Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol.

34, October 2001, pp 458-466

International RILEM Workshop on Life

RILEM TECHNICAL COMMITTEES

Prediction and Aging Management of

Concrete Structures

Cannes, France, 16-17 October 2000

Reported by: Dan J. Naus, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA, and
Michael W. Johnston, British Energy plc, East Kilbride, United Kingdom

International Scientific Committee: C. Andrade, Spain; H. Ashar, USA; Z. Bittnar, Czech Republic; M. Ciampoli, Italy;
R. Danisch, Germany; B. Ellingwood, USA; M. Geiker, Denmark; L. Granger, France; H. L. Graves, III, USA; W. Heep, Switzerland;
M. Johnston, UK; J.-H. Lee, Korea; S. Morinaga, Japan; D. J. Naus, USA; P. Shaw, Sweden; M. Stewart, Australia; P. J. E. Sullivan,
UK; and E. Vesikari, Finland.

INTRODUCTION on the same topic held in Bratislava, Slovakia, on 6-8 July

Civil infrastructure facilities, such as bridges, tunnels,
transportation, dam and navigation facilities, nuclear
power plants, and buildings include concrete structures
whose performance and function are necessary for the
safety and protection of operating personnel and the gen-
eral public. Aging of these structures may adversely
impact their ability to withstand future operating condi-
tions, extreme environmental challenges or accidents, and
increase risk to public health and safety if not controlled.
Methodologies for service life prediction of concrete
structures and to manage the effects of aging are currently
under development in many fields of civil engineering.
Improved design and redesign methods, surveillance,
inspection/testing, and maintenance techniques are
required to ensure continued safe, functional, and eco-
nomical operation of concrete structures. Specific guide-
lines and technical criteria to manage aging in existing and
new concrete construction are needed.
BACKGROUND
The International RILEM Workshop on Life Prediction and
Aging Management of Concrete Structures was hosted by
Technical Committee TC MLN-160, “Methodology for
Life Prediction of Concrete Structures in Nuclear Power
Plants.” The aim of the workshop was to build on infor-
mation presented at a previous international conference
1999. As such, the workshop was organized to be of
interest to designers and engineers, plant managers,
researchers, regulators, and others concerned with effec-
tive management of aging of concrete structures. One of
the primary objectives of the workshop was to advance
the goal of safe, functional, and economical operation of
civil infrastructure facilities by providing an international
forum for highlighting recent advances in the technology
underlying aging management and service life prediction
of concrete structures. Technical presentations and work-
shop proceedings were intended to update participants on
current research, present novel ideas and strategies for
management of aging of infrastructure-related facilities,
and provide an opportunity for exchanging practical expe-
riences on implementation of aging management policies.
Topics for which workshop papers had been solicited
include: durability of concrete structures; modelling tech-
niques for service life prediction of new and existing
structures; material selection and design considerations
for durability; assessment methods and instrumentation
systems; maintenance and repair approaches for service life
extension; probabilistic approaches to performance esti-
mation; aging management; risk-informed decision-mak-
ing; and case histories, performance assessments of
degraded structures, and economics of successful aging
management. The workshop was cosponsored by Centre
d’Études et de Recherches de l’Industrie du Béton
(Epernon, France) and the Institute of Construction
Sciences “Eduardo Torroja (Madrid, Spain).

Editorial Note
The Proceedings of this International RILEM Workshop are available: ‘PRO 16: RILEM Workshop on Life Prediction and Aging Management of
Concrete Structures’ (RILEM Publications S.A.R.L., Cachan, France, 2001, ISBN: 2-912143-19-5), Edited by D. Naus, 239p.

1359-5997/01 © RILEM 458

Naus, Johnston
WORKSHOP SUMMARY
Mr. Brusin (RILEM) and Dr. Naus (Committee
Chairman) welcomed the conference attendees. Mr.
Brusin presented an overview of RILEM and Dr. Naus
summarized activities of Technical Committee TC
MLN-160. RILEM was founded in June 1947 to pro-
mote scientific exchange of information between world-
wide experts. Approximately 1200 experts are involved
in RILEM activities with about 700 being RILEM
members. Primary mechanisms for exchange of infor-
mation include technical committees, workshops, semi-
nars, and conferences. Information is primarily dissemi-
nated through the RILEM journal Materials and
Structures, and an annual report. Additional information
on RILEM is available through the internet
(http://www.rilem.org). Primary accomplishments of
the Technical Committee include: publication of a state-
of-the-art report, “Considerations for Use in Managing
the Aging of Nuclear Power Plant Concrete Structures
(RILEM Report 19, ISBN: 2-912143-07-1),” publica-
tion of the proceedings from the international work-
shop, “Life Prediction and Aging Management of
Concrete Structures (Proceedings 8, EXPERTCEN-
TRUM, Bratislava, Slovakia),” and the current work-
shop (ISBN: 2-912143-19-5). Approximately 35 dele-
gates from 15 countries attended the workshop. The
two-day workshop was organized into six sessions with
over 20 papers presented. Conclusions and recommen-
dations were developed following paper presentations.
