that each one deals with. For example, Cardiologists
deal with the heart, Neurologists deal with neurons and the central nervous system
etc. Now write down a list of different health care practitioners and scientists that
deal with human health and indicate their area of specialization.

Earlier we learnt about cells. Cells give rise to tissues and tissues give rise to
organs. Tissues are groups of cells that work together to do a job in the body. They
are a group of cells having the same origin, structure and function. The cells look the
same or almost the same. The work the cells in a tissue do is the same or almost the
same.

The four main kinds of tissues are:

 connective tissue

This is the tissue that connects, supports, binds, or separates other tissues or
organs, typically having relatively few cells embedded in an amorphous
matrix, often with collagen or other fibres, and including cartilaginous, fatty,
and elastic tissues.

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 Muscle tissue

Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals,
the three types are, skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated
muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi
striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without
conscious intervention.

 Nerve tissue

Nervous tissue or nerve tissue is the main tissue component of the two
parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the
central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily
functions and activity.

 epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissues line the outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels
throughout the body, as well as the inner surfaces of cavities in many
internal organs. An example is the epidermis, the outermost layer of the
skin. There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell, namely,
squamous, columnar, and cuboidal.

Organs are made up of more than one kind of tissue. The heart is an organ. It is
made up of different tissues. It has muscle tissue called myocardium. It
has connective tissue on the inside (endocardium), and on the outside (pericardium).
The heart has valves that make sure the blood goes the right way through the heart.
So the heart is an organ made from several tissues.

The body systems work together to keep an organism alive. Each of these systems
is made up of organs with specific functions. The structure of these organs and the
cells of which they are made make them well suited to their function. An important
function of the body systems is to supply the cells with energy and nutrients, and to
remove wastes that are produced. From early times, the study of anatomy has
added to knowledge about the human body.

1. Blood Circulation and Respiration

Remember earlier we learnt about cellular respiration. We said cells use oxygen and
energy to break down glucose and release water, carbon dioxide and more energy!

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In humans, the circulatory system and the respiratory system are responsible for the
transportation of water, oxygen and nutrients such as glucose to the cells.

The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to provide cells with oxygen
which is essential for cellular respiration. This process involves the breaking down of
glucose so that energy is released in a form that cells can then use. As can be seen
in the cellular respiration equation below, carbon dioxide is produced as a waste
product. The carbon dioxide then needs to be removed from the cells or it would
cause damage or death to them.

When one breathes in, a mixture of gases is actually taken in (of which about 21 per
cent is oxygen) from the air. The air moves down the trachea (or windpipe), then
down into one of two narrower tubes called bronchi (bronchus), then into smaller
branching tubes called bronchioles which end in tiny air sacs called alveoli (alveolus)
in which gaseous exchange will take place. In an alveolus, oxygen diffuses into the
blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood

The circulatory system is responsible for transporting oxygen and nutrients to the
body’s cells, and wastes such as carbon dioxide away from them. This involves
blood cells that are transported in the blood vessels and heart. The three major types
of blood vessels are arteries, which transport blood from the heart, capillaries, in
which materials are exchanged with cells, and veins, which transport blood back to
the heart.

Oxygenated blood travels from the lungs via the pulmonary vein to the left atrium
of the heart (see Figure 7.1 below). From here, it travels to the left ventricle where
it is pumped under high pressure to the body through a large artery called the aorta.
The arteries transport the oxygenated blood to smaller vessels called arterioles and
finally to capillaries through which oxygen finally diffuses into body cells for use in
cellular respiration as shown below.

Figure 7.1 illustration of the path of oxygen for, the lungs to body cells
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When oxygen has diffused into the cell and the waste product of cellular respiration,
carbon dioxide, has diffused out of the cell into the capillary, the blood in the capillary
is referred to as deoxygenated blood. This waste‐carrying blood is transported via
capillaries to venules (small veins) to large veins called vena cava, then to the right
atrium of the heart. From here it travels to the right ventricle where it is pumped to
the lungs through the pulmonary artery, so called because it is associated with the
lungs. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that does not contain oxygenated
blood.

