Fundamentals of Smart Materials

Fundamentals of Smart Materials
Edited by
Mohsen Shahinpoor
University of Maine, USA

Email: shah@maine.edu
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF CHEMISTRY
Contents
1 General Introduction to Smart Materials 1

Mohsen Shahinpoor
1.1 Introduction 1
Homework Problems 9
Abbreviations and 11
Acronyms
2 Review of Piezoelectric Materials 13

Shahinpoor
Mohsen
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Piezoelectric Ceramic Actuators, Energy-harvesters,

and Sensors 17
2.3 Constitutive Modeling of Piezoelectric Materials 18
2.4 Applications 21
Homework Problems 22
References 23
3 Review of Piezoresistive Materials as
Smart Sensors 25
Mohsen Shahinpoor
3.1 The Piezoresistivity Effect 25
Fundamentals of Smart Materials

Edited by Mohsen Shahinpoor
© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2020
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
ix
x Contents
3.2 Piezoresistive Strain/Stress Sensor Configuration 27
3.3 Piezoresistive Strain Sensors 28
3.4 Physical Causes of Piezoresistivity 29
3.5 Merit of Piezoresistive Sensors vs. Capacitive Sensors 31
3.6 Piezoresistivity Components 32
3.7 Methods for Compensating for the Temperature Effect 33
Summary 34
References 35
4 Review of Electrostrictive Materials 36

Mohsen Shahinpoor
4.1 Introduction 36
4.2 ConstitutiveEquations and Electrostrictive Properties 38
4.3 PMN Impedance Mismatch 40
4.4 PMN Suppliers 41
4.5 Electrostrictive Materials Compared to Piezoelectric

Materials 41
4.6 Conclusions 43
References 44
5 Review of the use of Fibrous Contractile

Ionic Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) in Smart
Materials and Artificial Muscles 46
Mohsen Shahinpoor
5.1 Introduction 46
5.2 Ionic PAN Fibers in General 47
5.3 Preparation of C-PAN 48
5.4 Force-Strain Variations in Active PAN Fibers 51
5.5 Variations in the

Length of Modified PAN Fibers
the pH Variations of the Solutions in
versus
Which they are Contained 51
5.6 Effect of Different Anions on the Generative Force

Characteristics 51
5.7 Generative Force Characteristics: Effect of Acidity 53
5.8 Performance of a PAN Bundle Artificial Muscle 53

Contents xi
5.9 Electrical Activation of Conductive PAN (C-PAN) Muscles 55
5.10 Electric Current Effect on Force Generation 56
5.11 Mathematical Modeling of the Contraction and

Swelling of Active PAN Muscles 56
5.12 Modeling of the Expansion and Contraction of PAN

Muscles Based on Electrocapillary Effects 58
5.13 Conclusions 61
References 62
6 Review of Magnetostrictive (MSMs) and

Giant Magnetostrictive Materials (GMSs) 64
Mohsen Shahinpoor
6.1 Introduction 64
6.2 Various Magnetostrictive Effects 67
6.3 Terfenol-D Availability 68
6.4 Properties of Terfenol-D 68
6.5 GMS Constitutive Equations 70
6.6 Conclusions 71
References 72
7 Review of Giant Magnetoresistive

(GMR) Materials 73
Mohsen Shahinpoor
7.1 Introduction 73
7.2 Ordinary Magnetoresistance (OMR) 75

7.3 Spintronics and GMR Effect 76
7.4 Applications of GMR 78
7.5 Modeling 79
7.6 Role of Electron Spin in GMR 80
7.7 GMR in Granular Structures 81
7.8 GMRs as Smart Sensors 81
7.9 Hard Disk Drives 81
7.10 Conclusions 81
References 82
xii Contents
8 Review of Magnetic Gels as Smart

Materials 84
Mohsen Shahinpoor
8.1 Introduction 84
8.2 Magnetoviscoelasticity of
Ferrogels 86
8.3 Constitutive Equations for Ferrogels 87
8.4 Analysis of Dynamics of Magnetic Gel Actuators

in a Magnetic Field 90
8.5 Nonhomogeneous Deformation of

Ferrogels 94
8.6 Concluding Remarks 95
References 96
9 Review of Electrorheological Fluids