Session One – Modeling, Numerical
Simulation, and Service Life Prediction
Chairperson: Dr. D. Naus
“On the uncertainty of service-life models for rein-
forced marine concrete structures” – L.-O. Nilsson#,
Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden): Service
life models for corrosion initiation are based on predic-
tion of the ingress of chloride from seawater and com-
paring the predicted chloride contents with a “limiting”
value. The relevant uncertainty with respect to predic-
tion of the ingress of chloride from seawater is related to
extrapolation of measured data by a model that predicts
the behaviour beyond that for which data are available. A
traditional model uncertainty can only be quantified
after the fact when additional data become available and
it can be shown that the previous model was incorrect.
The model can then be adjusted, but future results are
still uncertain. An improved service life model based on
comparing prediction results from several different mod-
els over time is introduced and the difference between
predicted results from the new model and the previous
model compared. The hypothesis is that uncertainty
decreases with time, but the long-term uncertainty in
service-life models is still very significant. Future obser-
#Presented paper.
459
vations will quantify validity of the improved model, but
cannot solely quantify the uncertainty in future predic-
tions as reliable predictions require a better understand-
ing of the time dependency of diffusion coefficients and
chloride binding.
“Estimation of service life of concrete facades by the
factor approach” - E. Vesikar i#, V TT Building
Technology (Finland): The factor approach, based on
ISO/DIS 15686A, has been used to develop a service-life
planning scheme for concrete facades. Two service lives
are considered: (1) design life that is the intended service
life set by the owner and (2) estimated service life that is
evaluated by the factor approach. The estimated service
life is based on the reference service life and several fac-
tors (e.g., quality of component, design level, environ-
ment, and maintenance). The factors are produced
using a computer simulation technique in which envi-
ronmental conditions, temperatures and moisture con-
tents of the structure, and degradation of materials are
emulated as closely as possible to their natural perfor-
mance. A step-by-step calculation process is used, with
the mean service life determined by computer simula-
tion and based on both frost damage and carbonation.
With respect to frost damage, service life is defined as
the decrease due to internal frost cracking of the
dynamic modulus of concrete to 2/3 its original value.
With respect to carbonation, service life is defined as the
period of time required for the carbonation depth to
equal the concrete cover thickness. The approach was
illustrated for a multistory dwelling facade in southern
Finland having a design life of 50 years.
“Service life prediction of concrete structures sub-
jected to chloride attack by numerical simulation” – T.
Shimomura# and K. Maruyama, Nagaoka University of
Technology (Japan): An integrated numerical simulation
method for time-dependent performance change of rein-
forced concrete structures subject to chloride attack has
been developed. The computational system consists of
several mathematical models related to the deterioration
process of the structure (mainly steel reinforcement corro-
sion), transport of aggressive materials within concrete
cover, corrosion of steel reinforcing bars embedded in
concrete, and mechanical behaviour of the concrete mem-
ber with corroded steel reinforcement. The degradation
processes of reinforced concrete members with respect to
service time are calculated in time steps by coupling math-
ematical models on associated phenomena: ingress of
aggressive species, corrosion of reinforcing steel bars in
concrete, concrete cracking due to corrosive expansion of
reinforcing bars, and mechanical behaviour of reinforced
concrete member with corroded bars. To verify the
numerical simulation method a reinforced concrete
bridge subjected to intermittent seawater exposure was
considered. Computational results were found to corre-
spond reasonably well with general engineering knowl-
edge on repair and rehabilitation techniques.
Improvements are needed, however, and carbonation,
flexural cracking, creep and shrinkage of concrete, and
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, October 2001
other factors still need to be considered. The presentation
included discussion of effect of retrofitting a carbon fibre
composite sheet reinforcement to the movement of mois-
ture and aggressive species in concrete, the extent of rebar
corrosion and the structural capacity of the bridge beam.
“Concrete carbonation, a predicting methodology of
the front advance” – R. Miragliotta∗,∗∗ A. Aït-
Mokhtar∗∗, P. Rougeau#,∗ and P. Dumargue∗∗, CERIB
(France)∗ and Université de la Rochelle (France)∗∗:
With respect to the resistance of reinforced concrete
building constructions to environmental aggressive
agents, such as carbonation, concrete transfer properties
or interconnected porosity are of importance (i.e., the
surface layer that has properties different from the bulk
concrete and governs the carbonation kinetics and thus
depassivation of the reinforcing steel). Properties of sur-
faces that are either in contact with air (leveled faces) and
concrete that has been cast in contact with a mold were
characterized. Specimens cast under these surface condi-
tions were exposed to the natural environment in France
for six years. During this period measurements of car-
bonation depth were made using cores and phenolph-
thalein indicator. Carbonation depths after six years
exposure show that carbonation kinetics vary signifi-
cantly according to surface type (leveled or molded) with
molded faced exhibiting about 24% less carbonation than
the leveled faces. The environmental conditions also
played a major role on the carbonation kinetics in that
carbonation depths for zones protected from the climatic
fluctuations are higher than those measured on the zones
exposed to climatic f luctuations, with zones that face
south being more sensitive to carbonation than those
which face north, and surfaces exposed to rain having
lower propagation depths than protected surfaces.