2. Nutrition, Digestion, Excretion

Nutrients are substances needed for energy, cell functioning and for the body’s
growth and repair. The five main groups of nutrients that the body needs to stay alive
are:

 carbohydrates
 proteins
 lipids
 vitamins
 minerals

All of the above-mentioned nutrients except minerals are called organic nutrients
because they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates and lipids are
nutrients that provide an immediate source of energy and a back‐up supply. While
proteins can supply some energy, their key role is as bodybuilding compounds.

They provide the raw materials required for cell growth and the repair of damaged
and worn‐out tissues. They are also involved in many other activities in the body;
important chemicals such as enzymes and hormones are made of protein. Although
vitamins have no energy value, they are needed in small amounts to keep the body
healthy and to speed up a variety of chemical reactions in the body.

Food is ingested, digested and then egested. The whole process of digestion starts
with taking food into the mouth. Enzymes (such as amylases) in the saliva are
secreted by the salivary glands begin the process of chemical digestion of some of
the carbohydrates. The teeth physically break down the food in a process called
mechanical digestion, then the tongue rolls the food into a slimy, slippery ball-shape
called a bolus. The bolus is then pushed through the esophagus by muscular
contractions known as peristalsis. From here it is transported to the stomach for
temporary storage and further digestion. Once the food gets from the stomach to the
small intestine, more enzymes (including amylases, proteases and lipases) turn it
into molecules that can be absorbed into the body. The absorption of these nutrient
molecules occurs through finger-shaped villi in the small intestine. Villi are shaped
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like fingers to maximize surface area to increase the efficiency of nutrients being
absorbed into the surrounding capillaries. Once absorbed into the capillaries (of the
circulatory system) these nutrients are transported to cells in the body need them.

The undigested food moves from the small intestine to the colon of the large
intestine. It is here that water and any other required essential nutrients still
remaining in the food mass may be absorbed into the body. Vitamin D manufactured
by bacteria living within this part of the digestive system is also absorbed. Any
undigested food, such as the cellulose cell walls of plants (which we refer to as
fibre) also accumulate here and add bulk to the undigested food mass. The rectum
is the final part of the large intestine and it is where faeces is stored before being
excreted through the anus as waste.

Liver

The liver is an extremely important organ with many key roles. One of these is the
production of bile which is transported to the gall bladder via the bile ducts to be
stored until it is needed. Bile is transported from the gall bladder to the small
intestine where it is involved in the mechanical digestion of lipids such as fats and
oils.

Pancreas

Enzymes such as lipases, amylases and proteases (which break down lipids,
carbohydrates and proteins respectively) are made by the pancreas and secreted
into the small intestine to chemically digest these components of food material.

3. Excretory systems

Excretion is any process that gets rid of unwanted products or waste from the body.
The main organs involved in human excretion are the skin, lungs, liver and kidneys.
The skin excretes salts and water as sweat and the lungs excrete carbon dioxide
(produced by cellular respiration) when breathing out. The liver is involved in
breaking down toxins for excretion and the kidneys are involved in excreting the
unused waste products of chemical reactions (e.g. urea) and any other chemicals
that may be in excess (including water) so that a balance within our blood is
maintained.

The Liver as an excretory organ

The liver removes fats and oils from the blood and modifies them before they are
sent

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to the body’s fat deposits for storage. It also help get rid of excess protein, which can
form toxic compounds dangerous to the body. The liver converts these waste
products of protein reactions into urea, which travels in the blood to the kidneys for
excretion. It also changes other dangerous or poisonous substances so that they are
no longer harmful to the body. The liver is an organ that one cannot live without.

Kidneys

Kidneys (see Figure 7.2) filter the blood, removing wastes. They also controls the
retention or excretion of ions and water.

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Figure 7.2 An illustration of kidneys and the nephron

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Cells constantly release wastes, such as co2, & urea, as they perform their metabolic
functions. The waste products are released into the blood stream & they circulate
around the body. Accumulation of waste products in the body can poison it and can
lead to death.