(ERFs) as Smart Material 98
Mohsen Shahinpoor
9.1 Introduction 98
9.2 Giant Electrorheological Effects (GERF) 100
9.3 Modeling of ERFs 101
9.4 The Bingham Model 101
102
9.5 Krieger-Dougherty
9.6 Kinetic Chain Model 102
9.7 Applications 102
9.8 Automatic Transmission and ERFs 103
9.9 Conclusion 104
References 105
10 Review of Magnetorheological
Fluids as Smart Materials 107
Norman M. Wereley and Young Choi
Fluids 107
10.1 Magnetorheological
108
10.2 Rheological Models of MRFs
Contents xiii
10.3 Nondimensional Numbers for MRFs 111
10.4 Sedimentation 112
References 116
11 Review of Dielectric Elastomers (DEs)

as Smart Materials 118
Mohsen Shahinpoor
11.1 Introduction 118
11.2 Fundamentals of Dielectric Elastomer Actuation 119
11.3 The Challenge of Mounting Compliant Electrodes

on DEAs 121
11.4 Constitutive Equations for Dielectric Elastomer

Actuators 122
11.5 Actuator Design: Geometry and Structure 129
11.6 Artificial Muscles for Biomimetic Robots 130
11.7 DE Sensors 131
11.8 The Future: Materials Development for New

Elastomers 132
11.9 Conclusions 133

References 134
12 Review of Shape Memory Alloys

(SMAs) as Smart Materials 136
Mohsen Shahinpoor
12.2 Shape Memory Effect (SME) 137
12.3 Stress-Strain-Temperature Dependence of SMAs 139
12.4 SME Variations 141

12.5 One-way (OWSME)
SME 141
12.6 Two-way SME (TWSME) 141
12.7 Constitutive Equations for SMAs 142
12.8 Tanaka Model 143
12.9 The Liang and Roger Model 144
12.10 The Brinson Model 145

xiv Contents
12.11 CardiovascularSuperelastic Stents 146

12.12 MedicalApplications 147
12.13 SMA Engineering and Industrial
Applications 148
References 149
13 Review of Magnetic Shape Memory

Smart Materials 151
Mohsen Shahinpoor
13.2 MSMA Actuators 152
13.3 Sensing and Multi-functional Properties of MSMMs 153

13.4 Typical MSMA Materials 153
13.5 Manufacturing of MSMAs 153

13.6 MSM Mechanism 154
13.7 Magneto-Mechanical Constitutive Modeling of
MSMs 155
13.8 Some Additional Applications of MSMs 157

References 159
14 Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) as
Smart Materials 160

Mohsen Shahinpoor
14.2 Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) in Temperature

Fields 161
14.3 Thermoplastic SMPs 164
14.4 SMP Product Development 164
14.5 Thermomechanical Constitutive Equations for SMPs 164
14.6 Conclusion and Outlook 167
References 168
15 Review of Smart Materials for
Controlled Drug Release 170
Carmen Alvarez-Lorenzo and Angel Concheiro
15.2 Drug Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery

Systems 171
15.3 Interest of Smart Materials for Controlled Drug
Release 173
15.4 Stimuli to Be Exploited and Applications 175
15.5 Conclusions and Future Aspects 187

References 189
16 Review of Smart Mechanochromic and

Metamaterials 193
Mohsen Shahinpoor
16.2 Introduction to Mechanochromic Materials 194
16.3 Some Examples of Mechanochromic
Polymers 194
16.4 Mechanochromic Devices Based on Marine

Biological Systems 195
16.5 Introduction to Mechanical Metamaterials 196
16.6 Background to Metamaterials 196
16.7 Electromagnetic Metamaterials 198
16.8 Elastic Metamaterials 198
16.9 Acoustic Metamaterials 199