Session Two – Performance Monitoring
Chairperson: Dr. M. Johnston
“Assessment of corrosion in reinforced concrete by
ground penetrating radar (GPR) and half-cell potential
tests” – S. Laurens#,∗,∗∗, J. Rhazi∗∗, J. P. Balayssac∗ and
G. Arliguier∗, Université Paul Sabatier - Toulouse
(France)∗ and Université de Sherbrooke (Canada)∗∗:
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been investigated as a
means of diagnosing steel reinforcement corrosion. GPR
measurements involve moving an antenna over the surface
of the structure under investigation along a preset line and
recording the electromagnetic response at regularly spaced
intervals. The electromagnetic response consists of all
ref lections generated by each interface representing a
dielectric constant. Since GPR wave propagation in the
concrete is inf luenced by the concrete physiochemical
properties (i.e., electrical conductivity) the more reflective
a concrete area, the higher the corrosion potential e.g.,
higher moisture or chloride contents). Based on this a cri-
terion was developed in which the more reflective a bridge
deck area, the higher the corrosion probability of steel
460
located in the area under consideration. Two bridge decks
in Quebec were examined. The decks consist of a rein-
forced concrete structure covered by an asphalt layer. On
each bridge deck half-cell potential and GPR measure-
ments were made in one lane. Although the results are
preliminary, they tend to demonstrate the ability of GPR
to help in the diagnosis of the location of steel reinforce-
ment corrosion in concrete.
“A Study of NDE-performance in condition assess-
ment of reinforced concrete structures” – P. Shaw#
Force Institute (Denmark): Although there has been
considerable recent interest in use of nondestructive
evaluation methods for assessment of the condition of
reinforced concrete structures, their application has been
limited, the methods are considered to be mainly quali-
tative, and results provided are sometimes considered to
be ambiguous. Recently work with high-energy radiog-
raphy in combination with a digital imaging system, and
a new ultrasonic pulse-echo technique may have applica-
tion to thick reinforced concrete sections. Conventional
high-energy radiography using traditional f ilm can
determine exact reinforcement details and inspect pre-
stressing cable ducts, but has a practical concrete thick-
ness limit of 1000 mm due to exposure time. Also,
when film is utilized there is a lack of dynamic range and
difficulties in presentation. When high-energy radiog-
raphy is used in conjunction with imaging plates (instead
of traditional film), that when exposed to radiation stim-
ulate phosphor crystals on the plates to a higher energy
level dependent on the accumulated radiation dose, per-
formance can be improved (e.g., improved resolution
relative to conventional high-energy radiography and
can be used for concrete thicknesses to 1500 mm). The
pulse-echo system is manufactured in Russia and con-
sists of a transducer unit with an array of 24 pointed and
spring-loaded transducers plus a hand-held computer.
The transducer produces shear wave pulses (33 to 250
KHz) and acts as a sending-receiving unit. Laboratory
studies indicate that system is able to penetrate concrete
to about 1000 mm and locate all defects that had been
contained within a test slab.
“Monitoring the world largest cooling tower” – D.
Busch#,∗, H.-D. Köpper,∗∗ and J. Meyer∗∗, RWE
Energie AG (Germany)∗ and Zerna, Köpper & Partner
(Germany)∗∗: In Germany construction of the world’s
largest cooling tower (200-m high by 145-m diameter) is
nearing completion. In addition to its size, the cooling
tower differed from prior cooling towers in that the sur-
faces are not coated to protect them from acidic condi-
tions. Also inspection of the cooling tower while in
operation is not an option. As a result, an extensive
monitoring system has been installed (e.g., wind velocity
and direction, temperature, condensate collection, con-
crete modulus, deformations, chloride and carbonation
penetration, and moisture). A complete set of measure-
ments will be taken each year and results used to plan
any remedial or protective measures that might be
required.
Naus, Johnston
Session Three – Structural Assessment/Aging
Management
Chairperson: Dr. M. G. Stewart
“Structural assessment methodology for residual life
calculation of concrete structures affected by reinforce-
ment corrosion” – J. Rodriguez,∗, L. M. Ortega∗, J.
