001 - 2021 - 4 - MIP1501 Study Guide

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University of South Africa,
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
MIP1501/1/2021–2023
10000216
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Contents
Preface (v)
Overview of the module content (vi)
Learning unit 1: Numeration systems 1
Learning unit 2: Number sense 13
Learning unit 3: Problem solving 36
Learning unit 4: Common fractions and its operation 58
Learning unit 5: Develop proportional reasoning in a variety of contexts 82
Learning unit 6: Integrating technology in the teaching and learning of
numbers and operation concepts 99
MIP1501/1/2021–2023 (iii)
Preface
Welcome!
Dear student teacher, we would like to extend a sincere welcome to you. Our intention
with this module, Mathematics for Intermediate Phase Teachers I, code MIP1501 is to
guide you to understand number and the development of a functional number sense.
The purpose of module Mathematics for Intermediate Phase Teachers II (MIP1501) is
for students to develop a deeper understanding of the number concept (including
fractions and decimals) and how this knowledge is used to facilitate problem solving
in Intermediate Phase Mathematics. The module is also aimed at guiding students to
integrate numerical knowledge with modern technological development. Students
will be introduced to numeration systems in order to form an appreciation of the nu-
meration system that is used globally.
Mathematics is a process of figuring things out (formulating number patterns, investi-
gating, exploring, conjecturing, generalising, inducing, deducing, etc.) or in general,
making sense of things.
Van de Walle (2015, p. 136) summarises the purpose of intermediate number work as
follows:
Young children enter school with many ideas about numbers. These ideas should
be built upon as we work with them to develop new relationships. It is sad to see
the large number of students in grades 4, 5 and beyond who essentially know lit-
tle about numbers than how to count. It takes time and a variety of experiences
for children to develop a full understanding of numbers that will grow into more
advanced number-related concept.
MIP1501 (v)
Overview of the module content
Below is an overview of the content area, Numbers, Operations and Relationships (here-
after abbreviated as NOR), as phrased in the CAPS document:
General content focus Intermediate Phase specific content

focus
Development of number sense that in- The range of numbers developed by the
cludes: end of the Intermediate Phase is ex-
Ɣ the meaning of different kinds of tended to at least 9-digit whole numbers,
numbers decimal fractions to at least 2 decimal
Ɣ relationship between different kinds places, common fractions and fractions
of numbers written in percentage form.
Ɣ the relative size of different numbers Ɣ In this phase, the learner is expected
Ɣ representation of numbers in various to move from counting reliably to cal-
ways culating fluently in all four operations.
Ɣ the effect of operating with numbers The learner should be encouraged to
Ɣ the ability to estimate and check memorise with understanding, multi-
solutions. ply fluently, and sharpen mental cal-
culation skills.
Ɣ Attention needs to be focused on
understanding the concept of place
value so that the learner develops a
sense of large numbers and decimal
fractions.
Ɣ The learner should recognize and de-
scribe properties of numbers and op-
erations, including identity properties,
factors, multiples, and commutative,
associative and distributive properties.
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): Mathematics – Intermediate

Phase
Structure of the module: This module is divided into six learning units, each of which
addresses an aspect of the content area, Numbers, Operations and Relationships, as
stated in the CAPS document and addressing so-called “big ideas” (major concepts) in
the building of number sense. The content of this module goes wider and deeper than
what the Intermediate Phase learner would be required to know but is appropriate to
what the teacher must know to teach with understanding.
(vi)
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Specific themes of this module: The following themes will form part of the syllabus
that is covered in this module:
Learning Unit 1
Numeration systems
¾ Explain the historical evolving of numeration systems;
¾ Explain the Hindu-Arabic number system;
¾ Compare number systems with different bases; and
¾ Unpack the real number system with its sub-systems.
Learning Unit 2
Number sense
¾ Understand how number sense develops;
¾ Explain how numbers change when operated on; and
¾ Demonstrate various computational strategies and methods.
Learning Unit 3
Problem solving with numbers
¾ Discern the various levels (orders) of numerical reasoning;
¾ Construct and solve number problems; and
¾ Develop problem solving skills.
Learning Unit 4
Rational numbers
¾ Explain the fractional concept; and
¾ Work with common fractions.
Learning Unit 5
Comparing quantities
¾ Explain the concept and applications of the concept rate;
¾ Explain the concept and applications of the concept ratio; and
¾ Explain the development of proportional reasoning.
Learning Unit 6
Technology in learning numbers
¾ Know the working of technological tools in learning number;
¾ Be aware of the software available to support the learning of numbers; and
¾ Understand how to operate calculators.
MIP1501 (vii)
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Specific outcomes and assessment criteria: Below is a summary of the specific out-
comes and assessment criteria for the Module MIP1501:
Specific outcome Assessment criteria (at completion
of the module, the student is able
to...)
1 Compare and analyse a variety of nu- Ɣ Demonstrate an awareness of the
meration systems. evolving of numeration systems.
Ɣ Display an informed understanding
of the properties of the Hindu- Ara-
bic numeration system.
2 Develop informed understanding of Ɣ Demonstrate knowledge and under-
the application of numbers and their standing of the development of
operations in real world situations. number sense;
Ɣ Apply a variety of methods and
techniques when dealing with num-
bers and their operations;
Ɣ Recognize and use the properties of
numbers in real world scenarios;
Ɣ Identify the application of numerical
knowledge and computation in real
world scenarios;
Ɣ Identify and analyse a variety of
numbers, such as prime numbers,
numbers in the Fibonacci sequence,
numbers in Pascal’s triangle and
numbers used to define the golden
ratio.
3 Develop integrated knowledge of Ɣ Construct problem solving methods
higher order thinking processes of in relation to numbers and
number and operation concepts. operations.
Ɣ Apply proportional reasoning pro-
cesses involving numbers and
operations.
Ɣ Demonstrate critical problem-solv-
ing skills when dealing with high or-
der tasks
Ɣ Create scenarios where numbers
and operations will be used to ana-
lyse real world situations.
4 Demonstrate an understanding of Ɣ Display understanding of various
common fractions and operations on models to interpret fractions
common fractions. Ɣ Illustrate an understanding of frac-
tion algorithms
Ɣ Demonstrate an understanding of
the relationship between commons
fractions, decimal fractions and
percentages
(viii)
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Specific outcome Assessment criteria (at completion

of the module, the student is able
to...)
5 Develop proportional reasoning in a Ɣ Operate in a range of context relat-
variety of contexts ing to ratio and rate
Ɣ Demonstrate a sound understand-
ing of the application of proportion-
al reasoning in real world contexts
Ɣ Do calculations which include ratio
and proportion
6 Integrate technology in the teaching Ɣ Use a variety of technological tools,
and learning of numbers and operation such as computers, tablets, virtual
concepts manipulative software, to extend
the knowledge of numbers and op-
erations in the Intermediate Phase
Ɣ Demonstrate the ability to use soft-
ware, such as Microsoft Math Add-In,
Excel and GeoGebra.
Ɣ Display an understanding of how
calculators contribute to the knowl-
edge of numbers and operations;
for example, demonstrates numeric
relationship using a calculator as a
tool
Ɣ Gather and select digital content
appropriate to achieving in-depth
understanding of numbers and
operations.
MIP1501 (ix)
Learning unit 1
Numeration systems
Contents
1.1 THE HISTORY OF NUMBERS 2

1.2 THE HINDU-ARABIC NUMBER SYSTEM 4
1.2.1 Base 60 number system 4
1.2.2 Base 12 number system 5
1.2.3 The base 10 number system 6
1.3 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM 7
1.3.1 Natural numbers 7
1.3.2 Integers 7
1.3.3 Rational numbers 8
1.3.4 Irrational numbers 10
1.3.5 Non-real or imaginary numbers 10
1.3.6 Absolute value 10
1.3.7 Summary of the real and complex number systems 11
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, the focus is on orientating students about the origins and nature of num-
ber systems. The content area of which this unit forms part, underpins mathematical
reasoning to a large extent and occupies 50% of the time allocation in the Intermedi-
ate Phase. Building a workable number sense in learners is an intense task that re-
quires knowledge and insight about the following aspects covered in this unit:
Ɣ The history of numbers;
Ɣ The Hindu-arabic number system; and
Ɣ The real number system.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, the student will be able to:

Ɣ Explain the historical evolving of numeration systems;
Ɣ Explain the Hindu-Arabic number system;
Ɣ Compare number systems with different bases; and
Ɣ Unpack the real number system with its sub-systems.
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1.1 THE HISTORY OF NUMBERS

Early evidence of using numbers: Pre-historic people counted and had a mental con-
cept of quantities and amounts of objects, people and animals in their world. They
counted with fingers and body parts and objects like pebbles. They started very early
to record counts with tally marks, a single stroke per unit. We have evidence of primi-
tive counting systems as far as 40 000 years back where carvings were made in bone.
Counting was a concrete action and words were given to specific numbers, but the ab-
stract idea that the number could be represented as a written symbol took many ages
to develop.
Adding symbols to numbers: The need to use symbols arose in agriculture where peo-
ple needed to measure and calculate. It was in the Sumerian and Babylonian cultures
in Mesopotamia (located in the area of the modern-day Iraq) and in the ancient Egypt
that people started developing formal number systems. There is later evidence of such
developments in Europe, specifically in the Roman culture.
The Sumerians and Babylonians gave symbols to describe numbers of objects. They
made symbolic drawings to represent numbers in their base 60 (sexagesimal) number
system. The number 60 was represented by a larger cone. The placing of tens is on the
left and of ones on the right. This is called positional writing of symbols.
Image retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal
We know number symbols as having positions which have numerical meaning, but
some ancient number symbols were not positioned, for example the Roman system.
Roman numerals use the letters I for a unit (one finger), V for five (the shape between
the thumb and the index finger), X for ten (two hands crossed), L for fifty, C for hun-
dred, D for five hundred and M for thousand.
Activity 1.1
ROMAN NUMBER SYMBOLS

Explain how addition and subtraction were used to derive to the Roman numerals
below:
IV (4)
.........................................................................................................................
VI (6)
.........................................................................................................................
2
1XPHUDWLRQ V\VWHPV /HDUQLQJ XQLW
XIX (19)
.........................................................................................................................
XL (40)
.........................................................................................................................
LXIV (64)
.........................................................................................................................
XCIX (99)
.........................................................................................................................
Feedback on Activity 1.1
We stand in awe at the creativity of the ancient people and how they organised
their world through the familiar objects in their daily lives... and through pure logic.
The Chinese and Japa-

nese number symbols
made use of words and
characters for the word
names of numbers. The-
se words were then com-
bined to make more
numbers. See for exam-
ple how 40, 88 and 656
were made up from the
basic characters.
Image retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_numerals
Greek numerals were making use of the letters of the Greek alphabet to represent
numbers and combine the letters from left to right to make other numbers, for exam-
ple 543 = , according to the table below:
Image retrieved from http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/topics/num-sys.html
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It must be noted that the use of zero is exceptional in the ancient numerals. Although
people from ancient times had a clear concept of nothing, or something not existing,
the development of a number symbol for the idea is relatively new. A symbol became
necessary to represent the number zero. It also became necessary in the positional
number system where the digit in each position had value, to have a digit that can act
as a placeholder when that position is not occupied. By the end of the second millen-
nium BCE the Babylonians developed a circular character for this purpose.
The Egyptians had a base 10 number system which was not positional, and which
used hieroglyphs as digits. In accounting scripts during the 18th century BC, they had
a digit for zero. Their numbers looked like those below:
The symbol for 10 shows the

hobble of cattle, 100 the coil
of a rope and 1 000 a lotus
flower. From the example in
the bottom of the image to
the left, the units and tens are
placed on top of the hundreds
and the thousands are to the
right.
Image retrieved from https://www.pinterest.ch/pin/8162843053724712/
1.2 THE HINDU-ARABIC NUMBER SYSTEM

Before we focus on the base ten Hindu-Arabic number system, we need to clarify the
fact that there are number systems that do not make use of a base 10. Since we still
have some remnants of these number systems in measurement, and because calcula-
tions in number systems other than base ten are sometimes difficult for learners to
master, we focus on two bases, namely the base 60 (sexagesimal) and the base 12 (du-
odecimal) number system before we continue to the base 10 (decimal) number system.
1.2.1 Base 60 number system

The sexagesimal number system originated with the Sumerians in the third millen-
nium BCE and was passed down to the Babylonians. In mathematics it is still used in
the measurement of time and angles. The number 60 is a superior highly composite
number, having twelve factors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60), more than
what 100 has. It is highly “flexible” and justifies a number wall on its own, like the one
below:
4
We measure angles (360°) and time (minutes and seconds) in base 60 number system.
The three parts on the inside of each of four fingers on a hand count up to twelve (a
dozen), and by the other hand’s five fingers one counts in twelve’s up to 60 (five
dozen).
Eggs come in packaging

of dozens, thirties and
sixties; many bakes like
muffins are packed in
sixes; there are 12 hours
in a day and 12 in a night.
Bulk tins of food are
packaged in twelve’s.
Image retrieved from https://phillips.blogs.com/goc/2013/03/base-60-1.html
1.2.2 Base 12 number system

The duodecimal or base 12 number system is a positional number system, using yet
another superior highly composite number as its base. 12 has all four numbers in the
subitizing range (1, 2, 3 and 4) as its factors and is the smallest abundant number. An
abundant number is a number of which the sum of its proper divisors exceeds the
number (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16, which is 4 more than 12). The abundance of 12 is 4.
The number 12 also makes a convenient system to calculate
1 1 2 1 3
fractions like , , , , ,
2 3 3 4 4
Ɣ The number of lunar cycles in a year is 12.

Ɣ Humans have 12 finger bones (phalanges), three on each of four fingers.
Ɣ Our days and nights are sub-divided in twelve hours.
The base 12 system was short of symbols for 10 and 11 and accepted the upside down
2 symbol for 10 and the flipped 3 symbol for 11. Below are a dozenal clock and the
multiplication table used in the duodecimal system:
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Clock image retrieved from Multiplication table image retrieved from

http://www.dozenalsociety.org.uk/ https://www.mathsisfun.com/definitions/duodecimal.
html
We are so conditioned to work in the decimal system, that we find it hard to under-
stand that 100 (decimal) = 84 (duodecimal).
1.2.3 The base 10 number system

The numerals that we use today, or the standard symbolic representation of numbers
are called Hindu-Arabic numerals, although it is possible that there were more influen-
ces on the system, including Arabic, Hindu, Persian and Egyptian. The first country that
used most of these numerals was India. The digits 1, 4 and 6 were found in inscriptions
of the third century BCE, the 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 about a century later and the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
and 9 between the first and second century CE. The numerals 2 and 3 clearly re-
sembled the = and Ԙ of the ancient numerals, only the lines were connected.
There is no evidence in the early inscriptions of a symbol for zero, which would make a
place value system possible if the zero was used as a placeholder. In a Mesopotamian
document in the middle of the 7th century CE there is mention of the nine signs,
which did not include zero. In the Hindu astronomy literature there is however evi-
dence that zero was known as a placeholder in the place value system by the 9th cen-
tury CE. The earliest European documents containing the ten Hindu-Arabic number
symbols was written in Spain in 976 CE. These symbols are the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8 and 9.
The base 10 (decimal) positional number system took the world by storm and several
measuring systems were also adapted to the decimal system, which standardised and
simplified calculations enormously. The table below gives an indication of the beauty
of this system as used in numbers and in a few measurement applications.
6
In the decimal number system, we can describe any number in words, in place value
and in terms of the powers of 10, for example 3 908,576 can be written as follows:
a) Three thousand nine hundred and eight, comma five, seven, six
5 7 6
b) 3 908,576 = 3 000 + 900 + 8 + + +
10 100 1 000
c) 3 908,576 = 3.103 + 9.102+ 0.101 + 8.100 + 5.10-1+ 7.10-2 + 6.10-3
The columns to the left and to the right can be extended indefinitely.
1.3 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The real number system is a way of organising distinct types of numbers, as the con-
cept of what is meant by the word “number” became better defined. In the beginning,
“number” indicated the amount of something that one could count, for example how
many heads of cattle a person owned. There are however more types of number and
many more uses of number than counting. This is how the system came to be
organised:
1.3.1 Natural numbers

The natural numbers are the numbers used for counting, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... The set
is closed to the left and open to the right as the dots show that it continues
indefinitely.
The symbol we use to represent the set of natural numbers is 0. (The %#56'..#4
font is conventionally used for the letter symbols in the number system).
At some point the zero was added to the counting numbers, and when the set is ex-
panded to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... the set is called the whole numbers, represented by the
amended letter symbol 0 or in some traditions it is depicted by 9.
Natural numbers are not exclusively used to count. They can be used in number pat-
terns, for addition, subtraction and multiplication calculations, for data and measure-
ment and in many more ways.
1.3.2 Integers
The natural numbers were easy to understand, but it took a longer time for people to
acknowledge that negative numbers are a reality too. In the real world, if I have no
money and I borrow R10 from you, I owe you R10, which is a concept of negative num-
ber. Having R10 less than R0, means I have to add R10 to get it up to R0 where I still
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have nothing, but I also do not owe any money. If I owe R10 and I borrow another R5,
I go further into the negative numbers, meaning I now owe R15.
When the set of whole numbers is expanded, it includes the negative versions of the
natural number and the new set is called integers. The letter symbol representing the
set of integers is Z, which is the first letter of the German word for number, “Zahl”. We
write this set open to the left and open to the right, because it continues indefinitely
in both directions, as follows:
-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
We understand now what a negative number is and how it occurs in real life. Mathe-
matically we can define a negative number as follows:
For every real number n, there exists its opposite, denoted –n, such that the sum of n
and –n is zero, or n + (‐n) = 0.
The negative sign in front of a number symbol is part of the number, for example the
number symbol “-7” is one number which stands for “negative seven.” This is the name
of the number that is seven units less than zero.
There are some special facts to remember about the number zero:
Ɣ Zero is its own opposite and is neither negative nor positive;
Ɣ Zero is an even number because of its position and also because it is the zero multi-
ple of 2;
Ɣ Zero is the identity element for addition. When added to/subtracted from any num-
ber, it leaves the number unchanged – it is the additive identity;
Ɣ Numbers other than zero cannot be divided by zero; and
Ɣ The sum of a number and its additive inverse is zero, e.g. -6 + 6 = 0;
similarly, 55 + (-55) = 0
1.3.3 Rational numbers

Integers stay whole when added to, subtracted from or multiplied by each other. How-
ever, when they are divided by each other through equal sharing, they do not always
stay whole. We can take an example from real life:
Thuli shares 7 apples equally amongst four friends. Each friend gets a whole apple, he
cuts two apples in half for each friend, and the last apple in quarters. In numbers it is
Images retrieved from https://www.shutterstock.com/search/half+apple
We can divide any two whole numbers, positive or negative, by each other. The an-
swer will be another whole number, a fraction or a mixed number. This extends the
number system to what is called rational number, where one number is written as a
8
ratio of another. Belonging to this infinitely large set are integers and fractions (includ-
ing common fractions and decimal fractions).
The letter symbol denoting the set is 3, the first letter of the word quotient which is
the answer to a division calculation.
Complete Activity 1.3.3 find an answer and note the general form in column 3:
ACTIVITY 1.3.3
RATIONAL NUMBERS
Situation Calculation General
form
i. Beauty cuts up two apples to share
equally among three girls. How
much apple does each girl get?
ii. Ntate Fred owes R450 to his employ-
er. He pays it back in 5 months. How
much does he pay of his debt each
month?
iii. Mme Bontle owes R240 to her sister.
She pays back R60 of her debt each
month. How many months will she
pay off?
iv. Mom cuts up a piece of string of 27
cm long in four equal lengths. How
long is each piece that she cuts?
v. Mpumi went to share out 12 loaves
of bread for homeless people who
stay under the bridge but there was
nobody.
Feedback on Activity 1.3.3
i. Each girl gets a fraction of apple.

ii. Debt (negative) divided by months (positive) = debt (negative) per month
iii. Whole numbers divided result in a whole number and a fraction (mixed
number)
iv. It is impossible to divide a number by zero. The answer is undefined.
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We are now ready to understand the definition of rational numbers:

a
Rational numbers are all numbers that can be written in the form , where a
b
and b are integers and b = I0.
1.3.4 Irrational numbers

a
The decimal fractions resulting from b where a and b are integers and b = I0, al-
ways end, repeat or terminate. Let us take three examples:
Ɣ 3
= 0,75 and the decimal fraction ends there.
4
Ɣ 3
= 0,428571 428571____ decimal keeps repeating 428571 in the same se-
7 quence.
Ɣ 5 5
= 0,5· the decimal fraction forever repeats 5: = 0,55555...
9 9
If a number cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers nor can they be writ-
a
ten in the form b where a and b are integers and b = I0, meaning the number irrat-
ional. As decimals, irrational numbers do not repeat and they do not end. This hap-
pens in two cases that are familiar to us:
Ɣ In the case of calculating a square root of a number that is not a perfect square, for
example √5 = 2,23606797749979... the sequence never repeats in any way.
Ɣ In the case of the ratio between the circumference of any circle and its diameter,
which always gives the same value, namely a non-repetitive, non-terminating deci-
mal fraction 3,1415926535897932384626433832795028841971... The letter name
given to this specific ratio is pronounced “pi”, which is the 16th letter of the
Greek alphabet. is the most widely known mathematical constant.
Irrational numbers are real still, but they are not in a ratio between integers. The letter
symbol representing irrational numbers is 3’ (said Q accent).
1.3.5 Non-real or imaginary numbers