The excretory system, which consists of the kidneys and tubules:

 gets rid of waste products from the blood stream

 controls the retention & excretion of irons & water

The entire blood supply moves through the kidneys 16 time per day About 1.4 liters
of urine is produced in every day

The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Our kidneys contain about one
million nephrons. Fluids enters the nephron through a cup-shaped structure called
the bowman’s capsule. The bowman’s capsule contains a mass of capillaries called
glomerulus. The rest of the nephron consists of a long-folded tube comprising the
proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and the collecting
duct. The entire nephron is covered by a network of capillaries. What enters the
nephron is similar to blood plasma, and what exits it is urine via the ureter to the
bladder for temporary storage until it is released.

Lungs as excretory organs

Did you know that your body is more sensitive to changes in levels of carbon dioxide
than oxygen? If there is too much carbon dioxide in your body, it dissolves in the
liquid part of blood and forms an acid. The resulting acidic blood can affect the
functioning of your body. Through the alveolus gaseous exchange explained in 2.9.1,
the carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body and exhaled.

4. The Immune Response

The immune system consists of two parts:

 Innate immunity—nonspecific—works against a wide variety of pathogens

 Acquired immunity—specific—cells recognize certain very specific features of
pathogens

The immune systems consists of many tissues and organs, including:

Bone marrow—produces all immune cells (“white” blood cells), Thymus, Lymphatic
system, Spleen and skin as shown in Figure 7.3 below.

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Figure 7.3 An illustration of the body parts that produce immune cells

The innate immune system relies on:

 The skin (tough outer layer, shedding of cells, acidic secretions from hair
follicles)
 Saliva, tears, sweat, milk
 Mucous membranes
 Response from innate immune cells and
 Inflammatory response which occurs when damaged tissues release
histamines, which increase blood flow to the site, cause capillaries to leak,
and attract innate immune cells.

Acquired Immunity:

Immunity obtained either from the development of antibodies in response to

exposure to an antigen, as from vaccination or an attack of an infectious disease, or
from the transmission of antibodies, as from mother to foetus through the placenta or
the injection of antiserum.

Each cell in the acquired immune system has receptors which respond to a single
antigen on a specific pathogen.

Antigens are parts of a foreign proteins.

The acquired immune response is much slower than the innate immune response. It
takes about 3 to 5 days to reach full force. It also stores a memory of the attacked
pathogens. The memory allows subsequent responses to the same pathogen to be
faster & more aggressive.
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There are two types of acquired immune cells (T cells and B cells)

1. B cells target pathogens in bodily fluids.

2. T cells target pathogens that are inside the body cells.

B cells:

B cells divide making several clones which release antibodies. Antibodies circulate
around the body and bind to specific antigens on specific pathogens. The binding
either prevents the pathogen from functioning or it may cause pathogens to clump
together. The clumping together of pathogens makes it easier for other immune cells
to attack & destroy the pathogens. Some of the cloned B-cells remain in the body
and become memory cells for a long time to protect it from similar infections/attacks
in the future.

T cells:

Some proteins of pathogens are displayed on its surface (cell membrane).

When a pathogen infects a cell, a type of T cell called helper T cells bind to the
antigens of the displayed pathogen proteins.
This binding makes the helper T-cell to divide and produce clones (copies).
The helper T-cell clones stimulate and initiate a variety of immune activities, such as:
Production of B cells & killer T cells clones which destroy the pathogens
Binding of Helper T cells to infected body cells and kill them.
Production of suppressor T cells (by T cells) which stop the production of B-cells and
killer T-cells after an infection.

Diseases of the immune system

 The cells of the immune system can easily distinguish body cells from foreign
(pathogen) cells.
 In certain cases however, the immune system fails to identify the body cells
and attacks them as foreign cells.
 This situation leads to conditions called auto-immune disease.

1. Type I diabetes –destruction of insulin producing cells

2. Multiple sclerosis – destruction of myelin sheath around neurones
3. AIDS – the destruction of immune cells (especially T cells) by a virus
(HIV)
 The destruction of T cells leads to a weakened immune system which cannot
fight off infections.

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5. The Endocrine and CNS

Within the body, the nervous and endocrine systems play key roles in the
coordination and control of the body systems. These systems also work together to
keep the cells functioning, and they also provide a balanced internal environment
that is essential to their survival

The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis (The control of body
materials to maintain a stable internal body environment) because hormones
regulate the activity of body cells. Hormones are produced in one place in the body,
released into the bloodstream and received by target cells elsewhere. The release of
hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus. For example, the stimulus either
causes an increase or a decrease in the amount of hormone secreted.