Aragoncillo,#,∗, D. Izquierdo∗∗ and C. Andrade,∗∗,
Geocisa (Spain)∗ and Institute of Construction Science
“Eduardo Torroja” (Spain)∗∗: A structural assessment
methodology for residual life calculation of concrete
structures affected by reinforcement corrosion has been
developed. Consequences of corrosion of steel rein-
forcement are classified into three main groups: (1)
those that affect the reinforcement section reducing the
effective area and ductility, (2) those related to concrete
integrity, and (3) those that affect the concrete-steel
reinforcement bond. Knowledge of the actual state and
future evolution of these consequences is essential for
the assessment of the condition of a structure undergo-
ing corrosion. The methodology starts with a prelimi-
nary assessment to identify the damage level of the struc-
ture and the environmental characteristics surrounding
the structure. Then a structural assessment of the ele-
ment in question is conducted to evaluate the interven-
tion urgency. The structural assessment can be per-
formed at two levels: (1) simplified approach to classify
different ratios of damage in a qualitative manner, and
(2) detailed assessment having the main objective of
determining a residual safety level. The simplif ied
approach provides an empirical procedure based on
application of several indexes, experimentally developed,
that reflect on the principal aspects involved in residual
life calculations (e.g., corrosion index, structural index,
failure consequences, redundancy level, load level, and
failure consequence). The various indexes are weighted
in order to obtain a damage level for the whole structure
(e.g., negligible, medium, severe, or very severe) that in
turn indicates the necessity for intervention. Main
aspects of the detailed structural assessment include eval-
uation of the deterioration process, material properties
and their damage level, and load-bearing capacity and
serviceability. Information is provided for calculating
reduction in steel cross section, evaluating cover crack
width as a function of corrosion attack as well as geomet-
ric and mechanical parameters, and loss of bond between
steel and concrete in terms of corrosion penetration.
Additional work on development of recalculation tools
for safe and economic management of concrete struc-
tures is being done through European Union Projects
(e.g., BRITE 4062, “The Residual Service Life of
Concrete Structures”).
“Service life management of a concrete structure
exposed to a marine environment” – J. Gulikers#,
Ministr y of Transport, Public Works, and Water
Management (The Netherlands): Service life manage-
ment of the Eastern Scheldt Storm Surge Barrier in the
Netherlands was implemented because of its importance
461
in flood prevention, its 200-year design life, and contin-
uous exposure to an aggressive marine environment.
The storm surge barrier has a length of 2800 m, with a
signif icant part constructed of reinforced concrete.
Initiation of steel reinforcement corrosion by penetra-
tion of chlorides was considered to be the prevalent
mode of deterioration. Due to the potential detrimental
effects of concrete cracks (i.e., chloride penetration),
extensive artificial cooling was provided during cement
hydration, adequate detailing and quality control were
implemented during construction, and provisions for
prestressing were provided to minimize shrinkage cracks
and crack development during service conditions.
Chloride penetration into the concrete was modelled in
three stages: initiation period in which chloride ions
penetrate the concrete in sufficient quantity to depassi-
vate the steel, active steel corrosion in the presence of
cover, and corrosion where steel is freely exposed to the
atmosphere. Also, exposure was subdivided into sub-
merged, tidal, and splash zones. Annual visual inspec-
tions are performed to locate areas where there is evi-
dence of corrosion. Since corrosion of reinforcing steel
may have advanced prior to visible signs of deterioration,
a limited number of concrete cores are removed from
the structure at five-year intervals and chloride contents
determined (i.e., surface concentration). The probability
of corrosion initiation within a certain time is assessed
using a statistical approach developed under the
European DuraCrete Project. After 20 years there are
no visible signs of distress.
“Ageing management of nuclear safety-related struc-
tures and supporting research” – M. W. Johnston# and J.
P. MacFarlane, British Energy Generation (UK): British
Energy carries out a comprehensive program of inspec-
tion, monitoring and, where necessary, maintenance of
civil engineering structures of the company’s nuclear
power station sites. The importance of these activities is
increasing as the plants obtain extensions to their operat-
ing lives, or approach the end of design life. Three pri-
mary types of structures are considered under the moni-
toring and management program: prestressed concrete
reactor vessels, prestressed concrete containments, and
safety-related civil structures. In-service inspection pro-
grams have been developed to address each structure type.
At ten-year intervals a full Periodic Safety Review for each
power station is carried out that covers all aspects of the
safety case, and considers the original design, commission-
ing and operation activities, changes to relevant standards,
effects of aging and the continuing ability of the structures
and plant to fulfill their intended roles. A significant
research program addressing safety issues arising from
operation is conducted in cooperation with the regulator,
the Nuclear Installations Inspectorate. The research pro-
gram is comprised of three parts: (1) direct program man-
aged by nuclear station operators, (2) levy program placed
and managed by the Health and Safety Executive to
address issues contained in the Nuclear Research Index
(NRI), and (3) the industry management committee pro-
gram placed and managed by the operators to address
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, October 2001
issues contained in the NRI. Research projects are devel-
oped, monitored, and managed by technical working
groups. The civil engineering and external events techni-
cal groups address issues related to aging management of
concrete structures. The civil engineering working group
addresses four main topics relevant to plant life manage-
ment: (1) aging and durability issues that affect structural
integrity; (2) condition evaluations of safety-related civil
structures; (3) modeling, assessment and analysis of behav-
iour; and (4) repair and remedial techniques. The external
events working group considers the main external hazards
that could affect a nuclear power station. Recent research
projects have addressed material properties for civil struc-
tural analysis, loads in prestressing tendons, corrosion pro-
tection for prestressing tendons, nondestructive testing of
concrete structures, and structural capacity with reinforce-
ment corrosion.