Imagine (if you can) you try to reach the square root of a negative number, for exam-
ple √-9. You know that 3 x 3 = 9; 3 x -3 = -9; and -3 x -3 = 9, so the square root of 9 can
be either -3 or 3. There is no situation where we can square a number and reach a neg-
ative answer. It is unthinkable, unreal, we cannot imagine it.
A non-real or imaginary number is a number that, when multiplied by itself, produces
a negative number. This cannot happen. We use the letter to symbolize the square
root of -1. An imaginary number is any real number multiplied by i. For example, 3i is
imaginary; the square of 3i is -9.
1.3.6 Absolute value

When we talk about how “large” a number is without regarding whether it is positive
or negative, we use the absolute value of the number. This is the distance from the
10
number to zero (the origin) on a number line. That distance is never given as a nega-
tive number.
Ɣ If a number is positive (or zero), its absolute value is the same |4| = 4
Ɣ If a number is negative, its absolute value is positive: |-4| = 4
If there is a calculation inside the absolute value sign, we do it before deciding on the
absolute value, because the absolute value is the result of what is inside it, for example,
|4 – 7| = |-3| = 3
1.3.7 Summary of the real and complex number systems

The real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as integers and fractions and
all the irrational numbers, such as the square root of non-square numbers which are ir-
rational algebraic numbers and numbers such as (3.14159265...).
The diagram below shows that natural numbers, integers, rational numbers and irra-
tional numbers are all part of the real number system, and imaginary numbers do not
form part of the real number system.
Image retrieved from https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Real-Number-System-Venn-Diagram-

1978067
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

The worksheets from the websites below can be retrieved for practice:
http://teachers. henrico. k12. va. us/math/hcpscourse3/8-2/8-2_Note-

sTeacherRealNumbers.pdf
https://faculty. mtsac. edu/ctunstall/dsps_33/dsps33_maths/Number %

20Systems.pdf
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CONCLUSION
Learning Unit 1 of this module aimed to orientate the student to the complexity of the
idea of number and to give deeper insight explaining some of the intricate ideas in
number.
The ancient history of number, the modern-day mathematical organisation of number
in a system and the positioned decimal number system were discussed.
This unit forms a basis for the student to understand the concepts in rest of the units
following.
ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES

For enrichment of the above concepts, read the following document:
http://www.amsi.org.au/teacher_modules/pdfs/Real_numbers.pdf
12
Learning unit 2
Number sense
Contents
2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER SENSE 13

2.1.1 The meaning of numbers 14
2.1.2 The properties of numbers 18
2.1.3 Types of numbers 20
2.2 CHANGE IN NUMBERS 25
2.2.1 Conceptual fields 26
2.2.2 Calculation methods and strategies 29
INTRODUCTION
The foundational content area that we are dealing with in this module is “Numbers,
Operations and Relationships”. These three concepts are the components of number
sense:
Ɣ Number, its meaning and magnitude;
Ɣ Operations on numbers and how operations change numbers; and
Ɣ Relationships and connections between numbers and sets of numbers.
With this idea in mind, we are going to equip student teachers in learning unit 2 to
build number sense in learners which will support their mathematical proficiency.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completion of this learning unit, the student will be able to:
Ɣ Understand how number sense develops;
Ɣ Explain how numbers change when operated on; and
Ɣ Demonstrate various computational strategies and methods.
2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER SENSE

In the traditional understanding of building number sense, symbols were introduced
at an early stage. Mothers and pre-school teachers often boasted that a four-year old
child could already read numbers. This is not the ideal situation. Symbol recognition is
not the starting point for developing number sense.
Developmentally, the building of number sense starts in a non-symbolic conceptual
way through counting, subitising and understanding relationships between numbers,
before symbols for numbers are learned. Only then are learners ready to calculate.
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Calculations also start non-symbolic (mentally),based on the meaning of number and

only then written calculations are done, not the other way around.
2.1.1 The meaning of numbers

In the traditional approach to teaching numbers sense of “how many, few, more, few-
er...”many thoughts immediately go to counting as the only way of establishing num-
ber sense. Important as counting is, making meaning of numbers is also attained by
subitising and by understanding relationships between numbers.
Counting skill is an important part of the development of number sense which is fos-
tered from Grade R, a skill that should have been firmly established by the time learn-
ers reach the Intermediate Phase. Learners start by verbally counting out objects in a
one-to-one correspondence, then counting in ones, upwards from, and downwards to
one, counting on from a given number, counting in intervals and so on.
Teachers can identify problems that developed in non‐symbolic counting when learn-
ers in the IP struggle to apply number sequences in addition and subtraction
problems.
When this is the case, learners do not successfully calculate. The following checklist
can come in handy when a teacher realizes that a learner has not fully developed
counting skills and wants to do remedial work before they continue with calculations:
Ɣ Say number words correctly, starting with one;
Ɣ Understand that countable objects are marked once and that the last said number
marks the number of objects in the set;
Ɣ Recognise the figure of a number symbol and count on in ones from there;
Ɣ Make symbol-verbal transition (the written symbol 5 is said five) and verbal- symbol
transition (the said word five is written in a symbol 5);
Ɣ Say the verbal words for numbers in sequence forward and backward;
Ɣ Say the verbal words for numbers, also skipping by twos, fives and tens;
Ɣ Count forward and backward from a given (said) number;
Ɣ Understands the difference and use of the cardinal (seven) and ordinal (seventh)
words for numbers.
Most of the above counting skills are non‐symbolic and requires a mental command of
numbers. More valuable insights on developing number sense may be gained from:
Aunio, P., & Räsänen, P. (2015). Core numerical skills for learning mathematics in chil-
dren aged five to eight years – a working model for educators. European Early Child-
hood Education Research Journal. DOI: 10.1080/1350293X.2014.996424
Symbolic number sense is associating written symbols with numerical magnitudes. It

includes recognising the symbols representing a magnitude, expressing the symbols
verbally and associating the corresponding number of concrete or representational
objects with symbols. This is the easier part of teaching number, even when it comes
to learning the meaning of place value in the base ten number system and fostering
calculation techniques. The challenge is for teachers to help learners make meaning of
number and the change in numbers when operated on – even without number
symbols.
14
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Subitising is the instant recognition of an amount of objects, the ability to identify the
number of objects without counting, even when there is no special arrangement like
in a die pattern. It is learned through exposure, practice and experience with patterned
sets. Research shows that children as young as two years of age can subitise 2 or 3 ob-
jects. There is evidence that babies and some animals can do it too - they do not know
the name of the number - but they know how many there are! Older learners can subi-
tise 5 to 6 randomly arranged objects, both in and out of a standard pattern e. g. in
Dominoes.
Although subitising devel-

ops initially for numbers 1-4,
playing Dominoes is one of
the most powerful ways to
practice the skill. Children
recognise the pattern and
number at a glance and
match corresponding num-
bers, which is an excellent
opportunity for confirma-
tion by co-players.
Image retrieved from https://www.rehabmart.com/product/magnetic-double6-dominoes-2395.html
Similar instant recognition of the number of objects or shapes can be developed for
other patterns too. In the Intermediate Phase, teachers can challenge learners with
subitising higher numbers, initially set up in a specific pattern, but later changing pat-
terns. The ten-frame is especially powerful for this purpose:
Ɣ It corresponds naturally with fingers as

a counting frame
Ɣ It helps subitising both smaller and larg-
er numbers
Ɣ It encourages counting in tens
Ɣ It helps understand bonds of ten (dot-
ted + open blocks)
Ɣ It helps seeing two digit numbers as
tens and units
Ɣ It supports understanding of the deci-
mal number system
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ACTIVITY 2.1.1(a)
MAKING MEANING OF NUMBER BY SUBITISING

Develop a set of twelve non-symbolic images for numbers 1-12 which you can use
as flashcards in the classroom to develop instant recognition of number in learners.
Feedback on Activity 2.1.1(a)
Simple teaching aids can be created at minimum cost and can become a game in
class. Pattern recognition is an important part of subitising. Subitising also assists
greatly with the comparison of magnitude and estimating. As teachers we instinc-
tively realise that we cannot skip this non-symbolic skill in the development of
number sense.
Relational skill, or understanding the relationships between numbers, is a skill that

follows on counting and subitising. Relational skill is understanding quantitative and
non-quantitative relationships between the elements in a task. The development of re-
lational skill as part of number sense makes logical mathematical reasoning with num-
bers possible. Teachers have to trust that if they build in the appropriate elements in
the building of number sense and keep track of the uptake of learners, they may ex-
pect a functional number sense to develop.
The following building blocks are crucial steps in the process of building relational skill.
These are mainly tasks of the Foundation Phase learning but often appear to be under-
developed in the Intermediate Phase, with the result that learners struggle to make
sense of calculation, pattern and algebra:
a) Cardinal and ordinal numbers: When learners start to think logically in mathe-
matics, they have to understand cardinal numbers. Cardinal numbers tell how many
things there are in a group, but not what order they are in. The result of subitising
and counting objects is a cardinal number. At a quick glance, or at the end of
counting, they can say: There are (a total of) five books on the table .
Cardinal number differs from ordinal number in that the learner can tell which the
second book is in the group of five books.
b) Seriation is the action of putting numbers in a specific order, from smaller to big-
ger or bigger to smaller. This ability depends on whether the learner has a clear
concept of how numbers follow on each other. In seriation tasks it shows clearly
whether counting, number lines and the base ten number system had meaning to
16
the child. If seriation is problematic, remedial work needs to focus on these three
possible problem areas. Seriation is fundamental to data handling.
c) Classification is another crucial skill in the development of relational number sense,
depending hugely on the understanding of the magnitude of numbers, on how
numbers follow and of the base ten number system. For classification there must
be a specific norm: From the list below, group all odd numbers together; list all the
multiples of three between 25 and 37; etc.
d) Making one‐to‐one correspondence is a fundamental number sense ability which
is often taken for granted. It basically means to be given an indication of how many
is needed and to respond with the correct number, one to one. Fun games can be
played to practice this skill, for example learners work in pairs: one partner throws
the die and one walks. They all start on the same line, and by the throw of the dice
they take the number of foot-lengths that comes up until one wins. Another exer-
cise is to work in threes, one claps a number, then the next one draws dots for the
number of claps (one-to-one correspondence) and the third member checks. They
do this in a round-about.
e) Comparing is a fundamental cognitive function: to see what is different, what is
the same, what is changing and what stays the same, as in our next activity:
ACTIVITY 2.1.1.(b)
COMPARING NUMBERS
In this activity you are required to formulate your reasoning, construct a number
sentence and find a solution to the situation described in the first column. An ex-
ample is given for the first situation. You may choose from the following compar-
ing symbols to work with: < (smaller than), = (equal to), =| (not equal to), > (larger
than), (approximately) :s (equal to or smaller than) ≤ and 2: (equal to or larger
than) ≥ .
Situation Reasoning Number sentence

Jabu does not know how When I add all the 13 + 22 + 17 + [ 2: 70
he scored in the last test. scores, Jabu has already [ 2: 18
He wants to reach at least collected 52 marks. He is
70/100 in total for the four 18 short of 70. So he
tests they had written. For must get at least 18 or
the previous tests he had more to make his target
13/20, 22/30 and 17/25. of 70/100
The last test was out of 25.
Maggy and Mpho are buy-
ing groceries. From Mag-
gy’s R800 she is left with
R259 in her purse. From
Mpho’s R945 she is left
with R382 in her purse.
They compare their till
slips.
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Situation Reasoning Number sentence

Jim and Jabu join gyms.
Jim’s gym take R150 de-
posit and he pays R120
monthly. Jabu’s gym takes
no deposit but his month-
ly payment is R150. They
compare their total pay-
ments after four months,
after five months and after
six months.
Feedback on Activity 2.1.1(b):
The proof that relational thinking has developed, is the ability to compare success-
fully. The above exercise entails deep comparison. Teachers really need to go deep-
er than offering the numbers almost ready made, for example, which is larger, 45 –
4 or 51 – 9 ?
2.1.2 The properties of numbers

There are many properties by which to describe any given real number. Furthermore,
the way any real number responds to or acts under operation, is discussed here. For
now we look at the property of any number and not at types of real numbers. We shall
do some types or classes of real numbers, including odd, even, prime, composite,
square and cubic numbers in paragraph 2.1.3.
We cannot do any better than the simple and clear explanation in the table below re-
trieved from http://www.math.com/school/subject2/lessons/S2U2L1DP.html:
In this lesson we look at some properties that apply to all real numbers. Let’s look at
each property in detail, and apply it to an algebraic expression.
#1. Commutative properties

The commutative property of addition says that we can add numbers in any order.
The commutative property of multiplication is very similar. It says that we can multi-
ply numbers in any order we want without changing the result.
addition
5a + 4 = 4 + 5a
multiplication
3 x 8 x 5b = 5b x 3 x 8
18
#2. Associative properties

Both addition and multiplication can actually be done with two numbers at a time.
So if there are more numbers in the expression, how do we decide which two to “as-
sociate” first? The associative property of addition tells us that we can group num-
bers in a sum in any way we want and still get the same answer. The associative
property of multiplication tells us that we can group numbers in a product in any
way we want and still get the same answer.
addition
(4x + 2x) + 7x = 4x + (2x + 7x)
multiplication
2x2(3y) = 3y(2x2)
#3. Distributive property

The distributive property comes into play when an expression involves both addition
and multiplication. A longer name for it is, “the distributive property of multiplication
over addition.” It tells us that if a term is multiplied by terms in parenthesis, we need
to “distribute” the multiplication over all the terms inside.
2x(5 + y) = 10x + 2xy
Even though the order of operations says that you must add the terms inside the pa-
renthesis first, the distributive property allows you to simplify the expression by mul-
tiplying every term inside the parenthesis by the multiplier. This simplifies the
expression.
#4. Density property

The density property tells us that we can always find another real number that lies
between any two real numbers. For example, between 5.61 and 5.62, there is 5.611,
5.612, 5.613 and so forth. Between 5.612 and 5.613, there is 5.6121, 5.6122 ... and an
endless list of other numbers!
#5. Identity property

The identity property for addition tells us that zero added to any number is the num-
ber itself. Zero is called the “additive identity.” The identity property for multiplica-
tion tells us that the number 1 multiplied times any number gives the number itself.
The number 1 is called the “multiplicative identity.”
Addition
5y + 0 = 5y
Multiplication
2c × 1 = 2c
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To the above properties we have to add one more:
#6. Inverse property

The inverse property of addition states that if you add two opposite numbers, the
sum is zero. 6 and ‐6 are each other’s opposites as we have seen before. Therefore
6 + (-6) = 0
a + (-a) = 0
The inverse property of multiplication states that if you multiply a number by its re-
1
ciprocal, the product is 1. The reciprocal of 6 is . This is understandable if we
6
6
keep in mind that 6 can also be written as . Therefore
1
2.1.3 Types of numbers

Learners must master classes of numbers that share at least one specific property. We
introduce some classes of number, particularly those used in the Intermediate Phase.
a) Odd and even numbers: In the sequence of numbers every second number can
be divided by two and is said to be even. Those in between, are said to be odd and
cannot be divided by two.
ACTIVITY 2.1.3 (a)
ODD AND EVEN NUMBERS

You have four diagrams to work with: two odd, two even. Your answers can only
be in diagram form, no numbers. Follow the instructions and answer in diagram
form:
iii. Example: Add two even numbers ii. Add two odd numbers
iii. Multiply an even number by 2 iv. Multiply an odd number by 2
20
iiv. Multiply an even number by 3 ivi. Multiply an odd number by 3
vii. Divide an even number by 2 viii. Divide an odd number by 2
ix. Add an odd and even number iix. Add two consecutive numbers
xi. Add three consecutive numbers xii. Add four consecutive numbers
Feedback on Activity 2.1.3 (a)
Each part of the above activity creates number sense. Pay special attention to the
last three questions and reflect on the reason for this: the sum of two consecutive
numbers is always odd; the sum of three consecutive numbers is the third multiple
of the middle number; the sum of four consecutive number is double the sum of
the two middle numbers OR of the two outer numbers. Explain these observations
for yourself.
b) Prime numbers are whole number greater than one, whose only factors are one
and itself. (A factor is a whole number that can be divided evenly into another num-
ber). The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 and 17.
There is no pattern to prime numbers
if they are shaded in a consecutive
manner on a number chart. The math-
ematician Ulam discovered some form
of pattern in the Ulam’s prime number
spiral to the left. Note that 1 is not
prime number because it has only
one factor and 2 is prime number be-
cause it has two factors.
Image retrieved from https://nawleylottery.wordpress.com/2014/11/27/significance-of-prime-numbers/
c) Composite numbers are whole numbers that have more than two factors. They
came about by numbers multiplied by each other and can be factorised.
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When the sum of all the factors of a number, prime and composite factors (excluding
the number itself), is greater than the number, the number is said to be abundant. The
proper divisors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12. Because the sum of the proper divisors
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 12 = 36) is greater than 24, 24 is an abundant number. The
abundance is the difference between the sum of the number’s divisors and the num-
ber. 24 has an abundance of 12. Numbers like 14, whose proper divisors have a sum
that is less than the number itself (1 + 2 + 7 = 10), are called deficient or defective.
Some of the applications of factors of composite numbers are as follows:
Ɣ We can establish whether a number is a square or a cube through factorising:
144 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 24 x 32; √144 =√24 x 32 = 22 x 3 = 12
3 375 = 3 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 5 x 5 = 33 x 53; 3√3 375 = 3√33 x 53 = 3 x 5 = 15
Ɣ We can make calculations easier and more understandable if we break down num-
bers in their factors, as we shall see in a later section.
Ɣ We can find the Highest Common Factor and Lowest Common Multiple of sets of
numbers through factorising: Find the HCF and LCM of 144, 108 and 60.
144 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3; 108 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3; 60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5
The bold prime factors appear in all three numbers:
144 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = (2 x 2 x 3) x 2 x 2 x 3
108 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 = (2 x 2 x 3) x 3 x 3
60 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 = (2 x 2 x 3) x 5
The HCF of 144, 108 and 60 is 2 x 2 x 3 = 12
The LCM of 144, 108 and 60 is the HCF multiplied by all other factors as follows:
12 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 5 = 6 480
ACTIVITY 2.1.3 (b)
USING FACTORS TO LAY OUT A GARDEN

Using all factors of 36, lay out four more gardens with an area of 36 m2 and calcu-
late what length of fence you will need to fence each garden in.
Area is 12 m x 3 m = 36 m2
Fence needed to fence it in is
12 m + 3 m + 12 m + 3 m = 36 m
22
Feedback on Activity 2.1.3 (b)
We have interesting findings when we start comparing the product of a factor pair
and its sum. This is a crucial skill in number sense that will later be needed in fac-
torising trinomial quadratic expressions in algebra.
d) A square number or a perfect square is the product of some integer with itself. For
example, 9 is a square number, since it can be written as 3 × 3. The following high-
lighted numbers are squares up to 400 in our base ten number system:
e) A cubic number is the result of using an integer in multiplication of three times.