16.10 Structural Metamaterials 199
16.11 Nonlinear Metamaterials 199
16.12 Cloaking Devices 199
16.13 Seismic Protection 199
16.14 Antennas 199
16.15 Absorber 199
16.16 Super Lens 200
16.17 Optical Metamaterials 200
References 202
xvi Contents
17 Review of Ionic Polymer-Metal

Composites (IPMCs) as Smart
Materials 203
Mohsen Shahinpoor
17.2 Three-dimensional Fabrication of IPMCs 204
17.3 Electrically-induced Robotic Actuation 211
17.4 Distributed Nanosensing and

Transduction 213
17.5 Modeling and Simulation 215
References 220
18 Review of Smart Ionic Liquids 222

Ali Eftekhari
18.2 Polymerized Ionic

Liquids 224
18.3 Stimuli-responsive Behaviour 224
References 231
19 Review of Conductive Polymers as
Smart Materials 233

Mohsen Shahinpoor
19.2 Conductivity of Conductive

Polymers 235
19.3 Electro-Chemo-Mechanical Properties 235
19.4 Experimental Observations on Conductive

Polymers (CPs) 236
19.5 Bending Structures 237
19.6 Fabrication and Manufacturing 239
References 242
Contents xvii
20 Review of Liquid Crystal Elastomers 243

Mohsen Shahinpoor
20.2 Brief Background on Liquid Crystals 243
20.3 Nematic, Cholesteric and Smectic Phases of

Liquid Crystals 244
20.4 Electrically-controllable Liquid Crystal

Elastomer-Graphite Composites (LCE-G) 248
20.5 Experimental Procedure 249

20.6 Modeling and Constitutive Equations 249
References 252
21 Hydrogels, Including Chemoresponsive

Gels, as Smart Materials 254
Hans-Jorg Schneider
21.2 Chemoresponsive Materials Based on Hydrogels 257
References 265
22 Smart Nanogels for Biomedical

Applications 267
Arti Vashist, Ajeet Kaushik, Srinivasan Chinnapaiyan,
Atul Vashist and Madhavan Nair
22.2 Polymer-based Micro/Nano Gels 269
22.3 Synthesis of Micro/Nanogels 270
22.4 Characterization of Nanogels 270
22.5 Biomedical Applications 271

22.6 Conclusion 274
Acknowledgements 275
References 275
23 Review on Self-healing Materials 277
Mohsen Shahinpoor
23.2 Self-healing Materials 278
23.3 Self-healing Cementitious and Concrete

Materials 278
23.4 Self-healing Polymers and Elastomers 280
23.5 EMAAs as Ionic Self-healing Polymers 280
References 282
24 Overview of Janus Particles as

Smart Materials 284
Shan Jiang and Kyle Miller
24.2 History and Fabrication of Janus Particles 285
24.3 Self-assembly Structures 287
24.4 Structure and Motion of Janus Particles

Under an External Field 289
References 297
Appendix 299
Intelligent Materials 299
Janus Particle Synthesis, Self-Assembly and
Applications 300
Smart Materials for Drug Delivery: Complete

Set of Two Volumes 300
Materials Design Inspired by Nature: Function
Through Inner Architecture 301
Responsive Photonic Nanostructures: Smart

Nanoscale Optical Materials 302
Magnetorheology: Advances and Applications 302

Mechanochromic Fluorescent Materials: Phenomena,
Materials and Applications
Cell Surface Engineering: Fabrication of Functional
Nanoshells
Functional Nanometer-Sized Clusters of Transition
Metals: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications
Biointerfaces: Where Material Meets Biology
Supramolecular Materials for Opto-Electronics
Photocured Materials
Semiconductor Nanowires: From Next-Generation
Electronics to SustainableEnergy
Chemoresponsive Materials: Stimulation by
Chemical and Biological Signals
Functional Metallosupramolecular Materials
Bio-Synthetic Hybrid Materials and Bionanoparticles:

A Biological Chemical Approach Towards
Material Science
IonicPolymer Metal Composites (IPMCs): Smart
Multi-Functional Materials and Artificial
Muscles,
Complete Set
Conducting Polymers: Bioinspired Intelligent
Materials and Devices
Smart Materials for Advanced Environmental
Applications
Self-cleaning Coatings: Structure, Fabrication,
and Application
Functional Polymer Composites with Nanoclays
Bioactive Glasses: Fundamentals, Technology,
and Applications
Smart Materials for Tissue Engineering:
Two-volume Set
Magnetic Nanomaterials: Applications in Catalysis

and Life Sciences
Biobased Smart Polyurethane Nanocomposites:
From Synthesis Applications
to
Inorganic Two-dimensional Nanomaterials:

Fundamental Understanding, Characterizations,
and Energy Applications
Ionic Liquid Devices
Polymerized Ionic Liquids
Nanogels for Biomedical Applications
Reactive Inkjet Printing: A Chemical Synthesis Tool
xx Contents
Electrochromic Smart Materials: Fabrication and
Applications 319
Layered Materials for Energy Storage and

Conversion 319
Smart Membranes 320
Cucurbituril-based Functional Materials 321
Subject Index 322

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University of Maine, USA

1 General Introduction to Smart Materials 1

2 Review of Piezoelectric Materials 13

2.2 Piezoelectric Ceramic Actuators, Energy-harvesters,

2.3 Constitutive Modeling of Piezoelectric Materials 18

3 Review of Piezoresistive Materials as

3.1 The Piezoresistivity Effect 25

Fundamentals of Smart Materials

3.2 Piezoresistive Strain/Stress Sensor Configuration 27

3.3 Piezoresistive Strain Sensors 28

3.4 Physical Causes of Piezoresistivity 29

3.5 Merit of Piezoresistive Sensors vs. Capacitive Sensors 31

3.6 Piezoresistivity Components 32

3.7 Methods for Compensating for the Temperature Effect 33

4 Review of Electrostrictive Materials 36

4.5 Electrostrictive Materials Compared to Piezoelectric

5 Review of the use of Fibrous Contractile

5.2 Ionic PAN Fibers in General 47

5.3 Preparation of C-PAN 48

5.4 Force-Strain Variations in Active PAN Fibers 51

5.5 Variations in the

Which they are Contained 51

5.6 Effect of Different Anions on the Generative Force

5.7 Generative Force Characteristics: Effect of Acidity 53

5.8 Performance of a PAN Bundle Artificial Muscle 53

5.9 Electrical Activation of Conductive PAN (C-PAN) Muscles 55

5.10 Electric Current Effect on Force Generation 56

5.11 Mathematical Modeling of the Contraction and

5.12 Modeling of the Expansion and Contraction of PAN

6 Review of Magnetostrictive (MSMs) and

6.2 Various Magnetostrictive Effects 67

6.3 Terfenol-D Availability 68

6.4 Properties of Terfenol-D 68

6.5 GMS Constitutive Equations 70

7 Review of Giant Magnetoresistive

7.2 Ordinary Magnetoresistance (OMR) 75

7.6 Role of Electron Spin in GMR 80

7.7 GMR in Granular Structures 81

7.8 GMRs as Smart Sensors 81

7.9 Hard Disk Drives 81

8 Review of Magnetic Gels as Smart

8.3 Constitutive Equations for Ferrogels 87

8.4 Analysis of Dynamics of Magnetic Gel Actuators

8.5 Nonhomogeneous Deformation of

8.6 Concluding Remarks 95

9 Review of Electrorheological Fluids

9.2 Giant Electrorheological Effects (GERF) 100

9.3 Modeling of ERFs 101

9.4 The Bingham Model 101

9.7 Applications 102

9.8 Automatic Transmission and ERFs 103

9.9 Conclusion 104

Homework Problems 105

10.3 Nondimensional Numbers for MRFs 111

10.4 Sedimentation 112

Homework Problems 114

11 Review of Dielectric Elastomers (DEs)

11.1 Introduction 118

11.2 Fundamentals of Dielectric Elastomer Actuation 119

11.3 The Challenge of Mounting Compliant Electrodes

11.4 Constitutive Equations for Dielectric Elastomer

11.5 Actuator Design: Geometry and Structure 129