“Implications of concrete structure degradations in
nuclear power plants” – H. Ashar, U. S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (USA): Safety-related struc-
tures in nuclear power plants are designed to withstand
loadings from a number of low-probability external and
internal events. For convenience, these structures can be
divided into five groups: (1) resist and/or retain differ-
ential pressure; (2) support and protect group one struc-
tures, systems, and components; (3) serve as radiation
shields; (4) retain f luids; and (5) miscellaneous. The
safety-related structures are robust and not subjected to
sufficient stresses during normal operation to cause
appreciable degradation; however, degradation may
result from combined environmental and age-related
effects. With the increasing age of the operating nuclear
plants, incidents of age-related degradation are likely to
occur. Unless detected in time, the root cause or aging
mechanism identif ied, and appropriate corrective
action(s) taken, such degradations could affect the per-
formance of the structures. Case histories for four major
degradation occurrences are reviewed, potential implica-
tions discussed, and corrective measures taken to address
the degradation described: (1) delamination of contain-
ment domes, (2) corrosion of steel reinforcement, (3)
erosion of porous concrete under a basemat, and (4)
grease leakage through concrete containments. Based
on lessons learned from degradation experiences such as
these, design of future nuclear reactors should emphasize
careful selection of material for construction, lessons
learned from the root causes of the degradation, and
installation of degradation monitoring systems in inac-
cessible and embedded areas.
“Assessment of age-related degradation of nuclear
power plant concrete structures” – D. J. Naus#,∗, J. I.
Braverman,∗∗, C. A. Miller,∗∗, B. R. Ellingwood,∗∗∗
and C. H. Hofmayer,∗∗, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (USA)∗, Brookhaven National Laboratory
(USA)∗∗, The Georgia Institute of Technology
(USA)∗∗∗: All commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs)
contain concrete structures whose performance and
function are necessary for protection of the safety of
462
plant operating personnel and the general public. Aging
of these structures occurs with the passage of time and
has the potential to affect the engineering properties,
structural resistance/capacity, failure mode, and location
of failure initiation, which in turn may impact the ability
of the structures to withstand various challenges in ser-
vice from operating conditions, the natural environ-
ment, and accidents. Concrete structural components
generally have substantial safety margins when properly
designed and constructed; however, the available mar-
gins for aging or degraded structures are not known.
Time-dependent changes to structural components and
systems are random in nature, as are potential future
challenges to the system from operating conditions or
natural phenomena hazards. Safety evaluations of exist-
ing structures should be conducted rationally and sys-
tematically within a probabilistic framework. The
framework enables time-dependent stochastic changes in
resistance as well as randomness in structural loads to be
taken into account and provides a basis for assessing the
capability of existing concrete structures to withstand
design-basis (or larger) events during a period of future
service. Background information and data were devel-
oped for improving and developing methods to assess the
effects of degradation on the performance of NPP rein-
forced concrete structures. Factors that can lead to
degradation of reinforced concrete structures are identi-
fied and their manifestations described. Methods used
to assess and quantify degradation are summarized. An
approach for conducting condition assessments of rein-
forced concrete structures in NPPs is presented.
Criteria, based primarily on visual indications, are pro-
vided to assist in classification and assessment of concrete
degradation. Finally, degradation affects on concrete
beams are quantified through a fragility analysis that
assesses, in probabilistic terms, the capability of an engi-
neered system to withstand a specified event. Fragility
cur ves were developed for both undegraded and
degraded conditions for an indeterminate reinforced
concrete beam for postulated losses of steel reinforce-
ment section or cover concrete due to corrosion that
would produce readily observable indications of degra-
dation. Results indicate that the fragility cur ves
decreased with increased degradation of beam proper-
ties, but the capacity decrease at the 5-percentile level
was less than 20%.
Session Four – Material
Selection/Design/Durability
Chairperson: Mr. R. Danisch
“Deterioration and explosive spalling of high
strength concrete at elevated temperature” – P. J. E.
Sullivan#, City University (UK): A research program
has been conducted to investigate the deterioration and
explosive spalling of different types of concrete tested in
f lexure during fire and to find ways of alleviating this
phenomenon. Previous experience with explosive
Naus, Johnston
spalling indicated that the sudden violent failure was a
stochastic process and so a probabilistic method of exper-
imentation was adopted using a factorial method of
experimentation. Factors considered to influence behav-
iour at high temperature included curing conditions,
heating rate, loading, water/cement ratio, aggregate type,
and polypropylene fiber content. Each of these factors
was evaluated at three different levels so that nonlinear
variations in individual and interacting factors could be
determined. Also, a companion series of conventionally
reinforced concrete beams was tested under identical
conditions. The beams were loaded in flexure in a spe-
cially built electric furnace with temperature, deflection,
and expansion or dilatation of the beams measured while
under test. All the beams deteriorated after heat cycling
to 700°C. None of the reinforced concrete beams were
immune from explosive spalling given an appropriate
combination of factors. The beams that deteriorated
early during heating were less prone to explosive
spalling. Although the fiber concrete beams deteriorated
at high temperatures, none failed violently. Inclusion of
the polypropylene fibers is thought to relieve pore pres-
sures during heating through incompatible movements
with the mortar matrix producing microcracks, and
melting at higher temperatures.