For example, 27 is a cubic number, since it can be written as 3 × 3 x 3. The following
highlighted numbers are cubes up to 400 in base ten number system:
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The table to the left

shows how it is possible
that a negative number
can be the cube of a
negative number and
how the third root of a
negative cubic number
is possible.
Image retrieved from https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/perfect-cubes.html
A number pattern of square numbers would look like this:

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81,100...
The first difference is:
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19...
The third difference is a constant of 2.
The third difference in a number pattern of squares is constant.
A number pattern of cubic numbers would look like this:
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000...
The first difference between the terms is:
7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 127, 169, 217, 271...
The second difference is:
12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54
The third difference is a constant of 6.
The third difference in a number pattern of cubes is constant.
24
f) Some interesting sets of numbers

Pascal’s triangle
Pascal’s triangle (named after the French
mathematician, Blaise Pascal) is a trian-
gular array of numbers in which those at
the ends of the rows are 1 and each of
the others is the sum of its nearest two
numbers in the row above it. The first di-
agonal is ones; the second is the count-
ing numbers, the third is the triangular
numbers and the fourth is the tetrahe-
dral numbers. The triangle is symmetri-
cal and the horizontal sums double each
time. Each line is an exponent (power of
11), eg 161051 = 115.
Image retrieved from https://www.mathsisfun.com/pascals-triangle.html
Fibonacci’s sequence
The Fibonacci sequence is the series of numbers: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55...
The following number is found by adding the previous two numbers. This sequence
appears in many very interesting places and situations, for example:
The Fibonacci spiral is drawn on what

came to be known as the golden ratio or
the golden rectangle, all squares of the
Fibonacci series. Read further on this se-
quence at https://www.scienceabc.com/
eyeopeners/why-are-fibonacci-numbers-
so-important.html
Image retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_spiral
2.2 CHANGE IN NUMBERS

Numbers change when numbers are added to, or subtracted from them, except in the
case of adding or subtracting the additive identity number 0.
Numbers change when they are multiplied or divided by numbers, except in the case
of multiplying or dividing by the multiplicative identity number 1.
In this section we shall firstly cover the very rich idea of the conceptual fields within
which numbers change, namely, the additive field and the multiplicative field. Sec-
ondly, we shall cover some methods and strategies of calculation using the four differ-
ent operations, adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing.
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2.2.1 Conceptual fields

The theory of conceptual fields can mainly be linked to the name of Gerhard Vergnaud,
a French mathematician, who developed the idea of conceptual fields with the pur-
pose to describe and analyse the progressive complexity of mathematical concepts
and to link theory and practice of mathematics.
Vergnaud distinguishes the operational form of mathematical knowledge which one
practices in real life and the predictive form of mathematical knowledge which in-
cludes verbal and symbolic representations of mathematics. The first one is what
mathematics IS and the second one is how mathematics is REPRESENTED.
Contrary to what was previously believed in some circles, children do not become pro-
ficient in complex mathematics on their own, just because of their cognitive develop-
ment stage. We can rather state that they become ready for more complex
mathematics at a certain development stage, and their logical reasoning is able to ac-
commodate more complex ideas. Teachers who have insight into the process of con-
ceptual understanding, teach mathematics with greater success. Below are two real
life situations (of the operational form of mathematics) which a Grade 4 learner can
understand with their operational knowledge of mathematics in this world:
a) A beggar has R5 in his tin in the morning and each time a passer-by drops R2 in the
tin. How much money will he have after the fifth person passed him?
b) A beggar has an empty tin in the morning and each time a passer-by drops R3 in
the tin. How much money will he have after the fifth person passed him?
When the formal mathematics of functions has been learned, learners can calculate
these life situations with predictive knowledge of symbols and calculations and rep-
resent them in table form as follows:
Situation a)
Passer-by ([) 1 2 3 4 5
Money (\) R7 R9 R11 R13 R15
Later they can go further and formulate the rule: y = 2x + 5

Situation b)
Passer-by ([) 1 2 3 4 5
Money (\) R3 R6 R9 R12 R15
Later they can go further and formulate the rule: y = 3[

In a graphic representation we can see that the two graphs cross each other at [ = 5.
Even before learners see it on the graph they can find it out mathematically by equat-
ing the two formulae: 2[ + 5 = 3x and solve for [. The logic behind this calculation is
within the reach of the Grade 7 or 8 learner when they start learning the formal mathe-
matics of functions and the direct proportion in Situation b) becomes clear.
26
We need to understand a few important ideas in mathematical concept formation:

Ɣ Concept‐in‐action: Concept formation requires systematic, step-by-step action like
when a child counts one by one object, and in the end tells how many objects
there are. In the action of counting they develop the concept that one object is
added each time until they have the total number of objects in the set.
Ɣ Conceptual field: Learners must see many situations where the same, and different
things happen to numbers: how money becomes less when they spend it; how
many learners are paired or grouped together; how birds multiply when their eggs
hatch; and how the books on the table become more when learners add books to
the pile. From the situations, they develop an idea of the same thing that happens
in certain situations, like something becoming less. When they group the situations
together which use the same concept, it forms a conceptual field. A conceptual
field is situations and concepts tied together.
From all the conceptual fields we need to understand two in the area of Numbers Op-
erations and Relationships, namely the additive conceptual field and the multiplicative
conceptual field.
The additive conceptual field: For addition there are two typical situations:
a) Situations where parts are added together to make a whole (part-part-whole):
Ɣ There are 35 chairs in the Grade 4 class and 39 in the Grade 5 class. How many
chairs are there all together?
Ɣ There are 17 boys and 18 girls in Grade 4. How many learners are there in Grade
4 all together?
Ɣ There are four cars and seven bicycles in the school yard. How many wheels are
there all together?
b) Situations where the initial number increases (comparison):
Ɣ Mpumi has four head-bands and her friend gives her another two. How many
does she have now?
Ɣ Oupa has twenty-four cows and he buys another eight. How many cows does
Oupa have now?
Ɣ Grandma is 72 years old. If she lives another 8 years, how old will she be?
We can do many things with these situations to help learners understand the additive
concept from all angles. We are now going to do an activity where we alternate addi-
tion and subtraction for the same situation and where we use different elements of
the situation each time to make sure the concepts take firm root:
ACTIVITY 2.1.1
THE ADDITIVE CONCEPTUAL FIELD

Write either a number sentence or rephrase the situation to fit the number sen-
tence for the following examples. In some cases, you may want to use subtraction
rather than addition to solve the situation.
Situation Number sentence
Part‐part whole example: 17 + 18 =
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Situation Number sentence

There are 17 boys and 18 girls in Grade 4. How many
learners are there in Grade 4 all together?
+ 18 = 35
There are 35 learners in Grade 4. When the girls are
out there are only 17 boys left. How many girls are in
class?
Comparison example:
Oupa has twenty-four cows and he buys another eight.
How many cows does Oupa have now?
32 – 8 =
Oupa has 24 cows but he really wants to have 32 cows.
How many more cows does he need to buy?
Part‐ part‐ whole is an important concept to prepare for fractions and ratio. For
example
Oupa increased his number of cows from 24 in the ratio 4:3. The bigger part of the
ratio is the new increased number of cows, which we call [.
x 4
So = which means he increased the number of cows to 32.
24 3
In comparing, “more” does not automatically mean addition and “less” or “fewer”
does not automatically mean subtraction: Oupa has 35 cows now, which is 11
more than he had last year. How many cows did he have last year? (35 – 11 = ).
It does not really matter what scheme a learner thinks up to solve a situation –
counting up, counting down, filling up to tens, or whatever they find work for
them to solve the problem successfully.
One of the most important tools in understanding the additive structures and con-
cepts (including subtraction of course) is an integer number line. All numbers in this
field are related to each other positionally on the number line, and the change or
transformation happens by moving from left to right and right to left.
The multiplicative conceptual field: It is true that in the transition period one can still
use repeated addition to multiply and repeated subtraction to divide, and this must
be acknowledged as one of the schemes that children use when they develop the con-
cept of proportionality. However, when children start to understand proportional rela-
tionships such as fractions, rate and ratio, they have truly progressed from additive
reasoning to multiplicative reasoning.
28
In this field the main relationship is the proportion of one quantity to another. The de-
velopment of proportional thinking is where one needs to make the transition from
whole numbers to rational numbers, which includes fractions.
As with many mathematical concepts, a new idea becomes more clearer when we in-
troduce it through a few situations, keeping in mind that a conceptual field is situa-
tions and concepts tied up together:
Ɣ Obakeng has R250 in his purse and he wants to pour petrol in his car. The price of
petrol is R16/litre. How many litres will he pour?
5
(R250 + R16 = 15.625 litre or 15 litre)
8
Ɣ Tebogo receives R8.50 per kilogram of waste plastic. He has collected 20.5 kg waste
plastic. How much money will he make?
(R8.50 X 20.5 = R174.25)
Ɣ Mommy weighs 4 what Daddy weighs. Daddy’s weight is 95 kg.
5
What does Mommy weigh?

4
( X 95 = 76kg)
5
Ɣ The principal orders 60 boxes of 72 pencils in the beginning of the year. Half of that
she keeps in the store room and the other half she shares equally among the
grades from Grade R – 7 teachers. How many does each grade receive?
60X72
( + 8 = 270)
2
Oupa increased his number of cows from 24 in the ratio 4:3. How many cows does
he have now?
24
( = 8 and 4 X 8 = 32)
3
To summarise: multiplicative reasoning is the ability to solve problems in proportional

situations involving fractions, decimals, percentages, ratios and proportions.
2.2.2 Calculation methods and strategies

A strategy is an overarching way of thinking about a problem, for example I will add
by breaking down numbers, while a method is how I will go about applying that strat-
egy, step by step. Learner invented strategies are reflecting learners’ own understand-
ing of number structures. The term heuristics means that learners may employ
strategies that are not prescribed or perfect but are sufficiently working to reach the
correct answer.
Addition
Some important knowledge to have before adding, are:
Ɣ The basic facts of bonds of ten and a clear concept of the number line
Ɣ Understanding the structure of numbers and the value of digits
Ɣ A clear concept of the additive identity of addition (and subtraction) zero
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The following strategies are popular based on number sense. They all build up to the
understanding of the vertical column strategy if taught correctly:
Strategy 1: Breaking up both numbers

597 + 884 = (500 + 90 + 7) + (800 + 80 + 4)
= (500 + 800) + (90 + 80) + (7 + 4)
= 1 300 + 170 + 11
= 1 481
Strategy 2: Breaking up the second number

597 + 884 = 597 + (800 + 80 + 4)
= (597 + 800) + 80 + 4
= (1 397 + 80) + 4
= 1 477 + 4
= 1 481
Strategy 3: Adding by compensation

Round one number and compensate by the opposite operation on the other.
597 + 884 (597 + 3 = 600 and 884 – 3 = 881)
600 + 881
= 1 481
Strategy 4: Adding horizontally and vertically by breaking down

7 + 4 = 11 add units horizontally
90 + 80 = 170 add tens horizontally
500 + 800 = 1 300 add hundreds horizontally
597 + 884 = 1 481 add totals vertically
Strategy 5: Standard algorithm – “column method”
30
Subtraction
Strategy 1: Breaking up both numbers
1 481 – 884 = (1000 + 400 + 80 + 1) – (800 + 80 + 4)
= 1000 + (400 – 800) + (80 – 80) + (1 – 4)
= (1 300 – 800) + (170 – 80) + (11 – 4)
= 597
Strategy 2: Breaking up the second number and counting down

1 481 – 884
1 481 – 800 = 681
681 – 80 = 601
601 – 4 = 597
Strategy 3: Adding on to the smaller number until you reach the bigger number
1 481 – 884
884 + 7 = 891 Start at the ones and work backwards
891 + 90 = 981
981 + 500 = 1 481
Add the 7 + 90 + 500 numbers and you get the answer: 597
Strategy 4: Standard algorithm – “column method”
Multiplication
Strategy 1: Repeated addition
1 722 x 4
= (1 000 + 1 000 + 1 000 + 1 000) + (700 + 700 + 700 + 700) + (20 + 20 + 20 + 20) +
= (2 + 2 + 2 + 2)
= 4 000 + 2 800 + 80 + 8
= 6 888
Strategies 2–4 depend on learners’ understanding of three ways that a number is com-
posed: either as the sum or as the difference of terms, or as the product of factors.
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Strategy 2: Breaking down the multiplicand in its terms and adding products
246 x 28
= 246 x (20 + 8)
= 4 920 + 1 968
= 6 888
Strategy 3: Breaking down the multiplicand in its terms and subtracting products
246 x 28
= 246 x (30 – 2)
= 7 380 – 492
= 6 888
Strategy 4: Breaking down the multiplicand in its factors and multiplying
246 x 28
= 246 x 7 x 4
= 1 722 x 4
= 6 888
Strategy 5: Doubling and halving
246 x 28
= 492 x 14
= 984 x 7
= 6 888
Strategy 6: Standard algorithm – column method
2 4 6
x 2 8
1 9 6 8
4 9 2 0
6 8 8 8
Division
Strategy 1: Multiple subtraction
567 + 38 = 14 with a remainder of 35
567 – 38 ѧ 529 – 38 ѧ 491 – 38ѧ 453 – 38 ѧ 415 – 38 ѧ 377 – 38 ѧ 339 – 38 ѧ
301 – 38 ѧ 263 – 38 ѧ 225 – 38 ѧ 187 – 38 ѧ 149 – 38 ѧ 111 – 38 ѧ 73 – 38 ѧ 35
32
Strategy 2: Breaking up the divisor in its factors

This method is not helpful for bigger numbers like in our example, because 567 is nei-
ther divisible by 2 nor by 19. It can only help where the dividend and the divisor have
at least one factor in common, in which case it resembles simplifying a fraction:
39 = 3 x 13; 567 and 39 have 3 as their highest common factor, so we divide 567
by 3 first and then by 13.
Note that we have to multiply the eventual remainder by 3 again. (Why?)
567 + 39 = 567 + 3 + 13 = 189 + 13 = 14 (with a remainder of 7 x 3 = 21)
Strategy 3: Standard algorithm – vertical division

It is all important to space and position the digits properly when doing division in the
standard way. If the instruction is to divide the two numbers and give the answer to
two decimal places, we calculate up to three decimal places and round off, so we give
an approximate answer: 567 + 38 14.92.
It helps to work on quad paper to space and position numbers correctly by keeping
the decimal points exactly underneath each other. It is also helpful to immediately
mark all the blocks in the units column with its decimal point as illustrated below:
ACTIVITY 2.2.2
NUMBER OPERATIONS
Do the calculations below using the two strategies that are suggested in each
case:
5 968 + 2 415
breaking down both numbers
5 968 + 2 417
breaking down the second number
8 164 – 2 579
breaking down the second number
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8 164 – 2 579
using the standard algorithm
387 x 45
breaking down the multiplier in its terms
387 x 45
breaking down the multiplier in its factors
783 + 45
using the highest common factor
783 + 45
using the standard algorithm
It takes a very clear understanding of number and the composition of number to

be able to do calculations using the four operations. It therefore makes absolute
sense to work on number sense properly if the operations are to be understood
and applied properly.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Fault analysis in diagnostic assessment is a powerful way to establish whether a teach-
er understands the development of number sense and number concepts. Go through
the following (true) case study of a Grade 7 learner with an extra mathematics teacher
who tries to make sense of his ever-increasing backlog:
3 3
“John, what is three fifths plus three fifths? + ”
5 5
“I think it is six tenths Mam.”

“John, show me on this number line where three fifths is”
“It is somewhere over here I think Mam.”

Analyse the learner’s fault(s) and try to establish which concepts are not in place.
CONCLUSION
The development of number sense, the sense of when and how to apply operations
on numbers, and the relationships between numbers are fundamental components of
mathematical knowledge and understanding. In fact, without that mathematical profi-
ciency is unthinkable. Rote counting and calculating do not bring about number sense
and fail learners at a later stage in their mathematical careers.
34
In this learning unit we had the opportunity to appreciate the extremely intricate and
complex process and components of the development of number sense. Teachers
who succeed in fostering this crucial proficiency in learners may see it as a major ac-
complishment and contribution to the educational system of which they are part.

Transition Mathematics by Zalman Usiskin can be downloaded for free from the fol-
lowing site and give extremely valuable insights on a number of issues that we ad-
dressed in this learning unit.
https://archive.org/details/transitionmathe100usis
A lovely article on fostering Number Sense by Sharon Griffin can be retrieved from:
https://www.nap.edu/read/10126/chapter/7
Similarly, an article on the development of students’ early number sense from:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01286931/document
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Learning unit 3
Problem solving
Contents
3.1 HIGHER ORDER NUMERICAL REASONING 36

3.1.1 Level 1: Mathematical knowledge 37
3.1.2 Level 2: Routine Procedures 38
3.1.3 Level 3: Complex Procedures 40
3.1.4 Level 4: Problem Solving 41
3.2 NUMBER PROBLEMS 43
3.2.1 The situational nature of number problems 44
3.2.2 The construction of number problems 47
3.2.3 Critical problem-solving skills 51
3.2.4 Heuristics 53
INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 3 we shall focus on mathematical problem solving, firstly from a sub-
jective point of view, that is the learner’s various levels of numerical reasoning, sec-
ondly from an objective point of view, that is the nature and construct of number
problems and lastly, from the educational point of view, how problem solving skills
are developed in children.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Ɣ Explain the higher order thinking processes of number and operation concepts;
Ɣ Construct problem solving methods in relation to numbers and operations;
Ɣ Apply proportional reasoning processes involving numbers and operations;
Ɣ Illustrate critical problem solving skills in high order tasks; and
Ɣ Create scenarios where learners analyse and solve real world situations.
3.1 HIGHER ORDER NUMERICAL REASONING

According to the NCTM, “Problem solving means engaging in a task for which the sol-
ution method is not known in advance. In order to find a solution, students must draw
on their knowledge, and through this process, they will often develop new mathemati-
cal understandings. Solving problems is not only a goal of learning mathematics, but
36
3UREOHP VROYLQJ /HDUQLQJ XQLW
also a major means of doing so.” (NCTM, 2000, p. 52). This quote was retrieved from
https://www.learner.org/courses/teachingmath/gradesk_2/session_03/index.html.
Through problem solving students start making sense out of mathematical concepts.
In the traditional approach to problem solving, concepts were taught first and then
problems were given to apply concepts in context. The more effective approach is to
use problem situations to introduce and develop concepts, based on previous
knowledge.
We are going to look at the way that Problem Solving is approached in the CAPS docu-
ment as the highest order of cognitive skill. To this end, we shall go through the differ-
ent cognitive levels mentioned in the CAPS document, to make a clear distinction
between these levels, especially when it comes to problem solving.
Without being over-critical towards the CAPS document, reading through the follow-
ing paragraphs will leave some questions as to the clarity of the policy document on
the cognitive levels. We start each section by quoting from the CAPS document, then
we provide examples at that cognitive level and lastly, we give a deeper explanation
of what is involved in the specific level and how it is developed in the mathematics
classroom. We interrupt some sections with an activity for you, the student, to practice
your understanding of questions at the specific level.
3.1.1 Level 1: Mathematical knowledge

The CAPS document stipulates that 25% of the marks in the Intermediate Phase should
be allocated at the Knowledge level. This level is described as follows:
Ɣ Estimation and appropriate rounding off of numbers.
Ɣ Straight recall.
Ɣ Identification and direct use of correct formula.
Ɣ Use of mathematical facts.
Ɣ Appropriate use of mathematical vocabulary.
The following task examples illustrate the knowledge level according to the CAPS:
1. Write down the next three numbers in the sequence: 103; 105; 107…[Grade 4]
2. Determine the factors of 64 [Grade 5]
3. Write down the prime numbers that are factors of 36 [Grade 6]
4. Estimate the answer, then check with a calculator:
62 816
[Grade 7]
325 + 279
It is worth spending time on knowledge building in mathematics, because it is founda-

tional to building further concepts. We can reasonably expect that learners will be able
to remember and demonstrate the majority of facts that they had learned, but if they
only know the facts off by heart without understanding, this knowledge will not serve
as the basis for the further cognitive levels.
How knowledge is built: Knowledge is drilled into learners through repetition, like
knowing the basic bonds (e.g. 7 + 4 = 11), knowing how to count in certain numbers
(e.g. in fours: 4, 8, 12, 16...), knowing the times tables off by heart, knowing formulae (e.
g. formula for simple interest and what the letters stand for), knowing the number line
and rounding (e.g. that you round 4 and less down, and 5 and more up), etc.
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Knowledge and understanding: At this cognitive level, it cannot be assumed that

learners know with understanding and therefore understanding is not assessed under
“knowledge”. However, knowledge is not worth much at the further cognitive levels
without understanding. Also, knowledge is retrieved from the memory stores much
more easily and reliably if it is strengthened by understanding. We can illustrate this
point by an example: If the formula for simple interest was to be asked at this cogni-
tive level, a learner could remember the formula in part, P.n.r, but forget that P.n.r are
all over 100. However if they understood that interest rate is given as a percentage
and should be calculated in a fraction form, they would remember the fraction form of
P.n.r
the formula SI = because they understand the reason behind it.
100
How knowledge is demonstrated: The way to demonstrate knowledge, is by remem-

bering it and then communicating it through saying or writing it. Therefore, exercising
knowledge is not only drilling it in, but also practicing to say it and write it down.
When teachers drill the times tables for example, it should not only be the whole class
chanting out “7, 14, 21, 28, 35...” etc, but accompanied by something like this, to make
each learner active:
Also, to ensure that knowledge can be retrieved consistently and reliably, the times ta-
ble should be asked random in mental maths, like “7 x 5? 7 x 9?”. Learners can sit with
paper and pen and all write down the answers.
3.1.2 Level 2: Routine Procedures

be allocated at the Routine Procedures level. This level is described as follows:
Ɣ Perform well-known procedures.
Ɣ Simple applications and calculations, which might involve many steps.
Ɣ Derivation from given information may be involved.
Ɣ Identification and use of correct formulae usually similar to those encountered in
class.
The following task examples illustrate the Routine Procedures level according to CAPS:
1. Determine the value for if + 4 = 10. [Grade 4]