Endocrine organs include:

 Hypothalamus
 Anterior and posterior pituitary glands
 Thyroid
 Parathyroid
 Adrenal glands
 Pancreas
 Ovaries
 Testes
 Pineal gland

The nervous system is responsible for collecting information from the body’s internal
and external environments & for controlling body activities.

The nervous system has two main parts namely; the central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system.

1. The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord

 It receives information from different parts of the body, processes it,

and sends out instructions on how to respond to the information
received.

2. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nerves in the body.

 Carry information from the sense organs around the body & sends it to
the central nervous system & carries instructions from the central
nervous system to body parts that require the information for action.
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Two cell types play an important role in transmission of information/impulses:

 Neurons—receive and transmit messages as electrical impulses

 Glial cells—support, protect, and insulate neurons

A typical neuron consists of extensions called dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.
The dendrites receive information from other neurons or cells (see Figure 7.4). The
axon transmits information.

Figure 7.4 A neuron

Depending on the origin and destination of their messages, neurons are divided into
three categories:

 Sensory neurons carry messages from the senses to the central nervous
system.
 Interneurons, found only in the central nervous system, connect neurons to
each other.
 Motor neurons carry messages from the central nervous system to the rest
of the body.

There are two types of motor neurons:

Somatic nervous system: controls voluntary actions

Autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary muscles and other internal
organs

NB: The brain has a very important role in the control and coordination of other body
systems. It is also involved in coordinating both the nervous system and the
endocrine system. The brain needs to be ‘fed’ and ‘watered’. Other body systems
work together to provide cells in the brain with what they need and what they don’t.

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6. The reproductive system

The reproductive system consists of the Female and the Male reproductive system
(see Figure 7.5).

The female reproductive system

 The female reproductive system consists of: ovaries, oviducts (fallopian

tubes), uterus, cervix, vagina.
 Ovaries contain follicles in which eggs develop.
 Once every month, a follicle matures, raptures & releases an egg in a process
called ovulation.
 Following ovulation, the egg travels down the oviduct towards the uterus.
 Fertilization takes place in the oviduct.
 At the point of fertilization, the egg is in the middle of meiosis II.
 Meiosis is only completed after fertilization.
 The fertilized egg continues its way to the uterus
 If the egg is not fertilized, it degenerates on its arrival into the uterus & it is
expelled to the outside during menstruation.

The male reproductive system

 The male reproductive system consists of testis, penis, vas deferens,

epididymis and urethra.
 Sperms are made in the testis which are located in the scrotum.
 The scrotums hang outside the body to keep them at a temperature which is
lower than that of the body for efficient sperm production.
 Sperms produced in the testis move to the epididymis where they complete
development and become mobile.
 A sperm has a head which contains DNA, mitochondria, enzymes for
penetrating the egg and a tail for swimming.
 During sexual intercourse, sperms travel along the vas deferens & are
ejaculated from the urethra in a fluid called semen.
 Semen contains fluids from the seminal vesicle & prostate gland.
 The fluid nourishes & protects the sperm from the harsh acidic environment of
the vagina.
 There are normally about half a billion sperms in each ejaculate.

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Figure 7.5 The male and female reproductive systems

7. Sexual reproduction

 Sexual reproduction begins with the production of gametes (eggs & sperms)
during meiosis.
 At fertilisation, an egg & a sperm join to form a diploid cell which later divides
to form an embryo.
 Eggs are produced in the female reproductive organs called ovaries
 Egg cells are large with lots of stored nutrients
 Sperms are produced in the male reproductive organs called testis
 Sperm cells are small & mobile
 Development begins with the fertilisation of an egg by a sperm.
 An egg travelling along the oviduct is surrounded by a thick layer called zona
pellucida.
 Once released into the vagina, sperms swim into the uterus and up to the
oviducts to the egg
 When sperm reach the zona pellucida, enzymes produced from the sperms’
head eat away through the zona pellucida layer
 When the sperm reaches the egg’s cell membrane, the membranes of the egg
& and the sperm fuse to form one cell, the zygote - a process called
fertilization.