“Future developments of service life design of con-
crete structures on the basis of DuraCrete”- T. Siemes,
#,∗, P. Schiessl,∗∗ and S. Rostam,∗∗∗, TNO Building
and Construction Research (The Netherlands),∗,
Technical University Munich (Germany),∗∗, CoWI
Consulting Engineers and Planners (Denmark)∗∗∗:
DuraCrete is a design method for the durability of con-
crete that is explicitly based on performance, reliability,
and a design service life, and recognizes that the service
life of structures is a stochastic quantity that can only be
described in terms of probability. In 1996 twelve part-
ners within the BRITE/EURAM Research Program
started the DuraCrete Research Project that produced a
design manual for new and existing concrete structures.
The basic design strategy for durability is to select an
optimal material composition, construction method, and
structural detailing to reliably resist, for a specif ied
period of use, the degradations including loadings
threatening the structure. It is based on realistic and suf-
ficiently accurate definitions of environmental actions,
material parameters for concrete and reinforcement,
mathematical models for degradation processes and
mechanical behaviour, performance expressed as limit
states, and reliability. The durability design guide fol-
lows the same principles (reliability and performance) as
a structural design code. Additional information on the
use of service life design of concrete structures based on
a probabilistic design method is available through
DuraNet (www.duranet.com). DuraNet is an interna-
tional professional engineering network that aims to pro-
mote the adoption and wider use of a performance and
reliability-based service life design approach for rein-
forced concrete structures, funded by the European
Union.
463
“Durability of Marine Concrete Structures Damaged
by Early Age Thermal Cracking” – G. de Schutter#,
University of Ghent (Belgium): Concrete structures in a
marine environment often tend to be rather massive and
the service life of these structures can be severely
reduced because of early age thermal cracking due to
heat of hydration in combination with subsequent accel-
eration of degradation due to carbonation, chloride and
sulfate diffusion, and frost. As part of an extended dura-
bility evaluation project early age thermal cracking and
the influence of existing cracks on the durability of con-
crete structures is being investigated. A model has been
developed that enables the calculation of the heat pro-
duction rate as a function of the actual temperature and
the degree of hydration. Analytical and experimental
results indicate that specific heat and thermal diffusivity
decrease linearly with increasing degree of hydration,
and the degree of hydration can be treated as a funda-
mental parameter for description of the mechanical
properties during hardening. By means of degree of
hydration based formulae for thermal and mechanical
behaviour of hardening concrete, an accurate prediction
of thermal stresses and thermal cracking is obtained.
The influence of cracks on the durability of concrete was
investigated experimentally by subjecting mortar speci-
mens containing different artificial crack widths to car-
bonation and chloride penetration tests. Results were
used to develop a crack influence factor that provides the
ratio of chloride penetration of cracked to uncracked
specimens based on crack width and depth. The crack
inf luence factor has been combined with a service life
design model for reinforced concrete marine structures
exposed to chloride penetration to provide service life
estimations for cracked concrete. Results indicate that
even small cracks might have a very significant influence
on the durability and service life of reinforced concrete
structures in a marine environment.
“The joint DuraNet/CEN workshop on design for
durability of concrete: Berlin 1999” – H. Davies#,
Hywel Davies Consultancy (UK): Until relatively
recently, the approach to durability of concrete struc-
tures was largely empirical, based on deemed-to-satisfy
rules for minimum cover, maximum water/cement ratio,
etc. There is an implied assumption that if these rules
are met, a structure will achieve acceptably long service
life. The length of service a structure is likely to achieve
by this approach is unknown and there is no mechanism
for predicting likely future maintenance requirements
and costs. Several recent infrastructure projects have
demanded a more rigorous approach to a structure’s
durability that has resulted in the development of a prob-
abilistic service life design approach. In 1995 the
European Union funded DuraCrete to support develop-
ment of the probabilistic approach as a more widely
usable tool for service life design. Based on the success
of this program, DuraNet was formed to promote adop-
tion and wider use of probabilistic service life design for
reinforced concrete structures. The main formal activi-
ties of DuraNet are done through a series of three annual
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, October 2001
workshops with the first being held in Berlin in 1999.
At this workshop parallel working groups looked at spe-
cific issues relevant to durability of concrete in four
areas: steel corrosion, frost attack, chemical attack, and in
situ assessment of existing structures. The steel corro-
sion group concluded that the present prescriptive
approach serves the purpose of securing the working life
for the majority of structures in the future, however, a
more advanced approach using modelling is needed for
code writers to improve the present simple require-
ments. The freeze-thaw attack working group con-
cluded that in general the design rules for durability of
concrete are considered adequate, but alternative design
approaches should be developed using performance-
based design and verification procedures (which require
development). The chemical attack working group
addressed performance testing, the DuraCrete design
approach, material parameters, test methods, environ-
mental actions, and simplified rules in relation to the
general approach to durability design (i.e., by avoidance
or control through design). The working group on
assessment of existing structures considered new struc-
tures with durability design as well as existing structures
without durability design.