2. Use three different techniques of calculating 488 x 16 [Grade 5]
1 3 1
3. Calculate: + – [Grade 6]
5 10 2
Where the first cognitive level has to do with knowledge, this cognitive level has to do
with skill. There is a clear distinction between what a learner knows and what they can
do, however, what they can do is mostly built upon what they know. A routine
38
procedure would include straight forward questions, context free or in-context, such
as the following:
a) Grade 4: Calculate the product of 234 and 56. Knowledge of the term “product” is re-
quired and the skill to multiply a 3-digit number by a 2-digit number. This is a con-
text free question. It would be in-context if the question read: Sam buys 234 bottles
of oil at R56 each. What did he pay in total?
b) Grade 5: What is the volume of a rectangular prism with a length of 4 cm, a width/
breadth of 5 cm and a height of 6 cm? Apart from the skill of multiplying three num-
bers, the knowledge of the term “rectangular prism” is required, as well as the
knowledge of representing the answer in the cubic unit cm3. This is a context free
question. In-context it would read: Determine which box can hold more: a box that
is 4 cm long, 5 cm wide and 6 cm high, or a box that is 10 cm long, 3 cm high and 4
cm wide? 3
2
c) Grade 6: Convert the fraction 4 to a decimal fraction. Knowledge of decimal frac-
tions as fractions with denominators of powers of 10, is required to do this conver-
sion. This is a context-free question. In context it would read:
3
Thami ran 2 km. How far is that expressed in a decimal form?
4
d) Grade 7: Divide 429 in a ratio of 3 : 2 : 5. Knowledge of the concept ratio is required,

as well as that the parts of the ratio together form a whole and that each part is a
fraction of the whole (in this case a fraction of the whole amount of 429). This is a
context free question. In context, it would read: There are 429 pens in the store room.
They are in a ratio of 3 black pens : 2 red pens : 5 blue pens. How many of each colour
pens are there in the store room?
Note: The mere fact that a question is phrased in word form or set in a real-life context,
does not make it an item of the higher order on the cognitive level: Problem Solving. A
language element was added, not a mathematical element. Language should not add to
the complexity of the problem. The calculation may still be a single simple procedure
based on straight forward knowledge, requiring basic skills at the specific grade level.
ACTIVITY 3.1.2
ROUTINE PROCEDURES
According to our examples above, set up one example question in a real-life con-
text, using a single routine procedure.
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When you read the explanation of Complex Procedures and Problem Solving, you
will be able to judge whether your question is at the right pitch and whether it can
go through as a Routine Procedure.
3.1.3 Level 3: Complex Procedures

be allocated at the Complex Procedures level. This level is described as follows:
Ɣ Problems involving complex calculations and/or higher order reasoning.
Ɣ Investigations to describe rules and relationships – there is often not an obvious
route to the solution.
Ɣ Problems not based on a real world context – could involve making significant con-
nections between different representations.
Ɣ Conceptual understanding.
The following task examples illustrate the Complex Procedures level according to
CAPS:
1. Peggy is 4 years old and Jock is 8 years old. Determine the ratio between their ages.
Write the ratio in simplest fractional form. [Grade 4]
2. Investigate the properties of rectangles and squares to identify similarities and dif-
ferences. [Grade 5]
3. There were 20 sweets in the packet. William and his friend ate of the sweets.
How many sweets are left. [Grade 6]
From the examples above, it is clear that the CAPS document illustrates the difference
between Routine Procedures and Complex Procedures by moving from context free
procedures to procedures in context or “word sums”. This is absolutely not the case.
There may be context free problems (problems stated in numbers and symbols only)
which are complex, and problems in context (“word problems”) which are routine.
The main distinguishing characteristic of a complex procedure (versus a routine proce-
dure) is that it regularly requires more than one procedure, of which the learner has to
make the decision which comes first in order to solve the question. In complex proce-
dures an additional requirement is added to the previous requirements of knowledge
and skills, namely understanding. Learners need to integrate their existing knowledge
and skills with understanding to be able to solve complex procedures.
The following examples demonstrate the nature of a complex procedure at different
grade levels:
a) Grade 4: Tomorrow is athletics day at school. Mom makes double the number of
sandwiches than she usually makes. Then she adds four sandwiches so that Jabu
and Phuti can each get 6 sandwiches. How many does she usually make?
b) Grade 5: Jabu and Phuti are now 8 years and 12 years old. Calculate the ratio of Ja-
bu’s age to Phuti’s age in four years’ time.
c) Grade 6: Jabu writes a test out of 60 marks. He got 60% but he wanted 70%. How
many more marks did he need to get 70%?
Context free problems using different operations where learners have to make deci-
sions about the order of operations are strictly speaking routine procedures. The fact
40
that learners know the BODMAS principle (at the knowledge level) makes it routine to
decide which operation to do first. It does not require an independent decision from
them as to which operation to choose to do first, as would be in a complex procedure.
There appears to be two extreme views on the testing of knowledge and routine pro-
cedures: at one end, some teachers over-emphasize these levels at the cost of complex
procedures and problem-solving. They would regard routine procedures stated in
word form (“word sums”) as Problem-Solving, and would break down the steps of a
complex procedure, in that taking away the decision-making of the learner, which is a
vital requirement to cope with complex procedures. At the other end, some teachers
have a view of testing understanding throughout because they reason that mathe-
matics knowledge and routine procedures are meaningless without understanding.
ACTIVITY 3.1.3
COMPLEX PROCEDURES
According to our examples above, set up one example question in a real-life con-
text, using complex procedures.
When you keep in mind that a complex procedure contains more than one opera-
tion, of which learners need to make the decision themselves which operation to
do first, you will be able to judge whether your question is at the right pitch and
whether it can go through as a Complex Procedure.
3.1.4 Level 4: Problem Solving

be allocated at the Problem-Solving level. This level is described as follows:
Ɣ Unseen, non-routine problems (which are not necessarily difficult)
Ɣ Higher order understanding, and processes are often involved
Ɣ Might require the ability to break the problem down into its constituent parts
The following task examples illustrate the Problem-Solving level according to CAPS:
1. The sum of three consecutive whole numbers is 27. Find the numbers. [Grade 4]
2. Heidi divided a certain number by 16. She found an answer of 246 with a remainder
of 4. What is the number? [Grade 5]
3. Busi has a bag containing six coloured balls: 1 blue, 2 red ball and 3 yellow balls.
She puts her hand in the bag and draws a ball. What is the chance that she will
draw a red ball? Write the answer in simplest fractional form. [Grade 6]
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The examples above do not comply with the requirements of the Problem-Solving
cognitive level – in other words, the highest order of mathematical thinking. The
Grade 4 example can be solved by trial and improvement as a simple strategy. The
Grade 5 example requires inverse operations, which is a strategy used in flow diagrams
as routine procedures. The Grade 6 example is a simple probability question requiring
nothing more than a routine procedure.
The highest order of mathematical reasoning is required at the Problem-Solving level.
The knowledge and skills, even the integration of knowledge and skills with under-
standing, are not sufficient at this level. It requires a fully-fledged conceptual under-
standing of the properties and proofs underlying mathematical ideas. Additionally, it
requires true interest and dedication.
Teachers will have noticed that there are different types of learners that succeed at this
level, the first being those who are faring very well at the other cognitive levels and
who enjoy challenging mathematical problems. They can usually explain in a system-
atic way how they approached and solved the problem. At this level, the A candidates
distinguish themselves from the rest.
The second type of learner usually surprises all expectations, as they do not fare well
on knowledge and procedures but have an unconventional way of figuring out the
most complex mathematical problem. They can usually not explain how they got onto
the solution, as they have not used any existing or acknowledged “method” to come
to their conclusion. This phenomenon is a pointer towards professional diagnostic as-
sessment, because in this case there is a propensity for higher order mathematical rea-
soning, however, there are challenges at the lower levels that have not been
addressed in an effective way.
Problems are regularly set in a context and worded in a narrative form. This may cause
a challenge which is non-mathematical – in fact it is a language problem. What may in-
terfere with the ability of learners to solve problems, is their ability to make meaning
of the English text in the Intermediate Phase. It is therefore preferable that simple,
clear and straight forward language is used for word problems, so that language abil-
ity or lack of ability does not play a role or interfere in problem-solving, for example:
1 1
a) Grade 4: Mom makes 24 pancakes from 4 cups of flour, 1 teaspoons salt, 3
2 2
cups water and 3 eggs. If she has to make pancakes from two dozen eggs, how
much of the other ingredients will she use and how many pancakes will she make?
13
b) Grade 5: Write as the sum of unit fractions (fractions with one as numerator)
20
other than twentieths. Use as few fractions as possible for example:
c) Grade 6: I buy 3 litre of cold drink at a supermarket. The price with 15% VAT in-
cluded is R35.91 for the 3 litre. What is the price of 1 litre before tax is added?
42
ACTIVITY 3.1.4
PROBLEM SOLVING
The following mathematics problem was retrieved from the AMESA website at
http://www.amesa.org.za/Challenge/Wiskunde.html
Study this problem and say to which extent it complies with the properties of Prob-
lem-Solving set out above, and how do you see it using higher order mathematical
thinking?
This photo of 120 mm x 90 mm is enlarged to 360 mm x 270 mm. The elephant’s

tail in the smaller photo is 22 mm long. How long is its tail in the larger photo?
(A) 33 mm (B) 44 mm (C) 55 mm (D) 66 mm (E) 99 mm
Through this example it becomes clear that no existing procedure can guide a
learner to solve this problem. They have to think mathematically.
It is required that formal assessments are set at the various cognitive levels, ranging
from the Knowledge level to the Problem-Solving level. Furthermore, these levels have
to be accommodated within the assessments in a specific ratio, as we have pointed
out above.
This requirement is probably one of the most complex ideas of all for the teacher to
meet when setting School Based Assessments.
In the next section we are going to focus on how to set number problems that require
higher order thinking, and how to prepare learners to be ready to reach this cognitive
level in mathematics.
3.2 NUMBER PROBLEMS

Before we plunge into this section we need to clarify some terms:
Ɣ A strategy is the more comprehensive term pointing to an overarching way of
thinking about a problem, for example adding by breaking down numbers.
Ɣ A method is the specific way of how one will go about applying that strategy, step
by step, for example writing down the terms of the second number horizontally in
brackets next to the first number, then adding them one by one, separating each
pair by an arrow.
Ɣ Heuristics is a way of teaching where learners explore and discover things for
themselves; a way of learning by experience, rather than being told, for example
finding that half of a half apple is a quarter apple and quarter of a half apple is an
eighth apple, rather than giving them the algorithm of dividing fractions by fraction
in symbol form straight-away.
Ɣ Learner invented strategies are individual and often original ways of approaching
a task, reflecting learners’ own understanding of number structures. The strategies
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may not be prescribed, short or perfect, but they are sufficiently working to reach
the correct answer.
Ɣ Answer is the result of a calculation, (the product, root, difference, quotient, sum of
operations) meaning that a complex procedure may have various answers.
Ɣ Solution is the over-arching term used for the eventual result of the logical
thought process of investigating and solving a problem situation.
Ɣ Situation is a set of circumstances within which something happens, for example
Mom has R300 in her purse and she needs to buy the following list of groceries...
Note that a situation is describing something that happens in the real world.
Ɣ A problem in mathematics has a different meaning to a problem in daily life. It re-
fers to inquiries that start from a set of conditions which need investigation.
¾ If the conditions are symbols and signs, we refer to a context free problem.
¾ If the conditions or circumstances represent a life situation, we refer to it as a sit-
uated problem or a problem in context.
Ɣ Metacognition is the mental process of being aware of what you do, how and why
you do it. It is a crucial part of controlling mathematical activities internally and
working out pathways to consciously solve mathematical problems.
3.2.1 The situational nature of number problems

Mathematics instruction should become a natural part of the activities of learners in
the situations that they experience daily. This is a shift away from teaching mathe-
matics as a classroom subject that is only vaguely related to reality. Mathematics show
up in children’s lived realities and they start to experience it through mathematics
teaching.
All children’s experience of reality will not spontaneously result in the development of
mathematical concepts. This means we cannot just leave children to experience the
mathematics around them in their lives and take for granted that they will be able to
apply their mathematics knowledge to these situations. It is a teaching task to inten-
tionally design instruction such that learners can form their own models to work from
in solving problems. The ideal is that learners form mathematical concepts from their
working with situational problems that were set up intentionally for that purpose.
In the traditional approach to mathematics teaching, the teacher would typically start
a lesson by telling learners the facts and the methods, in other words by the system-
atic transfer of knowledge. The formal transfer of knowledge would then be followed
up by exercises in the text book - routine applications of the knowledge, only trans-
ferred. At the end of the long list of exercises, there would be “word sums”, which was
said to be the application of knowledge in context.
In the modern-day approach, however, the starting point is real contexts, which re-
quire that learners become mathematically active immediately. They will receive a sit-
uation (designed around the mathematical concept for the day) which they have to
investigate to find a solution to the problem. When instruction is planned like this,
learners develop their own models of the situation. Only after they had gone through
their informal processes, built their own models, formed their own understanding and
made their own findings, the teacher formalises the concept in mathematical lan-
guage and algorithms.
44
ACTIVITY 3.2.1
MODEL BUILDING IN PROBLEM-SOLVING

In this activity, in the first column, we are going to make an example of a model
that a learner built to solve a problem and in the second column, we are going to
formulate another problem for you to build a typical learner model:
Mom makes 8 pancakes from 1 cup Jabu had a few marbles. Today he
1
flour, teaspoon salt, 2 cups water played and doubled his number of
2
marbles. Then Thabo gave him three
and 1 egg.
marbles for free. Jabu has 21 marbles
How much of each ingredient will she now. How many did he have before he
use to make 20 pancakes? started playing?
The simple mental- and pictorial (graphic) model that a learner builds, helps to
understand the concept of multiplying by a mixed number, including a fraction. It
is not the shortest way, but understanding is created that can be applied to other
problems.
We have just illustrated a modern-day term that is becoming more and more popular,
namely modelling as a powerful tool in solving situations in mathematics. The term re-
fers to the idea that learners build in their minds and play out with objects or in pic-
ture form on paper sometimes to solve problems.
Read carefully through the following excerpt from a paper by Werner Blum on the idea
of modelling in mathematics, retrieved from http://citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/viewdoc/
download?doi=10.1.1.580.7314&rep=rep1&type=pdf
0DWKHPDWLFDO PRGHOOLQJ LQ PDWKHPDWLFV HGXFDWLRQ DQG LQVWUXFWLRQ

What is mathematical modelling?
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The starting point is a situation in the real world, that means in the rest of the world
outside mathematics. The situation normally has to be simplified, structured and
made more precise by the problem solver, which leads to a real model of the situa-
tion. The real model is not – as one will often read – merely a simplified but true im-
age of some part of an objective, pre‐existing reality. Rather the step from situation
to model also creates a piece of reality, dependent on the intentions and interests of
the problem solver.
Then, if possible (if there is some mathematics in it), the real model is mathema-
tised, that is translated into mathematics, resulting in a mathematical model of the
original situation. Sometimes, different models of the same situation may be con-
structed. The problem‐solving process continues by choosing suitable methods and
working within mathematics, through which certain mathematical results are ob-
tained. These have to be retranslated into the real world – that is, to be interpreted in
relation to the original situation. In doing so, the problem solver also validates the
mathematical model. If discrepancies occur – which will often happen in reality,
since there are so many potential pitfalls ‐ then the cycle has to start again.
Actually, all of the above is valid only for ‘really real’ situations. Sometimes especially
in school mathematics – the given situation is just an artificial dressing‐up of some
purely mathematical problem. Then the model‐ building process consists merely of
an undressing of this word problem, and the problem‐solving process stops after on-
ly one cycle. Nevertheless, such artificial problems may be of didactical value.
Mathematical modelling in mathematics education and instruction

The term application of mathematics may be used for different parts of this cycle. A
real‐ world situation may be called an application, using mathematics to investigate
real situations may be denoted applying mathematics, or any manner of connecting
the real world with mathematics can be seen as an application of mathematics.
Equally, the term mathematical modelling may mean the process of model building,
leading from a real situation to a mathematical model, or the whole applied prob-
lem‐ solving process, or again any manner of connecting the real world with
mathematics.
In recent years, the term applications and modelling (or vice versa) is frequently used
as an all‐embracing expression for the various interrelations just mentioned. In the
following, in order to simplify matters, I will use the term (mathematical) model-
ling mostly in this comprehensive and extensive sense. This terminology is also justi-
fied by the fact that there is an international trend towards broadening the views on
applications, models, mathematising, modelling, links between mathematics and
other subjects, and so on. Thus, the relations between these components have be-
come stronger in the last ten years, both in research and in practice.
Many ways of dealing with a problem can be seen as model building. It can be physi-
cal manipulatives, drawings, verbal descriptions, mental images, diagrams and sym-
bols. While the learner’s model is emerging, the teacher can watch and can respond
when the learner asks for help, but she does not interrupt or intervene until they come
up with their own models and have explained them.
46
Modelling is the ideal way of progressing from an informal concept to a formal mathe-
matical concept, as was illustrated in our example in Activity 3.2.1. The most important
thing is that learners have to think out the model by which they are going to solve the
problem, which means it starts as a mental model. It also means that the learner be-
comes an active participant in the learning situation. This is contrary to the traditional
way of teaching, where most of the effort, energy and activity came from the teacher
and the learner was more passive. This is turning the situation around that the teacher
is the owner of knowledge, because the learner becomes the creator and owner of
knowledge. When learners build models, they recall their existing knowledge and con-
sciously work to create the new concept, which is metacognitive engagement.
At this point we understand how important concept formation through modelling of
situations is. What can a teacher do if a learner refuses to do modelling and insists to
go straight to calculation with numbers and symbols only? Our suggestion is that the
teacher reverses the situation in such an instance, requesting the learner to illustrate
the calculation that they had made. In this way the teacher can make sure that there is
proper understanding underlying the calculation.
3.2.2 The construction of number problems

We are now going to study some examples of number problems and learn from them
how to construct such problems.
Below are eleven items from an AMESA Grade 5 Mathematics challenge paper (2014)
in the content area: Numbers, Operations and Relationships, retrieved from http://
www.amesa.org.za/Challenge/Wiskunde.html . Read through each problem very care-
fully to be able to do the activity following, based on these problems.
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48
ACTIVITY 3.2.2
CONSTRUCTING NUMBER PROBLEMS

a) List the items that are context free.
b) In your opinion, for items number 1 and 3, how
would a non-mathematical thinker approach
the problem and how would a mathematical
thinker approach it? Show the calculations of
how you think they would do it differently.
c) We make a statement that item number 4 is
not a number problem, but a knowledge ques-
tion in the content area Numbers, Operations &
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Relationships. Give your opinion on that and

motivate your opinion.
d) For item number 5, draw a model of how a
Grade 5 learner would typically work out this
problem.
e) For item number 7,
Ɣ Are there more than one correct answer
from the given options?
Ɣ Could there be more than one correct an-
swer, and if so, list some more possibilities.
Ɣ Defend the following statement: Providing
answer options can limit learners’ mathemat-
ical creativity and thinking processes.
f) Read the instructions going with items number
9 and 16. We state that not all Grade 5 learners
will understand what is required of them. Try to
improve on the wording or phrasing to make it
more understandable. To be able to do this,
you first need to make out for yourself what
really is required to be found out in both items.
g) Classify item number 15 in terms of the cogni-
tive level that it is on –
Ɣ Knowledge
Ɣ Routine Procedure
Ɣ Complex Procedure
Ɣ Problem-solving
Ɣ Motivate your answer.
h) Compare questions 17 and 18, which are both
about palindrome numbers.
Ɣ Classify both items in terms of their
Ɣ Answer item 17 and show your calculations
i) Build a diagrammatic model to work out the
solution to item number 19.
In this activity we have engaged with various aspects of number problem construc-
tion including the cognitive level at which it is set, whether it is a context-free or
situated problem, the phrasing of instructions, which is one disadvantage of multi-
choice answers in terms of creative freedom and model building as a strategy in
problem-solving. Even with this exposure, it remains a challenge to set good num-
ber problems.
50
Some steps in constructing number problems:

a) Identify the concept that is the focus of the day. We take as an example, the addi-
tion of fractions of which one denominator is a multiple of the other.
b) Prepare the lesson with all the elements of a regular lesson plan, including the ex-
position of the concept, the class work and the homework. Add to that, before the
exposition of the concept, a section with the problem that learners must investi-
gate and for which they have to build a model.
c) Phrase the goal of the problem investigation, in this case for example: To demon-
strate an understanding that fractions can be added if their denominators are the
same.
d) Think of a situation in real life where something that is in a fraction is added to
something that is in a fraction with a denominator which is a multiple of the other
fraction, for example, Mpumi’s mom always cuts her sandwiches in quarters and
Mpho’s mom cuts her sandwiches in halves. At first break they eat some of their sand-
wiches and at second break they bring their sandwiches together to see how many
they have altogether. Mpumi had three half sandwiches and Mpho had five quarter
sandwiches left. How many sandwiches do they have altogether?
e) Build your own model for the situation to test it out and to see whether one has
the opportunity to learn the concept through this problem, for example:
In summary, instructional design should include the planning for investigation of a

problem that enables the exploration of a mathematical concept and the construction
of learner models. The models that learners build when they explore a mathematical
concept have to be consciously constructed mentally. The mental model is the refer-
ence point for the teacher to start teaching formal mathematics and can then be gen-
eralised to related contexts without the need for reverting back to informal
exploration.
3.2.3 Critical problem-solving skills

From the many definitions of critical problem‐solving skills or critical thinking we have
extracted some key processes or activities which we listed in the table below:
Systematic information processing Intentional application of higher order

including thinking skills
Ɣ observation Ɣ problem identification
Ɣ experiencing Ɣ analysis
Ɣ reasoning Ɣ synthesis
Ɣ reflection Ɣ inference
Ɣ communication Ɣ evaluation
Lists of the processes involved in critical thinking skills remain theoretical and do not
help much when we want to know as teachers how we develop these skills in learners.
The Center for Critical Thinking in California is probably the best equipped to give us
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practical guidance firstly of what critical thinking is and secondly of how to develop it.
They stress the metacognitive aspect of critical thinking as follows:
“Critical thinking is the ability to think about one’s thinking in such a way as
1. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result,
2. To recast the thinking in improved form” (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996).
Critical thinking or critical reasoning is however more than metacognition. In fact, it is
more than thinking and it is more than reasoning. Yes, it is a conscious process, of
which one is aware as you do it, but it is also a systematic process of reasoning: to put
something, a statement or a problem for example, in front of you, to observe it prop-
erly and then to make a judgment (assessment or evaluation) about it based on specif-
ic criteria. What we have done in Activity 3.2.2 for example, required critical thinking
on your part. All of these are done consciously and intentionally.
We have listed eight properties of critical thinking skills (CTS) below*, with an example
for each of them. In Activity 3.2.3, complete the questions following each example:
* Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24-28
ACTIVITY 3.2.3
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

CTS involve asking questions. CTS involve defining problems.
Your principal instructs you to add A learner adds two fractions as follows:
10% to all your learners’ marks on their
reports.
Formulate two critical questions that Define the problem which you have to
you can ask in response to the work on with this learner.
instruction.
CTS involve examining given evidence. CTS involve analysing assumptions.
“I can tell that 918 273 645 can be “I can tell there are 5 sheep and 4
divided by 9 without calculation.” ducks.”
What evidence does the speaker have
to be able to make this statement?
Analyse the speaker’s assumption and
reason with her that she may be wrong.
CTS involve avoiding emotional CTS involve avoiding quick, simple

arguments. solutions.
“I go for this option – I just feel this “It is simple, you just look where two or
must be the answer.” four legs or are close to each other.”
Give a reasonable argument why feel- Refer to the duck-and-sheep problem
ing is not a reliable method in and warn the speaker not to over-
mathematics. simplify.
52
CTS involve considering other viewpoints. CTS involve tolerating uncertainty.