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8.9 Development

 Once a sperm has fused with the egg, the zona pellucida becomes
impenetrable to other sperms.
 When several sperms fertilize an egg, conception does not take place.
 After fertilisation the cell begins to divide by mitosis.
 By the time implantation takes place in the uterus – 6 days after fertilisation –
the developing cell has become a ball of cells with a cavity – blastocyst
 Part of the blastocyst develops into the embryo, while the rest develop into
structures that nourish the embryo.
 The embryo is surrounded by a fluid filled membrane called the amnion
 The placenta provides oxygen & nutrients to the embryo & carries away
wastes
 The maternal & embryonic blood are never in direct contact, but come close
enough to allow the exchange of nutrients, wastes & oxygen
 The placenta also produces the sex hormones oestrogens and progesterone
 These hormones prevent menstruation during pregnancy & maintain the
uterus in a nurturing condition
 By the end of the first trimester – first three months, all the parts of the embryo
have developed

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8. Principles of evolution

After having studied this unit, you should be able to:

- Discuss the mechanisms of evolution

- Explain the evidence of evolution
- Discuss human evolution

Activity 8.1

In the previous sections we have leant about biodiversity in detail. In the current
section we will look at how does diversity come about. This we will explore using the
theory of evolution.

Evolution
Evolutionisis the process
a thorny of change
issue amongstinsome
all forms of lifepeople.
religious over generations. An organism
Do a research and:
inherits features called traits from its parents through genes. Changes
calleda)mutations
Explain why some religious
in these genes can people differ a
produce with
newscientists
trait inon evolution.
the offspring of an
organism. If a isnew
b) What the trait makes
African these offspring
indigenous explanationbetter adapted
of where to their
humans environment,
originated from?
they will be more successful at surviving and reproducing. This process is
called natural selection, and it causes useful traits to become more common. Over
many generations, a population can acquire so many new traits that it becomes a
new species.

1. Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin developed the idea that each species had developed from ancestors
with similar features. He described how a process he called natural selection would
make this happen. Darwin's idea of how evolution works was based on the following
observation:

 If all the individuals of a species reproduced successfully, the population of

that species would increase uncontrollably.
 Populations tend to remain about the same size from year to year.
 Environmental resources are limited.
 No two individuals in a given species are exactly alike.
 Much of this variation in a population can be passed on to offspring.

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2. Mechanisms of evolution

The key to evolution is genetic variation. This refers to changes in the genetic
makeup of an individual, which are inherited by their offspring. A number of ‘forces’
causes genetic variation. Some of these forces are:

 Natural selection is the process whereby organisms better adapted to their

environment tend to survive and produce more offspring
 Genetic drift, which is the change in the frequency of an existing gene variant
(allele) in a population due to chance disappearance of particular genes as
individuals die or do not reproduce.
 Gene flow is the movement of genes from one population to another due to
migration.
 Mutations are random changes to an organism's DNA which can impact all
aspects of its life, from how it looks and behaves to its basic physiology.

3. Evidence of evolution

Scientists have been able to produce evidence that suggests that evolution has
occurred. This evidence includes:

1. Fossils provide evidence of evolutionary change over time.

A series of fossils that start with ancient, primitive organisms and culminate
with modern species has been found for ancestors of modern whales, fossil
giraffes, elephants, horses, and mollusks

2. Comparative anatomy gives evidence of descent with modification.

Comparing the bodies of organisms of different species reveals similarities
that can be explained only by shared ancestry, and differences that could
result only from evolutionary change during descent from a common ancestor

3. Homologous structures provide evidence of common ancestry.

 The forelimbs of birds and mammals are variously used for flying,
swimming, running, and grasping objects.
 Despite this diversity of function, the internal anatomy of all bird and
mammal forelimbs is remarkably similar.

4. Functionless structures are inherited from ancestors.

 Evolution by natural selection helps explain vestigial structures that

serve no apparent purpose.

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  Examples: molar teeth in vampire bats (which live on blood and thus
don’t chew their food) and pelvic bones in whales and some snakes

5. Some anatomical similarities result from evolution in similar environments.

 There are many anatomical similarities that do not stem from common
ancestry.
 Such similarities stem from convergent evolution, in which natural
selection causes non-homologous structures that serve similar
functions to resemble one another.