Session Five – Reliability/Probability-Based
Approaches
Chairperson: Professor P. J. E. Sullivan
“Risk analysis of crack with limit state due to corro-
sion” – D. Izquierdo#, A. Arteaga and C. Andrade,
Institute of Construction Science “Eduardo Torroja”
(Spain): Application of life-cycle cost analysis to con-
crete durability studies aims at minimizing the total cost
of the structure taking into account the building, main-
tenance, and repair costs. Reliability techniques are
required to achieve failure probability. In durability
analysis both load and resistance effects must be consid-
ered as time dependent. Once the limit state function
has been established (e.g., crack width), and the perti-
nent variables characterized, it is possible to determine
the failure probability by means of several reliability
techniques (e.g., Monte Carlo). Instead of directly deter-
mining the failure probability, it may be better to use the
reliability index that can be related to an equivalent fail-
ure probability. An example is provided in which a
parking structure suffering corrosion due to carbonation
is addressed using a crack width limit state.
Mathematical models are provided for concrete cover
carbonation, reinforcement depassivation and corrosion
propagation, and crack width growth at concrete surface.
Economical aspects including cost of the building, repair
cost and social cost are included in the overall analysis.
The reliability index is related to the total cost for both
sheltered and nonsheltered conditions. Total cost of
selected beams, slabs, and columns is presented in terms
of safety level adopted. The procedure developed
enables an advancement of the appraisal of service life
464
calculations and helps ensure that a more rational unifor-
mity in the safety level is introduced into national codes.
“Reliability-based optimisation of concrete durability
design specif ications and repair strategies” – M. G.
Stewart#, University of Newcastle (Australia):
Reliability-based optimization of concrete durability
design specifications and repair strategies is addressed. A
serviceability limit state, and not structural strength, is
proposed as a more appropriate criteria when optimizing
durability requirements or inspection, maintenance, and
repair/replacement strategies. A risk-based approach is
proposed to address uncertainties that arise in predicting
service life (e.g., variabilities in material properties,
workmanship, dimensions, and environmental condi-
tions). Corrosion-induced deterioration models that
consider the effect of cover, water-cement ratio, aggre-
gate-cement ratio and environmental conditions on cor-
rosion initiation and propagation were described.
Models specifically addressed include ones related to
prediction of first cracking since corrosion initiation and
the probability that longitudinal cracking and spalling
will occur at least once during a defined time interval. A
life-cycle cost model, or other decision analysis, can be
used to quantify the expected cost of a decision. Life-
cycle costs up to a time T are provided in terms of the
design cost, construction cost, quality assurance/quality
control cost, cost of inspections, cost of repair or mainte-
nance, number of independent failure limit states,
cumulative probability of failure for each limit state, and
failure costs associated with occurrence of each limit
state. If damage is detected when inspected and repaired
immediately, a simplified life-cycle cost model can be
utilized. An example was provided that addresses a three
span 42 m highway bridge subject to corrosion. Two
replacement strategies were considered: (1) deck
replacement provides no improvement in durability per-
formance of concrete cover (i.e., spalling can reoccur),
and (2) deck replacement with improved durability per-
formance (i.e., no additional spalling). Monte-Carlo
simulation analysis was used to propagate uncertainties
in spalling probabilities in the estimation of life-cycle
costs - providing a probabilistic description of life-cycle
cost uncertainty.
“Prognostic reliability assessment of reinforced con-
crete str uctures degrading with ageing” – F.
Stangenberg# and D. Pfanner, Ruhr-Universität
Bochum (Germany): Approaches aimed at optimization
of lifetime-effecting properties of critical concrete struc-
tures and their numerical models fall into two categories:
(1) approaches on the material level, providing degrada-
tion algorithms and time-variant models for certain
material properties; and (2) approaches on structural
level, using procedures based on mechanical laws in
order to calculate the structural responses due to certain
load histories. For the calculation of load-induced dam-
age accumulation, the reinforced concrete material is
modelled using approved simulation methods for consti-
tutive concrete, steel and bond behaviour including a
Naus, Johnston
phenomenological fatigue model. For load-independent
deterioration processes, such as steel reinforcement cor-
rosion, simple procedures are proposed and models from
literature considered. Confident reliability estimations
have to be performed for the relevant spectrum of load-
ing and material properties described by their statistical
distributions as random variables. The response surface
method presumes correctly defined limit states and the
selection of material properties having major inf luence
on the structural behaviour. This method has to be car-
ried out for different periods of time taking into account
the load history and changes in structural resistance and
its statistical parameters in order to provide reliability
estimations for the entire life span. Calculated failure
rates can reveal the inf luence of different structural
properties and their time-variant changes on the overall
reliability. Structural reliability in terms of the failure
rate depends directly on the accumulated damage, con-
sequently the need of realistic damage models for the
reliability assessment strategies is indispensible. A rein-
forced concrete bridge deck subjected to 5000 cycles of
intensified design load is investigated numerically.