“There are no ducks on the farm. There “Your cannot tell for sure how many
are only sheep.” sheep and ducks there are”
Try to make sense of this learner’s in- Explain to a class why we have to settle
terpretation in the solution. sometimes for not knowing for sure.
The above list adapted from the list by Wade (1995) gives a good idea of what is
meant by critical thinking skills and how that differs from simple thinking pro-
cesses. It is clear why CTS are regarded as higher order thinking.
At the core of quality assuring critical thinking skills in the classroom, is question-and-
answer where question-and-query is followed by answer-and-argument, followed by
question-and-query... etc. This is done through class discussion, peer questioning,
group debate, word-wars, argument battles, cooperative learning in pairs – all on a
mathematical topic. Both learners and teacher do quality assurance of the reasoning
and arguments. They all check one another’s reasoning through ongoing (continuous)
peer-, self- and classroom assessment and they challenge one another to argue very
logically.
DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS through Q&A

Question & Answer
Query & Argument
Quality Assurance
3.2.4 Heuristics
A term that is often used and that is increasingly associated with proficiency in mathe-
matical thinking, is the term heuristics. We have retrieved an informative article from
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-heuristic-2795235 which gives us an under-
standing of what the concept entails. While you are reading this article, keep the heu-
ristics of mathematics in mind, and think how heuristics apply in mental maths.
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judg-
ments quickly and efficiently. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-mak-
ing time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about
their next course of action. Heuristics are helpful in many situations, but they can al-
so lead to cognitive biases.
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A Brief History of Heuristics

It was during the 1950s that the Nobel-prize winning psychologist Herbert Simon
suggested that while people strive to make rational choices, human judgment is
subject to cognitive limitations. Purely rational decisions would involve weighing
such factors as potential costs against possible benefits. But people are limited by
the amount of time they have to make a choice as well as the amount of information
we have at our disposal.
Other factors such as overall intelligence and accuracy of perceptions also influence
the decision-making process.
During the 1970s, the psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman presented
their research on the cognitive biases that influence how people think and the judg-
ments people make.
As a result of these limitations, we are forced to rely on mental shortcuts to help us
make sense of the world. Simon’s research demonstrated that humans were limited
in their ability to make rational decisions, but it was Tversky and Kahneman’s work
that introduced the specific ways of thinking people rely on to simplify the decision-
making process.
Why Do We Use Heuristics?

Why do we rely on heuristics? Psychologists have suggested a few different theories:
Ɣ Effort reduction: According to this theory, people utilize heuristics as a type of
cognitive laziness. Heuristics reduce the mental effort required to make choices
and decisions.
Ɣ Attribute substitution: Other theories suggest people substitute simpler but re-
lated questions in place of more complex and difficult questions.
Ɣ Fast and frugal: Still other theories argue that heuristics are actually more accu-
rate than they are biased. In other words, we use heuristics because they are fast
and usually correct.
Heuristics play important roles in both problem-solving and decision-making. When
we are trying to solve a problem or make a decision, we often turn to these mental
shortcuts when we need a quick solution.
The world is full of information, yet our brains are only capable of processing a cer-
tain amount. If you tried to analyze every single aspect of every situation or decision,
you would never get anything done.
In order to cope with the tremendous amount of information we encounter and to
speed up the decision- making process, the brain relies on these mental strategies to
simplify things so we don’t have to spend endless amounts of time analyzing every
detail.
54
You probably make hundreds or even thousands of decisions every day. What
should you have for breakfast? What should you wear today? Should you drive or
take the bus? Should you go out for drinks later with your co-workers? Should you
use a bar graph or a pie chart in your presentation? The list of decisions you make
each day is endless and varied. Fortunately, heuristics allow you to make such deci-
sions with relative ease without a great deal of agonizing. For example, when trying
to decide if you should drive or ride the bus to work, you might suddenly remember
that there is road construction along the standard bus route. You quickly realize that
this might slow the bus and cause you to be late for work, so instead, you simply
leave a little earlier and drive to work on an alternate route. Your heuristics allow
you to think through the possible outcomes quickly and arrive at a solution that will
work for your unique problem.
Types of Heuristics
Some common heuristics include the availability heuristic and the representative-
ness heuristic.
The availability heuristic involves making decisions based upon how easy it is to
bring something to mind. When you are trying to make a decision, you might quickly
remember a number of relevant examples. Since these are more readily available in
your memory, you will likely judge these outcomes as being more common or fre-
quently-occurring. For example, if you are thinking of flying and suddenly think of a
number of recent airline accidents, you might feel like air travel is too dangerous
and decide to travel by car instead. Because those examples of air disasters came to
mind so easily, the availability heuristic leads you to think that plane crashes are
more common than they really are.
The representativeness heuristic involves making a decision by comparing the
present situation to the most representative mental prototype. When you are trying
to decide if someone is trustworthy, you might compare aspects of the individual to
other mental examples you hold. A sweet older woman might remind you of your
grandmother, so you might immediately assume that she is kind, gentle and trust-
worthy. If you meet someone who is into yoga, spiritual healing and aromatherapy
you might immediately assume that she works as a holistic healer rather than some-
thing like a school teacher or nurse. Because her traits match up to your mental pro-
totype of a holistic healer, the representativeness heuristic causes you to classify her
as more likely to work in that profession.
The affect heuristic involves making choices that are strongly influenced by the emo-
tions that an individual is experiencing at that moment. For example, research has
shown that people are more likely to see decisions as having higher benefits and
lower risks when they are in a positive mood. Negative emotions, on the other hand,
lead people to focus on the potential downsides of a decision rather than the possi-
ble benefits.
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Heuristics Can Lead to Bias

While heuristics can speed up our problem and the decision-making process, they
can introduce errors. Just because something has worked in the past does not mean
that it will work again, and relying on an existing heuristic can make it difficult to see
alternative solutions or come up with new ideas. As you saw in the examples above,
heuristics can lead to inaccurate judgments about how common things occur and
about how representative certain things may be.
Heuristics can also contribute to things such as stereotypes and prejudice. Because
people use mental shortcuts to classify and categorize people, they often overlook
more relevant information and create stereotyped categorizations that are not in
tune with reality.
A Word From Verywell

Heuristics help make life easier and allow us to make quick decisions that are usually
pretty accurate. Being aware of how these heuristics work as well as the potential
biases they introduce might help you make better and more accurate decisions.
While heuristics is a spontaneous, innate human thinking mechanism, teachers need

to be aware that some learners may follow quick pathways that do not always serve
them well. We live in an age where immediate satisfaction is the order of the day and
people are often intolerant to processes that take longer and that require more effort.
In the classroom, the teacher needs to manage this phenomenon wisely and assist
learners to come to well-considered conclusions rather than to settle for quick-fixes.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

The activities contained in this unit provides some valuable preparation for your for-
mal assessment. Unfortunately, what will be assessed in this learning unit, is problem
solving, which cannot be drilled in but which is a higher order thinking skill which re-
quires daily effort and conscious development.
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit we had a look at higher order numerical reasoning. What looked
like something that could evade most of the ordinary people, all of a sudden came
within the reach of everyone, even learners at a young stage. Teachers are challenged
through this unit to continue developing critical thinking skills in learners and to not
fall back on outdated and less effective teaching strategies. New thinking is required,
new attitudes are cultivated, and a new mathematics generation will be born.

Read a most informative article on Higher-Order Mathematical Thinking retrievable at
https://runcornss. eq. edu. au/Supportandresources/Formsanddocuments/Documents/
Higher-order-thinking-in-mathematics.pdf
On how teachers can promote higher order thinking skills, read the article retrievable
from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1052941.pdf
56
On solving word problems, watch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_8srGGX0kk
On solving word problems, watch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4MgRPRoRhs
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Learning unit 4
Common fractions and its operation
Contents
4.1 THE FRACTIONAL CONCEPT 59

4.1.1 Common fractions 62
4.1.2 Decimal fractions 64
4.1.3 Percentage 68
4.2 COMMON FRACTIONS 69
4.2.1 The learning of common fraction calculations 71
4.2.2 Algorithms in operating on fractions 72
4.2.3 Calculations with decimal fractions 79
INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 4 our focus is on rational numbers, with specific reference to the frac-
tional concept and working with common fractions.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Ɣ Display an understanding of a variety of models to interpret fractions
Ɣ Illustrate an understanding of fraction algorithms
Ɣ Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between commons fractions,
decimal fractions and percentages
Ɣ Demonstrate the ability to do calculations with decimal fractions
We refer to our discussion about the Real Number System in learning unit 1, with Nat-
ural Numbers, Whole Numbers, Integers, Rational and Irrational Numbers as sets within
the greater system. In this unit our focus is on the rational numbers and by way of in-
troduction, we repeat a paragraph from learning unit 1:
Integers stay whole when added to, subtracted from or multiplied by each other. How-
ever, when they are divided by each other, they do not always stay whole. We can di-
vide any two whole numbers, positive or negative, by each other. The answer will be
another whole number, a fraction or a mixed number. This extends the number system
to what is called rational number, where one number is written as a ratio of another.
Belonging to this infinitely large set are integers and fractions (including common frac-
tions and decimal fractions). The letter symbol denoting the set is 3, the first letter of
the word quotient which is the answer to a division calculation.
58
&RPPRQ IUDFWLRQV DQG LWV RSHUDWLRQ /HDUQLQJ XQLW
After we had completed an activity to understand the nature of rational numbers, we

concluded that we were ready to understand the definition of rational numbers:
a
Rational numbers are all numbers that can be written in the form b
where a and b are integers and b = I0.
4.1 THE FRACTIONAL CONCEPT

When learners are introduced to number concepts, they mainly deal with whole num-
bers that are used in counting. Counting and finding out “how many” things there are,
and later operating on numbers and observing the change, keep them busy for a very
long time. However, in the real world around them, children do not only see whole
quantities of things, and whole objects. In real life their concept of numbers is ex-
tended to rational numbers long before they learn it formally in the mathematics class-
room. We can therefore rely on the fact that learners have already been exposed to
fraction concepts in their lives.
As we have learned and experienced up to now, modelling a concept is a powerful
way of developing it. Therefore, before we even go into the symbolic representation
of and calculations with fractions, we are going to do a modelling activity where learn-
ers investigate the nature of fractions.
Keep in mind that:
Ɣ the terminology (fraction words – half, two-thirds, four fifths, etc) used in fractions
need to be introduced in tandem with the exposure to model building;
Ɣ when introducing fractions, we avoid using only halves, because learners later tend
to call all fractions halves (like calling any washing powder OMO);
Ɣ the artificial use of unit fractions only (fractions with a numerator of one) is better
avoided – rather use any numerator to build concepts more naturally because that
is how fractions occur in real life;
Ɣ avoid using slices of pizza all the time – it limits the rich nature of fractions; and
Ɣ there is no harm in exposing learners to both the concept of a fraction of a whole
and a fraction of a number of objects, resulting in a whole number. This is a require-
ment in Intermediate Phase CAPS too and will become clear just now.
There are different types of models for fractions. The mathematics teacher needs to
know the distinction between these models, because they need to be used as the con-
cept of fractions progresses from concrete to abstract. Below is a summary of four
types of models in learning fractions and how they are progressively used. We com-
bine the information into an activity where you can practice setting up fraction
models:
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ACTIVITY 4.1
MODELS FOR THE FRACTION CONCEPT

Model type Concrete use Graphic use Symbolic use
Area model The face of a clock A sketch of the face
(model in with hands that turn of a clock with lines
two and show fractions of as needed, in this
dimensions) the area case lines showing
quarters. One quarter,
a half, three quarters
and a whole can be
learned on this
model.
Image retrieved from

https://wiki. open-
streetmap. org/wiki/
Proposed_features/
Clock This type of model
The hands are stand- can be shaded, cut
ing at smaller than a out and manipulated
quarter. The bigger by folding, or
part is now more than separated.
three quarters.
a) Below, like in the example above, give another example of an area model to
a) learn the fraction concept.
Volume Volumes of known On a picture of a tin, Learners start
model fluids like water can lines can be drawn to working in frac-
(model in be used as a concrete indicate different lev- tions in a meas-
three model to illustrate els of full – fifths, urement context
dimensions) fractions. quarters, etc. Then and do
various fractions can calculations:
be shaded, and learn- 3
of 250ml = 150ml
ers can say what the 5
remaining space is:
The big tin takes three
small tins of water.
When I pour one tin of
water, it is one third
full, with two tins, it is
two thirds full. With
three tins it is full.
We avoid numbering
or marking the con-
tainer, so that the
fractional concept is
learned properly.
60
Model type Concrete use Graphic use Symbolic use

b) Below, like in the example above, use a box as a volume model for fractions.
Length Physically handle a Draw five unnum- Use number

model string, folding it in bered lines of the lines:
(model in halves, thirds, quarters, same length and di-
one fifths etc. vide them all in a dif-
dimension) ferent number of
equal lengths.
Discrete Together with one Learners easily draw
model unit being divided up the balls and group
in parts, we need to them in thirds, once
foster the idea of they understand the
parts or fractions of a discrete model.
number of things.
Two- thirds of the
balls are blue and one
third is white:
There are twelve balls

and when we make
three equal groups,
there are four in a
group.
This activity broadened our scope with regard to the models that can be built in
the learning and teaching of fractions. Model building once again impresses as the
ideal way of fostering mathematical concepts. It also broadens the scope of setting
word problems in fractions, where we do not need to use the pizza as an area
model all the time, but include volume, length and discrete models as well.
Fraction is a concept in the multiplicative conceptual field and is more specifically a di-
vision concept. It enables the transition from whole numbers to the set Rational Num-
a
bers. Rational number, as mentioned earlier, is any number written in the form ,
b
where a and b are integers and b = I0.
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Three types of fractions can be summarised as follows:

a
Ɣ Common fractions of the form where a and b are integers and b = I0
b
a
Ɣ Decimal fractions of the form where a is an integer and b is 10 to a power 2 : 1
b
Ɣ Percentage which is the numerator of a fraction of 100
We shall now discuss the various types of fractions separately as sub-concepts within
rational number.
4.1.1 Common fractions

a) The first overwhelming and mind-blowing idea that learners need to understand,
can best be illustrated on a number line, namely that there is an infinite number of
fractions between each pair of consecutive whole numbers:
In the number line above, the space between the whole numbers 2 and 3 is divided
in twenty-four equal parts, meaning it is divided in twenty-fourths.
In the number line above, the space between the whole numbers 17 and 18 is
divided in forty-five equal parts, meaning it is divided in forty-fifths.
b) The second idea can be illustrated with what is known as a fraction wall, where it is
clear that certain fractions have the same value, although numbered differently,
that is that for all fractions there are equivalent fractions. We intentionally con-
structed the fraction wall such that we do equivalence to a third and two-thirds
and not, as teachers habitually do, starting with halves always:
62
ACTIVITY 4.1.1 (a)
COMPARING FRACTIONS
Inspect the number wall above and complete the following comparisons:
Feedback on Activity 4.1.1 (a)
Using unusual fractions stimulates thinking more than the rote half, quarter,
eighth...
c) The third point is the form and terminology of writing down fractions. We write
fractions vertically over a fraction line and say two over three or two thirds. The
two numerals, one above and one below the fraction line, remind of the divi-
sion sign + where the numeral above the line (the numerator) shows the num-
ber of parts concerned and the numeral below the fraction line (the
denominator) shows the number of parts into which something has been
divided.
Another way of writing a fraction is with a slant fraction line like ¾ which is a
fraction representation that learners need to take note of, especially as it will
become clear later on, in the notation for rate. Also, in some typed texts learn-
ers may come across this way of representing fractions.
d) The fourth point is that common fractions can be of three types:
Ɣ Proper fractions have a numerator smaller than their denominator and are
therefore always larger than zero but smaller than one,
3
for example ;
7
Ɣ Improper fractions have a numerator greater than their numerator and are
therefore always larger than one,
18
for example ;
7
Ɣ Mixed fractions (sometimes called mixed numbers) contain a whole number

and a fraction and are therefore always larger than one,
4
for example 2 ;
7
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It follows the explanation above that any improper fraction always has a
mixed fraction as its equivalent,
18 4
for example = 2 .
7 7
This equivalence is illustrated on the number line below:
Eighteen sevenths add up to or can be counted up to two and four sevenths.
e) The fifth point is that common fractions are also used to express ratio. Common
fractions are used in ratio in the way illustrated by the example below:
The orange juice concentrate should be mixed with water in the ratio 1:4. This
1 4
means that of the diluted juice is concentrate and is water.
5 5
f) The sixth and last point, naturally following the previous point, is that rate is al-
so a fraction concept. Inspect the lengthy exposition that follows below and
note that what is left of the fraction when the unit rate has been calculated, is a
fraction of units with a slant fraction line:
The price of potatoes is R48 per bag of 8 kg. What is the price per kg?
Operations on common fractions, and the standard algorithms for calculations in-
volving common fractions are discussed in Paragraph 4.2.2.
4.1.2 Decimal fractions

a
Our definition of a decimal fraction was that if a fraction of the form b where a is an
integer and b is 10 to a power 2 : 1. Let us go into every aspect of this definition:
Ɣ A decimal fraction is a fraction: In learning unit 1, when we discussed the base
ten decimal number system that we use, the table below appeared. From this table
it is clear that the digits following to the right of the units, which are decimals, are
smaller than zero, which is the lowest whole number. Therefore, they are parts or
fractions. The shaded part is our focus in decimal fractions.
a
Ɣ In the form b
, a is an integer: We are now going to adapt the table to prove
64
this point and we are going to write different integers in the place of n, which is
the numerator of the decimal fraction in the table.
a
Ɣ In the form b is 10 to a power 2 : 1: From what we see above, this is indeed the
case. In the first number, 34.657, the denominator of 6 is 10, which is the first power
of 10, the denominator of 5 is 100, which is the second power of 10, and the de-
nominator of 7 is 1 000, which is the third power of 10.
We are working up to three decimals for the purpose of our explanation, while we
know very well that the further the decimals go, the higher the power of 10 in the
denominator of the digit becomes: 10 000 = 104, 100 000 = 105, etc.
If we do not write fractions in a vertical fractional (divisional) form with the numera-
tor appearing underneath the fraction line, but rather horizontally in a multiplica-
tion form, the notation for exponents is that the sign of the exponent changes to a
negative. A negative exponent in this case means that the numerator is divided by
10 to that power. (This rule reminds of the old saying that when you divide frac-
tions, you flip and multiply! Only in this case you change the sign of the exponent
and multiply).
Converting between common fractions and decimal fractions: The CAPS docu-
ment requires that learners convert between common fractions and decimal frac-
tions. There is a habit in the initial teaching of conversion between common
fractions and decimal fractions which showed in classrooms to create an impression
that the conversion always depends on the common fraction denominator being a
factor of a power of 10. Let us make an example of the typical conversions that are
given to learners when they start converting from common fractions to decimal
fractions:
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What does a learner with this background do now if they have to convert a fraction
of which the denominator is not a factor of a power of 10? With what they had
2
learned now, are they ready to convert to a decimal fraction?
3
We think that the above way of introducing learners to the conversion of common
fractions to decimal fractions is probably not the optimal point of entry. We suggest
that we approach conversions from the fact that a common fraction is a division
concept and needs to be converted to a decimal fraction through division. We are
now going to do exactly that with our three examples above, as well as the frac-
2
tion , which cannot be converted in the way suggested initially.
3
Note
Ɣ that we place a decimal point after the last digit of the numerator integer and that
we do that for the whole column; and
Ɣ that we add zeros to the right of the dividend (the numerator) for as many times as
may be needed to complete the division.
The denominator of the first three examples are factors of 10, 100 and 1 000, but in
2
case of the fraction 3 , the decimal keeps on repeating and is not terminating.
66
It soon becomes clear that 6 is going to repeat, in which case rounding is needed or
learners may be introduced to the notation for repeating decimals.
2 2
3
= 0. 6666... or 0.6· or 3 0,67 or 0,7.
6
More difficult examples are sevenths and elevenths, as in the example of below:
7
6
7
= 0.8571485714 … also written as 0. 8 5 7 1 4 or with a dot on the first and last
of the repeating digits as 0.8· 5714· .
If we have to convert a mixed number including a whole number and a fraction, to a
decimal number, we retain the whole number and convert the fraction, for example:
7
4 = 4,875.
8
Rounding fractions to one or two decimal places means that there will be one or two
digits after the decimal point. Rounding up or rounding down follows the same rules
for decimal fractions as for whole numbers.
In some circles there is controversy about whether a decimal comma or a decimal
point should be used. Most countries use a decimal point, including South Africa. How-
ever, when saying out a decimal fraction, people often say for example zero comma
eight, two and this makes learners to write a comma instead of a period. It is not wrong
to use the comma though, however we strive towards a uniform way of writing deci-
mal fractions.
What is wrong though is for 0.875 for example, to say zero comma (or point) eight hun-
dred and seventy five instead of zero point (or comma) eight, seven, five.
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4.1.3 Percentage
Percentage is the numerator of a fraction of 100. As the symbol % hints, it is a number
or a ratio that represents the fraction, but is actually only the numerator of a fraction
with 100 as denominator.
The numerator of this fraction can be larger than 100, for example a person may re-
150 1
ceive a bonus 150% of their salary, which is, as a fraction or 1 times their salary.
100 2
In Activity 4.1.3 we are going to do some everyday percentage calculations of two

types:
Ɣ the conversion of a common fraction to a percentage; and
Ɣ the calculation of a percentage of a quantity.
ACTIVITY 4.1.3
PERCENTAGE CALCULATIONS
The conversion of a common fraction to a percentage:
25 25X100
I have for my test. That is = 62.5%
40 40
x
I have for my test. That is _________ = 64%
25
18
I have for my test. That is _________ = %
30
The calculation of a percentage of a quantity:

25 350
52% of the 350 learners are boys: X = 180 boys
100 1
45% of the 1280 residents voted: _____________
4% of the 125 Grade 12 learners failed: __________
In the conversion of common fraction to percentage, we actually only report the

answer of a division sum, multiplied by 100. In the calculation of percentage of a
quantity we write the percentage as a fraction of 100 and multiply it by the given
number/quantity.
68
The conversion of percentage to a common fraction is the simplification of a fraction of

100, if it is possible, for example:
52 13
Ɣ 52% = =
100 25
71
Ɣ 71% =
100
For the conversion of decimal fraction to percentage one can make use of the decimal
digits in the first two decimal places as the whole number of the percentage, that is,
the numerator of the fraction of 100. Inspect the examples below to come to an under-
standing of this idea and complete the examples following:
0.28 = 28% 1.25 = 125% 0.03 = 3% 0.047 = 4.7%
0.39 = _____ % 4.32 = _____% 0.01 = _____% 0.138 = _____ %
For the conversion of percentage to a decimal fraction, inspect the examples below to
understand the idea that the first two decimal digits is the percentage:
38% = 0.38 253% =2.53 1% = 0.01 34.8% = 0.348
44% = 122% = 2% = 12.21% =
There are many applications of percentage in this world, since it is the one fractional
concept that is accepted globally, to have the same denominator, 100. There is almost
no terrain of life where we never meet this mathematical concept. Let us mention a
few examples:
Ɣ In the financial world, we find percentage interest, price- or cost increase, discount,
profit, loss, deposit payable, salary raise, tax added or deducted, currency, growth
rate of the economy, inflation, just to mention a few.
Ɣ In the field of statistics percentage is a regular way of representing data: percent-
age of the population, birth rate, deaths as a result of a certain condition, voting
participation, growth of a city’s population, and many more.
Ɣ In agriculture the percentage of land used to cultivate a certain food, height of the
dams, percentage of a crop destroyed by hail, and so on.
Ɣ In measurement where there is a percentage more washing powder in the packet,
or cold drink in the bottle, where a certain nutritional substance is a percentage of
the recommended daily allowance, where the height of children are reported to
have increased by a certain percentage over the period of a year, area measure-
ment and calculations – too many to even mention.
We can make this list very long, but the above list is already making us aware of the
tremendous impact of understanding the mathematical concept of percentage to
even start going about one’s daily business and one’s encounters with so many as-
pects of life.
4.2 COMMON FRACTIONS

From a subject perspective, some mathematical concepts have been identified as trou-
blesome specifically at the primary level. Within the content area Numbers, Operations
and Relationships, the multiplicative conceptual field includes both challenging and
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crucial concepts. Division is a threshold concept within this field, meaning division is
at the doorstep of a great number of mathematical applications. We can also say that
common fractions is a threshold concept within division, as it opens the doorway to
proportional thinking, rate, ratio, decimal fractions and percentage.
From a learning perspective, fraction concepts in particular have a reputation of being
a difficult area in mathematics. This is mainly due to it being a family member in the
Division household, and furthermore, because division is the “daring and adventurous”
operation that shifts one’s perspective from whole numbers to rational numbers.
According to the national admission policy, learners should enter the Intermediate
Phase (Grade 4) at the age of 9 years and therefore be 12 years by the end of Grade 6.
There is of course variation in the ages, seeing a range of 8–14 years in the Intermedi-
ate Phase due to early school entry or learners being held back to repeat grades. When
we deal with division concepts in this Module, we are therefore pitching on the devel-
opmental age 9–12 years, with all the individual variations there may exist.
From a teaching perspective we have to remember that the entry level of a cognitive
developmental phase is lower than its exit level – meaning that we have to start sim-
ple when introducing new concepts and make a gradual transition to more complex
ideas. This is how the CAPS topic “Common Fractions” is constructed, as can be seen
below:
While we are formally adhering to the guidelines in CAPS, we are not going to cling ar-
tificially to ONLY what is recommended in CAPS. Where a life situation occurs naturally,
we are not going to keep learners from the encounter with other ideas too. One exam-
ple is that learners in Grade 4 should calculate with fractions of the same denomina-
tors. If however, there is a situation with fractions of different denominators, for
example halves and quarters, we cannot deprive them of the opportunity to explore
70
and find their way by converting the halves to an equivalent quarters fraction. In this
we as teachers need to exert our discretion.
4.2.1 The learning of common fraction calculations

We have dealt extensively with the nature of common fractions in paragraph 4.1.1,
however a few more points need mention by way of introducing calculations and al-
gorithms where fractions are involved:
Ɣ The aim in mathematics education is that it will make sense to learning, in other
words, that it has meaning, not only that learners understand the logic behind it
mentally, but that they see and work with its applications in their real-life situations.
Where there are gaps in meaning, the mathematics teacher, peers and well-con-
structed situations are there to fill those gaps.
Ɣ We distinguished earlier between factual, procedural and conceptual knowledge of
mathematics. We do not need to contrast any of the three types of fraction knowl-
edge, rather we appreciate that one cannot go without the other. When we teach
the topic common fractions, we agreed that we start conceptually through situa-
tions, followed by formalising what learners have explored, in factual knowledge.
This leaves us with the outstanding component, procedural knowledge, meaning
calculations, which is the focus of this section. Procedural knowledge is a se-
quence of actions and the manipulation of written symbols in a step-by-step
succession.
Ɣ Learners have a better command of fractions, if conceptual knowledge is devel-
oped alongside procedural knowledge. This means that when we teach a frac-
tion calculation procedure, we make sure every step is understood and makes
sense, for example we do not (in a rote way) just cancel out a four above, and un-
7 4
derneath the fraction line in X without a proper understanding of why we
8 9
do it. It is when learners do calculations without conceptual understanding that

they struggle with more complex calculations in later grades, especially in algebraic
fractions where they do not work with number only, but also with abstract letters
representing number.
Ɣ The goal of teaching fraction calculations is that learners end up with a mental
understanding of the what, how and why of fraction calculations. Their idea
about calculating should be consolidated mentally: they need to understand the
principles of fraction addition and subtraction as one category, and the principles
of multiplication and division as another.
Ɣ As mentioned earlier, learners are cognitively ready during the years 9-12 for chal-
lenging concepts. All along, it is a teacher task to encourage metacognition while
learners work with fractions, which means they do their steps consciously (not in a
rote, routine way); they check for correctness in each step (self-control or -assess-
ment); they apply logic to establish whether their answer is reasonable; and they
are able to communicate what they have done, how and why they have done it.
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4.2.2 Algorithms in operating on fractions

We shall cover this part progressively from simple to complex:
a) Adding fractions with like denominators
The concept to be understood when

fractions with like denominators are
added, is that the fractions are of the
same kind. It is like saying add one or-
ange to two oranges. You can do it, be-
cause they are of the same kind, oranges.
Image retrieved from http://www.helpwithfractions.com/adding-fractions-same-denominator
To explain how fractions are of the same kind is however not so simple. Again, a num-
ber line may help us here, especially if we start crossing a whole number, for example
adding three fifths to four fifths:
Two points to remember when adding fractions with the same denominators are:
Ɣ The answer may result in a fraction that can be simplified, for example
3 1 4 1
+ = =
8 8 8 2
in its simplest form. Here we are dealing with two concepts in one calculation: add-
ing and simplifying, which makes it more complex;
Ɣ The answer may result in an improper fraction that can be converted to a mixed
number, for example
5 3 8 1
+ = = 1 .
7 7 7 7
Ɣ Once again, we are dealing with two concepts in one calculation: adding and con-
verting, which adds to complexity.
b) Subtracting fractions with like denominators
Exactly the same principles apply for subtracting

fractions with like denominators than for adding
them. Simplification is also needed sometimes
like in the case of two sixths, which can be sim-
plified to a third.
Image retrieved from https://www.basic-math-explained.com/fractions-subtraction-1.html#.W_aLoC8cTeg
72
In the same way as for addition, a number line may be used, this time moving back-
wards from the given numerator. The number line is particularly helpful if a whole
number has to be crossed, for example subtracting three fifths from one and two
fifths:
Two points to remember when subtracting fractions with the same denominators are:
Ɣ The minuend may be a mixed fraction, but the difference may be a proper fraction,
for example
3 5 6 3
1 – = = (simplified).
8 8 8 4
Here it is important if learners work without a number line where they can count
down, that the concept is firmly established, namely one and three eights is the
same as eleven eights. Conversion is a skill and concept that needs due attention.
Ɣ Both the minuend and the subtrahend may be mixed numbers, in which case im-
mediate conversion is needed before the calculation starts. Counting down on a
number line in this case is more complex than helpful and a more efficient method
needs to be found. Some teachers and textbooks start with simple examples where
it is possible to subtract whole number from whole number and fraction from frac-
tion and still get the right answer, for example
5 3 2
3 7
– 2 7
= 1 7
This does however not work in other cases, for example

2 5
3 7
– 1 7
In this case (and actually, in all cases) it works to convert the mixed fractions to im-
proper fractions and calculate. If the answer needs to be converted back to a mixed
number, so be it, for example:
2 5 23 12 9 2
3 – 1 = – = = 1
7 7 7 7 7 7
c) Adding fractions of which one denominator is a multiple of the other

This is a requirement of the CAPS for Grade 6, and this was the skill which we previ-
ously referred to, which should not necessarily be avoided at all costs if it appears nat-
urally in a situation like halves and quarters. Below is a proper exposition of what is
done in the case of one denominator being a multiple of the other:
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Questioning is always a good tech-

nique to stimulate thinking: How
can I make the denominators of both
fractions the same? (Be prepared for
an answer that I can divide 8 by 2!
Think what you will do in that case).
Image retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/alphamaths/adding-and-subtracting-fractions-122915
d) Subtracting fractions of which one denominator is a multiple of the other

The principles for the inverse operation are the same as those for addition. The same
remarks apply than in paragraph (b) above, which boil down to converting mixed frac-
tions to improper fractions before finding the equivalent form of the one with the
smaller denominator, for example:
Take note of the complexity involved in this seemingly sim-

ple calculation: it is a combination of various fraction con-
cepts of which the learner needs to make the decision which
to do in what sequence. The skills and concepts include:
Ɣ converting from mixed fractions to improper fractions
Ɣ finding the equivalent of the fraction with the smaller de-
nominator, to be the same as the larger denominator
Ɣ converting from improper fraction to mixed numbers
Ɣ simplifying if appropriate
e) Adding fractions with unlike denominators

The first goal in adding and subtracting fractions is to ensure like denominators. Some
teachers teach learners a “quick trick” to do fraction addition and subtraction with un-
like denominators. For the example below, they would simply let learners multiply the
denominators to find a common denominator and then “multiply across”:
74
This calculation may result in working with large numbers

which complicates calculations unnecessarily. At this point, it
is beneficial to teach the additional skill of finding the lowest
common multiple (LCM), also called the lowest common de-
nominator (LCD).
Compare the difference it would make to the “quick trick”
calculation if the LCM of 15 and 6 (30) was used.
Finding the LCM or LCD:

The most reliable way of finding the LCM or LCD at first (before learners starting to just
“see” it from good understanding, much experience and a well-developed concept) is
to write the multiples of both denominators up to the first one that is common. It is
suggested that the larger one of the two (later three or more) is done first. If learners
do this thoughtfully, they sometimes sense immediately that this multiple is also a
multiple of the other denominator:
15, 30
6, 12, 18, 24, 30
If they have to add three or more fractions, it still applies that writing out the multiples
of the largest denominator saves time, for example adding fractions with 3, 6, and 8 as
denominators:
8, 16, 24
6, 12, 18, 24
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24
f) Subtracting fractions with unlike denominators

Exactly the same suggestions apply for subtracting fractions with unlike denominators,
since addition and subtraction fall in the same (additive) field. In the next activity you
will be exposed to the various fraction calculations.
ACTIVITY 4.2.2 (a)
ADDING AND SUBTRACTING FRACTIONS

In the left-hand column, do the addition or subtraction calculation, and in the right
hand column, illustrate the calculation with a simple model in picture or diagram
form.
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5 1
+
6 12
5 1
–
8 2
1 3
2 + 1
3 4
2 2
1 –
5 3
Feedback on Activity 4.2.2(a)
The key to proficiency in adding and subtracting fractions, is systematic progres-

sion from simple to complex, each time ensuring that all concepts needed are in
place.
g) Multiplying fractions
The multiplication and division algorithms are much more simple than those for addi-
tion and subtraction, yet the conceptual understanding underpinning the calculations
is not at all simple. We shall start with the concepts before we go over to the methods
or algorithms.
i. The case of multiplying a whole number and a fraction

To build this concept we illustrate it with a volume (3D) model:
On the kitchen table there are four glasses that are all two‐thirds full
The addition of fractions is confirmed with the multiplication algorithm, as follows:

2 4 8 2
X = = 2
3 1 3 3
ii. The case of multiplying a fraction by a fraction

To build the conceptual understanding that the answer is smaller than any of the frac-
tions, we illustrate it with a length (1D) model. This is the story:
Tim ran a long distance race. When he had completed two‐thirds of the race, he experi-
enced cramps for three quarters of the last part of the race.
76
This is confirmed with the multiplication algorithm, as follows:

3 1 3 1 3 1
of = X = = of the race
4 3 4 3 12 4
Multiplying fractions is a simple procedure of multiplying numerators and multiplying

denominators and the resulting fraction is the product of the numerators as the new
numerator over the product of the denominators as the new denominator.
Simplification can happen before or after multiplying. We suggest that teacher ex-
plains that we could have divided the numbers on both sides of the fraction line by 3
before we calculated (which people sometimes call “cancelling out”) or after we have
multiplied. Both ways simplify the fraction.
h) Dividing fractions
As we have done for multiplication, we shall do some conceptual work before we go
into the division of fractions algorithm.
i. The case of dividing a whole number by a fraction

Let us consider the following situation using an area model:
Mom baked four chocolate cakes in square pans. She divided each pan of cake up in nine
squares. How many ninths are there altogether?
The calculation confirms the diagram above, as follows:

1 4 9
4 + = X = 36
9 1 1
We do not teach the “flip and turn” strategy (using the multiplicative inverse) without
illustrating how the whole number as quotient came about.
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ii. The case of dividing a fraction by a whole number

Let us consider the following situation using a length model:
Sipho cut a long piece of wood in quarters, then he divided one quarter in three parts
again. What fraction is the smallest part of the original length of wood?
The calculation confirms the diagram above, as follows:

1 3 1 1 1
+ = X =
4 1 4 3 12
It shows clearly that when a fraction is divided by a whole number, the fraction is be-
coming that many times smaller.
iii. The case of dividing a fraction by a fraction

Let us consider the following situation using a volume model:
A half ton truck transports sand but breaks down halfway. The driver phones to ask the
manager to send another truck to transport the sand. The manager says he only has
quarter ton trucks available but he will send them. How many quarter ton trucks are
needed to divide the half ton truck’s sand into?
Images retrieved from https://pixabay.com/en/truck-transportation-vehicle-sand-160464/
Learners know instinctively that two trucks are needed. The calculation confirms that:
1 1 1 4 4
+ = X = = 2
2 4 2 1 2
A fraction divided by a fraction may result in a larger fraction, a whole number or a

mixed fraction. To summarise the division of fractions algorithm see the image below:
78
Image retrieved from https://www.helpingwithmath.com/by_subject/fractions/fra_dividing.htm
ACTIVITY 4.2.2 (b)
MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING FRACTIONS

Complete the following multiplication and division calculations involving fractions.
5 1 5 1
+ X
6 12 8 2
1 3 2
2 X 1 5
+ 3
3 4
Feedback on Activity 4.2.2(b)
Learners actually make fewer mistakes with multiplication and division than with
adding and subtracting fractions. The greater challenge is conceptual under-
standing.
4.2.3 Calculations with decimal fractions

This section is strictly speaking not included in the outcomes and learning objectives
of learning unit 4, however, this unit would not be complete without reference to the
calculations involving decimal fractions. We shall not have a lengthy discussion about
it, but for your reference, we briefly summarise the “four rules for decimals”:
a) Adding and subtracting decimals: put the decimal points in line

Use the vertical addition and subtraction algorithm and position the numbers under-
neath each other such that all decimal points are in a vertical line. Then add or sub-
tract as usual:
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b) Adding and subtracting decimals: ensure the same number of decimal places in
both numbers
The numbers that are added, must have the same number of decimal places, and if
they do not have, zeros are used to fill up the spaces:
c) Multiplying decimals: add the number of decimal places for the answer
When we multiply numbers involving decimals, we “remove” the decimal points for
the calculation, multiply as usual and insert the decimal again by adding up the total
number of decimal places:
12.4 x 0.43 = 5.332
d) Dividing decimals
Below is a clear exposition of the steps in dividing numbers involving decimals:
Image retrieved from https://www.helpingwithmath.com/by_subject/decimals/dec_dividing.htm
CONCLUSION
It was our goal in this unit to ensure the understanding of a variety of models to inter-
pret fractions. We also covered the algorithms by which calculations with common
fractions and decimal fractions are done and explained the relationship between com-
mons fractions, decimal fractions and percentages.
The transition to rational number is a task of the Intermediate Phase teacher and has
great influence on further mathematics. We set an example in this learning unit of
how to approach this task with great care and in a conscious, planned and systematic
way.
80
We wish you all the very best!
Activity 4.2.3
Develop an activity where learners are expected to use the following picture to
group African countries as fractions per their location (South, North, East, Central,
and West African countries) in the context of Mathematics.

For an introduction to fractions, watch
https://www. khanacademy. org/math/arithmetic/fraction- arithmetic/

arith-review-fractions-intro/v/fraction-basics
For a clear directions of the calculations with fractions, watch
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/arithmetic/fraction-arithmetic
MIP1501 81
Learning unit 5
Develop proportional reasoning in a variety of
contexts
Contents
5.1 PROPORTIONAL REASONING 83

5.2 RATIO 93
5.3 RATE AS A SPECIAL FORM OF RATIO 95
INTRODUCTION
In learning unit 5 we shall focus on proportional reasoning as a crucial part of mathe-
matical thinking. The concepts, rate, ratio and direct and inverse proportionality are
some of the concepts that form part of this reasoning ability. Once again, learning in
this unit centres around real situations and models of situations where-after the theo-
retical aspects of the sub-topic are systematically covered.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Ɣ Explain the concept and applications of rate
Ɣ Explain the concept and applications of ratio
Ɣ Operate in a range of contexts relating to ratio and rate
Ɣ Explain the development of proportional reasoning
Ɣ Apply proportional reasoning in real world contexts
We have realised as we progressed through this module that we are working in a

learning centred classroom. Our focus is always on the mathematical matter, from a
teacher perspective and from a learner perspective. Our greater goal is that learning
takes place, that understanding of concepts develop and that there is Master of Math-
ematical ideas no matter who plays the larger part at any given moment, as long as
learning takes place and mathematical proficiency is reached.
Up to now we have regularly started our discussions departing from situations and
moving to formal mathematics afterwards. For this unit we shall be doing the same in
the three concepts rate, ratio and proportion, however, we do the concepts almost
concurrently, because it would be artificial to separate them – they are intricately inter-
woven. Trust the process, buckle up, here we go:
82
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5.1 PROPORTIONAL REASONING

Proportional reasoning in mathematics is the ability to compare two quantities by us-
ing multiplication, or to compare them multiplicatively. The situations where this hap-
pens, include situations of rate, like price and speed, and ratio where two sub-sets in a
larger set are compared in terms of their quantity or relative magnitude. Proportional
thinking can be developed through the exposure to situations as those in Activity 5.1
below:
ACTIVITY 5.1
SITUATIONS OF RATE AND PROPORTION