6. Embryological similarity suggests common ancestry.

 All vertebrate embryos look quite similar to one another early in their
development.

7. Modern biochemical and genetic analyses reveal relatedness among diverse

organisms.

 For example, the protein cytochrome c is present in all plants and

animals and performs the same function in all of them.
 The DNA sequence of nucleotides is similar in all these diverse
species; this provides evidence that a common ancestor of plants and
animals had cytochrome c in its cells.

8. Controlled breeding modifies organisms.

 Artificial selection is the breeding of domestic plants and animals to

produce specific desirable features.

4. Human evolution

In 2013, scientists from the University of Witwatersrand found fossil skeletons of an

extinct human-related species, called Homo naledi, in the Dinaledi Chamber of
the Rising Star Cave system which is part of the Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site about 50 km northwest of Johannesburg. Upon analysis, the scientists
found that the fossils were 335,000 to 236,000 years old long after much larger-
brained and more modern-looking hominins had appeared. Further analysis
suggested that H. naledi is not a direct ancestor of modern humans, although it is
probably an offshoot within the genus Homo

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Human evolution is about the origin of human beings. All humans belong to the
same species, which has spread from its birthplace in Africa to almost all parts of the
world. Its origin in Africa is proved by the fossils, which have been found there.
The term 'human' in this context means the genus Homo. However, studies of
human evolution usually include other hominids, such as the Australopithecines,
from which the genus Homo had diverged (split) by about 2.3 to 2.4 million years ago
in Africa. The first Homo sapiens, the ancestors of today's humans, evolved around
200,000 years ago.

Out of Africa

Studies of the human genome have supported the theory which suggest that all
human originated from Africa.

The first truly modern humans seem to have appeared between 200,000 and
130,000 years ago. These early humans later moved out from Africa. By about
90,000 years ago they had moved into Eurasia and the Middle East. This was the
area where earlier species of humans, (such as Neanderthals, Homo
neanderthalensis) had been living for a long time (at least 500,000 years in western
Europe).

By about 42 to 44,000 years ago Homo sapiens had reached western Europe,
including Britain. In Europe and western Asia, Homo sapiens replaced the
Neanderthals by about 35,000 years ago. The details of this event are not known. At
roughly the same time Homo sapiens arrived in Australia. Their arrival in
the Americas was much later, about 15,000 years ago. All these earlier groups of
modern man were hunter-gatherers.

Genetic studies and fossil evidence show that archaic Homo sapiens evolved to
anatomically modern humans solely in Africa between 200,000 and 60,000 years
ago. Members of one branch of Homo sapiens left Africa at some point between
125,000 and 60,000 years ago, and that over time these humans replaced earlier
populations of the genus Homo such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus.
The date of the earliest successful "out of Africa" migration (earliest migrants with
living descendants) has generally been placed at 60,000 years ago based on
genetics, but migration out of the continent may have taken place as early as
125,000 years ago according to Arabian archaeological finds of tools in the region.

2.12 References

Ball, L (2009). "Cholera and the Pump on Broad Street: The Life and Legacy of John
Snow". History Teacher 43(1): 105-109

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Hempel, S (2006). The Medical Detective: John Snow, Cholera, and the Mystery of
the Broad Street Pump. Granta Books. London

Hewitt, P.G., Lyons, S., Suchocki, J., Yeh, J. (2007). Conceptual Integrated Science,
Pearson Education: San Francisco.

Hopkins, W.G., Hüner, N.P.A. (2009): Introduction to Plant Physiology, 4th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, USA.

Mader, S.S. and Pendarvis, P. M., (2008). Biology, 9th Edition; McGraw-Hill
International Edition.

Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B., Mason, K.A, Losos, J.B, and Singer, S.R., (2014),
Biology, Tenth Edition. McGraw-Hill International Edition.

Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. (2002). Plant Physiology, 3rd Edition. The Benjamin
Cummings Publishing Company, Redwood City - California.

Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. (2010). Plant Physiology, 5th Edition. The Benjamin
Cummings Publishing Company, Redwood City - California.

http://www.biology.ie/biologyandthescientificmethod

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/lines_01

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/teachstuds/svideos.html

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