“Reliability-based life prediction of aging concrete
bridge decks” – Z. Lounis#, National Research Council
(Canada): The high costs associated with preserving aging
highway bridges and the limited funds allocated for their
maintenance pose significant technical and economical
challenges that require the development and implementa-
tion of systematic approaches to bridge management. An
effective bridge management system should include the
following decision support models: (1) condition assess-
ment using visual inspection and nondestructive evalua-
tion methods, (2) cumulative damage and service life pre-
diction, and (3) maintenance optimization. Prediction of
service life or time to rehabilitation or replacement must
consider several criteria: (1) specified requirements for
minimum performance or maximum damage that ensure
safety and serviceability, (2) economy by assessing life-
cycle costs of all possible maintenance and rehabilitation
strategies (including do nothing), (3) user costs associated
with condition and maintenance decision, and (4) net-
work versus project level decision. Uncertainty in damage
accumulation also needs to be addressed. The condition
of a deck is discretized into a finite set of damage states.
The damage accumulation process is modelled using a sta-
tionary unit jump Markov chain in which the probability
distribution of damage after a duty cycle is assumed to
depend only on the length of the duty cycle and the dam-
age accumulated since the start of the duty cycle. The ter-
mination of service life is associated mainly with the accu-
mulation of irreversible damage induced by reinforcement
corrosion, freeze-thaw cycles, traffic load, and initial dam-
age. Future performance and service life of reinforced
concrete bridges is based on Bogdanoff’s cumulative dam-
age model. The model provides effective decision support
in maintenance management and design and becomes a
necessity in network level analysis where optimal decisions
on rehabilitation and replacement need to be made on a
large number of structures and at different points in time.
465
Session Six – Conclusions/Recommendations
Based on information presented at the workshop and
discussions, several general conclusions can be derived.
• The overall performance of concrete structures in
facilities related to power generation has been good and
considerable research is presently being undertaken to pro-
vide data for use in monitoring the in-service condition of
the structures as well as providing data to demonstrate con-
tinued satisfactory performance (i.e., manage aging).
• Condition assessments involving visual examina-
tions supplemented by non-intrusive as well as intrusive
inspection methods provides the basis to help assure
continued reliable and safe operation of reinforced con-
crete structures as well as providing data for input into
service life prediction models.
• Time-dependent reliability or r isk-based
approaches using serviceability limit states for durability
requirements provide a meaningful measure of structural
performance and life-cycle cost. Other decision analysis
tools also may be used to quantify the expected cost of a
decision or to develop optimum durability requirements
or in-service inspection/maintenance strategies.
• Approaches are available that combine determinis-
tic nonlinear structural analysis, simulation of aging
effects, and probabilistic reliability estimation for assess-
ments of degradation effects on concrete structures and
predicting service lives, but they are highly dependent
on the quality of the damage model utilized.
• New non-intrusive inspection methods such as
ground-penetrating radar to assist in the diagnosis of
rebar corrosion, combination of high-energy radiogra-
phy and digital phosphor system to examine thick con-
crete sections, and ultrasonic pulse echo methods for
delineation of voids, cracking, locating rebar and exam-
ining prestressing cable ducts show promise, but devel-
opments are still required to achieve their potential to
provide easily understood results within a reasonable
time period.
• Methodologies for simplified as well as refined
assessments of reinforced concrete structures subjected
to corrosion have been developed to indicate the general
damage level of the structures, and to indicate what
effect steel reinforcement corrosion has on the safety or
structural margins taking aleatory and epistemic uncer-
tainties into effect.
• The condition of a structure’s surfaces in terms of
interface conditions during casting and potential early
age effects such as thermal cracking of massive sections
are important with respect to resisting environmentally
aggressive agents, methods such as the factored approach
are available for estimating service life of precast ele-
ments, and an approach has been developed for quantify-
ing the effects of cracks on chloride ingress.
• Improved service life prediction models for ingress of
chlorides causing initiation of steel reinforcement corro-
sion that incorporate increases in surface chloride content
with time and achieved diffusion coefficient have been
developed, but uncertainties still exist with respect to
extrapolations beyond the time for which data are available.
Materials and Structures/Matériaux et Constructions, Vol. 34, October 2001
• Incorporation of additives into concrete mixtures
can significantly enhance the resistance of the concrete
to aggressive environmental factors.
• Numerical simulation methods are available that
can be used as tools to indicate the effects of repair or
rehabilitation on service life of reinforced concrete
structures subjected to hostile environments such as
chloride exposure, but present results are more qualita-
tive than quantitative.
During the final session of the workshop, recom-
mendations for future work were discussed.
• Research organizations (e.g., RILEM, American
Concrete Institute, European Union research pro-
466
grammes, and Fédération Internationale du Béton) should
work together to develop a consensus approach for service
life estimations of reinforced concrete structures.
• Work should be undertakes to assess the need and
interest, and (if sufficient) to define the scope for forma-
tion of a Technical Committee that would address the
effects of high temperature and irradiation on the prop-
erties of concrete and performance of reinforced con-
crete structures, particularly over an extended period of
time (e.g., 60 years or more).
• A second RILEM international workshop should be
held in 2003 to address service life prediction and aging
management of concrete structures.