Follow the instructions below and in the open spaces, represent each situation in
the best way you can, with pictures or diagrams. Your original and creative think-
ing is all important in concept formation.
Woman A has a tin in her car where Woman B has a tin in her car where
she keeps “car-guard coins”. she keeps “car-guard coins”.
There is a total of R72 in the tin and There is a total of R96 in the tin and
she uses to give R4 to the car-guard she uses to give R5 to the car-guard
each time. each time.
Make a sketch to show how many Make a sketch to show how many
times she can give before her money is times she can give before her money is
up. up.
Man C is a disabled person who holds Man D is a disabled person who holds
his tin for money at the entrance to his tin for money at the entrance to the
the station each day. On his tin he mall each day. On his tin he painted
painted Bless me with two rand please. Bless me with five rand please. He starts
He starts in the morning with a R5 coin in the morning with an empty tin.
in his tin to make a noise to attract One night he came home and had R55
people’s attention. in his tin.
One night he came home and had R55
Show in a diagram or picture how his
in his tin.
money increased, so that it becomes
Show in a diagram or picture how his clear how many people dropped mon-
money increased, so that it is clear ey in his tin.
how many people dropped money in
his tin.
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Boy E walks to school each day at a Boy F stays 5 km from school. For the
constant pace of 75 m per minute. The first 4 km he takes a taxi which drives
school is 1.8 km from his house. at a speed of 60 km/hour.
Show in a sketch or a diagram how Thereafter the boy walks at a constant
long it takes him to get to the school. pace of 50 m per minute. Show in a
Compare the diagram to that of Boy F. sketch or a diagram how long it takes
him to get to the school.
In week 1, Worker G deep cleans a paving at 4 m2 per hour. How long will it take
her to deep clean an area of 12 m long and 6 m wide?
In week 2, Worker H joins and each of them cleans 4 m2 per hour. How long will
it take the two of them to deep clean an area of 12 m long and 6m wide?
In week 3, Worker K joins and each of them cleans 4 m2 per hour. How long will
it take the three of them to deep clean an area of 12 m long and 6 m wide?
In week 4, Worker M joins and each of them cleans 4 m2 per hour. How long will
it take the four of them to deep clean an area of 12 m long and 6 m wide?
The activity above was probably more challenging than any activity before. We did
this on purpose, to stretch your thinking skills, which by now are pliable. With the
cognitive development of learners at this age, these examples are within their
reach. The following is a list of some of the cognitive abilities they have by 9–12
years old:
Ɣ They can reason logically and understand cause-effect relationships.
Ɣ They can understand inner speech and reason and argue with themselves.
Ɣ They can imagine and manipulate the given situation.
Ɣ They can build mental models of situations.
Ɣ They can think hypothetically and argue “If.... then”
Ɣ They can decide on appropriate operations to solve problems.
These capabilities are needed in the complex ideas around ratio, rate and
proportion.
84
Before we represent the above examples in graphic form, we revise some relationships
between input values and output values. We accept that we call the input value (the
independent variable) [ and the output value (the dependent variable) \.
a) No relationship, where there is no pattern in what goes on, for example in the
case of Boy F where the rate changed midway.
b) A constant difference (positive – ascending or negative – descending) between
all consecutive terms ( \ values) such as is the case in A, B, C, D and E.
c) A constant ratio where the two variables ( [ and \ are in the same proportion to
each other for all [ values:
\
Ɣ directly proportional such as the case in D and E where stays constant for
[
all values of [ and one variable is the product of the other, e.g. \ is a multiple of [.
The general form for writing direct proportion \ = F[. This means \ is directly pro-
portional to [.
Ɣ inversely proportional such as the case with the cleaning of the paving by
Workers G, H, K and M, where \ . [ stays constant for all values of [.
F
The general form for writing inverse proportion is \ = . This means \ is
1 [
directly proportional to .
[
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In this graph there is a constant difference of -4 between the \ values in all consecu-
tive terms. Because the difference is negative, it is a descending graph. Note that the \
intercept of the graph is 72, which is the amount she had before she gave any money
to the car-guard. Note also that after the 18th time that she gave money, she had
nothing left because 72 is completely divisible by 4.
86
In this graph there is a constant difference of -5 between the \ values in all consecu-
tive terms. Because the difference is negative, it is a descending graph. Note that the \
intercept of the graph is 96, which is the amount she had before she gave any money
to the car-guard. Note also that after the 19th time that she gave money, she had R1
left because 96 + 5 = 19 + with a remainder of 1.
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In this graph there is a constant difference of 2 between the \ values in all consecu-
tive terms. Because the difference is positive, it is an ascending graph. Note that the \
intercept of the graph is 5, which is the amount he had in the tin before anyone gave
him money. Note also that he needed 25 people to give him R2 each before he had
R55, as compared to Man D who needed only eleven people to give R5 each. How can
we explain this?
88
In this graph there is a constant difference 5 between \ values in consecutive terms.

At the same time this is a constant ratio of 5 between the \ value and the [ value. The
\ intercept of the graph is 0, because he had no money in the tin to start with. Because
of the zero starting point and the constant ratio \ = 5[ this graph has direct
\
proportion. In all cases stays a constant 5, which is the unit rate of the propor-
[
tional relationship. (Compare this to Man C where there is not a direct proportion be-
tween \ and [ because he started with R5. Even if he started with R2 there would still
not be a direct proportion).
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Here we have a constant difference of 75 between \ values in the consecutive terms.

At the same time this is a constant ratio of 75 between the \ value and the [ value.
The \ intercept of the graph is 0. Because of the zero starting point and the constant
\
ratio \ = 75[ this graph has direct proportion. In all cases stays a constant 75,
[
which is the unit rate of the proportional relationship. (Compare this to Boy F where
there is no proportion between \ DQG [ because he started by taxi and changed to
walking at different rates (speed).
90
In this graph there is a constant difference of 1 000 m between the \ values – only in
the first four terms. Because the difference is positive, it is an ascending graph. Note
that the \ intercept of the graph is 0 when he mounted the taxi. However, the graph
changes when the boy started walking and we cannot speak of a constant difference
for the total graph any more. Even though the graph starts at zero, there is not a di-
rect proportion between \ and [ for all [ values of the graph, because the rate
changed midway.
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This graph shows an inverse proportion. This means as one variable becomes larger
(more workers are cleaning), the other variable becomes smaller (the more workers
help, the shorter the time they use) in a specific proportion. The 18 hours that it takes
one worker to clean the paving, is divided by the number of workers that help. This
means that \ [ stays constant for all values of [ because it is an 18 h job (at a rate of
72 m2/4 hours) and when 2 workers work at it, they can finish in half the time, etc. The
F
general form for writing inverse proportion is \ = . This means \ is directly propor-
1 [
tional to \ = , which is an inverse proportion.
[
92
5.2 RATIO
Let us revise the term ratio as we have used it up to so far:
A constant ratio exists where the two variables ([ and \) are in the same proportion
to each other for all [ values.
\
The ratio can be directly proportional when stays constant for all values of
[
[ and one variable is the product of the other.
The ratio can be inversely proportional when \ [ stays constant for all values of [.
We have another situation of ratio, namely ratio situations where two sub-sets of a
larger set are compared to each other and to the larger set.
For this purpose, we shall use our examples of Girl N and Girl P and the dance groups
in an activity.
In both the cases in Activity 5.2 the boys and girls are the sub-sets of the larger set of
dancers. This means there are three ratios involved:
Ɣ boys : girls
Ɣ boys : dancers
Ɣ girls : dancers
While reading through the situations, and while making the sketches (models) of your
reasoning, keep the set/sub-set distinction in mind.
Activity 5.2
SITUATIONS OF RATIO
Study the following situations of ratio very carefully. Keep in mind the sub-sets and
the sets, and represent the situations in picture- or diagram form before we give a
comprehensive exposition of the mathematical reasoning and calculations in-
volved in solving the situations.
Girl N dances in a dance school with Girl P dances in a dance school with
115 dancers where they dance in 144 dancers of which 64 are boys and
groups of two boys and three girls. 80 are girls. When they make the maxi-
Then two more boys joined, and five mum number of equal groups, how
girls left, now they had to change the many boys and girls are in a group?
groups to have three boys in a group. How many boys must leave, and girls
Work out how many girls are in the join to have five more groups, each
groups now. Use pictures or diagrams group with three boys and four girls?
to help you think. Use pictures or diagrams to help you
think.
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Ɣ Girl N situation
Girl N dances in a dance school with 115 dancers where they dance in groups of two
boys and three girls. Then two more boys joined, and five girls left, now they had to
change the groups to have three boys in a group. Work out how many girls are in the
groups now.
Graphically, we can depict the initial Girl N situation as follows:
115 dancers in the ratio 2:3

Boys – 2 parts Girls – 3 parts
We know how many boys there are in relation to girls (2:3). We do not know how
many boys and girls there are respectively in relation to the dancers, but we do
2
know that two out of every five ( ) of 115 dancers are boys and three out of
3 5
every five ( ) are girls.
5
2
Boys: of 115 dancers = 46 boys
5
3
Girls: of 115 dancers = 69 girls
5
Now the situation changes as follows:
Two more boys joined, and five girls left. Now they had to change the groups to have
three boys in a group. Work out how many girls are in the groups now.
This means we do not know the ratio, but we know the boys in the ratio is 3:[. The
boys are 46 + 2 = 48 and the girls are 69 – 5 = 64, a total of 112 dancers. The new
ratio is now 48 boys: 64 girls or in simpler form 3:4. Now we know the girls’ part of
the ratio is 4.
112 dancers in the ratio 3:4
3 4
of 112 = 48 boys of 112 = 64 girls
7 7
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Ɣ Girl P situation
Girl P dances in a dance school with 144 dancers of which 64 are boys and 80 are girls.
When they make the maximum number of equal groups, how many boys and how
many girls dance in a group? How many boys must leave, and girls join to have five
more groups, each group with three boys and four girls?
The ratio in its simplest form gives the maximum number of groups. The ratio
64:80 in its simplest form is 4:5, which means there are 16 groups (144 + 9 = 16).
144 dancers in ratio 4:5

4 5
of 144 = 64 boys of 144 = 80 girls
9 9
Now the situation changes: How many boys must leave, and girls join to have five
more groups, each group with three boys and four girls?
This time around we know that we have to have 21 groups (16 + 5 = 21), each with
seven dancers of which three are boys and four are girls. This gives us a total of
147 dancers (21 x 7 = 147).
147 dancers in ratio 3:4

3 4
of 147 = 63 boys of 147 = 84 girls
7 7
There were 64 boys and now there must be 63, so one boy had to leave; there were
80 girls, now there must be 84, so four girls had to join.
We are now going over to a specific form of ration, also requiring proportional reason-
ing, namely the concept of rate.
5.3 RATE AS A SPECIAL FORM OF RATIO

Before we give any form of definition, we are going to make examples of rate to get
your thinking going:
5
Ɣ We buy petrol at a rate or price of R15 per litre (or R15 for one litre, R15/ℓ or ),
1 litre
which is a comparison of money and volume;
Ɣ This child is growing at a rate or pace of 5 cm per year (or 5 cm in one year, 5cm/
5cm
year, or ), which is a comparison of length and time;
1 year
Ɣ The bus travels at a rate or speed of 80 km per hour (or 80 km in one hour, 80km/h
80km
or ), which is a comparison of distance and time;
1 hour
Ɣ Potatoes sell at a rate or price of R7.50 per kilogram (or R7.50 for one kilogram
R7,50
R7.50/kg or ), which is a comparison of money and mass;
1 kg
Ɣ Babies are born at a rate of 3 per day (or 3 babies are born each day, 3/day, or
3
), which is a comparison of number and time.
1 day
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The above examples are all ratios that are reduced to fractions with one as the numer-
ator. We can also write the fractions in their raw form. Let us take the exact same ex-
amples in their raw form before they were simplified or reduced:
R90 R15
Ɣ We buy 6 litre petrol for R90 (= or );
6 litre 1 litre
25cm 5cm
Ɣ This child has grown 25 cm in 5 years (= or );
5 years 1 year
240km 80km
Ɣ The bus travels 240 km in 3 hours (= or );
3 hours 1 hour
R60 R7.50
Ɣ Potatoes sell at R60 for an 8 kg bag (= or );
8 kg 1 kg
21 3
Ɣ 21 babies are born in a week (= or ).
7 days 1 day
Now we are ready for the mathematical definition of rate: Rate is the amount of some-
thing measured in units of something else.
The amount of ... ... measured in units (ones) of ...

Rands per one litre of petrol
Centimetre per one year
Kilometre per one hour
Rands per one kilogram
Number per one day
In the calculations involving rate, there are three elements:

Ɣ The amount (for example the distance in speed, kilometres)
Ɣ The rate (for example the rate speed, km/h)
Ɣ The unit (for example the time in speed, hours)
The so-called “speed triangle”, is a useful
tool in calculating rate of any sort.
Image retrieved from https://us.sofatutor.com/mathematics/algebra-1/equations
96
ACTIVITY 5.3
RATE CALCULATIONS
Use the guidelines of the rate triangle above and calculate the following situations:
a) Which is the best price for washing powder:
Ɣ R45 for 2.5 kg
Ɣ R55.50 for 3 kg
Ɣ R72 for 4 kg
b) How much will 12 litre juice cost if 1.5 litre costs R24?
c) Pam poured R240 petrol at a price of R15/litre. How many litres did she pour?
The knowledge and understanding of rate is one of the most practical mathemati-
cal tools in a learner’s life skills toolkit. It just gives the edge for being a smart
consumer.
CONCLUSION
In learning unit 5 we systematically focused on the development of proportional rea-
soning as a crucial part of mathematical thinking in the multiplicative conceptual field.
The idea of proportional thinking was supported by various representations and prac-
ticed through activities. The subtle distinctions in the concepts, rate, ratio, direct and
inverse proportionality were some of the concepts that form part of this learning unit.
At this stage you, the student teacher, are equipped to explain the concepts through
situations and modelling in a wide range of contexts. You are also ready to guide Inter-
mediate Phase learners in mastering this incredibly important yet intricate set of ideas
within the multiplicative conceptual field.

For an introduction to proportional reasoning, watch
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IcaEYRScqA
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For the distinction between ratio and rate watch
https://www. khanacademy. org/test-prep/sat/sat-math-practice/new-

sat-problem-solving-data-analysis/v/sat-math-q1-easier
For additional worksheets, open
http://www.math-aids.com/Ratios/
98
Learning unit 6
Integrating technology in the teaching and learning
of numbers and operation concepts
Contents
6.1 TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS 100

6.1.1 Computers 100
6.1.2 Tablets 103
6.1.3 Virtual manipulative software 105
6.2 SOFTWARE 106
6.2.1 Microsoft Add-In 106
6.2.2 Excel 107
6.2.3 GeoGebra (pronounce jee-hó-je-bra) 110
6.3 CALCULATORS 111
6.3.1 Basic four-function calculators 112
6.3.2 Scientific calculators 112
6.4 DIGITAL CONTENT 113
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this learning unit is to explore the use of technology in the learning of
numbers and to know the working of technological tools that are available for the
learning of number. In a technology driven world, students have to be made aware of
the software available to support the learning of numbers, understand how to operate
calculators and integrate technology in the teaching and learning of numbers, opera-
tions and numerical relationship concepts.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, the student will be able to:

Ɣ Use a variety of technological tools, such as computers, tablets and virtual ma-
nipulative software to extend the knowledge of numbers and operations in the
Intermediate Phase;
Ɣ Use software, such as Microsoft Math Add-In, Excel and Geogebra;
Ɣ Explain how calculators contribute to the knowledge of numbers and opera-
tions, for example, demonstrating numeric relationship using a calculator as a
tool;
Ɣ Gather and select digital content.
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Using technological advances in teaching mathematics, can be viewed from the teach-
ing- and from the learning perspective. Neither of these should dictate the use (or not)
of technology in the classroom. In a balanced perspective, we want to make use of re-
search- based views based on the experience of both teachers and students to sub-
stantiate our discussion. We want to point out the possible uses, the curriculum
requirements, realities of hugely varying teaching situations and the advantages and
disadvantages of using high level technology in learning number concepts.
6.1 TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS

Talking about technology is like talking an alternative language and we need to come
to a uniform understanding of what we mean by the terminology we use. We are
going to explain three main categories that are applicable in the teaching of mathe-
matics, namely computers, tablets and virtual manipulative software. Following that,
we shall talk about software programmes and calculators in more detail.
Modern day learners are used to a visual- and audio-visual culture of receiving infor-
mation through social media and electronic devices including computers, television
and cell phones. There they find text, audio, graphics, animation, video, and virtual
reality. They easily access the world-wide-web through the Internet – this even for free
in Wi-Fi hotspots. This makes learners increasingly inclined to accept learning content
that is given to them in this way.
In mathematics it is no different. If mathematics teachers persistently teach old-school
and refuse to incorporate modern technology, they are going to lose their learners’ in-
terest and enthusiasm.
6.1.1 Computers
A computer is an electronic device which can
Ɣ receive data or information in specific forms;
Ɣ perform operations for which the device was programmed;
Ɣ produce results in the form of signals or information.
If we consider this very broad description of a computer, it mysteriously resembles the
human brain. The thought also comes up that there may be many more types of com-
puters than desktops and laptops.
Let us now acquaint ourselves with the vocabulary used in the world of computers.
We have selected the following words from a lexicon retrieved from: https://www.eng-
lishclub.com/vocabulary/computing.htm
COMPUTER VOCABULARY
anti‐virus software – a program that finds and removes viruses from a computer
application or app – a self-contained program or piece of software; an application,
especially when downloadable to a mobile device
backup – a copy of files from a computer’s hard disk, usually made on some external
medium such as CD-ROM or flash drive. A backup is made in case the hard disk file(s)
are erased or damaged.
100
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bit, bytes – a bit is the smallest piece of information that computers use. For simplic-
ity, a PC uses bits in groups of 8 called bytes (8 bits = 1 byte).
Bluetooth – a way of communicating wirelessly over short distances between elec-
tronic devices (for example computer and mobile telephone)
boot, boot up, boot disk – You boot (or boot up) your computer when you switch
it on and wait while it prepares itself. Instructions for start-up are given to the com-
puter from the boot disk, which is usually the hard disk.
browser, to browse – A browser is a program like Firefox or Internet Explorer. You
use it to view or browse the Internet.
bug – a (small) defect or fault in a program
cache – a kind of memory used to make a computer work faster
CD‐ROM – a disk for storing computer information. It looks like an audio CD.
CPU – Central Processing Unit. This is a PC’s heart or “brains”.
data – Usually means the information (text, pictures, audio etc) that you create or
share on a computer, as opposed to the programs that manipulate the data.
DOS – Disk Operating System. The original system used for PCs, where you typed in
commands instead of pointing and clicking.
driver – a small program that tells a PC how a peripheral works
eBook – an electronic book that can be downloaded and read on a computer or oth-
er device
electronic mail (email, e‐mail) – messages sent from one computer to another. You
can see email on the screen or print it out.
file – a specific computer record. It could contain data such as text (e.g. essay.doc),
or a program such as paint.exe.
folder (directory) – a sub-division of a computer’s hard disk into which you put files
font – a particular sort of lettering (on the screen or on paper). Arial is a font. Times
New Roman is another.
format – All hard disks have to be electronically prepared for use by a process called
formatting. Hard disks are pre-formatted by the computer manufacturer.
graphics card – the equipment inside a computer that creates the image on the
screen
hard disk – the main disk inside a computer used for storing programs and informa-
tion. It is hard because it is metal. See floppy disk.
hotspot – an area that has an available wireless signal for Internet access (usually
public)
icon – a small image or picture on a computer screen that is a symbol for folders,
disks, peripherals, programs etc.
Internet – International network of computers that you connect to by telephone
line. Two popular services of the Internet are the World Wide Web and electronic
mail.
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iPad – a tablet computer created by Apple.

Kb, Mb, Gb – kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes. Used to measure computer memory
and storage.
Kindle – a device for downloading and reading eBooks, developed by Amazon.com.
memory - Memory is for the temporary storing of information while a computer is
being used. See RAM, ROM and cache.
MHz – Megahertz. This describes the speed of computer equipment. The higher the
MHz the better the performance.
modem – equipment connected to a computer for sending/receiving digital infor-
mation by telephone line. You may need a modem to connect to the Internet, to
send electronic mail and to fax.
notebook – a notebook computer; a laptop computer; a folding, portable computer.
operating system (OS) – the basic software that manages a computer (for example,
Windows 10, OS X, Unix, iOS).
OCR – Optical Character Recognition. OCR lets a PC read a fax or scanned image and
convert it to actual lettering.
palmtop – a computer that is small enough to sit on the palm of the hand
parallel port – a socket at the back of a computer for connecting external equip-
ment or peripherals, especially printers
PC card – a device that is the same size as a thick credit card, for plugging into a slot
on notebook computers. You can buy memory, modems and hard disks as PC cards.
PDA – abbreviation of “personal digital assistant”
peripheral – any equipment that is connected externally to a computer. For exam-
ple, printers, scanners and modems are peripherals.
pixel – the image that you see on the screen is made of thousands of tiny dots,
points or pixels
program – software that operates a PC and does various things, such as writing text
(word-processing program), keeping accounts (accounts program) and drawing pic-
tures (graphics program)
QWERTY – The first 6 letters on English-language keyboards are Q-W-E-R-T-Y. The
first 6 letters on French-language keyboards are A-Z-E-R-T-Y.
RAM, ROM – two types of memory. RAM (Random Access Memory) is the main
memory used while the PC is working. RAM is temporary. ROM (Read Only Memory)
is for information needed by the PC and cannot be changed.
resolution – the number of dots or pixels per inch (sometimes per centimetre) used
to create the screen image
scanner – equipment for converting paper documents to electronic documents that
can be used by a computer
serial port – socket at the back of a PC for connecting peripherals (obsolescent)
102
smartphone – a mobile phone that includes a palmtop computer or PDA and also
gives access to Internet and email
tablet – a tablet computer; a mobile computer consisting of a screen only, and con-
trolled by touching the screen
TFT – Thin Film Transistor, a type of high quality screen for notebook computers
USB – abbreviation of “universal serial bus”; a standardized connection for attaching
devices to computers etc.
USB flash drive – a small, external device for storing data; it connects through the
USB socket.
virus – a small, unauthorized program that can damage a computer
Wi‐Fi – a system for communicating without wires over a computer network
Windows – an operating system used by the majority of PCs
World Wide Web, WWW, the Web – WWW are initials that stand for World Wide
Web. The Web is one of the services available on the Internet. It lets you access mil-
lions of pages through a system of links. Because it is “world-wide”, it was originally
called the World Wide Web or WWW.
WYSIWIG – “What You See Is What You Get.” With a WYSIWIG program, if you print
a document it looks the same on paper as it looks on the screen
6.1.2 Tablets
A tablet is a USB connected mobile computer consisting of a screen only. It is con-
trolled by touching the screen and has a stylus by which one can hand-draw or write
on the screen.
Image retrieved from https://www.kisscc0.com/clipart/digital-writing-graphics-tablets-tablet-computers-

n7xd9v/
When thinking of incorporating the specific technological advance called tablets in

the teaching and learning of mathematics, we depart not from the properties of the
tablet, but from the characteristics of mathematics itself. Whatever device we use,
must serve mathematics, not the other way round.
The characteristics of mathematics

In mathematics we use a whole library of symbols, various tables, graphs, drawings
and diagrams. Traditionally, teachers write these on the board, project them on an
overhead projector or display them in the form of posters. They appear in textbooks
and notes and learners produce or reproduce them in their written work.
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Furthermore, the process of solving mathematical problems are either modelled by

the teacher or learners find their way to solution themselves and present and repre-
sent the solutions in various ways. The teacher responds to questions or peers discuss
solutions or pathways to solutions. There are set methods, strategies and procedures
to follow of which learners often have to make decisions as to which to select.
The properties of tablets

With the use of Tablet PCs, graphics Tablets or digital pens, teachers and learners can
write mathematical symbols, tables, graphs and the like electronically. The devices pro-
vide teaching tools by which the learner or the teacher can explore different pathways
to a solution. She can adjust her lesson based on learner questions and switch to an-
other display at any time. With this technology, teaching and learning can happen in-
dividually or in groups of varying size, in-class or remotely. The mathematical aspects
appearing on the display can be checked beforehand for correctness, there is a high
level of flexibility and the display is available immediately without delay. Tables,
graphs and diagrams are built rapidly and correctly.
At this point we may watch a recording of Dr Joel Feinstein about the technology,
methodology, pro’s and con’s of teaching mathematics using a tablet:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0e7o-HhT9rk
The following tutorial by Khan Academy shows the step-by-step process of creating
and recording a mathematics lesson using a tablet:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVf8ibgfurU
As we suggested, all thing have advantages and disadvantages. From field studies, the
following are some observations in this regard:
From a teaching perspective

Teachers can prepare, record and deliver lessons, saving classroom time; Teachers can
capture video clips of difficult concepts;
Teachers and learners can conduct one-to-one consultations at a distance; Teachers
can do revision of previous lessons and concepts;
Technology may not always be available or function properly.
From a learner perspective

Some learners take time to adjust to the new technology;
Change of screen may not keep up with all learners’ tempo;
104
Learners can return to a previously covered concept for better understanding.

A very good and informative article titled Progressive Teaching of Mathematics with
Tablet Technology by Loch and Donovan is available at the following web address:
http://ascilite.org/archived-journals/e-jist/docs/vol9_no2/papers/cur-
rent_practice/loch_donovan.htm
6.1.3 Virtual manipulative software

“Virtual manipulating” is a modern concept in educational technology. It is modelled
after the typical manipulatives used in a mathematics classroom, such as rulers, cut-
out tangrams, fraction walls, geo-boards, coins, blocks and other solids objects.
Virtual manipulatives are often available online, free of charge or at a minimal price.
Learners love to engage with them. They can work with them independently and the
programmes supporting them are usually scaffolding increasing complexity. They pro-
vide teachers with more options in the classroom – provided there are computers on
which learners can work and use them. Even if only one or two computers are avail-
able, they can be used fruitfully to support learners who are struggling in mathematics.
Many such programmes contain prompts and learners can move along the prompts
without the teacher needing to assist all the time. One application-based manipulative
is the Base 10 Blocks by Brainingcamp. This programme does for example not allow
learners to regroup from the number that they are subtracting instead of the number
that they started with when they are solving subtraction problems.
Many such programmes keep the problem on the same screen as the manipulative, so
that learners may do their moves keeping the problem in their vision. Some of these
programmes allow teachers to monitor learners’ progress while they are busy working
on them. Virtual manipulatives are increasingly popular in equitable- and inclusive ed-
ucation, for learners with disabilities.
Please watch at this point, the clips on Virtual Manipulatives retrievable from:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DShyaB5RXBI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bNI6cfQyxDI
All the advantages of virtual manipulatives depend on the availability of electronics,

like computers and smart-phones in the educational setup.
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6.2 SOFTWARE
Computer software are programmes or collections of pre-entered data which instruct
the computer what to do and how to operate. Hardware refers to the physical material
that computer systems are built with – the electronic device which performs the work.
There are several such programmes that can assist in the teaching of numbers, opera-
tions and relationships in mathematics.
6.2.1 Microsoft Add-In

Microsoft Mathematics is a mathematics education programme that has seen four ver-
sions to date. Version 3 can be bought as a stand-alone application, but Version 1, 2
and 3 are freely downloadable.
Comparable to this application is a related freeware add-in, called Microsoft Mathe-
matics Add‐In for Word and OneNote, available from Microsoft and requiring a version
of Word 2007 or higher. The applications are designed for Microsoft Windows and
have the following system requirements to be able to operate:
Ɣ A processor: Pentium 500 MHz – 1 GHz or equivalent
Ɣ An operating system: Microsoft Windows XP, SP3 or later
Ɣ RAM: 256 – 512 MB
Ɣ 65 MB free space in the hardware
Ɣ For graphics: VGA-capable video card with 800 x 600 - 1024 x 768 resolution
Ɣ .NET Framework 3.5 SP1
The free software has been developed as a learning tool which allows users to solve
mathematics problems. It has a graphing calculator, a unit converter, a triangle solver
and an equation solver that takes the user through the problem step by step towards
the solution. It can plot graphs in 2D and 3D and also solve inequalities such as
>, <, -=I.
The various versions of the application are Microsoft Math 1.0, available in MS
Student 2006
Ɣ Microsoft Math 2.0, available in MS Student 2007
Ɣ Microsoft Math 3.0, standalone purchasable product or its scaled-down version En-
carta Calculator, available in MS Student 2008
Ɣ Microsoft Mathematics 4.0, in 32-bit and 64-bit editions (free download 2011).
An application was also designed in 2015 by Microsoft for cell phones using a Win-
dows platform. It is called Microsoft Math, Nokia Mobile‐Mathematics or Nokia Momaths.
The applications can be downloaded from the following site:
https://download.cnet.com/Microsoft-Mathematics-64-bit/3000-
20417_4-75450133.html
106
An introduction to what the application offers, can be viewed at the following site:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DyYacuhyPXw
A tutorial of how to download the application and start using it, can be accessed at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xATphSq6WoI
6.2.2 Excel
We have selected a short and very interesting report where the researcher investigated
the use of Excel in primary mathematics with 9-year-old learners. We have cut out
some technical detail of the study, and left that which is informative for the student
teacher in mathematics education:
USING A SPREADSHEET PACKAGE TO TEACH PRIMARY MATHEMATICS – THE
ACHIEVEMENT OF THE IMPOSSIBLE
DIMITRIOS KONTOZISIS University of Reading, Department of Education and Com-
munity studies.
This paper discusses some particular ways in which children’s learning in Primary
Mathematics is currently being supported and enhanced through the use of ICT.
“How a really controversial piece of software, like the Microsoft’s Excel, can be cus-
tomised and used in a way that can make mathematics teaching real fun?” was the
question that we are going to answer.
Introduction
There is a real concern over Mathematics attainment and, when reviewing school
planning and curriculum for Maths, the full range of teaching tools and strategies
must be considered. (Heinrich. P, 1998). Mathematics involves development of com-
plex and personalised internal models, which are then used to manipulate abstract
ideas. According to Cockcroft (1982), “the usefulness of Maths arise from the fact that
Maths provides a mean of communication that is powerful, concise and unambiguous.”
It is obvious that he had not visualised the extended use of the technology that
nowadays Mathematics teaching uses to manipulate and present the same issues.
The use of ICT that period was limited in using only calculators and some Microcom-
puters. The aim of this paper is to investigate how Excel could be used for teaching
Primary Mathematics concepts.
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The use of spreadsheets in a Primary classroom. A general approach.

Basically speaking teachers use spreadsheets in the first instance to help them with
administration. However, gained experience in using a spreadsheet for routine tasks,
the next step is to power up their imagination. (Bloomfield and Harries, 1995). Using
a spreadsheet to do mathematics should be part of every child’s mathematical expe-
rience. Once a spreadsheet has been created it can be used to pose and answer a va-
riety of related questions. A spreadsheet system with easy to use graphic facilities
provides a very good way of visually examining and analysing data. For example a
Primary level example is to use a spreadsheet to create a graph of the number of the
different colours in “Smarties” tubes!
An issue of utmost importance about spreadsheets is the selection of which particu-
lar spreadsheet package teachers are going to use. Excel offers a vast range of facili-
ties whose educational potential is enormous. According to Healy, L. and Sutherland,
R (1990) and Foot, R. (1989), spreadsheets allows pupils to express general mathe-
matical relationships, which are far more sophisticated than those, which can nor-
mally express in with their pencil and paper.
Research design and data collection

My aim was to investigate the way in which Excel can be used in teaching some pri-
mary mathematical concepts. Two groups of pupils each were used. The pupils were
at the age of 9 years old and their mathematical ability and knowledge was quite
good, not excellent. All pupils had already used a similar to Excel package called Pri-
mary Living Worksheets.
Five sessions were run at about 30 minutes each. In every session we dealt with dif-
ferent issues of the package. The activities that the pupils dealt with fall to the cate-
gories described in “The National Curriculum” for Mathematics and are most directly
related to:
Ɣ Collect data into a spreadsheet and create graphs/charts.
Ɣ Use a spreadsheet to produce a table of data and carry out calculations.
They were numeracy compatible as pupils are reasoning about numbers. They called
to solve a mathematical problem, recognise and explain patterns and relationships
generalise and predict. Particularly the activity that pupils worked with was to collect
information about their own height measurements. After collecting the data they
can enter the data in a spreadsheet package and make a graph. In this activity, there
were a great variety of key mathematical ideas as stated by the curriculum.
Ɣ Understanding the language of comparatives.
Ɣ Using and applying mathematics
Ɣ Collecting, recording and interpreting data
Ɣ Using standard units of length shape, space and measurement
The pupils worked in pairs so they continued to discuss and help each other. The
size of the cells has been increased.
108
The first step was to introduce children to the names of the cells. That was most
easily done by drawing a large copy of a spreadsheet on the board and saying “this
box is called A1, what do you think that this cell is called?” Any children that need re-
inforcement practised on a computer photocopy of a spreadsheet.
The next step is to get each child to enter the data into the cells. The set-up of the
spreadsheet should be made carefully i.e. enlarging the cells. It is important to ex-
plain the children “what calculation they are doing”. The calculations themselves
were very straightforward, so the only difficult was getting the children to use the
cell numbers rather than the number. An aspect that should be taken under consid-
eration is that children get to enter several rows of data to help them to see the pat-
terns for themselves. Having taken their height measurements in the first session, in
the second session we had printed out a large piece of paper with the agreed fields
(name and height) written across the top of the spreadsheet. The first group was
working on the main file and the second group was modifying or changing the col-
ours of the cells.
In the third session pupils discussed the idea to present the data graphically. They
thought that the use of graphs would be a more comprehensible and effective way
to present the data. We worked with that for the next two sessions, as the introduc-
tion of graphs creation was the main objective. At the last session they produced a
variety of different graphs and we started discussing for the scale, key, graph title,
axes. The children experimented in changing all these concepts of the graph until
they could make sense of them. The final outcome was printed out.
Results
All the students enjoyed working with the package. Students that had previously
shown little or no motivation, especially at the second group, were keen to work on
them. Both groups regarded the use of the particular package as a privilege, and stu-
dents were prepared to put extra effort into their written work in order to use the
computer and the program. Pupils found easy to open and save their work and they
needed little intervention. They enjoyed very much the fact that after some sessions
they were able to work separately and with various tasks.
Objectives of the project were met when pupils successfully completed the activity.
Pupils were to work at their own pace and received instant feedback and reinforce-
ment. The use of the software gave the researcher the opportunity to concentrate
on helping pupils as problems arose rather than trying to keep up with marking their
work as they were completing the activities.
Conclusion
Although Excel is a spreadsheet widely used in the international business commun-
ity, with this project we formed the opinion that with suitable planning it is possible
to use it quite easily in a primary class. How the teacher is going to use spreadsheets,
not only spreadsheets but also the range of ICT in general, depends on teachers’
imagination and creativity.
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Spreadsheets can be used for a variety of purposes in the primary classroom, sup-
porting a range of different mathematical activities, apart from the one illustrated in
this project. The use of the graphics to manipulate the data seemed to be a great ad-
vantage of the package. The latter, helped pupils to change the data and made the
graph instantly redrawn.
The use of Excel seemed to have enormous potential and effect for assisting in the
learning, not only of mathematical ideas but also the learning of new techniques
and procedures (i.e. how to create a graph).
The following video is a basic tutorial for using Excel:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rwbho0CgEAE
6.2.3 GeoGebra (pronounce jee-hó-je-bra)

GeoGebra is free dynamic software for the teaching and learning of geometry, algebra,
tables, graphing, statistics and calculus from primary school to university level.
Learners experiment and investigate mathematical concepts with this application,
which can be downloaded on a desktop or laptop computer or on smart phones.
GeoGebra has become very popular among teachers and learners alike mainly because
it is so visual and learners see what they are doing with their mathematics. Although
the application became famous mainly for its geometry abilities, it has many uses in
the area of Numbers too:
Ɣ Relationships between numbers can be explored;
Ɣ Users can see how the change in one quantity affect other quantities;
Ɣ Equations can be solved.
GeoGebra is undeniably a useful tool for teaching and learning mathematics. The ob-
jects in GeoGebra are dynamic so that learners can see how they change as the prob-
lem changes. There are major advantages of the application in geometrical
constructions with all the elements (points, sections, circles and lines) that can move,
change and adapt, which makes the constructions clearer.
The use of GeoGebra for teaching number concepts at the primary level is limited
though. There are more appropriate software for this purpose, as was indicated above
in the previous paragraphs. It is useful however for the mathematics student to ac-
quaint themselves with the use of this free software, not so much for what it can do in
teaching and learning number concepts, but for the other uses mentioned earlier.
110
Please watch a tutorial on the use of GeoGebra in Algebra learning and teaching, at
the site indicated below this screenshot:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRpB5mnPFhM
6.3 CALCULATORS
Below is a balanced view about the use of calculators in the primary school, retrieved
from https://www. nctm. org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-
Use-in-Elementary-Grades/
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The view of CAPS with regard to the use of calculators in the IP, is as follows (page 13):
As the number range for doing calculations increases up to Grade 6, learners should de-
velop more efficient techniques for calculations, including using columns and learning
how to use the calculator. These techniques however should only be introduced and en-
couraged once learners have an adequate sense of place value and understanding of the
properties of numbers and operations.
6.3.1 Basic four-function calculators
In primary school, at least in the Inter-

mediate Phase, the basic, so-called four
function calculator is used, from various
brand names, but having the same basic
features as in the image to the left, which
was retrieved from https://www. pre-
pscholar.com/gre/blog/gre-calculator/
Each brand calculator comes with clear instructions but we want to stress the
following:
Ɣ The calculator usually display is 8 digits long, including decimals.
Ɣ It usually has digits 0-9, arranged like a phone keypad.
Ɣ “Clear” does not clear the memory if something has been stored using M+.
Ɣ “Clear entry” clears the last number you put in but keeps the rest of the equation.
Ɣ To take roots, enter the number first, then enter the square root button.
6.3.2 Scientific calculators
Scientific calculators are used sometimes from Grade 7

on, but mostly from Secondary School, that is Grade 8.
It takes the learner through to Grade 12 and no other
calculator is needed before entering the tertiary level.
Its working is different than that of the four-function
calculator even for the basic functions. Learners need
proper orientation to be able to use these calculators
to its full. The image to the left represents a typical sci-
entific calculator, retrieved from https://www. foto-
search.com/CSP416/k4162724/
112
Calculators on cellphones are currently in popular use and differ vastly from one
brand to the other.
Calculators on other electronic devices like PC’s and laptops are also used while pro-
ducing documents and users need to know the working thereof.
In general, alternative calculators correspond more with the four-function calculator
than with the scientific calculator. It is impossible to give guidelines for using any of
the above calculators in the space of this Module. Each calculator comes with specific
and detailed instructions.
6.4 DIGITAL CONTENT

Digital content is also known as digital media and consists of digital data. It is stored
digitally. Practical examples in our daily lives are the media types of television and ra-
dio, GPS, news and weather updates, maps and so on. Digital content can be obtained
through access to the Internet. Not only can people receive digital content, but they
can create and upload such content themselves – think of Facebook, blogs and
eBooks.
The Digital Revolution happened roughly in the second half of the previous century
when masses of new information was created in many fields of human knowledge
through computers. The distribution of digital content started on large scale with the
availability of the Internet by the end of the previous century. In recent times digital
content is not only distributed through the Internet, but also through other channels
such as mobile apps and eBooks.
People easily use, share, copy and distribute digital content and intellectual property
and copyright have become an issue of concern for the managers of digital content.
Some free-of-charge digital content includes:
Ɣ Digital videos, including home videos, music videos, TV shows, and movies, many
of which can be retrieved and viewed, even downloaded for free from websites
such as YouTube. Some need to be bought from sites such as Amazon and iTunes.
Ɣ One of the most popular and common forms of digital content is music. There are
several, free of charge ways to access music from the Internet through computers
and cell phones.
Ɣ Photos and images are other examples of popular digital content that is widely
shared. Self-created artwork, photos, and images can be shared at various Internet
based sites.
Some videos, music and images can be bought, but some cannot be bought, like news,
question-and-answers, maps and advertisements.
There are many educational opportunities with digital content, one of the greatest in
mathematics being Khan’s Academy where one can search on the topic that you strug-
gle with or want to master, for example Ratio and there are tutorials that you can fol-
low step by step, pause and resume as you choose.
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ACTIVITY 6
TECHNOLOGY IN LEARNING NUMBERS
https://www. ted. com/talks/conrad_wolfram_teaching_kids_real_

math_with_computers
Watch the clip above, pause where needed and answer the following questions:
a) Wolfram talks about a silver bullet. Explain this in your own words.
..............................................................................................................................................
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b) What are the three reasons that Wolfram gives for teaching mathematics?
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c) What are the four steps to do while solving a mathematical problem?
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d) The speaker says mathematics -=I calculating. What does he mean by that?
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e) Does the speaker think there is still some use for hand calculation and mental
maths? Motivate your answer.
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f) The speaker does not seem to think that calculating necessarily promotes
understanding. Explain why you agree or disagree with this viewpoint.
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114
g) How does the speaker suggest a balance between practical and conceptual
math?
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h) Give your own opinion about hand-written exams.
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FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 6
The above clip gives fresh and stimulating points to ponder and may change our
views of what we traditionally valued and defended as core to mathematics –
calculating!
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this learning unit was to explore the use of technology in the learning
of numbers and to know the working of technological tools that are available for the
learning of number. It opened up new horizons for us as teachers in the 21st century,
all at the same time challenging us to scrutinize our traditional beliefs and habits of
teaching. We can simply not avoid integrating technology in our mathematics teach-
ing and – we may be richly rewarded!
ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND RESOURCES

For this learning unit we have incorporated the additional learning sources as we pro-
gressed through the sub-topics and we do not wish to add anything in that regard.
MIP1501 115
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General content focus Intermediate Phase specific content

Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): Mathematics – Intermediate

Specific outcome Assessment criteria (at completion

1.1 THE HISTORY OF NUMBERS 2

By the end of this unit, the student will be able to:

1.1 THE HISTORY OF NUMBERS

Image retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal

ROMAN NUMBER SYMBOLS

Feedback on Activity 1.1

The Chinese and Japa-

Image retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_numerals

Image retrieved from http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/topics/num-sys.html

The symbol for 10 shows the

Image retrieved from https://www.pinterest.ch/pin/8162843053724712/

1.2 THE HINDU-ARABIC NUMBER SYSTEM

1.2.1 Base 60 number system

Eggs come in packaging

Image retrieved from https://phillips.blogs.com/goc/2013/03/base-60-1.html

1.2.2 Base 12 number system

Ɣ The number of lunar cycles in a year is 12.

Clock image retrieved from Multiplication table image retrieved from

1.2.3 The base 10 number system

c) 3 908,576 = 3.103 + 9.102+ 0.101 + 8.100 + 5.10-1+ 7.10-2 + 6.10-3

1.3 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

1.3.1 Natural numbers

1.3.3 Rational numbers

Images retrieved from https://www.shutterstock.com/search/half+apple

Feedback on Activity 1.3.3

i. Each girl gets a fraction of apple.

We are now ready to understand the definition of rational numbers:

1.3.4 Irrational numbers

1.3.5 Non-real or imaginary numbers

1.3.6 Absolute value

1.3.7 Summary of the real and complex number systems

Image retrieved from https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Real-Number-System-Venn-Diagram-

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

http://teachers. henrico. k12. va. us/math/hcpscourse3/8-2/8-2_Note-

https://faculty. mtsac. edu/ctunstall/dsps_33/dsps33_maths/Number %

ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES

2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER SENSE 13

2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF NUMBER SENSE

Calculations also start non-symbolic (mentally),based on the meaning of number and

2.1.1 The meaning of numbers

Symbolic number sense is associating written symbols with numerical magnitudes. It

Although subitising devel-

Image retrieved from https://www.rehabmart.com/product/magnetic-double6-dominoes-2395.html

Ɣ It corresponds naturally with fingers as

MAKING MEANING OF NUMBER BY SUBITISING

Feedback on Activity 2.1.1(a)

Relational skill, or understanding the relationships between numbers, is a skill that

Situation Reasoning Number sentence

Situation Reasoning Number sentence

Feedback on Activity 2.1.1(b):

2.1.2 The properties of numbers

#1. Commutative properties

#2. Associative properties

#3. Distributive property